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Relevance of microbial extracellular polymeric substances

Water Science and Technology Vol 43 No6 pp 9–16 © IWA Publishing 2001
(EPSs) – Part II: Technical aspects
H.-C. Flemming and J. Wingender
Department of Aquatic Microbiology, Gerhard-Mercator-University Duisburg, Geibelstr. 41, D-47057,
Duisburg, Germany and Institute for Water Research and Technology (IWW), Moritzstrasse 26, D-45476
Mülheim, Germany 100606.3337@cs.com

Abstract Extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs) are involved in both detrimental and beneficial
consequences of microbial aggregates such as biofilms, flocs and biological sludges. In biofouling, they are
responsible for the increase of friction resistance, change of surface properties such as hydrophobicity,
roughness, colour, etc. In biocorrosion of metals they are involved by their ability to bind metal ions. In
bioweathering, they contribute by their complexing properties to the dissolution of minerals. The EPSs
represent a sorption site for pollutants such as heavy metal ions and organic molecules. This can lead to a
burden in wastewater sludge; on the other hand, the sorption properties can be used for water purification.
Other biotechnological uses of EPS exploit their contribution to viscosity, e.g., in food, paints and oil-drilling
‘muds’; their hydrating properties are also used in cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Furthermore, EPSs may
have potential uses as biosurfactants, e.g., in tertiary oil production, and as biological glue. EPSs are an
interesting component of all biofilm systems and still hold a large biotechnological potential.
Keywords Biotechnology; biofouling; extracellular polymeric substances; microbially influenced corrosion;
sorption

Introduction
Biofilms can have both detrimental and beneficial effects. In either case, their extracellular
polymeric substances (EPSs) play an important role, as this is the material which keeps
microbial aggregates such as films, flocs and biological sludge together and attaches
biofilms to surfaces. The EPSs are the prerequisite for the existence of all microbial aggre-
gates (see Flemming and Wingender, this issue). Although polysaccharides and proteins
are the main EPS constituents, in general, only the polysaccharide moiety has been investi-
gated further, while the role of proteins still remains largely unclear. To a certain extent,
they may be exoenzymes but it is possible that some of the extracellular proteins have
different functions. In this review, however, the focus is centred mainly on the polysaccha-
rides, for which the largest body of knowledge exists.

EPS in biofouling, bioweathering and biocorrosion

EPSs are involved in all kinds of biofouling (Flemming and Schaule, 1996), as they are the
material which allows for the existence of the microbial aggregates with biofouling proper-
ties. For example, the EPSs keep biofilms on the surface of heat exchangers, ship bottoms,
piping systems, medical devices such as implants, catheters, contact lenses etc. and provide
mechanical stability which is sufficient to withstand shear forces such as those occurring,
e.g., in pipes and on ship hulls. The damage of biofouling is very difficult to assess, but even
crude estimations lead to many millions of $US every year in every industrialized country
(Flemming, 1996). Examples of problems caused by EPS will be mentioned here. At first
glance, some of them seem almost trivial, but they can result in severe consequences.

Mechanical stability and viscoelastic properties

An important aspect of the EPS matrix is its mechanical stability (Flemming et al., 2000), 9

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which has to be overcome by cleaners. Although mechanical cleaning is the most effective
method, this is not always applicable, e.g., when the biofouled surfaces are not accessible.
Then, the cleaner has to interfere with the interactions which cause the cohesion. When
biofilms develop on ship hulls or in piping systems, they will increase friction resistance
due to the viscoelastic properties of the EPS matrix. This may lead to a substantial pressure
drop and increase of energy consumption. Christensen and Characklis (1990) assessed that
a biofilm of 50 µm thickness, calculated as rigid roughness can lead to a speed loss of
H.-C. Flemming and J. Wingender

5–12% of a vessel. However, some EPSs seem to reduce drag resistance, as is the case for
organisms colonising fast swimming fish (Sar and Rosenberg, 1983). Unfortunately, this
effect has not yet been transferred to technical systems. EPS can induce a significant and
unwanted increase of viscosity in water due to phosphate limitation. This caused serious
problems in a car production site where water was used for washing off excess spray paint.
This could be reversed by external addition of a phosphate source (Eberspächer et al.,
1993).

Water retention
Ophir and Gutnick (1994) have investigated the role of EPS in protection of biofilm
organisms against desiccation. This is probably a very important ecological aspect of EPS
because it maintains an environment in which microbial life is possible, but it also has
technical relevance. When biological sludge has to be dewatered, e.g., sewage or filter
sludge, this water has to be removed. This is a significant economical aspect of water reten-
tion by EPS, considering the energy required for dewatering and the millions of tons of
sewage sludge which have to be dewatered every year. Another, more unexpected conse-
quence of water retention is encountered when a biofilm develops on the cells of a battery,
causing the battery to lose its charge.
As the EPSs are highly hydrated, they change the surface properties if biofilms develop
on hydrophobic surfaces. When leaves fall into water, they will firstly float due to their
hydrophobic surface. After primary colonization, they are covered with a hydrophilic coat-
ing and sink. The hydrophobic surfaces (Teflon) of a calcium sulphate precipitation tank in
the desulfurication unit of a power plant were colonized by a biofilm. This resulted in mas-
sive accumulation of calcium sulphate crystals at the wall which had to be removed manu-
ally. The water in the EPS will shield many of the potential binding sites which can bridge
the macromolecules by electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonds and London dispersion
forces (Flemming et al., 2000). When a biofilm starts drying out, more of these binding
sites will interact, as the water will not separate them from each other. This leads to stronger
cohesion which can be seen in many scanning electron micrographs where the EPS appears
as a filamentous structure which is a result of the drying process required for SEM prepara-
tion and, thus, an artefact. Also, the adhesion forces to the substratum will greatly increase
because they are based on the same mechanisms as in cohesion. This can be observed on the
walls of buildings when photosynthetic biofilms dry and curl up. Closer inspection reveals
that, e.g. on mortar; sand pebbles are removed from the mineral matrix. This is a process
which increases weathering of mineral materials.

Heat transfer
Another effect of the hydrated EPS matrix is that convectional transport of water is only
possible to a very small extent when diffusive transport prevails. This is important for heat
exchanger technology. Although the heat transfer coefficient for biofilms and water is
practically the same (Characklis, 1990), the performance of a heat exchanger can be signif-
icantly decreased by a biofilm because only diffusional heat transfer is possible.
10 Convectional heat transfer as achieved by tangential flow of water across the heat exchang-

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er surface is hampered by the biofilm which then acts as an insulating layer for convection.
This leads to significant losses in performance and increased energy demand in heat
exchanger technology (Flemming, 1996).

Biofouling and calcium scaling

In some cases, biofilms result not only in the unwanted accumulation of biological material
on surfaces, but also promote the precipitation of minerals, especially calcium carbonate.

H.-C. Flemming and J. Wingender

This leads to mixed biological and non-biological deposits (Heath et al., 1992) which are
particularly difficult to remove. Calcium precipitation is an important aspect in scaling of
surfaces e.g. on heat exchanger surfaces, on separation membranes, on ship hulls and oil
rigs. This can occur preferentially in the EPS matrix, leading to deposits with remarkable
mechanical stability. The same process happens in nature in a geological scale and leads to
the biogeochemical deposition of calcium carbonate (Arp et al., 1999).

Protection against biocides

It is well known that biofilm organisms can tolerate much higher concentrations of biocides
and antibiotics than their planktonic counterparts (Foley and Gilbert, 1996; Morton et al.,
1998). This can have extreme consequences. An example is given in Figure 1, which shows
a SEM micrograph of a biofilm in a disinfection line constructed from copper. This biofilm
developed in the presence of a quaternary ammonium compound. When isolated, the
bacteria were sensitive against the biocide (Exner et al., 1983).
The phenomenon is still not fully understood (Allison et al., 2000) and is associated with
the EPS matrix but not with phenomena such as diffusion limitation, as diffusion of bio-
cides is not significantly hindered by the matrix. Oxidising biocides can be consumed by
reaction with the EPS, as shown for chlorine by Wingender et al. (1999) when comparing
mucoid and non-mucoid strains of P. aeruginosa. However, when hydrogen peroxide was
used, the mucoid strain was more susceptible than the non-mucoid strain.

Figure 1 Scanning electron micrograph of a biofilm grown on the surface of a disinfection pipeline made of
copper. The organisms have formed the biofilm in presence of the disinfectant (quaternary ammonium com-
pound) but were sensitive against it when isolated from the biofilm (courtesy of G.J. Tuschewitzki) 11

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Pigmented EPS
Some EPSs are pigmented, and in some situations, pigmented particles are accumulated in
biofilms by the adhesive properties of the EPS molecules. If this happens on the walls of
buildings, these areas usually take up more heat than the rest of the wall. This leads to both
physical weathering of the material and higher temperatures within the buildings, leading
to a higher energy demand if those buildings are air conditioned.
H.-C. Flemming and J. Wingender

Accumulation of particles
EPS accumulate particles. This can lead to problems, e.g., in paper making. Here, slime
aggregates can develop in which cellulose fibres and organic and inorganic additives stick
to surfaces, and form slimy aggregates (Figure 2). These aggregates eventually detach,
leading to the formation of holes in the paper and altogether in significant technical and
economical losses (Klahre et al., 1996).

EPS in microbially influenced corrosion (MIC)

EPSs are also involved in microbially influenced corrosion (MIC). In particular, their
interaction with iron and other metals can increase the kinetics of metal corrosion as
demonstrated with the EPS of sulphate reducing bacteria (Beech et al., 1997). Little et al.
(1996) investigated the role of EPS in marine copper corrosion. They found a marine
Oceanospirillum which produced copious amounts of copper-binding EPS when grown on
copper surfaces; this may be a protective mechanism against the toxicity of copper. In prin-
ciple, the contribution of EPS to the mechanisms of MIC is based on their binding of metal
ions, either by chemical reaction, chelation or other ionic binding, and the subsequent dis-
solution of the metal. In systems other than sulfate reducing bacteria, however, the role of
EPS in corrosion is sparsely investigated, although it must be suspected that they are
involved in the corrosion mechanism.

Sorption properties
Dissolved substances also can be sorbed by biofilms and in particular by the EPS matrix
(Flemming et al., 1996). While some authors point out that the carboxylic groups of poly-
saccharides bind to heavy metals (Ford and Ryan, 1995), such as copper (Beech et al.,

Figure 2 Aggregates of cellulose fibres caused by slime formation in a paper mill (courtesy of J. Klahre).
12 Average length of slime aggregates: 5–10 cm

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1996), uranium (He et al., 2000), and cadmium (Schlekat et al., 1998), Wuertz et al. (2000)
could show that zinc and nickel accumulate at the cell surfaces in sewage sludge. Decho
(2000) speculates that the sorption of heavy metals is part of a protection strategy against
toxic effects. Not much is known about the sorption of anions but it can be expected that
they are accumulated in the matrix, compared to the bulk water phase. Although the matrix
is a hydrogel and as such hydrophilic, it must contain hydrophobic areas. This has been
shown by sorption experiments with benzene, toluene and xylene to sewage sludge. They

H.-C. Flemming and J. Wingender

were clearly accumulated in the EPS fraction (Späth et al., 1998). The exact sorption sites
of such compounds in the EPS matrix is still unclear. Interestingly, biofilms can respond
dynamically to sorption processes. Schmitt et al. (1995) demonstrated with a biofilm of
P. putida that at concentrations of 5 ppm of toluene, an increase of extracellular polysac-
charide production occurred. At a concentration of 15 ppm, the content of carboxylic
groups increased too, representing binding sites for ions. Thus, sorption of dissolved sub-
stances in biofilms can result in complex effects.
As mentioned earlier, particles can be retained by biofilms due to the “sticky” properties
of the EPS. Not only biodegradable particles, which would provide nutrients, but also sand
grains, can attach to biofilms due to adhesion of EPS molecules. This is an important fea-
ture in a geological scale in diagenesis of sediments (Battin and Sengschmitt, 1999), main-
ly due to diatom EPS (Smith and Underwood, 1998). The transport of sand in sediments is
also influenced by EPS, as shown by Dade et al. (1990) for the polysaccharides of the ben-
thic marine bacterium Alteromonas atlantica. This observation is important for, e.g., mod-
elling the transport of sediments in rivers. Also, the hydraulic conductivity of sand is
influenced by EPS (Vandevivere and Baveye, 1992), an effect which is also known for
other materials and can lead to clogging of filters (Cunningham et al., 1990).

EPS in biotechnology
Biotechnological applications of EPS have focused so far only on polysaccharides. Some
EPSs are used for increasing the viscosity of technical materials and of food; they are also
used as biosurfactants. Selected EPSs hold the potential for medical purposes and for bio-
logical glue. Sutherland (1990) has compiled a comprehensive list of the uses of microbial
exopolysaccharides, e.g., in food industry, as additives for oil drilling emulsions and oth-
ers. In most cases, EPSs are incorporated to alter the rheological properties of the water
present and thus, change the texture of the product. Advantage is also taken of the ability of
some mixtures of polysaccharides to exhibit synergistic gelling, which allows for the appli-
cation of smaller amounts of EPS. Associated with the readily measurable properties such
as viscosity, others such as “mouth feel” which are more difficult to define, are of practical
importance. Xanthan, a polysaccharide produced by Xanthomonas campestris, is used to
maintain the consistency of some toothpastes. Other polysaccharides such as gellan or the
synergistic mixture of xanthan-galactomannan are suggested for further use in food indus-
try. Polysaccharide lyases, i.e. extracellular proteins, are suggested for biotechnological
use, e.g., in order to degrade the walls of marine algae in protoplast production (Sutherland,
1996). Sutherland (1998) has listed established applications of microbial extracellular
polysaccharides (Table 1).

EPS used for metal removal

EPSs are also suggested for use in metal removal from water. As the EPSs from Bacillus
megaterium bind large amounts of copper, they were suggested for use in Cu removal
(Mohapatra et al., 1993). A marine bacterial EPS exhibited a high affinity for cadmium
(Schlekat et al., 1998) and holds potential for specific cadmium removal. Algal EPSs are
used for the same purpose in terms of natural attenuation of aqueous metal contamination 13

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Table 1 Some examples for established applications of microbial extracellular polysaccharides (after
Sutherland, 1998, modified)

Properties Use Polymer

Biological Antitumour agents ß-D-Glucans

Eye and joint surgery Hyaluronic acid
Heparin analogues E. coli K 5 EPS
Wound dressings Bacterial cellulose
H.-C. Flemming and J. Wingender

Chemical Enzyme substrates E. coli K 4 and K 5 EPS

Oligosaccharide preparation Curdlan, pullulan, scleroglucan

Physical
Emulsion stabilization Foods, thixotropic paints Xanthan
Fibre strength Acoustic membranes Bacterial cellulose
Film formation Food coatings Pullulan
Flocculant Water clarification, ore extraction Various
Foam stabilization Beer, fire-fighting fluids Xanthan
Gelling agents Cell and enzyme technology, foods Gellan
Hydrating agent Cosmetics, pharmaceuticals Hyaluronic acid
Crystal formation inhibitor Frozen foods, pastilles, sugar syrups Xanthan
Viscosity control Oil-drilling ‘muds’, jet printing Xanthan
Suspending agent Food, paper coatings Xanthan

by an algal mat (Lawrence et al., 1998). Guezennec et al. (1994) isolated uronic-rich EPS
with a potential for biotechnological usage for metal removal from deep sea organisms. The
potential and limits of this approach have been reviewed by Geesey and Jang (1990).

EPSs as biosurfactants
The properties and uses of EPS as biosurfactants have been intensively investigated
(Neu,1996). Such organisms can be preferentially isolated from oil production sites or
spills (Bento and Gaylarde, 1996). Interestingly, some bacteria seem to utilise surface
active EPS in order to facilitate their transport through sandy soil (Bai et al., 1997). Some
examples for surface-active EPS of technical relevance are given in Table 2 (after Desai
and Banat, 1997). These EPSs may be used in tertiary oil production in order to mobilize
residual oil from surfaces and capillaries.

Outlook
The use of EPSs as food additives is promising but strongly restricted by legal regulations.
Thus, it may be difficult to introduce new EPS because of the lengthy and costly admission
procedure. However, as additives for paints and other technical materials, EPSs still hold a
potential which is not yet exploited. In addition, EPS may be useful as biological glue. The
role of EPS in biofouling and biocorrosion is also worth further investigation. In particular,
the adhesive and cohesive forces play a fundamental role when biofilms have to be

Table 2 Some microbial biosurfactants (after Desai and Banat, 1997, modified)

Biosurfactant Source organism

Glycolipids P. aeruginosa
Lipopeptides B. licheniformis
Fatty acids C. lepus
Emulsan A. calcoaceticus
Biodispersan A. calcoaceticus
Liposan C. lipolytica
14

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removed (Flemming et al., 2000). The use of cleaners and biodispersants is still based on
empirical experience and plausible considerations but little fundamental research. Here,
further progress may result in more effective approaches and concepts for prevention and
removal of biofilms.

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