Smoke Detectors:

A smoke detector is a device that senses smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Commercial
smoke detectors issue a signal to a fire alarm control panel as part of a fire alarm system, while
household smoke detectors, also known as smoke alarms, generally issue an audible or
visual alarm from the detector itself or several detectors if there are multiple smoke detectors
interlinked.
Smoke detectors are housed in plastic enclosures, typically shaped like a disk about 150
millimeters (6 in) in diameter and 25 millimeters (1 in) thick, but shape and size vary. Smoke can
be detected either optically (photoelectric) or by physical process (ionization). Detectors may use
one of the two, or both sensing methods. Sensitive alarms can be used to detect, and deter,
people smoking in areas where smoking is banned. Smoke detectors in large commercial and
industrial buildings are usually connected to a central fire alarm system. Domestic smoke
detectors range from individual battery powered units to several interlinked units with battery
backup. With interlinked units, if any of them detect smoke, all of the alarms will trigger even if
household power has gone out.
The risk of dying in a home fire is cut in half in homes with working smoke alarms.

There are three types of smoke alarms, ionization, photoelectric and a combination of the two
which is commonly called a “dual” detector.
Ionization smoke alarms are generally more responsive to flaming fires.
How they work: Ionization-type smoke alarms have a small amount of radioactive material
between two electrically charged plates, which ionizes the air and causes current to flow
between the plates. When smoke enters the chamber, it disrupts the flow of ions, thus reducing
the flow of current and activating the alarm. Download this chart on ionization smoke
alarms (PDF, 943 KB).
Photoelectric smoke alarms are generally more responsive to fires that begin with a long
period of smoldering (called “smoldering fires”). Photoelectric-type alarms aim a light source into
a sensing chamber at an angle away from the sensor. Smoke enters the chamber, reflecting
light onto the light sensor; triggering the alarm. Download this chart on photoelectric smoke
alarms (PDF, 782 KB). 
For each type of smoke alarm, the advantage it provides may be critical to life safety in some
fire situations. Home fatal fires, day or night, include a large number of smoldering fires and a
large number of flaming fires. You cannot predict the type of fire you may have in your home or
when it will occur. Any smoke alarm technology, to be acceptable, must perform acceptably for
both types of fires in order to provide early warning of fire at all times of the day or night and
whether you are asleep or awake.
 1) As per the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), smoke alarms will cover a
radius of 21 feet, and an area of coverage of 1,385 square feet.
2) The maximum distance between two smoke alarms should be 30 feet.
3) If a hallway is greater than 30 feet, a smoke alarm must be installed at each end.
Heat Detectors:

A heat detector is a fire alarm device designed to respond when the convected thermal energy of
a fire increases the temperature of a heat sensitive element. The thermal mass and conductivity
of the element regulate the rate flow of heat into the element. All heat detectors have
this thermal lag. Heat detectors have two main classifications of operation, "rate-of-rise" and
"fixed temperature". The heat detector is used to help in the reduction of property damage.
Type of Heat Detectors:
Fixed temperature heat detectors:
This is the most common type of heat detector. Fixed temperature detectors operate when the
heat sensitive eutectic alloy reaches the eutectic point changing state from a solid to a liquid.
Thermal lag delays the accumulation of heat at the sensitive element so that a fixed-
temperature device will reach its operating temperature sometime after the surrounding air
temperature exceeds that temperature. The most common fixed temperature point for
electrically connected heat detectors is 58°C (136.4°F).
Rate-of-rise heat detectors:
Rate-of-Rise (ROR) heat detectors operate on a rapid rise in element temperature of 6.7° to
8.3°C (12° to 15°F) increase per minute, irrespective of the starting temperature. This type of
heat detector can operate at a lower temperature fire condition than would be possible if the
threshold were fixed. It has two heat-sensitive thermocouples or thermistors. One thermocouple
monitors heat transferred by convection or radiation while the other responds to ambient
temperature. The detector responds when the first sensing element's temperature increases
relative to the other.
Rate of rise detectors may not respond to low energy release rates of slowly developing fires.
To detect slowly developing fires combination detectors add a fixed temperature element that
will ultimately respond when the fixed temperature element reaches the design threshold.
Heat detector selection
Heat detectors commonly have a label on them that reads "Not a life safety device". That is
because heat detectors are not meant to replace smoke detectors in the bedrooms or in the
hallway outside of the bedrooms. A heat detector will nonetheless notify of a fire in a kitchen or
utility area, e.g., laundry room, garage, or attic, where smoke detectors should not be installed
as dust or other particles would affect the smoke detector and cause false alarms,] This will
allow extra time to evacuate the building or to put out the fire, if possible.
Mechanical heat detectors are independent fire warning stations that — unlike smoke
detectors — can be installed in any area of a home. Portability, ease of installation, and
excellent performance and reliability make this a good choice for residential fire protection when
combined with the required smoke detectors. Because the detectors are not interconnected,
heat activation identifies the location of the fire, facilitating evacuation from the home.
Each type of heat detector has its advantages, and it cannot be said that one type of heat
detector should always be used instead of another. If one were to place a rate-of-rise heat
detector above a large, closed oven, then every time the door is opened a nuisance alarm could
be generated due to the sudden heat transient. In this circumstance the fixed threshold detector
would probably be best. If a room filled with highly combustible materials is protected with a
fixed heat detector, then a fast-flaming fire could exceed the alarm threshold due to thermal lag.
In that case the rate-of-rise heat detector may be preferred.
1) The most common listed spacing is 50 feet between detectors.
2) The listed spacing for heat detectors varies depending on the type of detector and its
rated temperature.
3) The higher the rated temperature (the temperature that it will alarm) the closer the
detectors must be installed to one another.

Fire Alarm Control Panel: A fire control panel is a component that offers control through a fire
alarm or notification system. Throughout the building, sensors are installed. These sensors
redirect information to this control panel. They include environmental changes that could detect
the presence of a fire.

Commercial smoke detectors are either conventional or addressable, and are connected
to security alarm or fire alarm systems controlled by fire alarm control panels (FACP). These are
the most common type of detector, and are usually significantly more expensive than single-
station battery-operated residential smoke alarms. They are used in most commercial and
industrial facilities and other places such as ships and trains, but are also part of some security
alarm systems in homes. These detectors don't need to have built in alarms, as alarm systems
can be controlled by the connected FACP, which will set off relevant alarms, and can also
implement complex functions such as a staged evacuation.

Conventional
The word "conventional" is slang used to distinguish the method used to communicate with the
control unit in newer addressable systems. So called "conventional detectors" are smoke
detectors used in older interconnected systems and resemble electrical switches by their way of
working. These detectors are connected in parallel to the signaling path so that the current flow
is monitored to indicate a closure of the circuit path by any connected detector when smoke or
other similar environmental stimulus sufficiently influences any detector. The resulting increase
in current flow (or a dead short) is interpreted and processed by the control unit as a
confirmation of the presence of smoke and a fire alarm signal is generated. In a conventional
system, smoke detectors are typically wired together in each zone and a single fire alarm
control panel usually monitors a number of zones which can be arranged to correspond to
different areas of a building. In the event of a fire, the control panel is able to identify which zone
or zones contain the detector or detectors in alarm, but cannot identify which individual detector
or detectors are in a state of alarm.
Addressable

An addressable system gives each detector an individual number, or address. Addressable

systems allow the exact location of an alarm to be plotted on the FACP, while allowing several
detectors to be connected to the same zone. In certain systems, a graphical representation of
the building is provided on the screen of the FACP which shows the locations of all of the
detectors in the building, while in others the address and location of the detector or detectors in
alarm are simply indicated.
Addressable systems are usually more expensive than conventional non-addressable
systems, and offer extra options, including a custom level of sensitivity (sometimes called
Day/Night mode) which can determine the amount of smoke in a given area and contamination
detection from the FACP that allows determination of a wide range of faults in detection
capabilities of smoke detectors.[40] Detectors become contaminated usually as a result of the
buildup of atmospheric particulates in the detectors being circulated by the heating and air-
conditioning systems in buildings. Other causes include carpentry, sanding, painting, and smoke
in the event of a fire. Panels can also be interconnected to monitor a very large number of
detectors in multiple buildings.[40] This is most commonly used in hospitals, universities, resorts
and other large centres or institutions.

Hybrid Fire Detection & Alarm Systems

More recent developments have brought the technical ability to integrate radio fire with wired
systems of all levels of sophistication, and thereby create a ‘hybrid’ solution, it really is cost- and
performance-effective to consider wireless fire as part (if not all) of an installation in a vast range
of applications scenarios – both new builds and  refurbishments/reconfigurations/add-ons.
Hybrid fire systems combine hard-wired and wireless, radio technologies under a single control
regime.
Radio fire system components. (Image courtesy EMS)
Typically they are used where a new requirement is added to an existing hard-wired system and
the nature of the update element is more suited to a radio-based fire solution. There may also
be occasions where an entirely new system suits the combination of wired and wireless
technologies, particularly where different kinds of buildings are located on a single site.

Wireless fire systems can have a role when buildings can’t be tampered with to be wired (not
structurally possible, not allowed, too costly)
– operational down-time at a site is too limited, prohibited or too costly to allow wiring
– regulatory demands for running (additional) wiring at a site are too costly.
Data center
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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ARSAT data center (2014)

A data center (American English)[1] or data centre (British English)[2][note 1] is a building, a

dedicated space within a building, or a group of buildings[3] used to house computer
systems and associated components, such as telecommunications and storage
systems.[4][5]
Since IT operations are crucial for business continuity, it generally includes redundant or
backup components and infrastructure for power supply, data communication
connections, environmental controls (e.g., air conditioning, fire suppression), and
various security devices. A large data center is an industrial-scale operation using as
much electricity as a small town.[6]

History

NASA mission control computer room c. 1962

Data centers have their roots in the huge computer rooms of the 1940s, typified
by ENIAC, one of the earliest examples of a data center.[7][note 2] Early computer systems,
complex to operate and maintain, required a special environment in which to operate.
Many cables were necessary to connect all the components, and methods to
accommodate and organize these were devised such as standard racks to mount
equipment, raised floors, and cable trays (installed overhead or under the elevated
floor). A single mainframe required a great deal of power and had to be cooled to avoid
overheating. Security became important – computers were expensive, and were often
used for military purposes.[7][note 3] Basic design-guidelines for controlling access to the
computer room were therefore devised.
During the boom of the microcomputer industry, and especially during the 1980s, users
started to deploy computers everywhere, in many cases with little or no care about
operating requirements. However, as information technology (IT) operations started to
grow in complexity, organizations grew aware of the need to control IT resources. The
availability of inexpensive networking equipment, coupled with new standards for the
network structured cabling, made it possible to use a hierarchical design that put the
servers in a specific room inside the company. The use of the term "data center", as
applied to specially designed computer rooms, started to gain popular recognition about
this time.[7][note 4]
The boom of data centers came during the dot-com bubble of 1997–2000.[8][note
5]
 Companies needed fast Internet connectivity and non-stop operation to deploy
systems and to establish a presence on the Internet. Installing such equipment was not
viable for many smaller companies. Many companies started building very large
facilities, called Internet data centers (IDCs),[9] which provide enhanced capabilities,
such as crossover backup: "If a Bell Atlantic line is cut, we can transfer them to ... to
minimize the time of outage."[9]
The term cloud data centers (CDCs) has been used.[10] Data centers typically cost a lot
to build and to maintain.[8][note 6] Increasingly, the division of these terms has almost
disappeared and they are being integrated into the term "data center".[11]

Requirements for modern data centers[edit]

Racks of telecommunications equipment in part of a data center

Modernization and data center transformation enhances performance and energy

efficiency.[12]
Information security is also a concern, and for this reason, a data center has to offer a
secure environment that minimizes the chances of a security breach. A data center
must, therefore, keep high standards for assuring the integrity and functionality of its
hosted computer environment.
Industry research company International Data Corporation (IDC) puts the average age
of a data center at nine years old. Gartner, another research company, says data
centers older than seven years are obsolete.[13] The growth in data (163 zettabytes by
2025[14]) is one factor driving the need for data centers to modernize.
Focus on modernization is not new: concern about obsolete equipment was decried in
2007,[15] and in 2011 Uptime Institute was concerned about the age of the equipment
therein.[note 7] By 2018 concern had shifted once again, this time to the age of the staff:
"data center staff are aging faster than the equipment.
Meeting standards for data centers
The Telecommunications Industry Association's Telecommunications Infrastructure
Standard for Data Centers specifies the minimum requirements for telecommunications
infrastructure of data centers and computer rooms including single tenant enterprise
data centers and multi-tenant Internet hosting data centers. The topology proposed in
this document is intended to be applicable to any size data center.
Telcordia GR-3160, NEBS Requirements for Telecommunications Data Center
Equipment and Spaces, provides guidelines for data center spaces within
telecommunications networks, and environmental requirements for the equipment
intended for installation in those spaces. These criteria were developed jointly by
Telcordia and industry representatives. They may be applied to data center spaces
housing data processing or Information Technology (IT) equipment. The equipment may
be used to:

 Operate and manage a carrier's telecommunication network

 Provide data center based applications directly to the carrier's customers
 Provide hosted applications for a third party to provide services to their customers
 Provide a combination of these and similar data center applications
Data center transformation
Data center transformation takes a step-by-step approach through integrated projects
carried out over time. This differs from a traditional method of data center upgrades that
takes a serial and siloed approach.[20] The typical projects within a data center
transformation initiative include
standardization/consolidation, virtualization, automation and security.

 Standardization/consolidation: Reducing the number of data centers and avoiding server

spraw (both physical and virtual) often includes replacing aging data center equipment, and
is aided by standardization.
 Virtualization: Lowers capital and operational expenses, reduces energy
consumption. Virtualized desktops can be hosted in data centers and rented out on a
subscription basis.  Investment bank Lazard Capital Markets estimated in 2008 that 48
percent of enterprise operations will be virtualized by 2012. Gartner views virtualization as a
catalyst for modernization. Automating: Automating tasks such as provisioning,
configuration, patching, release management, and compliance is needed, not just when
facing fewer skilled IT workers.
 Securing: Protection of virtual systems is integrated with existing security of physical
infrastructures.[31]
Machine room
The term "Machine Room" is at times used to refer to the large room within a Data
Center where the actual Central Processing Unit is located; this may be separate from
where high-speed printers are located. Air conditioning is most important in the machine
room.
Aside from air-conditioning, there must be monitoring equipment, one type of which is to
detect water prior to flood-level situations. One company, for several decades, has had
share-of-mind: Water Alert. The company, as of 2018, has two competing
manufacturers (Invetex, Hydro-Temp) and three competing distributors (Longden,
Northeast Flooring,[note 8] Slayton[note 9]).
Raised floor[edit]

Perforated cooling floor tile.

Main article: Raised floor

A raised floor standards guide named GR-2930 was developed by Telcordia
Technologies, a subsidiary of Ericsson.[38]
Although the first raised floor computer room was made by IBM in 1956,[39] and they've
"been around since the 1960s",[40] it was the 1970s that made it more common for
computer centers to thereby allow cool air to circulate more efficiently.[41][42]
The first purpose of the raised floor was to allow access for wiring.[39]
Lights out[edit]
The "lights-out"[43] data center, also known as a darkened or a dark data center, is a data
center that, ideally, has all but eliminated the need for direct access by personnel,
except under extraordinary circumstances. Because of the lack of need for staff to enter
the data center, it can be operated without lighting. All of the devices are accessed and
managed by remote systems, with automation programs used to perform unattended
operations. In addition to the energy savings, reduction in staffing costs and the ability
to locate the site further from population centers, implementing a lights-out data center
reduces the threat of malicious attacks upon the infrastructure.[44][45]

Data center levels and tiers[edit]

The two organizations in the United States that publish data center standards are
the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Uptime Institute.
International standards EN50600 and ISO22237 Information
technology — Data centre facilities and infrastructures[edit]

 Class 1 single path solution

 Class 2 single path with redundancy solution
 Class 3 multiple paths providing a concurrent repair/operate solution
 Class 4 multiple paths providing a fault tolerant solution (except during maintenance)
Telecommunications Industry Association[edit]
Main article: TIA-942

The Telecommunications Industry Association's TIA-942 standard for data centers,

published in 2005 and updated four times since, defined four infrastructure levels.[46]

 Level 1 - basically a server room, following basic guidelines

 Level 4 - designed to host the most mission critical computer systems, with fully
redundant subsystems, the ability to continuously operate for an indefinite period of time
during primary power outages.
Uptime Institute – Data center Tier Classification Standard[edit]
Four Tiers are defined by the Uptime Institute standard:

 Tier I: is described as BASIC CAPACITY and must include a UPS

 Tier II: is described as REDUNDANT CAPACITY and adds redundant power and cooling
 Tier III: is described as CONCURRENTLY MAINTAINABLE and ensures that ANY
component can be taken out of service without affecting production
 Tier IV: is described as FAULT TOLERANT allowing any production capacity to be
insulated from ANY type of failure.

Data center design[edit]

The field of data center design has been growing for decades in various directions,
including new construction big and small along with the creative re-use of existing
facilities, like abandoned retail space, old salt mines and war-era bunkers.

 a 65-story data center has already been proposed[47]

 the number of data centers as of 2016 had grown beyond 3 million USA-wide, and more
than triple that number worldwide[8]
Local building codes may govern the minimum ceiling heights and other parameters.
Some of the considerations in the design of data centers are:
A typical server rack, commonly seen in colocation

 size - one room of a building, one or more floors, or an entire building, and can hold
1,000 or more servers[48]
 space, power, cooling, and costs in the data center.[49]

CRAC Air Handler

 Mechanical engineering infrastructure - heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC);

humidification and dehumidification equipment; pressurization.[50]
 Electrical engineering infrastructure design - utility service planning; distribution,
switching and bypass from power sources; uninterruptible power source (UPS) systems;
and more.[50][51]
Design criteria and trade-offs[edit]

 Availability expectations: Cost of avoiding downtime should not exceed the cost of
downtime itself[52]
 Site selection: Location factors include proximity to power grids, telecommunications
infrastructure, networking services, transportation lines and emergency services. Others are
flight paths, neighboring uses, geological risks and climate (associated with cooling costs).[53]
o Often available power is hardest to change.
High availability[edit]
Main article: High availability

Various metrics exist for measuring the data-availability that results from data-center
availability beyond 95% uptime, with the top of the scale counting how many "nines" can
be placed after "99%".[54]
Modularity and flexibility[edit]
Main article: Modular data center

Modularity and flexibility are key elements in allowing for a data center to grow and
change over time. Data center modules are pre-engineered, standardized building
blocks that can be easily configured and moved as needed.[55]
A modular data center may consist of data center equipment contained within shipping
containers or similar portable containers.[56] Components of the data center can be
prefabricated and standardized which facilitates moving if needed.[57]
Environmental control[edit]
Temperature[note 10] and humidity are controlled via:

 Air conditioning
 indirect cooling, such as using outside air,[58][59][note 11] Indirect Evaporative Cooling (IDEC)
units, and also using sea water.
Electrical power[edit]

A bank of batteries in a large data center, used to provide power until diesel generators can start

Backup power consists of one or more uninterruptible power supplies, battery banks,

and/or diesel / gas turbine generators.[60]
To prevent single points of failure, all elements of the electrical systems, including
backup systems, are typically fully duplicated, and critical servers are connected to both
the "A-side" and "B-side" power feeds. This arrangement is often made to achieve N+1
redundancy in the systems. Static transfer switches are sometimes used to ensure
instantaneous switchover from one supply to the other in the event of a power failure.
Low-voltage cable routing[edit]
Options include:

 Data cabling can be routed through overhead cable trays[61]

 Raised floor cabling, for security reasons and to avoid the addition of cooling systems
above the racks.
 Smaller/less expensive data centers without raised flooring may use anti-static tiles for a
flooring surface.
Air flow[edit]
Air flow management addresses the need to improve data center computer
cooling efficiency by preventing the recirculation of hot air exhausted from IT equipment
and reducing bypass airflow. There are several methods of separating hot and cold
airstreams, such as hot/cold aisle containment and in-row cooling units.[62]
Aisle containment[edit]
Cold aisle containment is done by exposing the rear of equipment racks, while the fronts
of the servers are enclosed with doors and covers.

Typical cold aisle configuration with server rack fronts facing each other and cold air distributed through
the raised floor.

Computer cabinets are often organized for containment of hot/cold aisles. Ducting
prevents cool and exhaust air from mixing. Rows of cabinets are paired to face each
other so that cool air can reach equipment air intakes and warm air can be returned to
the chillers without mixing.
Alternatively, a range of underfloor panels can create efficient cold air pathways
directed to the raised floor vented tiles. Either the cold aisle or the hot aisle can be
contained.[63]
Another alternative is fitting cabinets with vertical exhaust ducts (chimney)[64] Hot exhaust
exits can direct the air into a plenum above a drop ceiling and back to the cooling units
or to outside vents. With this configuration, traditional hot/cold aisle configuration is not
a requirement.[65]
Fire protection[edit]
FM200 Fire Suppression Tanks

Data centers feature fire protection systems, including passive and Active

Design elements, as well as implementation of fire prevention programs in
operations. Smoke detectors are usually installed to provide early warning of a fire at its
incipient stage.
Two water-based options are:[66]

 sprinkler
 mist
 no water – some of the benefits of using chemical suppression (clean agent gaseous fire
suppression system).
Security[edit]
Main article: Data center security

Physical access is usually restricted. Layered security often starts with

fencing, bollards and mantraps.[67] Video camera surveillance and permanent security
guards are almost always present if the data center is large or contains sensitive
information. Fingerprint recognition mantraps is starting to be commonplace.
Logging access is required by some data protection regulations; some organizations
tightly link this to access control systems. Multiple log entries can occur at the main
entrance, entrances to internal rooms, and at equipment cabinets. Access control at
cabinets can be integrated with intelligent power distribution units, so that locks are
networked through the same appliance.[68]

Energy use[edit]

Google Data Center, The Dalles, Oregon

Main article: IT energy management
Energy use is a central issue for data centers. Power draw ranges from a few kW for a
rack of servers in a closet to several tens of MW for large facilities. Some facilities have
power densities more than 100 times that of a typical office building.[69] For higher power
density facilities, electricity costs are a dominant operating expense and account for
over 10% of the total cost of ownership (TCO) of a data center.[70]
Power costs for 2012 often exceeded the cost of the original capital investment.
[71]
 Greenpeace estimated worldwide data center power consumption for 2012 as about
382 billion kWh.[72] Global data centers used roughly 416 TWh in 2016, nearly 40% more
than the entire United Kingdom; USA DC consumption was 90 billion kWh.[73]
Greenhouse gas emissions[edit]
In 2007 the entire information and communication technologies or ICT sector was
estimated to be responsible for roughly 2% of global carbon emissions with data centers
accounting for 14% of the ICT footprint.[74] The US EPA estimates that servers and data
centers are responsible for up to 1.5% of the total US electricity consumption,[75] or
roughly .5% of US GHG emissions,[76] for 2007. Given a business as usual scenario
greenhouse gas emissions from data centers is projected to more than double from
2007 levels by 2020.[74]
In an 18-month investigation by scholars at Rice University's Baker Institute for Public
Policy in Houston and the Institute for Sustainable and Applied Infodynamics in
Singapore, data center-related emissions will more than triple by 2020.[77]
Energy efficiency and overhead[edit]
The most commonly used energy efficiency metric of data center energy efficiency
is power usage effectiveness (PUE), calculated as the ratio of total power entering the
data center divided by the power used by IT equipment.
It measures the percentage of power used by overhead (cooling, lighting, etc.). The
average USA data center has a PUE of 2.0,[75] meaning two watts of total power
(overhead + IT equipment) for every watt delivered to IT equipment. State-of-the-art
is estimated to be roughly 1.2.[78] Google publishes quarterly efficiency from data
centers in operation.[79]
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has an Energy Star rating for standalone
or large data centers. To qualify for the ecolabel, a data center must be within the
top quartile of energy efficiency of all reported facilities.[80] The Energy Efficiency
Improvement Act of 2015 (United States) requires federal facilities — including data
centers — to operate more efficiently. California's title 24 (2014) of the California
Code of Regulations mandates that every newly constructed data center must have
some form of airflow containment in place to optimize energy efficiency.
European Union also has a similar initiative: EU Code of Conduct for Data Centres.
[81]

Energy use analysis and projects[edit]

The focus of measuring and analyzing energy use goes beyond what's used by IT
equipment; facility support hardware such as chillers and fans also use energy.[82]
In 2011 server racks in data centers were designed for more than 25 kW and the
typical server was estimated to waste about 30% of the electricity it consumed. The
energy demand for information storage systems was also rising. A high availability
data center was estimated to have a 1 mega watt (MW) demand and consume
$20,000,000 in electricity over its lifetime, with cooling representing 35% to 45% of
the data center's total cost of ownership. Calculations showed that in two years the
cost of powering and cooling a server could be equal to the cost of purchasing the
server hardware.[83] Research in 2018 has shown that substantial amount of energy
could still be conserved by optimizing IT refresh rates and increasing server
utilization.[84]
In 2011 Facebook, Rackspace and others founded the Open Compute
Project (OCP) to develop and publish open standards for greener data center
computing technologies. As part of the project Facebook published the designs of its
server, which it had built for its first dedicated data center in Prineville. Making
servers taller left space for more effective heat sinks and enabled the use of fans
that moved more air with less energy. By not buying commercial off-the-
shelf servers, energy consumption due to unnecessary expansion slots on
the motherboard and unneeded components, such as a graphics card, was also
saved.[85] In 2016 Google joined the project and published the designs of its 48V DC
shallow data center rack. This design had long been part of Google data centers. By
eliminating the multiple transformers usually deployed in data centers, Google had
achieved a 30% increase in energy efficiency.[86] In 2017 sales for data center
hardware built to OCP designs topped $1.2 billion and are expected to reach $6
billion by 2021.[85]
Power and cooling analysis[edit]

Data center at CERN (2010)

Power is the largest recurring cost to the user of a data center.[87] Cooling it at or

below 70 °F (21 °C) wastes money and energy.[87] Furthermore, overcooling
equipment in environments with a high relative humidity can expose equipment to a
high amount of moisture that facilitates the growth of salt deposits on conductive
filaments in the circuitry.[88]
A power and cooling analysis, also referred to as a thermal assessment,
measures the relative temperatures in specific areas as well as the capacity of the
cooling systems to handle specific ambient temperatures.[89] A power and cooling
analysis can help to identify hot spots, over-cooled areas that can handle greater
power use density, the breakpoint of equipment loading, the effectiveness of a
raised-floor strategy, and optimal equipment positioning (such as AC units) to
balance temperatures across the data center. Power cooling density is a measure of
how much square footage the center can cool at maximum capacity.[90] The cooling
of data centers is the second largest power consumer after servers. The cooling
energy varies from 10% of the total energy consumption in the most efficient data
centers and goes up to 45% in standard air-cooled data centers.
Energy efficiency analysis[edit]
An energy efficiency analysis measures the energy use of data center IT and
facilities equipment. A typical energy efficiency analysis measures factors such as a
data center's power use effectiveness (PUE) against industry standards, identifies
mechanical and electrical sources of inefficiency, and identifies air-management
metrics.[91] However, the limitation of most current metrics and approaches is that
they do not include IT in the analysis. Case studies have shown that by addressing
energy efficiency holistically in a data center, major efficiencies can be achieved that
are not possible otherwise.[92]
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis[edit]
Main article: Computational fluid dynamics

This type of analysis uses sophisticated tools and techniques to understand the
unique thermal conditions present in each data center—predicting the
temperature, airflow, and pressure behavior of a data center to assess performance
and energy consumption, using numerical modeling.[93] By predicting the effects of
these environmental conditions, CFD analysis in the data center can be used to
predict the impact of high-density racks mixed with low-density racks[94] and the
onward impact on cooling resources, poor infrastructure management practices and
AC failure or AC shutdown for scheduled maintenance.
Thermal zone mapping[edit]
Thermal zone mapping uses sensors and computer modeling to create a three-
dimensional image of the hot and cool zones in a data center.[95]
This information can help to identify optimal positioning of data center equipment.
For example, critical servers might be placed in a cool zone that is serviced by
redundant AC units.
Green data centers[edit]
Main article: Green data center
This water-cooled data center in the Port of Strasbourg, France claims the attribute green.

Data centers use a lot of power, consumed by two main usages: the power required
to run the actual equipment and then the power required to cool the equipment.
Power-efficiency reduces the first category.
Cooling cost reduction from natural ways includes location decisions: When the
focus is not being near good fiber connectivity, power grid connections and people-
concentrations to manage the equipment, a data center can be miles away from the
users. 'Mass' data centers like Google or Facebook don't need to be near population
centers. Arctic locations can use outside air, which provides cooling, are getting
more popular.[96]
Renewable electricity sources are another plus. Thus countries with favorable
conditions, such as: Canada,[97] Finland,[98] Sweden,[99] Norway,[100] and Switzerland,
[101]
 are trying to attract cloud computing data centers.
Bitcoin mining is increasingly being seen as a potential way to build data centers at
the site of renewable energy production. Curtailed and clipped energy can be used
to secure transactions on the Bitcoin blockchain providing another revenue stream
to renewable energy producers.[102]
Energy reuse[edit]
It is very difficult to reuse the heat which comes from air cooled data centers. For
this reason, data center infrastructures are more often equipped with heat pumps.
[103]
 An alternative to heat pumps is the adoption of liquid cooling throughout a data
center. Different liquid cooling techniques are mixed and matched to allow for a fully
liquid cooled infrastructure which captures all heat in water. Different liquid
technologies are categorized in 3 main groups, Indirect liquid cooling (water cooled
racks), Direct liquid cooling (direct-to-chip cooling) and Total liquid cooling (complete
immersion in liquid, see Server immersion cooling). This combination of
technologies allows the creation of a thermal cascade as part of temperature
chaining scenarios to create high temperature water outputs from the data center.

Dynamic infrastructure[edit]
Main article: Dynamic infrastructure

Dynamic infrastructure[104] provides the ability to intelligently, automatically and

securely move workloads within a data center[105] anytime, anywhere, for
migrations, provisioning,[106] to enhance performance, or building co-location facilities.
It also facilitates performing routine maintenance on either physical or virtual
systems all while minimizing interruption. A related concept is Composable
infrastructure, which allows for the dynamic reconfiguration of the available
resources to suit needs, only when needed.[107]
Side benefits include

 reducing cost
 facilitating business continuity and high availability
 enabling cloud and grid computing.[108]

Network infrastructure[edit]

An operation engineer overseeing a network operations control room of a data center (2006)

An example of network infrastructure of a data center

Communications in data centers today are most often based on networks running

the IP protocol suite. Data centers contain a set of routers and switches that
transport traffic between the servers and to the outside world[109] which are connected
according to the data center network architecture. Redundancy of the Internet
connection is often provided by using two or more upstream service providers
(see Multihoming).
Some of the servers at the data center are used for running the basic Internet
and intranet services needed by internal users in the organization, e.g., e-mail
servers, proxy servers, and DNS servers.
Network security elements are also usually
deployed: firewalls, VPN gateways, intrusion detection systems, and so on. Also
common are monitoring systems for the network and some of the applications.
 Additional off site monitoring systems are also typical, in case of a failure of
communications inside the data center.

Software/data backup[edit]
Non-mutually exclusive options for data backup are:

 Onsite
 Offsite
Onsite is traditional,[110] and one major advantage is immediate availability.
Offsite backup storage
Main article: Disaster recovery §  offsite backup storage

Data backup techniques include having an encrypted copy of the data offsite.

Methods used for transporting data are:[111]

 having the customer write the data to a physical medium, such as magnetic tape, and
then transporting the tape elsewhere.[112]
 directly transferring the data to another site during the backup, using appropriate links
 uploading the data "into the cloud"[113]

Modular data center[edit]

Main article: Modular data center

A 40-foot Portable Modular Data Center

For quick deployment or disaster recovery, several large hardware vendors have

developed mobile/modular solutions that can be installed and made operational in
very short time.

Closed-circuit television
CCTV stands for closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems that use analog cameras
have been around for years. They are still the most common type of camera installed in
the field, experts say. Picture a camera or series of cameras with a dedicated set of
wires fed into a recording device and series of monitors.
 CCTV works by the camera or cameras taking a constant sequence of images that are
then transmitted by cable or wirelessly (depending on the chosen system type) to the
recording device and then on to the display monitor, which enables an individual to see
the sequence of images as video footage.

Business Surveillance

Businesses use CCTV technology for a number of reasons, including as a crime deterrent.

Banks, offices, museums, restaurants, retail stores, and other businesses are a hotbed for
crime, as most always have cash on hand.

A complete CCTV system consists of:

 Security cameras (analogue or digital)
 Cables.
 A video recorder (DVR or NVR)
 A storage unit, usually a hard drive.
 A display unit, such as a monitor (optional)

Top 7 Types of CCTV Cameras To Suit Your Requirements.

1. Dome Camera. The most economical among the lot, Dome camera is the basic
type of security camera, which is meant for indoor installation. ...
2. Bullet Type Cameras. ...
3. C-mount camera. ...
4. Day/Night CCTV Camera. ...
5. Infrared/Night Vision CCTV Camera. ...
6. Varifocal Cameras. ...
7. Wireless cameras.

In the CCTV industry, you can use RG59 cable, RCA Plug and Play cable, and CAT5 cable.
These are the three types of CCTV cable. We have every kind of CCTV cable you need to
provide the video you need to your NVR/DVR.
A combination of two cables, it is made up of RG59 and 18/2 cable, the former for video
transmission quality and the latter for power purposes. In other words, since RG59 is a coaxial
cable, it helps in running the video to the security camera, whereas 18/2 cable helps in the
AC/DC power to the camera.

If you use Cat 6 or upper, the ethernet cables can be up to 330 feet.
Never use a CAT 6 cable for analog or HD cctv cameras. Use CAT6 only for IP cameras. The
reason is very simple. Analog cameras transmit analog signals which are best transmitted over
a coaxial cable.

The connection between the camera and the DVR is most often done using coaxial cable (75
ohms). Connectivity is done with BNC connectors (welded, crimped or screwed). In general, the
maximum distance is 200 meters with KX6 coaxial cable and 500 meters with KX8 coaxial
cable.

BNC cables can be run up to 300ft (91m). We recommend using one solid line from the camera
to the DVR to maximize signal strength.

Long distance: There are some definite advantages. To begin with, CAT5 gives long distance
video transmission capability. By using a CAT5 cable you can run CCTV colour video footage
over 1000 metres. ... If a coaxial cable is used, you will still be required to run an extra cable for
data transmission.

Analog CCTV camera video transmission is limited to 213 meters or 700 feet using RG59
coaxial cable, unless you use a video amplifier like this one. Using this amp, you can run CCTV
video up to 1000 meters / 3000 feet with RG59.

IP cameras capture video image, compress and transmit in digital format over the network. ...
Whereas, HD cameras have to be connected directly to the recorder and the recorder is
responsible for collating picture information, compression and storage.