According to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, it is impossible that both the energy and

position of an electron can be known at the same time. Thus, as we know more about the electron’s
energy, we know less about its position, and vice versa.

Figure 1. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:

The observation of an electron with a
microscope requires reflection of a photon off of
the electron. This reflected photon causes a
change in the path of the electron.
Bohr’s model of the hydrogen atom suggests
that the electron orbits the nucleus like our solar
system (e.g. the planets around the sun).
However, the quantum mechanical description of
the hydrogen atom has proven that the Bohr’s
model of electrons is incorrect.
The quantum mechanical description of
the hydrogen atom states that we don’t
know exactly where the electron is, but with
high probability, we can conclude that the
electron is most likely to be found in an
orbital.
 All electrons have four quantum numbers which describe the location of
electrons in the electron cloud of an atom and can be used to determine the
electron configuration of an atom. According to the Pauli Exclusion Principle,
each electron in an atom has an exclusive set of quantum numbers and no
two electrons can have the same combination of four quantum numbers.
 1.Principal Quantum Number
The principal quantum number, n, describes
the energy of an electron. It refers to the energy
level and the size of the orbital an electron is
likely to be found. The value of n starts from 1 to
the shell containing the outermost electron of that
atom. The larger the value of n, the greater is the
energy and the larger is the orbital. The group of
orbitals with the same value of n is called an
electron shell.

➢ All the orbitals that have n = 2, for example,

are said to be in the second shell.

Carbon is in the second period of the

periodic table, so, its outermost electron is in the
shell with an energy level 2. Therefore, an electron
in Carbon can have an n value from 1 to 2.
 2. Angular/Azimuthal Quantum Number
In chemistry, the angular
quantum number, ℓ , defines the
shape of an atomic orbital. It
also strongly influences bond
angles and chemical bonds. It is
defined in chemistry that if ℓ = 0, it
is called an s orbital, ℓ = 1 is a p
orbital, ℓ = 2 a d orbital, and ℓ = 3
an f orbital. ℓ=n-1
The first p orbital (ℓ = 1) is in the
second electron shell (n = 2), the
first d orbital (ℓ = 2) is in the third
shell (n = 3), and so on. The set
of orbitals that have the same n
and l values is called a subshell.
3. MAGNETIC Quantum Number
The magnetic quantum number (mℓ)
describes the orientation of the orbital
in space and can have integral values
between - ℓ and ℓ, including zero.
Within a subshell, the value of mℓ
depends on the value of angular
p orbital ℓ=1
momentum (ℓ). For certain value of ℓ ,
there are (2ℓ + 1) integral values of mℓ. 𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0, 1

Shell and Subshell?

A collection of orbitals with the same value of n.
One or more orbitals with the same n and l values
are referred to as subshell.
For example, the Shell with n=2 is composed of two
subshells, ℓ= 0 and 1. These subshells are called 2s
and 2p subshells, where 2 denotes the value of n,
and s and p denote the values of ℓ.
3. MAGNETIC Quantum Number

For example,
let us consider a situation in which
n = 2 and ℓ = 1.
If ℓ = 1, then there are, ml = (2ℓ + 1)
= [(2 x 1) + 1], or three values of p orbital ℓ=1
ml, namely, -1, 0, and 1. 𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0, 1

The values of n and l indicate that we have

a 2p subshell, and in this subshell, we
have three 2p orbitals (because there are
three values of ml, given by -1, 0, and 1).
4. SPIN Quantum Number
Individual electrons within an orbital
has a property represented by the
spin quantum number. Each orbital
may hold up to two electrons with
opposite spin directions. Electrons are
not really spinning in a physical sense,
this is just a representation of the idea
that there are two possible values for
the spin quantum number. When an
electron is assigned to spin up, it is
represented by an upward arrow and
a value of +1/2. If an electron is
spinning down, it is represented by a
downward arrow and a value of -1/2.
 n value/s ℓ value/s 𝒎𝒍 value/s

1. List the values of n, ℓ, and m/ for orbitals

in the 4d subshell. n value/s ℓ value/s 𝒎𝒍 value/s
4 2 -2,-1, 0,1, 2

n=2 ℓ =1 ml= -1 ms= +1/2

2. Can an e- be described by the following
set of quantum numbers? If not, indicate
which of the quantum numbers has a value
that is not valid:
n=2 (tells us that the electron is located in the 2nd shell)
ℓ =1 (tells us that it is located in the p-orbital)
ml= -1 (correct, since ℓ =1 then ml= -1, 0, 1)
ms= +1/2 (every electron always start with an upward
spin/arrow)

n value/s ℓ value/s 𝒎𝒍 value/s Orbital

3. Write which orbital goes with the 2 1 -1 2p
quantum numbers. If the quantum 1 0 0 1s
numbers are not allowed, write “not 5 2 2 5d
allowed.”
4 -1 2 Not allowed
answers
Electron configuration is the arrangement of electrons within the orbitals of an atom to
know more about an atom’s electronic property. The ground-state electron configuration is the
most stable arrangement of electrons of an atom. All the electrons in an atom reside in the lowest
energy orbitals possible in this arrangement. Since each orbital can accommodate a maximum
of two electrons, using the periodic table, we can predict the electron configuration of all
elements.
Valence electrons are the outermost electrons of an atom. They are the highest
energy electrons in an atom and are the most reactive. Valence electrons can be
gained, lost, or shared to form chemical bonds unlike the inner electrons which do not
participate in reactions. The number of valence electrons of each element is equal
to its group number on the Periodic Table. Elements with the same number of
valence electrons tend to have similar chemical properties.

Valence electrons
THE AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
The electrons in an atom fill up its atomic
orbitals according to the Aufbau Principle;
"Aufbau," in German, means "building
up." According to this principle, electrons
are filled in the following order: 1s, 2s, 2p,
3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d,
6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p…

There are some exceptions to the Aufbau Principle.

This occurs mainly with electrons in the d orbital where
extra stability is obtained from a half filled or fully
filled d orbital. Therefore, if there are 4 electrons, or 9
electrons in the d orbital, it will move one electron from the
s orbital below it to fill the extra space (GROUND STATE
ELECTRON CONFIGURATION)
HUND’S RULE
Hund’s rule states that before additional electrons with opposite spins can occupy
the same orbitals, single electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-energy
orbital first. This is like the seats on a bus – on a bus, you sit alone, rather than with a stranger, if
you have the option.

Which electronic configuration is a violation of the

Hund’s Rule?
 PAULI EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
No two electrons can have the same combination of four quantum
numbers. Electrons in the same orbital have the same first three quantum numbers,
(e.g., 𝑛 = 1, 𝑙 = 0, 𝑚𝑙 = 0) for the 1𝑠 subshell. Only two electrons can have these
numbers, so that their spin moments must be either 𝑚𝑠 = + 1Τ2 or 𝑚𝑠 = − 1Τ2 . A maximum
of two electrons may occupy a single orbital, but only if the electrons have
opposite spins.
The 𝟏𝒔 and 𝟐𝒔 subshells for
beryllium atoms can hold only
two electrons and when filled,
the electrons must have
opposite spins. Otherwise, they
will have the same four
quantum numbers, in violation
of the Pauli Exclusion Principle.
 Table 1. Electron configurations of some lighter elements
It is apparent in table 1 above that the sum of
superscripts of the ℓ values in the electron
configuration of an element equals to the total
number of electrons of the element. This is one
way of checking whether the electron
configuration is incorrect or correct.
𝑚𝑙 = 0
𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0, 1
𝑚𝑙 = −2, −1, 0, 1, 2
𝑚𝑙 = −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3
The superscripts represent the total number
of electrons residing in the said orbital. There
is only one s orbital since the value of ml is only equal
to zero. There are three 2p orbitals since the values of
ml are equal to -1,0 and +1. It is also being indicated
in the table that orbitals of the same n values have the
same energy and that filling of orbitals should be
according to the Aufbau’s principle, Hund’s rule and
Pauli’s exclusion principle. Note that p orbitals have
higher energy compared to s orbitals.
 The behaviour of an atom in relation to magnetic fields is influenced by its electron
configuration. This behaviour is also called as the magnetic property of an atom and is
dependent on the number of electrons an atom has that are spin paired.
Atoms that do not have all their An atom with electrons that will be
electrons spin-paired and are affected very slightly affected by magnetic
by magnetic fields are called fields is called diamagnetic. The orbitals of
paramagnetic. Lithium and sodium are this atom are all filled and therefore all its
examples of paramagnetic atoms. electrons are paired with an electron
of opposite spin.
 REVIEW
(1) of the hydrogen atom suggests that the electron
orbits the nucleus like our solar system. A. Hund’s rule
B. angular quantum number (ℓ)
The (2) describes the energy of an electron.
C. − ℓ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ℓ
The (3) describes the orientation of the orbital in D. Bohr’s model
space and can have integral values between (4)__.
E. Paramagnetic
The (5) defines the shape of an atomic orbital. F. principal quantum number (n)

(6) states that before additional electrons with G. − ℓ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 ℓ, 𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒍𝒖𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐
opposite spins can occupy the same orbitals, single H. Diamagnetic
electrons with the same spin must occupy each equal-
energy orbital first. I. magnetic quantum number
(ml)
Atoms that do not have all their electrons spin-paired and J. Spin quantum number
are affected by magnetic fields are called __(7)___.
 PRE-TEST
1. The complete transfer of one or more electrons between atoms
constitutes in forming ___________.
A. ionic bond B. covalent bond
C. coordinate covalent bond D. dative bond

Atoms bond to other atoms to obtain a/an _______________ electron configuration.

A. alkali metal B. halogen C. noble gas D. chalcogen

3. It is a measure of how equally the electrons in a bond are distributed between the
two atoms involved in a covalent bond.
A. polarity B. octet rule
C. ionization energy D. electron affinity
Atoms usually interact with other
atoms or group of atoms. They
might be connected by strong bonds
and formed into molecules or
crystals, or they might also form
temporary, weak bonds with other
atoms. These bonds hold molecules
together and are essential to the
chemistry of our bodies and to the
existence of life itself.

Figure 1. In molecular models, single bonds are

represented by solid lines, while double bonds are
represented by two lines between atoms.
 WHY DO ATOMS BOND AT ALL?
The answer is that atoms are trying to
reach the most stable or lowest-
energy state that they can. Usually,
atoms become more stable when their
orbital of the outermost energy level
or valence shell is filled with electrons,
satisfying the octet rule. Figure 2. Energy diagram of bonded vs nonbonded atoms

If atoms don’t have this arrangement,

they reach it by gaining, losing, or
sharing electrons via chemical bonds.

In chemical bonding, only valence

electrons, electrons located in valence
shell of the element, are involved. Figure 3. Covalent Bond vs. Ionic Bond
 IONIC BOND
An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side (Group 1(A) and Group 2(A)
of the periodic table and nonmetals on the right side (except noble gases, group 8A)
interact. This type of interaction is observed between atoms with large differences in
their tendencies to lose or gain electrons and is achieved via electron transfer.
Once the electrons have been
transferred to the non-metal,
both the metal and the nonmetal
become ions. The metal
becomes positively charged
and the nonmetal becomes
negatively charged.

Ionic compounds tend to have

higher melting and boiling
points. They are hard and brittle
and conduct electricity when
dissolved in water.
An ionic compound is formed when the two oppositely
charged ions attract each other. For instance, positively
charged sodium ions and negatively charged chloride
ions attract each other to make sodium chloride, or
table salt.
 COVALENT BOND
Covalent bonds are formed when atoms reach stability by sharing electrons
(rather than fully gaining or losing them). Covalent bonds are more common than
ionic bonds in the molecules of living organisms. These bonds mostly occur
between nonmetals or between two of the same (or similar) elements.

One, two, or three pairs of

electrons may be shared
between atoms, resulting in
single, double, or triple bonds,
respectively. The more electrons
that are shared between two
atoms, the shorter and stronger
their bond will be.
Compounds formed through covalent bonding are brittle solid, have relatively low
melting and boiling points, and are poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Several covalent compounds have high vapor pressure, which makes them volatile
and good as fuels.

METHANE

PROPANE
When atoms of different
elements share electrons, the
shared electrons tend to be
pulled closer to one element
than the other (because of
electronegativity).
➢ This is called a polar covalent
bond and results in partial charges
on the atoms

When two atoms of the same

element share electrons, they are
shared equally.
➢ This is called a nonpolar covalent
bond and results in partial charges
on the atoms
 POLAR NONPOLAR
Between two nonmetals with Between two nonmetals of
Types of atoms
different electronegativities same electronegativities
Electronegativity
difference
0.1-2 0
Asymmetrical. Unequal sharing. Symmetrical. Equal sharing.
Electron Distribution

Towards the more No displacement.

Displacement of electronegative atom, making Electrically neutral.
shared electrons
that part negative

Dipole moment Non-zero Zero

Affinity towards water Hydrophilic Hydrophobic

Physical Properties of High melting and boiling points Low melting and boiling
the compounds points
Volatility of Liquids Low volatility High volatility

Solubility of Soluble in polar solvents Soluble in non-polar

compounds solvents
Water (𝐻2 𝑂), Ammonia (𝑁𝐻3 ), Hydrogen (𝐻2 ), Oxygen
Examples
Hydrogen Chloride (𝐻𝐶𝑙) (𝑂2 ) and Nitrogen (𝑁2 )
 POLAR COVALENT BOND
1. Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
Hydrogen chloride is a polar covalent compound as
the chlorine (Cl) atom is more electronegative than
the hydrogen (H) atom. So, chlorine carries a partial
negative charge, while hydrogen carries a partial
positive charge.

2. Water (H2O)
Water is a polar solvent. A polar covalent bond is
created when the oxygen (O) atom, being more
electronegative than hydrogen, pulls the shared
electrons towards itself. As a result, the oxygen atom
has a partial negative charge associated with it. The
hydrogens (H), on the other hand, are essentially
protons and have a partial positive charge associated
with them.
 NONPOLAR COVALENT BOND
1. Hydrogen (H2)
Take the example of a hydrogen molecule. Because the
nuclei of each hydrogen (H) atom contains protons, the
electrons in the bond are attracted to the nuclei. However,
because the two atoms involved in a single covalent
bond are both H atoms, each nucleus attracts the electrons
by the same amount. Thus, the electron pair is equally
shared by the two atoms.
 METALLIC BOND
Describes the collective sharing of a sea of valence electrons between several
positively charged metal ions. Metallic bonding is a type of chemical bonding and
is responsible for several characteristic properties of metals such as their shiny
luster, their malleability, and their conductivities for heat and electricity.

The factors that affect the strength of a

metallic bond include:
• Total number of delocalized electrons.
• Magnitude of positive charge held by the metal
cation.
• Ionic radius of the cation
Metallic bonds are not broken when the metal is
heated into the melt state. Instead, these bonds
are weakened, causing the ordered array of
metal ions to lose their definite, rigid structure
and become liquid. However, these bonds are
completely broken when the metal is heated to
its boiling point.
 EXAMPLES OF METALLIC BOND
1. Aluminum (Al)
Aluminum has three valence electrons in the 3s orbital.
When the atoms lose all three electrons, aluminum ions
end up having a positive charge +3. These positively
charged ions repel each other but are held together in the
block by the negative electrons. As a result, by sharing the
electrons, the cations arrange themselves in a steady
pattern. This regular pattern of atoms gives rise to the
crystalline structure of metals. In a crystal lattice, atoms
are tightly packed close to one another to maximize the
bond strength.

2. Sodium (Na)
Sodium has a lone electron in its outermost orbital, i.e.,
the 3s orbital. When sodium atoms arrange together, the
outermost electron of one atom shares space with the
corresponding electron on a neighboring atom. As a
result, a 3s molecular orbital is formed. Each sodium atom
has eight other atoms in its neighbor. The sharing takes
place between a central sodium atom and the 3s orbital of
its neighbors.
 remember
• Atoms form bonds because they are trying to reach the most stable or lowest-
energy state that they can. In chemical bonding, only valence electrons,
electrons located in valence shell of the element, are involved.

• An ionic bond is formed when metals on the left side (Group 1(A) and Group
2(A) of the periodic table and nonmetals on the right side (except noble gases,
group 8A) interact

• Covalent bonds are formed when atoms reach stability by sharing electrons
(rather than fully gaining or losing them).

• Covalent bonds mostly occur between nonmetals or between two of the same (or
similar) elements. One, two, or three pairs of electrons may be shared between
atoms, resulting in single, double, or triple bonds, respectively. The more electrons
that are shared between two atoms, the shorter and stronger their bond will be.
 LEWIS DOT STRUCTURES

Valence electrons of an atom

are better represented with
Lewis dot symbols. Lewis
dot symbol is very useful
when learning about chemical
bonding, and chemical
reactions. It consists of the
symbol of an element and
one dot for each valence
electron in an atom of the
element. Lewis dot symbols of some main block elements
 The group number indicates the number of
valence electrons in the outermost shell.
Specifically, the number in the ones’ place.
However, this is only true for the main group
elements—the elements inhabiting groups 1-
2 and 13-18.

The rule is inapplicable to the transition and

inner transition elements. Most transition
metals have 2 valence electrons and an
electron configuration that is ns^2 (n-1)d, so
those ns^2 electrons are the valence
electrons.
The dots are placed on the four sides of the symbol—top, bottom, left, and right—and
each side can accommodate up to two electrons. The choice on which sides to place
two electrons rather one electron is arbitrary since all four sides are equivalent. It is
recommended that we spread out the dots as much as possible.

Located in Group Located in Group

No. 15 with 5 No. 17 with 7
valence electron. valence electron.

In general, we cannot write simple Lewis dot symbols for the transition metals,
lanthanides, and actinides because they all have incompletely filled inner shells.
For example:
The electrons in the 4𝑠1 3𝑑 5 shells
form the valence electrons as the
five electrons in the 3d shell
participate in chemical bond
formation. Cr = 1 x 6 valence electrons = 6
O = 3 x 6 valence electrons = 18
24 v.e
 The Octet Rule and Bond Formations
The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain, lose or share electrons to
have eight electrons in the valence shell or attain the same number of electrons as
the noble gas nearest to them in the periodic table.
For example:

C = 1 x 4 valence electrons = 4
Cl = 4 x 7 valence electrons = 28
32 v.e Located in Group No.
14 with 4 valence
electron.
Located in Group No.
17 with 7 valence
electron.

Noble gases are known as stable

elements as evidenced by their
general lack of reactivity. All the noble
gases except Helium have eight
valence electrons, that is why many
atoms undergoing reactions end up
with eight valence electrons
 Exception to the Octet Rule
Odd-electron molecules represent the first violation to the octet rule.
Although they are few, some stable compounds have an odd number of
electrons in their valence shells. With an odd number of electrons, at least
one atom in the molecule will have to violate the octet rule.
For example:
Nitrogen Oxygen

n0
N = 1 x 5 valence electrons = 5
O = 1 x 6 valence electrons = 6
11 v.e

Although the O atom has an octet of electrons, the N atom has only seven
electrons in its valence shell. Although NO is a stable compound, it is very
chemically reactive, as are most other odd-electron compounds.
 Exception to the Octet Rule
Electron-deficient molecules or incomplete octet represent the second
exception to the octet rule. These stable compounds have less than eight
electrons around an atom in the molecule. The most common examples are the
covalent compounds of beryllium and boron.
For example:

For example, beryllium can form two
covalent bonds, resulting in only four
electrons in its valence shell:
Be
Located in Group No. 2
with 2 valence electron.

For example:
Boron commonly makes only three
covalent bonds, resulting in only six
valence electrons around the B atom. A
well-known example is BF3:
B
Located in Group No. 13
with 3 valence electron.
 Exception to the Octet Rule
The third exception to the octet rule is found in those compounds with more than eight
electrons assigned to their valence shell. These are called expanded valence shell
molecules. Such compounds are formed only by central atoms in the third row of the
periodic table or beyond that have empty d orbitals in their valence shells that can
participate in covalent bonding.

One such compound is PF5. The only reasonable Lewis electron dot diagram for this
compound has the P atom making five covalent bonds:

𝐏𝐅𝟑
For example:
Phosphorus Fluorine

P
Located in Group No.
F
Located in Group No.
P = 1 x 5 valence electrons = 5
15 with 5 valence
F = 3 x 7 valence electrons = 21
17 with 7 valence
electron. electron. 26 v.e
In covalently bonded atoms, sharing of electrons is being exhibited by all atoms involved to
satisfy the octet rule. For example, two hydrogens share each of their valence electron with each
other to have two electrons in their valence shells through a single bond.

Several atoms form multiple bonds to satisfy the octet. If two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the
covalent bond is called a double bond. This type of bond is much stronger and shorter than single
bonds.

Oxygen Carbon Oxygen

A triple bond arises when two atoms share three pairs of electrons, as in the nitrogen
molecule (N2). This type of bond is much stronger and shorter than single and double
bonds.

For the non-metallic elements, they can accept a complementary number of shared bonds to reach the
octet state. Family 4A can share 4 covalent bonds, whereas Families 5A, 6A, and 7A can share 3, 2,
and 1 covalent bond(s), respectively, to achieve the octet state. Usually, the formula of their product is
equal to the exchange of the individual number of lacking electrons they need to reach octet.
For example:

𝐂𝐂𝐥𝟒
C = 1 x 4 valence electrons = 4
Cl = 4 x 7 valence electrons = 28
32 v.e
 Writing Lewis Structures
Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a
molecule, and the unbonded electrons that may exist in the molecule. A Lewis structure
can be drawn for any covalently-bonded molecule. Lines are drawn between electrons
that are bonded to one another. Excess electrons that are not bonded or lone pairs
are represented as pair of dots and are placed next to the atoms on which they reside.

lone pair

Bonds
(double bond)
 The basic steps are as follows:

1. Write the skeletal structure of the compound, using chemical symbols and placing bonded
atoms next to one another. In general, the least electronegative atom occupies the central
position.

2. Get the total of valence electrons from all atoms, taking into account the
overall charge. Use the periodic table to help you determine the number of valence
electrons in each atom.
• For an polyatomic anions, add one electron to the • For a cation, subtract on electron from the total
total for each negative charge. for each positive charge.
Example: Example:
𝑪𝑶−𝟐
𝟑 𝑵𝑯+
𝟒
➢ We add two electrons because the -2 charge ➢ We subtract one electron because the +1
indicates that there are two more electrons than charge indicates a loss of one elctron from the
are provided by the atoms. group of atoms.
C = 1 x 4 valence electrons = 4 N = 1 x 5 valence electrons = 5
O = 3 x 6 valence electrons = 18 H = 4 x 1 valence electrons = 4
e (we add e when the charge is - ) = 2 e (we subtract e when the charge is +) = -1
24 v.e 8 v.e
S
O
M
E
P
E
O
X
L
A Y
M A
P T
L O
E M
S I
C
O
F I
O
N
S
3.Draw a single covalent bond between the central atom and each of the
surrounding atoms. Complete the octets of the atoms bonded to the central atom.
• Electrons belonging to the central or surrounding atoms must be shown as lone pairs if they are not involved in
bonding.

4. After completing steps 1–3, if the central

atom has fewer than eight electrons, try
adding double or triple bonds between
the surrounding atoms and the central
atom, using lone pairs from the
surrounding atoms to complete the octet of
the central atom.
For example:
𝐒𝐎𝟑
S = 1 x 6 valence electrons = 6
O = 3 x 6 valence electrons = 18
24 v.e
Octet rule complete !
Electronegativity is the
ability of an atom to attract
toward itself the electrons. It
increases from left to right
across a period and
decreases down a group.

Moreover, check the formal charge of each atom. It is imperative to remember

that atoms are more stable when they have lesser charge or no charge at all.
Negative formal charges should be assigned to more electronegative atoms. The
overall formal charges of the atoms being bonded should be equal to the overall
charge of the compound.
 Write the Lewis structure for nitrogen trifluoride (𝐍𝐅𝟑 ) in which all three F atoms are
bonded to the N atom.
Solution:
Step 1: Write the skeletal structure of the compound,
using chemical symbols. The N atom is less
electronegative than F, so the skeletal structure of 𝐍𝐅𝟑
Nitrogen
is:
Step 2: Count the total number of valence Fluorine
electrons present.
N = 1 x 5 valence electrons = 5
F = 3 x 7 valence electrons = 21
Step 3: Draw a single covalent bond between the 26 v.e
central atom and each of the surrounding atoms. We
draw a single covalent bond between N and each F, and
complete the octets for the F atoms.

Octet rule complete !

 Check the formal
charge.

0
Overall Charge: 0
0
N = 5 – (3 + 2) = 0 0
F = 7 – (1+ 6) = 0
F = 7 – (1+ 6) = 0
F = 7 – (1+ 6) = 0
0
 Write the Lewis structure for the carbonate ion (𝑪𝑶𝟑−𝟐 ).
Solution: (Note that this is an anion with 2 negative charges)

Step 1: We can deduce the skeletal structure of the

carbonate ion by recognizing that C is less
electronegative than O.
Carbon

Step 2: Count the total number of valence electrons Oxygen

present. C = 1 x 4 valence electrons = 4

O = 3 x 6 valence electrons = 18
Step 3: We draw a single covalent bond between C e (+e when the charge is - ) = 2
24 v.e
and each O, and comply with the octet rule for the O
atoms.
Step 4: Although the octet rule is satisfied for the
O atoms, it is not for the C atom. Now the octet
rule is also satisfied for the C atom:

Therefore, we move a lone pair from one of the O 2-

atoms to form another bond with C. Now the octet rule
is also satisfied for the C atom:

Check: Make sure that all the atoms satisfy the octet rule. Count
the valence electrons in 𝑪𝑶−𝟐 𝟑 (in chemical bonds and in lone
pairs). The result is 24, the same as the total number of valence
electrons on three O atoms (3 3 6 5 18), one C atom (4), and two
negative charges (2).

Octet rule complete !

 remember
• In general, the product of ionic bond formation of the metals and non-metals in
the representative block is:

𝐌𝐚+ + 𝐍 𝐛+ 𝐌𝐛 𝐍𝐚
Formation of ionic bond product (M = metal; N = nonmetal; a and b = charges)

• Valence electrons of an atom are better represented with Lewis dot symbols. The
number of valence electrons of a main block element is usually equivalent to its group
number.
• The octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to gain, lose or share electrons to have
eight electrons in the valence shell or attain the same number of electrons as the noble
gas nearest to them in the periodic table.
• Lewis structures are diagrams that show the bonding between atoms of a molecule,
and the unbonded electrons that may exist in the molecule.
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract toward itself the electrons. It increases
from left to right across a period and decreases down a group.