Technical Guidance

SANITATION WITHIN A COMMUNITY ASSET CREATION

PROGRAMME1
Asset Creation and Livelihood Unit (PRO-R)

1. INTRODUCTION
The aim of infrastructure development, including water and sanitation
programmes, is to improve the well-being of everyone in a community,
whether they are male or female, rich or poor, young or old, disabled or non-
disabled. Increasingly, water and sanitation service providers recognise that
in order to reduce poverty, there is a need to target the poorest, most
disadvantaged and vulnerable sections of the population, to provide more
access to basic services.
When communities use hygiene and sanitation methods that fit their real
needs and abilities, they will enjoy better health. In most cases, the toilet
component is the users’ prime concern. There are many reasons why users
might prefer one sanitation option over another, besides, health, better
water supplies or improved hygiene. The main reasons are:
Figure 1: Frontal view of a latrine
(Source: Reed and Shaw, 2014).

Privacy: the need for privacy makes it important for a toilet to have a good shelter. Providing a door
or enclosed entrance with inside locker, or constructing it away from busy locations, makes the
toilet safe for women and girls.

Safety: a poorly constructed toilet can be dangerous to use. If it is far from home, women may be
in danger of sexual violence. A toilet must be well-built and in a safe location.

Comfort: people prefer to use a toilet with a comfortable place to sit or squat, and a shelter large
enough to stand up and in which to easily move. Children, the elderly or people with disabilities
have special needs which should be addressed to facilitate comfortable use of the facilities.
Cleanliness: No one wants to use a dirty and smelly toilet. Toilet areas should be well-lit and
ventilated. Easy-to-clean surfaces and a clear delegation of cleaning responsibilities will help
to ensure that toilets are well-kept.

Respect: a well-kept toilet brings status and respect to its owner. This may be an important reason
for people to spend money and effort to build one.

Environmental degradation: Hygiene and sanitation facilities are often brought together with
other 'unwanted' activities, such as waste collection, which may generate bad smells, flies and
other pests. This will demotivate people to use the facilities.

Risk of groundwater contamination: Facilities have to be located at a safe distance, especially from
water sources, to avoid groundwater contamination.

Accessibility: People will disabilities or other access constraints must be able to reach the facilities
at all times, including when faced with climatic constraints, such as heavy rains.

1According to the FFA Engineering Risk Assessment Matrix, construction of latrines is a classified activity as Category 2,
Medium Risk.

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The following Technical Guideline describes a selection of possible toilets, bearing in mind that no one toilet
design is right for every community or household. It is important, therefore, to understand the cultural
references and community preferences when selecting the type of toilet to be implemented.

2. LATRINES VIS A VIS HEALTH IMPROVEMENT

2.1. POVERTY
The poor are usually most at risk of infection because of their degraded environment and inadequate nutrition,
so they are hit hardest in times of crisis, given the scarcity of resources on which they can relay to mitigate the
impacts of an emergency, the difficulty accessing medical care, and pay the most for it. Few poor people can
afford to create a healthy environment with good housing, adequate water supply and (environmental)
sanitation.

Poor health often leads to poverty, and poverty often leads to poor health. Once people are in this vicious circle,
it is very difficult to escape. Most people in developing countries live in poverty. According to the most recent
estimates, in 2015, 10 percent of the world’s population (or 734 million people) lived on less than USD 1.90 a
day2.

Poverty, and with it, poor health, is not only damaging for individuals, but it is also a serious handicap for
developing countries as a whole. Improving environmental hygiene, water supply, housing, education, nutrition,
and health facilities is only possible if resources are available. While general access to an adequate water supply
and acceptable (environmental) sanitation is crucial to good health in a population, the only long-term solution
to poor health and underdevelopment is poverty reduction.

10 % OF THE WORLD’S POPULATION LIVE ON LESS THAN $1.90 A DAY

The only way the poor can afford and maintain better services (wells, piped water, improved latrines) is by
increasing their income. We should bear this in mind when planning a programme, and address poverty
wherever possible.

2.2. THE IMPORTANCE OF SANITATION

The link between poor sanitation and poor health is very strong. Diarrhoea is one of the leading causes of death
among children under five globally. More than one in ten child deaths – about 800,000 each year – is due to
diarrhoea. Today, only 44% of children with diarrhoea in low-income countries receive the recommended
treatment, and limited trend data suggest that there has been little progress since 20003. Millions more suffer
nutritional, educational and economic losses through the diarrhoeal disease that improvements in sanitation
(especially human excreta management) can prevent. At the same time, human excreta are responsible for the
transmission of a wide range of other diseases that infect millions of people 4.

2 Decline of Global Extreme Poverty continues but has slowed: World Bank (Press Release, 19.09.2018):
https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/09/19/decline-of-global-extreme-poverty-continues-but-has-slo
wed-world-bank
3 WHO & UNICEF, 2009. Diarrhoea: Why children are still dying and what can be done. World Health Organization and United

Nations International Children’s Emergency Found. [Available on: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/44174

/9789241598415_eng.pdf;jsessionid=DC9FC82428C4D1E8EC25926A6A8D5367?sequence=1 (Last view in 05.06.2020)]
4 Prüss-Üstün A, Bos R, Gore F, Bartram J. Safer water, better health: costs, benefits and sustainability of interventions to

protect and promote health. World Health Organization, Geneva, 2008. [Available in: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream
/handle/10665/43840/9789241596435_eng.pdf;jsessionid=8BDB30CCE5C1E36E47BFD7410A705CC6?sequence=1 (Last
view in 29.06.2020)]

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Sanitation is everything associated with excreta 5 in relation to people. It includes the structures used to deal
with excreta (latrines or toilets), the materials needed to use these correctly (water), and people’s behaviours
and attitudes in relation to both excreta and the sanitary structures (e.g. acceptance of open defecation, washing
hands after defecation).

Pathogenic organisms that cause intestinal diseases live in excreta or faecal materials of humans and animals.
These organisms can infect a human being by the following mechanism: (i) the direct contact of unclean hands
with the mouth or with food and water; (ii) the use of water contaminated with faecal material; (iii) transmission
through the fertilisation of agricultural land with faecal material or black-water (effluent of wet latrines or
sewerage systems); (iv) vector transmission.

The inappropriate disposal of excreta contributes to the development and transmission of several types of
diseases as it facilitates the development of pathogens, and of vectors. Among them, diarrhoea is one of the
most extended disease. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), every year there are 4 billion cases
of diarrhoea in the World, causing 2.2 million deaths, mostly children6.

The primary health role of sanitation is to act as the first line of defence to disease transmission. Excreta-related
infections can be prevented by improved sanitation. Studies7 have shown that the most significant reductions
of diarrhoeal diseases are achieved via sanitation and hygiene promotion improvement, (reduction of diarrhoeal
morbidity of 36% through sanitation improvement). Despite this, sanitation is often seen as a simple add-on to
water supply projects and not considered as an independent solution to a need. In other cases, large investments
made on water-distribution systems often have limited impact on health, due to the lack of sanitation activities
on the same project.

Hence, when the general objective of a project is to reduce the risk of morbidity, water supply, sanitation and
hygiene promotion interventions have to be planned and implemented in an integrated manner.

3. DESIGNING LATRINES FOR COMMUNITIES

3.1. COMMUNAL OR PRIVATE LATRINES
Household toilets are considered the ideal in terms of user safety, security, convenience and dignity, and the
demonstrated links between ownership and maintenance. Sometimes shared facilities for a small group of
dwellings may be the norm. Communal or shared toilets can be designed and built with the aim of ensuring
household toilets in future. For example, leaving sanitation corridors in settlements provides the space to build
communal facilities close to shelters and then build household facilities as budgets allow. Sanitation corridors
ensure access for desludging, maintenance and decommissioning.

Communal toilets will also be necessary in some public or communal spaces such as health facilities, market
areas, feeding centres, learning environments and reception or administrative areas.

3.2. DESIGN STAGES

When designing a sanitation plan for a community, the Sphere Association (2018) recommend the following key
action points to consider in order to provide adequate, appropriate and acceptable toilets:

5 Excreta can be faeces and urine, and can be human as well as animal.
6 WHO, 2002. Estimating the Burden of Disease from Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene at a Global Level. Environmental Health
Perspectives Journal [Vol. 110, No.5, May 2002]. Available on: https://www.who.int/quantifying_ehimpacts/global/en/
ArticleEHP052002.pdf (last view in 21.05.2020).
7 WADDINGTON, H. and Snilstveit, B., 2009. Effectiveness and sustainability of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions

in combating diarrhoea. Journal of Development Effectiveness [1:3, 295 – 335, Sep. 2009]. Available on: https://www.tandf
online.com/doi/abs/10.1080/19439340903141175 (last view in 21.05.2020).

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 1 Determine where the latrine should be sited.
2 Determine the most appropriate technical options for toilets:
• Design and construct toilets to minimise safety and security threats to users and maintenance
workers, especially women and girls, children, older people and persons with disabilities.
• Segregate all communal or shared toilets by sex and by age where appropriate.
3 Quantify the toilets requirements based on public health risks, cultural habits, water collection and
storage.
4 Consult representative stakeholders about the siting, design and implementation of any shared or
communal toilets:
• Consider access and use by age, sex and disability; people facing mobility barriers; people living
with HIV; people with incontinence; and sexual or gender minorities.
• Locate any communal toilets close enough to households to enable safe access, and distant
enough so that households are not stigmatised by proximity to toilets.
5 Provide appropriate facilities inside toilets for washing and drying or disposal of menstrual hygiene
and incontinence materials.
6 Include adequate supply of water for handwashing with soap, for anal cleansing, and for flush or
hygienic seal mechanisms if selected.

3.3. DESIGN CRITERIA

The type of toilet adopted will depend on the preferences of the intended users, existing infrastructure, the
availability of water for flushing and water seals, the soil formation and the availability of construction materials.

Generally, toilets should comply with the following

WHEN A LATRINE IS ADEQUATE,
APPROPRIATE AND ACCEPTABLE?
✓ Are safe to use for all the population,
including children, older people, pregnant
women and persons with disabilities;
✓ Are located to minimise security threats to
users, especially to women and girls and
people with other specific protection
concerns;
✓ Are no more than 50 metres from dwellings;
✓ Provide privacy in line with users’
expectations;
✓ Are easy to use and keep clean (generally,
clean toilets are used more frequently);
✓ Do not present a hazard to the environment;
✓ Have adequate space for different users;
✓ Have inside locks;
✓ Are provided with easy access to water for
handwashing, anal cleansing and flushing;
✓ Allow for the dignified cleaning, drying and
disposal of women’s menstrual hygiene
materials, and child and adult incontinence
materials;
✓ Minimise fly and mosquito breeding; and
minimise smell
Sphere Standard, 2018
install locks inside all latrines. Ask the community, especially those most at risk, how to enhance their safety.
criteria:
Accessibility: The technical option chosen should respect
the right of all people, including persons with disabilities,
to safely access sanitation facilities. Accessible toilets, or
additions to existing toilets, may need to be constructed,
adapted or bought for children, older people and persons
with disabilities or incontinence.
Contrary to normal building practice, the latrine door is
usually designed to open outwards, to increase the
usable space inside the structure and to avoid collisions
with the footrests or pedestal inside. This may not always
be possible, however, for grass-roofed structures with
low eaves for example, or in densely populated areas.
As a guide, single-access gender-neutral toilets with
ramps or level entries, with enhanced accessibility inside
the superstructure, should also be made available at a
minimum ratio of 1 per 250 people. As a maximum
distance, latrines should be located 50 metres from any
households.
Safe and secure facilities: Inappropriate location of
toilets may make women and girls more vulnerable to
attack, especially at night. Ensure that all at-risk groups,
including women and girls, boys, older people and others
with specific protection concerns feel and are safe when
using the toilets during both day and night, as well as

Lighting: Adequately light facilities and consider providing at-risk groups with torches. In general, a latrine that
is well lit and bright is more attractive to users. However, VIP latrines require the superstructure to be dark inside

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so that flies are attracted to the light at the top of the vent pipe and not the light inside the latrine. Nevertheless,
the internal walls of the latrine could be whitewashed, and some light allowed in through ventilation openings.
Lighting at communal facilities can improve access but can also attract people to use the lighting for other
purposes. Consultation within the community is compulsory, especially with those most at risk of threats to their
safety, to find additional ways to reduce their exposure to risks.

Quantifying toilet requirements: Consider how to adapt toilet requirements to the context at hand, reflect
changes in the living environment, requirements in public areas and any specific public health risks. For planning
figures and number of toilets, a minimum ratio is 1 per 20 people, with a ratio of 3:1 for a female to male toilets
may be applied.

Water and anal cleansing material: In designing the facility, ensure enough water, toilet paper or other anal
cleansing material is available. Consult users about the most appropriate cleansing material and ensure safe
disposal and sustainability of supply.

Handwashing: Ensure that the facility allows for handwashing, including water and soap (or an alternative such
as ash) after using toilets, cleaning the bottom of a child who has defecated, and before eating and preparing
food.

Washing hands is one of the most effective ways for the reduction of faecal-oral diseases. Water availability for
this activity is absolutely necessary at the household level as well in public latrines, where washing hands is a
priority. Washing hands is always important after defecation, even when water is used for anal cleansing, and
latrines should be provided with facilities for washing.

Figure 2: The mukombe Figure 3: Example of Figure 4: Example of a handwashing

handwashing device. handwashing bottle. promoting poster.

Figure 6: Roofwater collection for

Figure 5: Handwashing container. Figure 7: Dual tap standposts.
handwashing.
(Source: Reed & Shaw, 2008)

For washing facilities, a connection can be made to an existing water-distribution system to create a water point.
It is possible to create an independent water point where there is no piped water supply (see Figure 7); for
example, a well equipped with a handpump. Alternatively, small barrels or sealed containers (see Figure 5),
equipped with taps and containing chlorinated water, can be placed next to latrines, and offer a rapid and cost-
effective solution. These are filled and maintained by the community on a daily basis. In all cases, adequate

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drainage must be constructed. Alternatively, a roofwater collection system may be installed using the latrine
roof and a deliver tap right outside the latrine (see Figure 6).

Menstrual hygiene management: Toilets should include appropriate containers or incinerators for the disposal
of menstrual materials in order to prevent blockages of water trap (pour-flush latrines), sewerage pipes (if any)
or difficulties in desludging pits or septic tanks. Consult with women and girls on the design of toilets to provide
space, access to water for washing, and drying areas.

Incinerators for pads is a requirement in toilets to minimise the risk of contamination of users through potentially
infectious waste. Recent studies indicate that as much as 33% of Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and 42% of Hepatitis C
virus (HCV) infections arise from direct or indirect exposure to infectious waste.

Main features:

• Safe containment of potentially infectious waste

at the location where the waste is produced.
• Improves hygiene and operational efficiency in
toilets, in addition to reducing the environmental
pollution that arises from poor other waste
destruction practices.
• Proper processing of waste according to WHO-
recommended practices.

Figure 8: Sketch of waste incinerator (Source: Path, 2005).

Ventilation: All latrines require ventilation. It is desirable to provide openings in the wall of the superstructure
or door to ensure the latrine is ventilated.

An inlet of fresh air is most effective when the opening faces the prevailing wind. It should be at a different
height from the outlet, to improve efficiency of air exchange (see Figure 9).

Figure 9: Correct and incorrect ways of ventilating latrines (Source: Reed & Shaw, 2008).

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 3.4. WATER POLLUTION
Identifying potential pollution of
groundwater sources is critical before
deciding on the location of a latrine. The
safe distance from the location of the
water point to a potential source of
pollution can be based on the time of
travel of pathogens (disease-causing
germs) from the point of pollution to the
borehole. If this exceeds 25 days, the risks
of disease transmission are low and
beyond 50 days the risks are very low.
Surface water may also transport
pathogens, so drainage routes need to be
considered too.
Figure 10: Minimum security distance from water sources to avoid
contamination (Source: REED, 2014).

LATRINES MUST BE LOCATED AT LEAST 40 METRES AWAY FROM ANY SOURCE OF POTABLE WATER

As a general rule, latrines must be located at least 40 metres away from any source of potable water. This rule,
however, varies depending on the soil conditions, the depth of the water table, the type of latrine lining, etc.
Figure 10 displays the minimum distance that should be applied to avoid potential sources of water
contamination.

4. TYPES OF LATRINES
4.1. INTRODUCTION

There are several different designs of pit latrine (sometimes called pit privies) but they all work in a similar way.
Excreta, anal cleansing material and sometimes sullage and/or refuse fall into a hole in the ground where:
• Faeces and other organic material decompose through bacterial action, fungal attack and consumption
by other organisms. The decomposition process may take place in the presence of oxygen (aerobic) or
without oxygen (anaerobic). In most pits fresh excreta is initially decomposed aerobically but as it is
covered by new layers of excreta conditions rapidly turn anaerobic;
• Gases such as ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are produced and released into the
atmosphere where they either escape through the top of the pit or are absorbed into the surrounding
soil;
• Urine, other liquids and soluble material leach into the surrounding soil;
• Pathogens (organisms that may cause disease) are destroyed because conditions in the pit are not
suitable for their survival; and,
• The residual material is compressed and compacted and slowly fills the pit.

4.2. PIT LATRINE

The simple pit latrine is the most basic type which is essentially a large hole in the ground covered by a platform
in which there is a hole through which the user excretes. The platform is surrounded by walls to provide privacy
and shelter from the weather.

Pit latrines are one of the oldest forms of formal sanitation in the world and for many, they are still the best. Pit
latrines are simple to build and can be constructed using local materials and technologies. Compared with other
forms of sanitation they are relatively cheap, easy to operate and maintain and, if properly used, help prevent

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the spread of excreta related diseases. For most low-income communities in the developing world, the pit latrine
in one form or another will be the most appropriate means of excreta disposal.

Figure 11: Example of simple pit latrine
(Source: Reed and Shaw, 2014).
Main features:
• Can help keep people healthy as much as waterborne
sewerage.
• Can be built by users.
• Use a minimum of imported materials.
• Can be easily maintained by users.
• Are low cost.
Main disadvantages:
• Poor design and construction and inappropriate materials
causing pits to collapse before they are full.
• Bad odours.
• Nuisance from flies and mosquitoes (and sometimes
cockroaches).
• Lack of privacy, especially for women, because simple pits
must be constructed away from the house.
• Difficulty in digging large pits because of poor ground
conditions.
• Difficulty with emptying pits once they are full.

4.3. VIP LATRINE

The addition of a vent pipe to a simple pit latrine is one way of reducing the nuisance of flies in the cubicle if the
cubicle is kept clean and dark. This type of latrine is called a Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrine. There are
several designs to suit different situations, but they all work in much the same way.

Figure 12: Example of simple VIP latrine (Source: Reed and
Shaw, 2014).
Main Features:
• Effectively controls odour and flies, by the vent
pipe when the top of the ventilation pipe is covered
with fly screen preventing flies entering or leaving
the pit via the pipe, the ventilation pipe is straight.
• Wind blowing over the top of the ventilation pipe
causes air in the pipe to rise. Replacement fresh air is
drawn into the pit through the superstructure and
down the toilet hole. This flow of fresh air keeps the
superstructure free of odours. When there is no
wind, air in the vent pipe will continue to move
upwards, if the pipe is being heated by the sun.
• The superstructure is always kept dark.
• Allowing users to clean themselves with hard
materials such as newspaper and leaves which may
not suitable for use with a pour-flush latrine.

4.4. POUR-FLUSH LATRINE

Pour-flush latrines provide an improved option in terms of use, maintenance and construction. They are a cross
between a pit latrine and a septic tank or sewer. A small amount of water is used to flush excreta out of a
collection pan, down a short pipe and into a pit. A water trap, if fitted, fills with water to form a seal and isolates
the pit from the user – an effective way of controlling smells and flies.

Normally, pit latrines must be located outside the house because of the smell and difficulty with emptying, the
flushing action of a pour-flush latrine enables the toilet cubicle to be offset from the pit if space allows, then

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toilet can be located inside the house, this is particularly important for people who cannot leave the house and
for women in some communities as it makes their use easier and safer at night.

Main advantages:

• Access to the pit is concealed, making users,

particularly children and old people, feel more secure
when using the latrine.
• A large pan can be installed, so the slab can be kept
clean.
• Users cannot see into the pit, making using the
latrine more pleasant.
• The toilet can be located inside the house.
• Adding a water trap ensures odours produced in the
pit cannot escape into the toilet cubicle so there is no
problem with smell – the gases seep into the
surrounding soil.
• Flies and mosquitoes cannot get into or out of the
pit.
• Controlling smells and flies means that light and
ventilation does not have to be as carefully managed as
it does for VIP latrines, so the cubicles of pour-flush
latrines can be well lit.
• Double pit can be installed which facilitate the
Figure 13: Example of pour-flush latrine and double-pit
maintenance without disrupting the normal
layout (Source: Reed and Shaw, 2014).
functioning of the latrine.

4.5. LATRINES FOR SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES

Rocky soils: When is not possible to dig a pit or high-water table or there is only a thin layer of soil covering the
rocky ground, it will not be possible to dig a conventional pit. The volume of the pit can be increased by extending
the pit walls above the ground. The same solution can be used where the groundwater is very close to the
surface. However, care must be taken when designing the pit lining as very wet soils are much weaker than dry
ones.

Main Features:

• If it is possible for the pit to extend some depth below

Figure 14: Example of an elevated pit latrine (Source:
Reed and Shaw, 2014).
the ground, then the lining above ground should be
sealed so that all percolation takes place below ground-
level.
• If most of the pit must be constructed above ground,
then it is better to surround the pit lining with a soil
mound. Part of the lining can then be left porous so that
liquids can percolate into the mound.
• Planting small shrubs on the mound will encourage
the removal of the liquids from the mound by
evapotranspiration of the liquids.
• There is no maximum height for a raised latrine.
• Access steps, a wheelchair ramp and a handrail must
be provided to accommodate disabled users.

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Elevated houses: In societies where families live in houses built on stilts it is often necessary to construct the
latrine superstructure at the same level as the floor of the living area. This is especially true if the area below the
house floods.

There are two options:

• The pit can be connected to the superstructure by

a solid, watertight cylinder. The cylinder will both
carry the weight of the superstructure and store the
excreta.
• Only a shallow pit is required for this design as
most of the waste is contained in the raised cylinder,
but strong foundations are necessary. (See figure 15).

Figure 15: Example of elevated superstructure and pit

latrine (Source: Reed and Shaw, 2014).

Cold climates: General construction techniques in cold climates can vary significantly from those used in warmer
climates.

Figure 16: Some particularities for latrines in cold places
(Source: Reed and Shaw, 2014).
Main features:
• If concrete is not properly cured at rates suited
to cold regions, then it can be structurally weak and
liable to collapse.
• Soil that is hard and structurally sound when
cold may go soft as it warms up, causing a collapse
of latrine pits excavated when the ground was
firmer.
• If a latrine pit is dug in the frozen ground that is
likely to melt, steps should be taken to prevent the
latrine slab from falling in.
• Extra support can be provided for latrine slabs
by embedding two parallel sections of iron pipe,
planks or poles into the surrounding soil, making
sure they protrude at least 1m on either side of the
hole.
• Ensure the pit is properly lined and the slab fits
on top of the lining.
• In very cold climates construction work stops
during the coldest months.

4.6. DOUBLE-VAULT URINE-DIVERTING LATRINE

In this latrine, the deposited faecal matter is dried by exposure to heat or the sun and the addition of wood ash,
carbon, sawdust or earth, which controls the moisture content. The latrine contents are then isolated from
human contact for a specified period to reduce the presence of pathogens and make the waste safe for handling.
This period should be at least ten months and some practitioners recommend longer periods of up to two years.
The longer the waste is stored the more pathogens will be destroyed. The waste may then be reused as fertiliser
or as fuel.

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 Main features:

• Can be constructed above or below ground, but the above

ground can be emptied more easily and there is less risk of
groundwater contamination.
• Users must be made aware of the importance of separation and
the addition of ash after defecation. Such a system requires no
water and can be adopted where infiltration techniques are
impossible and maybe a viable longer-term option.
Advantages:
• Reduce odour; ideal where population normally uses Eco-San
latrines and agricultural activities occur.

Constrains:
Figure 17: Example of double-vault urine-
• More difficult to construct than simple pit latrines; high level of
diverting latrine suitable for an urban
user awareness and maintenance required; complex to operate.
setting (Source: Tilley et al., 2014).
• Are unlikely to work where water is used for anal cleansing.

4.7. AQUA PRIVIES

Using water to flush faeces away from a toilet ensures that the waste is separated from the user, helping to
control smells and flies. It allows the toilet facilities to be located inside the home, for the convenience and
security of the user, especially women and elderly people. However, the water used for flushing (black water)
needs to be treated and if public sewers are not nearby, a septic tank provides a simple but effective method
for removing the worst of the contaminants.

Although an aqua privy is very similar to a septic tank, the latrine is located directly over the tank, which means
less water is needed for flushing. It also reduces construction costs, as the area of land required is smaller too
and sub-surface drainage for soaking away the effluent is reduced. As drop-pipes are used from the toilets
directly into the pits, blockages are less likely and solid anal cleansing material may be used. An aqua privy is,
therefore, an ideal solution where pit latrines are considered unacceptable, but the volumes of sullage are small.

Figure 18: Example of 'Aqua Prive' (Source:
Reed and Shaw, 2014).
Main features:
• Odours and flies from the tank may be excluded from the
superstructure by fitting a water seal pan or extending the drop
pipe 75mm below the water surface.
• The tank must be watertight to maintain a constant level.
• If sullage from laundries, kitchens and bathing areas are also
being disposed of, should be upstream of the toilet, as the
additional water will help keep the pipes clear of blockages.
• The tank needs to be able to drain to a sewer or soakaway,
so there needs to be an adequate slope.
• The site for the tank should not be waterlogged or prone to
flooding. Surface water drains must not be connected to the
septic tank.
Advantages:
• These latrines are easy to clean.
• It is more efficient to empty one big tank than individual
pour-flush latrines.
• Are cheaper and requires less maintenance than septic tank
systems.
Disadvantages:
• Are relatively expensive and difficult to construct.
• Need a reliable water supply.
• The latrine may not be as easy to construct inside a house.
• The tank must have an external access and vehicular access.

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 4.8. LATRINES IN EMERGENCY SITUATIONS
Deep trench latrines are often constructed in the immediate stage of an emergency and will be appropriate if
there are sufficient tools, materials and human resources available. These involve the siting of several cubicles
above a single trench which is used to collect the excreta. However, care should be taken not to provide too
many latrines side by side. The recommended maximum length of trench is 6m, providing six cubicles.

Figure 19: Example of deep trench latrines build in
urban setting (Source: Harvey, 2007).
Main features:
• Trenches should be 0.8-0.9m wide and at least the top
0.5m of the pit should be lined to ensure that the trench
remains stable.
• If prefabricated slabs are not available, then wooden
planks can be secured across the trench.
• Superstructure can be made from local materials, such
as grass matting, cloth or wood.
• Some agencies have rapid-response kits for slabs and
superstructures which can be used where there are few
resources locally.
Advantages:
• Cheap; quick to construct; no water needed for
operation; easily understood.
Constrains:
• Unsuitable where water-table is high, soil is too
unstable to dig, or ground is very rocky; often odour
problems; cleaning and maintenance of communal trench
latrines are often poorly carried out by users.

4.9. LATRINES FOR URBAN SETTINGS

In sites with existing sewerage systems, it is logical to make use of this system by constructing toilet blocks
directly over or slightly offset from sewers. Checks should be made to ensure that the system is functioning
properly and is able to cope with the increased load.

Main features:

• Is relatively quick to implement.

• Expansion possibilities may be limited.
• May cause problems due to overloading of system or after
population has moved on.
• An adequate water supply is required for flushing, 20-40
litres per user per day.
• In cold weather, freezing may cause blockages.

Figure 20: Temporary toilet block built over existing

sewer (Source: Harvey, Baghri & Reed, 2002).

4.10. COMMUNAL TOILET BLOCK

A communal toilet block is a shared facility provided for a group of residents or an entire settlement. Pour flush
technology is generally used in toilet blocks. Washing facilities and separate urinal units (for male) are sometimes
included in the block. Toilets blocks either discharge to a sewer or into a septic tank, potentially with additional
on-site treatment depending on the discharge or reuse requirements.

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 There are two situations where a
communal toilet block is appropriate:

• Communal toilet blocks are used

primarily in low-income informal and
illegal settlements where house
connections are too expensive or non-
suitable due to a lack of space and/or land
tenure problems.
• Public toilet blocks are provided for
occasional use by the general public in
places such as markets, schools, health
centres, train stations or other public
areas where there is a considerable
Figure 21: Example of latrine block for school (Source: Reed & Shaw,
2008).
number of people passing by.

5. CONSTRUCTION
5.1. INTRODUCTION
The design of the superstructure and the materials employed normally depend upon the style and construction
methods of other buildings in the area.

It is usual that people will build their latrine out of the same materials as their dwelling, although perhaps to a
slightly lower standard.

Due to cost implications, it is generally better to use designs and materials which local artisans can implement
and maintain. The use of local labour will also help communities to stay involved with and retain interest in their
new sanitation system.

Many different types of materials can be used and the most common of these are described below.

5.2. MATERIALS
The single most important factor in the selection of construction materials and tools is local availability. It is
inefficient and inappropriate to import expensive materials if suitable materials are available locally. Possible
construction materials include:

Thatch Bamboo Mud and wattle Sun-dried bricks Fired bricks

Timber Bamboo Stones Sawn timber

Figure 22: Superstructure might take different shapes depending on design and materials used (Source: Reed & Shaw, 2014)

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Mud and wattle

In many parts of the world housing is made of a lattice of wooden strips (wattle) onto which mud is pressed
which produces a simple but effective wall. Mud and wattle may be improved by nailing bamboo strips to
straight upright poles and filling the gaps with small stones before plastering. Workers should ensure that these
walls are strong enough to carry the weight of the roof.

Bamboo

Shelters can be made from larger diameter bamboo poles forming the mainframe with smaller bamboos nailed
or strapped to them to form the walls. Alternatively, palm leaves or bamboo matting can be used to fill in the
walls of the bamboo frame. These materials, however, have a short life so must be regularly replaced.

Sawn timber

Sawn timber may be an expensive and rare commodity in low-income areas, but if offcuts are available from a
sawmill, these can be used to clad a simple timber-framed structure.

Heavy walls can place undue pressure on the foundations, causing the pit to collapse

Fired and sun-dried bricks

Fired bricks make excellent material for latrine construction. As an alternative, sun-dried bricks can be made
from a mixture of well-puddled and tempered clay. Moulded in simple wooden frames, they are allowed to dry
slowly, out of direct sunlight.

Machine-pressed blocks

A portable steel press is used to compact prepared soils to produce blocks of a regular size.

Concrete blocks

Concrete blocks can either be made by hand on site or purchased from a local manufacturer. Blocks are usually
150mm thick but to reduce costs, narrower blocks can be used. Greater skills are required to build with narrow
blocks, however.

Stone

It is possible to construct latrines using stones, but this traditional building technique should be avoided where
the superstructure sits directly over the pit. This is because the weight of the walls requires a strong pit lining
for support. For off-set pits, stone superstructures are quite acceptable.

Ferrocement

A strong cement mortar pressed into layers of wire mesh forms a strong, reasonably stiff membrane known as
ferrocement. This material has been used successfully for spiral superstructures.

5.3. ROOFS AND SCREENS

The superstructure does not necessarily have to have a roof, although there are obvious advantages in providing
protection from both the rain and the sun.

However, in some cultures, people have become used to defecating in open spaces and find it objectionable to
have to go into a small building. If funds are limited, the overall cost of the latrine will be considerably reduced
by erecting a simple fence made out of the cheapest locally available materials. It should be noted, of course,
that ventilated improved pit latrines need to have a roof so that the superstructure can be kept dark.

Materials such as thatch, palm leaves, clay tiles, fibre-cement tiles, wood shingles, corrugated iron, corrugated
aluminium, ferrocement and precast concrete can all be used for roofing the latrine superstructure. An

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important point to note is that the roof must be secured tightly into the wall structure and the walls must be
strong enough to resist the uplift of high winds. Some materials, for example galvanised corrugated iron, can
greatly increase temperatures inside the latrine, which may make it less pleasant to use.

5.4. LINING
The top 0.5 to 1.0 metre of a pit should always be lined but the
decision as to whether to line the rest of the pit will depend on the
type of soil in which the pit is dug and whether the pit is likely to be
emptied.

Pits dug in soils that are likely to collapse will need to be lined, but
how do you decide whether the soil is stable or not? This is not an
easy decision to make. The simplest method is to examine other
excavations in the area, such as those for hand-dug wells. It is
reasonable to assume that if existing excavations have not collapsed
and are not lined then pit latrine excavations will not collapse
neither.

There is even more uncertainty if the soil is subject to periodic

wetting and drying, for example, when the water table rises and falls
at different times of the year.

In fact the process of excavating a pit is similar to the process of Figure 23:Details of the construction of a pit
digging a well: If in doubt, line the whole pit. lining (Source: Reed and Shaw, 2014).

In the absence of any other information the suggestions given the following table may help.

Soil types that require lining
Soft sands and gravels
Unconsolidated soils (loose)
Filled land
Compressed mudstones and
shales
Soil types that do not require lining
Soils with a significant clay content.
The characteristics of the soil when it is
excavated may change as the soil dries out.
Most consolidated sedimentary rocks
(strongly bonded)
Soils with a high proportion of iron oxides
(laterites)

Lining material: The pit can be lined using any material that is strong enough to prevent the walls of the pit from
collapse, can support the weight of the structure above and is durable enough to ensure that it will last for as
long as the pit will be in use. Common lining materials include:

• Local stone, burnt bricks, concrete blocks, soil/cement blocks.

• Termite resistant timber, Bamboo and cane should only be used if a pit is intended to have a very
short life (less than 2 years).

Jointing: No matter what type of lining is used, the top 0.5m of the pit should be fully sealed – all the joints in
the lining must be mortared to make a continuous ring of support (see Figure 23).

5.5. WORK NORM FOR LATRINE CONSTRUCTION

Pit Excavation:

• 1 m3/Person x Day up to 1 metre depth.

• 0.5 m3/Person x Day thereafter.

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Lining the pit:

• 1 bricklayer
• 1 assistant

Slab construction:

• 1 bricklayer
• 1 assistant

Superstructure construction:

• Depends on design and materials. The following Bill of Quantities for materials and labour,
corresponding to a single-pit, pour-flush toilet (see Figure 24 and Chapter 3.4), is shown below as
example:

SN Item Unit Quantity

A Materials
1 Concrete ring (0,8m d x Ea. 3
0.4m)
2 Ring cover Ea. 1
3 Cement Bag (50Kg) 2
4 Sand Cement 10
bag
5 Gravel Cement 3
bag
6 Brick Ea. 280
7 Pan with siphon Set 1
8 HDPE pipe 4” m 1
B Human resources
1 Skilled mason Person- 2
days Figure 24: View of a pour-flush single-pit latrine,
2 Unskilled labour Person- 3 built with bricks (Source: SNV, 2017)
days

Tools:

Shovels Trowel

Picks Hand float

Spade PPE - Boots

Buckets PPE - Helmet

Mug PPE -Googles

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 Cement pan PPE - Gloves

Cord/ Spirit level PPE - Masks

Fine sieve PPE – Chemical

masks (for latrine
emptying)

Wheelbarrow PPE – Overall (for

latrine emptying)

Shears

Measuring tape

6. MAINTENANCE
6.1. INTRODUCTION
The most important maintenance issue for a latrine is to keep it clean, which means, of course, ensuring that
regular cleaning takes place. More cleaning systems break down because of inadequate maintenance than for
any other reason8. Generally, all that is required for cleaning is water and a brush. A small amount of disinfectant
or detergent can be added to the water.

The cleaning and maintenance of excreta disposal facilities, especially communal latrines, is often the single
biggest challenge faced in promoting their use. If latrines are not clean, people will not use them. Latrines should
be cleaned daily and, perhaps more crucially, to prevent unsanitary conditions and odour which may deter
people from using them.

Individual families should be responsible for their own units but, where there are communal facilities, special
arrangements must be made to keep them clean. Members of the community can usually be effectively
employed through paid work or other incentives to undertake these tasks with proper supervision, equipment
and training. Education should also be provided to the wider community to ensure that people are aware of the
importance of using sanitation facilities and the uptake of corresponding hygiene practices, such handwashing.

6.2. GUIDELINES
Some key issues to consider when implementing latrines-cleaning programmes are presented below:

1 Where latrines belong to individual families, or are shared by two to four families, it is generally easy
to encourage them to clean and maintain their own latrines.
2 Where communal facilities are in place (i.e. shared by more than four families), it is almost always
necessary to employ some members of the community to clean and maintain latrines. This provides
employment and helps to avoid conflict between community members. This approach will only work

8 Sohail, M., Cavill, S. and Cotton, A.P., 2001. Operation, Maintenance and Sustainability of Services for the Urban Poor:
Findings, lessons learned and case studies summary and analysis. WEDC, Loughborough University, UK.

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 safely and effectively if the cleaners are provided with protective clothing (such as boots, gloves and
overalls) and cleaning equipment and materials.
3 Coordination with other agencies working in the same area is important to ensure that a consistent
approach is adopted. If people in one location are paid for maintenance and people in another location
are expected to perform the same tasks on a purely voluntary basis this is likely to create unrest.
4 For large sites, such as large camps, the sheer volume of work required for appropriate maintenance
is huge. This makes the scale of supervision difficult and it is important that community members are
empowered to manage this wherever possible.
5 The quantity of equipment required for cleaning (disinfectants, mops, rags, etc.) may also be
considerable and an appropriate distribution system must be developed. This is commonly
implemented in conjunction with a hygiene promotion programme.
6 The task of latrine cleaning can be made less onerous if users are taught to use the latrines properly,
especially is we are introducing a new technology. It may happen that people have never used a formal
toilet and therefore have no idea how to use one. Tuition in a sensitive manner can save a lot of
embarrassment and prevent fouled latrines later.
7 The issue of dealing with girls’ menstrual periods is extremely sensitive but a very important one when
considering latrine maintenance (see 2.3. Design Criteria: Menstrual Hygiene Management, p. 5).
8 In a society where it is customary to use absorbent material for anal cleansing, it is important that
appropriate materials are provided and are readily available to the users in the latrine cubicle.
9 It is important to maintain a regular supply of water and soap for handwashing. Many communities
do not have a piped water supply and any handwashing facility will need refilling regularly. The easiest
way of making sure this happens is to combine the tasks of filling the handwashing container and
replenishing soap with the task of cleaning the latrine.
10 The latrine structure must be checked regularly, and defects or breakages repaired. Regular
maintenance will, in the long run, be cheaper than upgrading a latrine that has been left unattended 9.
11 Regular painting improves the appearance of the latrines and helps to encourage their use.

6.3. WASTE MANAGEMENT

Figure 25: Vacuum tanker during empty operation (Source: Harvey,
Baghri & Reed, 2002)
is best undertaken by skilled contractors.
All latrines except those connected to a
sewerage system will eventually need
emptying. Avoid emptying the contents of a
latrine for at least six months after the latrine
was last used. Fresh excreta may contain
diseases that can be harmful to the persons
emptying the pit. Some harmful organisms can
live for many more months. When there are
numerous latrine blocks, they can be taken out
of use in succession so that only one is out of
use at any one time. In most cases, the contents
can be dug out and buried.
The process has many potential dangers and so

The easiest and most hygienic method for emptying latrines is to use a vacuum tanker which is a truck fitted
with a mechanical pump (Figure 25). After pumping out the contents of the pit, the tanker can be driven to a
safe disposal site, such as an off-site underground pit or sewage treatment works, where the content can be
emptied.

9 REED, R. and SHAW, R.J., 2008.

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7. BIOGAS SYSTEM
This system is based on the use of a biogas digester to collect, store and treat the excreta. Additionally, the
biogas digester produces Biogas which can be burned for cooking, lighting or electricity generation. Inputs to
the system can include urine, faeces, flush water, anal cleansing water, dry cleansing materials, organics (e.g.,
market or kitchen waste) and, if available, animal waste.

This system supports two different latrine types: Pour Flush Toilet (Chapter 3.4.) or, if there is a demand for the
urine to be used in agriculture, double-vault urine-diverting latrine (Chapter 6.6.).

For further information on how to adapt the production of biogas with latrine construction in schools, see the
following links:

• Technical Guidance: Using Biogas to Enhance School Sanitation and Improve Energy Security
[https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000105262/download/] (Figure 26).
• InfoTech 35: Biogas System (BS) [https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000112646/download/]
(Figure 27).
• InfoBit 64 (21.05.2019) [https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-0000105354/download/] (Figure
28).
• Brochure ‘Energizing School Meals’ (July.2018) [https://docs.wfp.org/api/documents/WFP-
0000073428/download/] (Figure 29).

Figure 26: Technical Guidance (Source: WFP PRO-R). Figure 27: InfoTech No. 35 (Source: WFP PRO-R).

(Version 1.1 / 29.06.2020) P a g e 19 | 21

 Figure 28: InfoBit No. 64 (Source: WFP PRO-R). Figure 29: Brochure ‘Energizing School Meals’ (Source:
WFP PRO-C).

8. REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. DDWS, 2004. School and Anganwadi Toilet Designs: Norms and Options. Department of Drinking Water
Supply, Ministry of Rural development, Government of India. [Available on: https://www.ircwash
.org/resources/school-and-anganwadi-toilet-design-norms-and-options (Last view in 16.05.2020)].
2. ELRHA, 2019. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Innovation Catalogue: A Collection of Innovations for the
Humanitarian Sector. Elrha: London [Available on: https://www.elrha.org/wp-content/uploads/2019
/01/HIF-WASH-innovation-catalogue-WEB_9.5MB.pdf (Last view in 25.05.2020)].
3. GUTTERED, B., SASSE, L., PANZERBIETER, T. and RECKERZÜGEL, T., (2009). Decentralised Wastewater
Treatment Systems (DEWATS) and Sanitation in Developing Countries. A Practical Guide. Water,
Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, UK. [Available on: https://wedc-
knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/books/DEWATS_-_Chapter_01.pdf (Last view in 16.05.2020)]
4. LSHTM/ WEDC, 1998. Guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes. London School of
Hygiene & Tropical Medicine (LSHTM) and the Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC),
Loughborough University, UK. [Available on: https://www.rural-water-supply.net/en/resources/details
/491 (Last view in 27.05.2020)].
5. HARVEY, P.A., 2007. Excreta Disposal in Emergencies: A field manual. Water Engineering and Development
Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, UK. [Available on: https://www.unicef.org/cholera/Chapter_9
_community/19_Interagency-Excreta_disposal_in_emergencies.pdf (Last view in 29.05.2020)].
6. HARVEY, P.A., BAGHRI, S. and REED, R.A., 2002. Emergency Sanitation: Assessment and programme design.
Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, UK [Available on:
https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/Emergency_sanitation_assessment_and_programme_design/9585
065 (Last view in 25.05.2020)].
7. PATH, 2005. Managing Health Care Waste Disposal: Guidelines on How to Construct, Use, and Maintain a
Waste Disposal Unit. [Available on: https://www.path.org/resources/managing-health-care-waste-

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 disposal-guidelines-on-how-to-construct-use-and-maintain-a-waste-disposal-unit/ (Last view in
01.06.2020)].
8. REED, R., 2014. Latrine pit design. Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough
University, UK. [Available on: https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/booklets/G023-Latrine-pit-
design-on-line.pdf (Last view in 20.05.2020)].
9. REED, R. and SHAW, R.J., 2008. Sanitation for primary Schools in Africa. Water Engineering and
Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University, UK [Available on: https://wedc-knowledge.lboro
.ac.uk/resources/books/Sanitation_for_Primary_Schools_in_Africa_-_Complete.pdf (Last view in
20.05.2020)].
10. REED, R. and SHAW, R.J., 2014. Sanitation Guides. Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC),
Loughborough University, UK.
11. ROTTIER, E. and INCE, M.E., 2003. Controlling and Preventing Disease: The role of water and environmental
sanitation interventions. Water Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University,
UK. [Available on: https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/Controlling_and_preventing_disease_The_role_
of_water_and_environmental_sanitation_interventions/9585086 (Last view in 16.05.2020)].
12. SPHERE ASSOCIATION, 2018. The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in
Humanitarian Response (4th edition). Geneva, Switzerland. [Available on: www.spherestandards.org/hand
book (Last view in 21.05.2020)].
13. SNV, 2017. Toilet Construction Handbook for Masons. SNV Netherlands Development Organisation, The
Hague, The Netherlands. [Available on: https://snv.org/cms/sites/default/files/explore/download/hand
book-toilet-construction-for-masons_0.pdf (Last view in 11.06.2020)].
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Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Department Water and Sanitation in Developing
Countries (Sandec), Dübendorf, Switzerland. [Available on: https://www.iwa-network.org/wp-content/
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15. WADDINGTON, H. and SNILSTVEIT, B., 2009. Effectiveness and sustainability of water, sanitation, and
hygiene interventions in combating diarrhoea. Journal of Development Effectiveness, Vol. 1, No. 3, p 295
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21.05.2020)].

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