Bretwaldas of England

In much the same way as the Celts had their tradition of the High Kings, so the Angles and
Saxons, in the first couple of centuries after their eastern kingdoms had been formed, often
recognised the overall authority and supremacy of one king over all the rest. Usually this was at a
time at which that ruler's kingdom was at its strongest, and initial force of arms had demonstrated
the ability of that ruler to claim the title of bretwalda or 'brytenwealda'. The second form of this
word is probably the older. It originates in a Germanic concept of an over-king, literally meaning
'Britain ruler'. Another early form of the title is 'bretenanwealde', with the last part, 'anwealda'
meaning 'sole ruler'. Bosworth and Toller show 'wealda' as meaning 'a ruler', citing variations in
Old Saxon, Old High German, and Icelandic (a variation of Old Norse). They add that 'wealdan'
means 'to have power over'.

Only one bretwalda is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, but Bede, writing a century and-
a-half earlier than the ASC's compilation, supplies many of the missing names (although he
leaves out the Mercian kings). Some others are not named bretwalda as such, but pretty much
fulfilled the functions of the title in all but name (and it is possible that records were made after
Bede's time and were later lost). These probable bretwaldas are shown in green text.

Until Edwin of the Northumbrians took the title, the bretwaldas only counted the territory to the
south of the Humber as being within their influence. The Deiran and Bernician Angles thought of
themselves as being apart from the southerners, perhaps even more so when Edwin smashed
North Rheged and greatly enlarged Northumbria. Also, it is highly possible, given that the Angle
and Saxon kings would have known about the British tradition of a high kingship, that the
assumption of the bretwalda title was a deliberate attempt not only at legitimising their own
claims to land they had conquered, but to demonstrate to the Britons that they were now in
charge and were the rightful successors to those Britons who had failed to defend their island.

Linguistically, a great many place names in the newly-forming England preserved or applied the
Latin -vici ending (for some reason Briton/Gaulish place names reverse the sequence from noun-
modifier to modifier-noun). In proto-Celtic we have *wīko-, *wīku-, meaning a village, while
Latin has 'vicus', also meaning village, Gaelic has 'fich', village again and not too dissimilar from
the Latin form given several centuries of drift, Anglo-Saxon has 'wíc' as a 'dwelling-place,
lodging, habitation, house, mansion', or as a village or town, while the plural form means
'entrenchments, camp, castle, fortress; street, lane; bay, creek'. This appears to have been
extended to mean a market town or trading town. All of these languages share a common proto-
Celtic/Celto-Ligurian base, but proto-Germanic seems to contain no similar word. It appears
possible that 'wic' is another word that was borrowed from the Britons, either in its Latin or
Brythonic form (which probably were nearly identical). Gothic does contain 'weihs', which
seems to be cognate. But Goths also took over Gaulish territory, so who would be
uncontaminated by cross-cultural influences? The various groups that made up the
Scandinavians, probably.

At first glance Old Norse seems to have no word like the Anglo-Saxon 'wic', and the nearest
cognate appears to be 'byg∂' (byg-voiced 'th'), meaning a dwelling, and 'byggva', meaning 'to
dwell'. But further investigation uncovers the intriguing possibility that the word was borrowed
 into Old Norse from its meaning of trading town, then modified with the -ing suffix to form the
word 'viking', a trading voyage or trader. Most people think of a Viking as only a seaborne
warrior but the truth is that these Norse sailors both raided and traded. This goes against the
theory that the word is derive from 'vik', a 'creek or inlet'. A jump from a creek or inlet to an
expedition or voyage by water makes less sense than going from trading town to a trading
expedition to such a town. So the very existence of Vikings by that name seemingly is based on
the Anglo-Saxon conquest of England.

(Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Edward Dawson and details of late
sub-kings of Sussex by David Slaughter, from The Oxford History of England: Anglo-Saxon
England, Sir Frank Stenton, from A History of the English Church and People, The Venerable
Bede (Leo Sherley-Price translation - revised by R E Latham), from The Oxford History of
England: The English Settlements, J N L Meyers, from the Historia Brittonum (The History of
the Britons), Nennius (J A Giles, Ed & Trans, 1841, published as part of Six Old English
Chronicles (Henry G Bohn, London, 1848)), from The Place Names of England & Wales, J B
Johnston (1915), from Arthur's Britain, Lesley Alcock (1978), from Murray's Classical Atlas for
Schools, G B Grundy (Ed, Second Edition, 1963), from The Medieval Traveller, Norbert Ohler
(1995), from The Times Atlas of World History, Geoffrey Barraclough (Ed, Fourth Edition edited
by Geoffrey Parker, reprinted 1997), from Roman Britain: A New History, Guy de la Bédoyère,
and from External Links: An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, Bosworth and Toller (p 1172, 1898),
and Vortigern Studies.)

450  -­‐  500   Tribes  of  Angles,  Jutes  and  Saxons,  along  with  mixtures  of  various  other  peoples,  invade  
the  eastern  coast  of  Britain,  pushing  westwards  along  river  valleys  and  quickly  forging  
early  kingdoms.  A  popular  modern  term  for  this  is  'engla-­‐tocyme',  literally  the  'coming  of  
the  English',  although  that  term  will  not  exist  for  several  centuries  after  this  date.  All  the  
tribes  are  speakers  of  the  Anglo-­‐Frisian  group  of  Low  German  languages,  using  the  same  
language  with  slight  differences  of  dialect.  
  
 
477   Newly  arrived  Saxons  under  Ælle  and  his  sons,  Cymen,  Wlencing,  and  Cissa,  land  at  
Cymens  ora  and  beat  off  the  Britons  who  oppose  their  landing  (part  of  the  proposed  
British  territory  of  Rhegin),  driving  them  to  take  refuge  in  the  great  forest  called  
Andredesleag  (The  Weald).  These  Saxons  quickly  become  known  as  the  Suth  Seaxe.  
477  -­‐  514?   Ælle  King  of  the  Suth  Seaxe.  Leader  at  Mons  Badonicus  c.496?  
486   Clovis  of  the  Franks  defeats,  captures  and  executes  Syagrius,  the  last  Roman  commander  
  of  Soissons.  The  Franks  are  now  completely  dominant  in  northern  Gaul  and  Roman  control  
  has  been  thrown  off.  The  death  of  Syagrius  also  sends  a  signal  to  the  Saxons  and  other  
  Germanic  peoples  that  attempting  to  settle  in  Gaul  is  now  hopeless.  This  would  seem  to  
  be  the  single  defining  event  that  forces  the  Saxons  to  turn  their  attention  to  invading  
  Britain  instead.  
  This  is  a  probable  date  for  the  siege  of  Mons  Badonicus  -­‐  at  the  very  least  it  would  seem  to  
496   be  the  correct  decade  based  on  available  evidence.  Not  mentioned  in  surviving  Anglo-­‐
Saxon  records,  the  most  likely  chain  of  events  is  that  it  is  Ælle,  as  bretwalda,  who  leads  the  
attack  on  the  Britons  in  the  region  of  Caer  Baddan.  

 
Sub-­‐Roman  Britannia  underwent  rapid  change  in  the  course  of  fifty  years  between  AD  
550-­‐600,  with  Angle  and  Saxon  kingdoms  being  established  at  the  start  of  this  period  on  
the  east  and  south  coasts  (click  or  tap  on  map  to  view  full  sized)  

Ælle's route is probably northwards towards the Thames Valley (the Weald would still be
passable along one of the Roman roads, possibly the Sussex Greensand Way which may
have been built to link several villas to Stane Street - the main Noviomagus-London road).
There he builds up his forces from the large numbers of Saxons there (along with a
probable force from Kent), and then heads westwards along the upper Thames Valley until
he emerges through the Goring Gap.

It seems creditable to assume that the north-facing Wansdyke, constructed in the fifth or
sixth centuries, has been put up by British forces in Wiltshire in the face of just such a
threat of Saxons breaking through from the Thames Valley. It may either have been
constructed to ward off this very attack (and perhaps channel the attackers towards Badon),
or in response to it, to ensure that no future attacks of this nature could take place. In that it
is very effective, until the West Seaxe breakthrough in 577.

There is now a gap in bretwaldas between the start of the sixth century and the rise of
Ceawlin in the middle of the century. This is probably due to the Mons Badonicus defeat
and the long peace between the Britons and the Germanic coastal settlements. As there is no
significant warfare, there can be no significantly superior war leader to push forward the
Germanic advance. Quite the opposite, in fact, as there seems to be a reverse migration of
Angles and Saxons into the Continent during the first half of the sixth century. Those that
remain are firmly in control of the east (see feature link, right).

 
Hinton  Hill  lies  near  the  village  of  Wellow  in  Somerset,  and  in  577  it  was  the  site  of  the  
Battle  of  Deorham  between  the  allied  free  Britons  of  the  three  cities  of  Caer  Baddan,  Caer  
Ceri,  and  Caer  Gloui  and  the  invading  West  Saxons  (External  Link:  Creative  Commons  
Licence)  
c.  500   The  Old  English  poem  Widsith  mentions  several  minor  Germanic  peoples,  not  all  of  whom  
can  be  properly  identified  alongside  the  more  obvious  peoples  such  as  the  Angles,  
Austrasian  Franks,  Burgundians,  Danes,  Finns,  Geats,  Jutes,  and  Ostrogoths.  
c.  520   Another  great  Old  English  Poem  is  Beowulf,  which  records  events  of  this  time  in  the  Anglo-­‐
Saxon  homelands  in  Denmark  and  southern  Scandinavia.  A  prince  of  the  Geat  court,  
Beowulf  visits  Hrothgar  Scylding  at  his  hall  of  Heorot  where  he  rids  Hrothgar  of  the  
monster,  Grendal.  
531   On  the  Continent,  the  Franks  of  Austrasia  conquer  the  Thuringians.  Portions  of  territory  
are  lost  to  the  Saxons,  probably  to  the  Continental  Saxons,  but  there  also  seems  to  be  a  
reverse  migration  of  Germanics  from  the  east  coast  of  Britain,  where  the  British  victory  at  
Mons  Badonicus  has  cut  them  off  from  the  acquisition  of  new  lands.  These  returning  
Angles  and  Saxons  appear  to  be  given  land  in  Thuringia  by  King  Theuderich.  However,  it  is  
also  at  this  time,  in  this  century,  that  the  migration  of  Britons  from  the  mainland  to  
Brittany  is  at  its  heaviest,  weakening  the  British  defensive  position  for  the  future.  

 
Not  directly  involved  in  the  chaotic  transfer  of  the  Roman  empire  to  Germanic  control,  the  
Thuringians  migrated  from  the  Cimbric  Peninsula  into  territory  to  the  east  of  the  Rhine,  
land  that  had  been  left  partially  deserted  by  the  Alemanni  moving  southwards    
c.571-­‐588   Ceawlin  King  of  the  West  Seaxe.  
   
584   Ceawlin  and  his  brother  Cutha  of  the  West  Seaxe  defeat  Æthelbert  of  the  Cantware  at  
Wibbandun.  This  is  notable  as  being  the  first  recorded  conflict  between  two  groups  of  
invaders,  and  a  conflict  between  two  rulers  with  ambitions  greater  than  the  rule  of  their  
own  kingdoms.  Ceawlin  especially  is  looking  to  re-­‐establish  the  title  of  bretwalda  at  this  
time,  and  perhaps  this  victory  secures  it  for  him,  although  571  is  another  likely  date  for  
this.  
591-­‐592   The  usurpation  of  Ceawlin  of  the  West  Seaxe  gifts  the  bretwaldaship  of  southern  England  
to  Æthelbert  of  the  Cantware,  his  only  serious  rival  for  the  title  -­‐  if  he  does  not  already  
have  it,  as  suggested  by  the  Anglo-­‐Saxon  Chronicle  and  its  reference  to  Æthelbert  being  
'baptised'  early  in  his  reign,  ie.  about  588.  
c.588-­‐616   Æthelbert  /  Ethelbert  I  (Saint)  King  of  the  Cantware  
   
597   Augustine  is  sent  by  Pope  Gregory  to  England  to  establish  the  Catholic  church  and  
  Christianise  the  Anglo-­‐Saxons.  He  is  cautiously  received  in  Kent,  thanks  to  King  Æthelbert's  
  Christian  wife  (although  there  are  signs  that  Æthelbert  himself  may  have  strongly  
  suggested  beforehand  that  the  mission  be  sent),  and  establishes  the  archbishopric  at  
  Canterbury.  
 
603   The first meeting takes place between the Roman Church in the form of St Augustine of
Canterbury, and the Celtic Church (the descendant of the former British Church of the
Roman period). It is arranged by Æthelbert using the Hwicce as intermediaries and the
meeting occurs at a place Bede names at St Augustine's Oak, on the border between the
Hwicce territory and that of the West Seaxe. The meeting goes favourably well for
Augustine.

A second meeting is quickly arranged, although perhaps not in the same year. This takes
place at Abberley in Worcestershire, probably close to the border between the Hwicce and
Pengwern, but ends in disappointment for the Roman envoy, with no agreements of
cooperation or unity being reached between the two churches, especially in regard to the
important question of the calculations for Easter and evangelising the pagan English. The
failure is a blow for Æthelbert's prestige as bretwalda.
  
The  Roman  city  of  Canterbury  was,  by  the  sixth  century,  in  ruins,  with  small  Anglo-­‐Saxon  
houses  built  in  between.  The  remains  of  the  city  wall  can  be  seen  in  the  distance  while  the  
initial  home  of  the  Roman  Church  in  Britain  was  a  little  way  to  the  south    
616-­‐625-­‐7   Rædwald  /  Raedwald          King  of  the  East  Engle.  Buried  at  Sutton  Hoo.  
   
616   After  seeking  asylum  at  Rædwald's  East  Engle  court  since  being  forced  to  flee  Deira  by  
Æthelfrith  of  Bernicia,  Edwin  is  able  to  regain  his  throne  when  Rædwald  defeats  Æthelfrith  
at  the  Battle  of  the  River  Idle.  The  battle  confirms  Rædwald  as  bretwalda,  seemingly  after  
Æthelfrith's  defeat  by  Britons  at  the  Battle  of  Bangor-­‐is-­‐Coed  around  613  has  weakened  
him.  In  turn,  Edwin  succeeds  him  as  the  first  bretwalda  north  of  the  Humber.  He  never  
extends  his  bretwaldaship  over  Kent,  treating  it  as  a  fellow  kingdom  and  its  king,  Eadbald,  
as  his  peer.  
 
627-­‐632/3   Edwin  King  of  the  Bernician  &  Deiran  Northumbrians.  
   
632/3   Edwin  is  killed  at  the  Battle  of  Hatfield  Chase  by  Penda  of  Mercia  (just  outside  the  western  
borders  of  Lindsey)  while  the  latter  is  allied  to  Cadwallon,  king  of  Gwynedd  and  High  King  
of  the  Britons.  Cadwallon  repays  many  years  of  defeats,  deaths,  rapes  and  pillaging  at  
Northumbrian  hands  by  conducting  a  year-­‐long  campaign  of  revenge  in  the  kingdoms  of  
Bernicia  and  Deira,  also  killing  Edwin's  replacement,  Eanfrid.  It  is  likely  that  Lindsey,  which  
had  been  a  Deiran  vassal,  becomes  independent  for  a  while  following  this  destruction  of  
its  masters.  
633-­‐642   Oswald  (Saint)  King  of  the  Bernician  Northumbrians.  
   
642   Oswald  of  Bernicia  &  Deira  is  killed  by  Penda  of  Mercia  on  5  August  at  the  Battle  of  
Maserfelth.  The  location  of  Maserfelth  is  still  disputed  but  opinion  favours  Oswestry  
('Oswald's  tree')  in  Shropshire.  Supreme  power  in  England  switches  from  the  north  to  the  
Midlands.  

 
Expelled  from  Bernicia  by  Edwin  of  Deira  in  AD  616,  Oswald  and  his  brother,  Oswiu,  sought  
refuge  on  Iona  where  they  converted  to  Christianity  -­‐  Oswald  brought  it  back  with  him  
when  he  became  king  of  Bernicia    
642-­‐655   Penda  King  of  the  Mercians  
   
654-­‐655   Penda  of  Mercia  is  killed  in  battle  by  Oswiu  of  Northumbria,  and  with  this  victory  supreme  
power  in  England  swings  back  to  the  north.  Oswiu  cements  the  increasingly  accepted  
union  of  Deira  with  Bernicia  to  create  a  single  kingdom  of  the  Angles  north  of  the  Humber,  
known  as  Northumbria.  
655?-­‐670   Oswiu  King  of  the  Bernician  Northumbrians  
   
664   An  English  priest,  Wighard,  is  selected  to  be  archbishop  of  Canterbury  by  the  new  king  of  
Kent,  Egbert  I,  perhaps  with  support  from  Oswiu  of  Northumbria.  He  is  sent  to  Rome  to  
receive  consecration  from  Pope  Vitalianus,  but  is  killed  by  bubonic  plague  before  the  act  
can  be  carried  out.  
670-­‐675   Wulfhere    King  of  the  Mercians  
   
678-­‐690   The  English  Bishop  Wilfred  arrives  in  Frisia  and  the  Anglo-­‐Saxon  Christianisation  of  the  
  Germanic  lands  begins,  although  the  first  mission  is  quickly  aborted  as  the  fiercely  pagan  
  Redbad  gains  the  throne  and  enmity  against  the  Merovingian  kings  increases.  A  second  
  attempt  in  690  proves  much  more  successful  and  for  the  best  part  of  a  century  churchmen  
  and  monks  crisscross  the  Channel  or  North  Sea,  intent  on  spreading  the  Christian  faith  
  amongst  their  Germanic  cousins  who  border  the  Merovingian  Frankish  kingdom.  There  is  
  special  interest  in  the  conversion  of  the  German  Saxons,  whom  the  English  consider  their  
  kinsfolk.  
   
695   Pope  Sergius  ordains  Bishop  Willibrord  as  the  bishop  of  the  Frisians.  The  bishop  is  a  
Northumbrian  missionary  and  a  follower  of  Bishop  Wilfred,  one  of  a  wave  of  English  
Christians  to  enter  Germanic  lands  in  this  period  in  order  to  bring  them  into  the  faith.  

 
A  Northumbrian  missionary  who  spent  his  early  years  under  the  influence  of  St  Wilfred,  
bishop  of  York,  Willibrord  was  appointed  bishop  of  the  Frisians  at  Utrecht,  during  which  he  
became  known  as  the  'Apostle  to  the  Frisians'    
c.735-­‐757   Æthelbald / Ethelbald King of the Mercians.
757-­‐796   Offa    King  of  the  Mercians  
793   In  what  is  the  first  major  attack  by  Vikings  on  English  territory,  Lindsfarne  Monastery  is  
sacked  by  raiders  and  the  monks  are  slaughtered.  The  age  of  enlightenment  and  learning  
 in  Britain  in  which  Lindisfarne  had  played  a  major  role  now  begins  a  steep  decline.  The  
situation  is  not  helped  by  the  continuing  dynastic  discord  in  the  kingdom  of  Northumbria.  
802-­‐839   Ecgberht  /  Egbert  King  of  Wessex  
   
825   Ecgberht  gains  revenge  for  his  father's  death  when  he  defeats  the  mighty  Mercians  at  the  
Battle  of  Ellandon.  The  Mercian  king,  Beornwulf,  is  killed  in  battle.  Ecgberht  swiftly  
intercedes  in  Kent,  sending  his  son,  Æthulwulf,  with  a  force  to  seize  the  key  to  the  whole  
of  the  south-­‐east.  Kent,  the  oldest  of  the  English  kingdoms,  with  the  most  prestige  and  
with  great  wealth,  is  also  home  to  the  primary  see  at  Canterbury.  The  sub-­‐kingdoms  of  
Essex,  Sussex  and  Suthrige  submit  to  Ecgberht  and  are  also  ruled  by  Æthulwulf.  From  this  
point,  Wessex  remains  the  strongest  of  the  Anglo-­‐Saxon  kingdoms.  

 
This  silver  penny  was  produced  during  the  reign  of  Beornwulf  of  Mercia,  although  its  
condition  is  far  from  ideal,  with  partly  garbled  legends  -­‐  it  is  from  an  East  Anglian  mint,  the  
moneyer's  name  being  Eadgar,  which  is  shown  in  the  reverse    
827   Athelstan  of  East  Anglia  kills  Ludecan  of  Mercia  in  battle  after  yet  another  attempt  by  the  
once  great  Midland  kings  to  restore  that  greatness.  With  this  act,  Athelstan  secures  the  
independence  of  the  East  Angles  and  establishes  himself  as  king.  Although  he  still  
acknowledges  Ecgberht  of  Wessex  as  his  overlord,  his  is  the  only  one  of  the  smaller  English  
kingdoms  not  to  be  absorbed  directly  within  Wessex.  
839-­‐856   Æthelwulf    /      Ethelwulf  King  of  Wessex  
856-­‐860   Æthelbald    /      Ethelbald  King  of  Wessex  
860-­‐866   Æthelberht    /  Ethelbert  King  of  Wessex  
865-­‐871   Ivarr  the  Boneless,  king  of  Dublin,  and  his  brothers,  the  sons  of  Ragnarr  Lothbrok,  lead  the  
first  Viking  army  to  invade  mainland  Britain  in  search  of  conquest  rather  than  pillage.  
Landing  in  East  Anglia,  they  ravage  the  kingdom  for  a  year  before  heading  into  
Northumbria  in  866.  That  kingdom  falls  in  867  and  a  puppet  king  is  installed.  The  Great  
Army  moves  south,  campaigning  during  the  spring  and  summer.  East  Anglia  falls  in  869,  
 and  the  capital  of  Alt  Clut  is  sacked  in  870.  Ynys  Manau  also  falls  to  them  around  870,  and  
between  870-­‐871,  Ivarr's  brother,  Bagsecg,  is  involved  in  the  attacks,  leading  the  Great  
Summer  Army  into  England  and  adding  his  forces  to  those  of  Ivarr  and  Halfdan.  
866-­‐871   Æthelred  /  Ethelred  King  of  Wessex  
871-­‐874   Bagsecg  is  killed  at  the  Battle  of  Ashdown  in  Wessex  in  871,  and  the  following  year  the  
Great  Army  is  back  in  Northumbria.  It  winters  in  late  872  and  early  873  at  Torksey  on  the  
River  Trent  in  Lindsey,  before  moving  west  into  Mercia,  which  is  defeated  in  874  and  a  
vassal  king  is  installed  on  its  throne.  Later  that  year  the  army  divides,  with  one  half  going  
to  Cambridge  and  the  rest  heading  towards  the  Tyne  and  eventually  settling  in  York.  

 
871-­‐899   Ælfred  /  Alfred  the  Great  King  of  Wessex  
874-­‐878   The  Danes  have  overcome  much  of  England,  and  Wessex  is  virtually  the  only  independent  
survivor  (along  with  the  southwest  of  Mercia),  achieving  total  dominance  over  all  the  
English  within  less  than  a  century.  The  West  Saxon  kings  are  titled  'Emperors  of  Britain'  in  
the  tenth  century,  which  is  probably  a  natural  extension  of  the  role  and  prestige  of  the  
bretwaldas.