Wastewater

Eng ineeri ng
Treatment and Resource Recovery

Fifth Edition
Metcalf & Eddy I AECOM
Revised by
George Tchobanoglous Contributing Authors:
Profcssor Emcritus of Civil and Mohammad Abu·Orf
Environmental Engineering North America Biosolids Praccice
University of Califomia at Davis Leader. AECOM

H. David Stensel Gregory Bowden

Profcssor of Civil and Environmental
Engincering
University of Washington, Seattle
Ryuiiro Tsuchihashi
Wastewater Tcchnical Leader, AECOM
Wastcwater Technical Leader, AECOM
William Pfrang
Wastewater Treatment Technology
Leacler, AECOM

Franklin Burton
Consulting Engincer
Los Altos, CA
WASTEWATER ENGINEERING: TREATMENT AND RESOURCE RECOVERY, FIFfH EDITION

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 About the Authors

George Tchobanoglous is Professor Emeritus in the Department of Civil and Envi-

ronmental Engineering at the Universily of California, Davis. He received a B.S. degree in
civil engineering from lhe University of the Pacific, an M.S. degree in s,rnitary eugineering
frorn the University of California at Berkeley, and a Ph.D. from Stanford University in
1969. Dr. Tchobanoglous' research interests are in the areas of wastewater treatment and
reuse, wastewater filtration, UV disinfection, aquatic wastewater managemenl systems,
wastewater managemenl for small and decentralized wastewater mauagement systems, and
solid waste managemenl. He has authored or co-authored over 500 technical publications
including 22 textbooks and 8 reference works. The text.books are usecl in more than 225
colleges and universities. by practicing engineers, and in universities worldwicle both in
English and in translation. His books are famous for successfully bridging lhe gap between
academia and the day-lo-day world of the engineer. He is a Pasl Presidenl of the Associa-
tion of Environmental Engineers and Science Professors. Among his man y honors, in 2003
Professor Tchobanoglous received the Clarke Prize frorn the National Water Research
Institute. In 2004, he received lhe Distinguished Service Award for Research and Education
in Integrated Waste Management from the Wasle-To-Energy Research and Technology
Council. In 2004, he was also inducted into the Nacional Academy of Engineering. In 2005,
he was awarded an honorary Doctor of Engineering from the Colorado School of Mines.
In 2007, he received the Frederick George Pohland M edal awarded by AAEE ancl AEESP.
In 2012 he was made a WEF Fellow. He is a registered Civil Engineer in California.

H. David Stensel is a Professor in the Civil and Environmental Engineering Deparlment

at the University of Washington, Seanle, WA. Prior to his academic positions, he spent
JO years in practice developing and applying industrial and municipal wastewater treatrnent
processes. He received a B.S. degree in cívil engineering frorn Union College, Schenecrady,
NY, and M.E. and Ph.D. degrees in environmental engineering frum Cornell Uníver:;ity. His
principal research interests are in the areas of wastewater treatment, biological nutríent
removal, sludge processing methods, resource recovery. and biodegradation of micropollut-
ants. He is a Past Chair of the Environmental Engineering Dívision of ASCE, has served on
the board oftheAssociation of Environmental Engineering Professors and on various commit-
tees for ASCE and the Water Environmenl Federation. He has authored or coauthored over
150 technical publícations and a textbook on biological outrient removal. Research recogni-
tion honors include the ASCE Ruclolf Hering Meda!, the Water Environment Federation
Harrison Prescott Eddy Meda! twice, and the Bradley Gascoigne Meda!. In 2013, he received
the Frederick George Pohland Meda! awarded by AAEE and AEESP. He is a registered profes-
sional engineer, a diplomate in the American Academy ofEnvironmental Engineers anda life
member of the American Society of Civil Engineers and the Water Environmenl Federation.

Ryu¡iro Tsuchihashi is a technical leader wilh AECOM. He received his B.S. and M.S. in
civil and environ mental engineeringfrom Kyoto University, Japan, anda Ph.D. in environmen-
tal enginee1ing from che Uníversity of California, Davis. The areas of his expe1tise include
wastewater/water reclamation process evaluation and design, evaluation and assessment of
water reuse systems, biologicaJ nutrient removal, and eval.uation of greenhouse gas emission
V
vi About the Authors

reduction frorn wastewater treatment processes. He was a co-author of the textbook "Water
Reuse: lssues, Technologies and Applications;' a companion textbook to this textbook. He is a
technical practice coordinatorfor AECOM's water reuse leadership team. Ryujiro Tsuchihashi
is a member of tl1e Water Environment Federation, Ame1ican Society of Civil Engineer, and
International Water Association, and has been an employee of AECOM for 10 years, during
which he has workecl on various prqjects in the United State, Australia, Jordan, and Canacla.

Franklin Burton served as vice presiden! and chief engineer of the western region of
Metcalf & Eddy in Palo Alto, California for 30 years. He retired from Metcalf & Edcly in
1986 and has been in prívate practice in Los Altos, California, specializing in treatment
technology evaluation, facilities design review, energy management, and value engineer-
ing. He received his B.S. in mechanical engineering from Lehigh University andan M.S.
in cívil engineering from the University of Michigan. He was co-author of tbe third and
fourth editions of the Metcalf & Eddy textbook "Wastewater Engineeru1g: Treatrnent and
Reuse." He has authored over 30 publications on water and wastewater treatment
ancl energy managernent in water and wastewater applications. He is a registered civil
engineer io California and is a liJe member of lhe American Society of Civil Engineers,
American Water Works Association, and Water Environment Federation.

Mohammad Abu-Orf is AECOM's North America biosolids practice leader ancl

wastewater director. He received bis B.S. in civil engineering from Birzeit University, West
Bank, Palestine and received bis M.S. and Ph.D. in civil and environmental engineering
from tlle University of Delaware. He worked with Siemens Water Technology and Veolia
Water as biosolids director of research ancl development. He is the main inventor on five
patents and authored and co-authored more than 120 publications foc using on condition-
ing, dewatering, stabilization and energy recovery from biosolids. He was awarded first
place for Ph.D. in the student paper competition by the Water Environment Federation for
two consecutive years in 1993 ancl 1994. He coauthored maouals of practice and reports
for the Water Environment Research Foundation. He served as an editor of the Specialty
Group for Sludge Management of the International World Association for six years and
served on the editorial board of the biosolids technical bulletin of the Water Environment
Federation. Mohammad Abu-Orf has been an employee of AECOM for 6 years.

Gregory Bowden is a technical leader with AECOM. He received his B.S. in chem.i-
cal engineering from Oklahoma State University anda Ph.D. in chemical engineering from
the University of Texas at Austin. He worked for Hoechst Celanese (Celanese AG) for
10 years as a senior process engineer, supporting wastewater treatment facility operations
at chemical production plants in North America. He also worked as a project manager in
the US Filter/Veolia North American Technology Center. His areas of expertise include
industrial wastewater treatment, biological and physical/chemical nutrient removal tech-
nologies and biological process modeling. Greg Bowden is a meinber of the Water Envi-
ronment Fecleration and has been an AECOM employee for 9 years.

W illiam pfrang is a Vice-President of AECOM and Technical Director of their Metrn-

New York Water Division. He began his professional career with Metcalf & Eddy, lnc., as a
civil engineer in 1968. During his career, he has specialized in municipal wastewater treat-
ment plant design including master planning, alternative process assessmcnts, conceptual, and
detailed design. Globally, he has been the lead engineer for wastewater treatment projects in
the United States, Southeast Asia, South Ameiica, and the Middle East. He received his B.S.
and M.S. in civil engineering from Norlheastem University. He is a registered professional
engíneer, a member of the American Academy of Environmental Engineers, and tbe Water
Envisonment Federation. William Pfrang has been an ernployee of the firm for over 40 years.
 Contents

About the Authors 1-8 Reactors Used in Wasrewater Trealment 22

Preface ,Lriii Types of Reacrors 22
A cknowledgmems xxvii Hydraulic Charac/eristin· uf Reac:lors 24
Foreword xxix Applicarion <l Reacwrs 25
1-9 Mode ling Ideal Flow in Reactors 26
Ideo/ F/ow in Complete-Mix Reactor 26
1 lntroduction to Wastewater
ideal Plug-Flow Reactor 27
Treatment and Process 1-10 lntroducrion 10 Process Kinetics 29
Analysis Types of Reac1i011s 29
1-1 Evolution of Wastewater TreatmcnL 4 Rafe of Reacrion 30
7i-entmelll Objectives 5 Specific Reaction Rafe 3 J
Curre111 Health a1Ul E11viro11111.enta/ Concems 5 Ej]ecrs of Temperature 011 Reaction Rate
S1wai11ability Considerations 5 Coe.fjicients 3 1
Reac:1io11 Order 33
1-2 Evol ution of Regulations of Signilicance to
Rafe Expressions Used in Wasiewaler
Wastewater Engineering 6
Treat111en1 34
E.vtablisl11m:11t ()j' E11vimn111enflll Protection
Analysis cf Reac1io11 Rafe Coe.fficiems 39
/lgency 6
Importan/ Federal Regulatio11s 6 1-11 lnlroductíon LO Treaunent Process Mocle ling 42
01her Federal Regulatio11s 9 Batch Reactor wilh Reae1ion 43
State <md Regional Regulalirms 9 Complete-Mix Reactor wit/1 Reactio11. 43
Comple1e-Mix Reactors in Series wi1h Reac1ion 44
1-3 Characteristics of Wastewater 9
Ideal Plug-Flow Reactor wilh ReaClion. 47
Sources o/Wa.~rewa1er 9
Co111parison of Com.plete-Mix and Plug-Flow
Twes o/' Colleuio11 Sys1e111s 9
N.eac/Ors with Reac1ion 48
Wasrewa1er Co11sti1uents lO
Plug-Flow Reactor with Axial Dispe1:~io11 and
1-4 C lassitication of Wastewater Treatment
Reactirm 50
Methods 10
Other l?eactor F/ow Regimes wul Reacfor
Physical Unif Pmcesses JO
Comhinalirms 51
Chemical /Jrúf Processes 12
Problems and Discussion Topics 53
Biological Unif Processes 12
1-5 Application of Treatment Methods 12
Wastewa1er Processing 12 2 Wastewater Characteristics 57
Residua/s Pmcessi11p, 13
2-1 Wastewater Characterization 60
Typical Treatme11/ Process Flow Diagrams 13
Wasfewater Properfies cmd Constilue11ts 60
1-6 Status of Wastewater Treatment in the Canstif1iems of Concern i11 Wastewmer Treatment 60
Un ited States 17
2-2 Sam pling and Analytical Procedures 60
Recen/ Survey Resul!s J8
Sampling 63
Tre11ds 18
Methods ofAnalysis 65
1-7 lntroduction to Process Ana lysis J9 Unit.1· of Expressionfor Physicc,/ and Chemical
Mass-Balam:e Analysis 19 Paramelers 66
Applica1io11 of rhe Ma.\·s-Ba/anc<' Analysis 2 1 Use.ful Chemical Re/(lfionships 66

vii
viii Contents
2-3 Physical Properties 73
Sources of Physical Properties 73
Solids 73
Panicle Size and Particle Size Measuremem 76
Particle Size Distribution 80
Nanoparticles and Nanocomposites 83
Turbidity 83
Relationship Between Turbidily and TSS 85
Color 85
AbsoqJtion/Transmittance 85
Temperature 87
Themial Energy Collfent of Wastewater 89
Conductivily 89
Density, Specific Gravity, and Specific Weight 89
2-4 lnorganic Nonmetallic Consticuents 90
Sources of lnorganic Nonmetallic Constituents
pH 90
Chlorides 91
Alkalinity 92
Nitrogen 92
Phosphorus 96
Suifur 97
Gases 98
Odors 103
2-5 Merallic Constituent~ 111
Sources of Metallic Coristituents 112
Importance of Metals 113
Sampling and Methods ~f Analysis 11 4
Typical Effluent Discharge Limitsfor Metals
2-6 Aggregace Organic Constituencs 114
Sources ofAggregare Organic Consrituenrs 114
Measurement of Organic Content l 14
Biochemica/ Oxygen Demand (BOD) 115
Total an.d Soluble Chemical Oxygen Demand
(COD and SCOD) 123
Toza/ a,ul Dissolved Organic Carbon. (TOC and
DOTC) 123
UV-Absorbing Organic Consrituents J24
Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 125
Interrelationships berween BOD. COD, and
TOC 125
Oil and Grease 127
Surfactants 128
Chemical Energy in Wastewazer ami Biosolids 129
2- 7 Individual Organic Compouods 131
Sources of Individual Organic Compounds l32
Priority Pollutants 132
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 132
Disinfection Byproducts 132
Pesticides and Agricultura/ Chemicals J33
Unregulated Trace Organic Compounds 133
Analysis of Individual Organic Compound.1· 133
2- 8 Radionuclides in Wastewater 136
Sou rces of Radionuclide 137
Units of Expression 137
Description of lsotopes Foun.d in Wastewater and
Sludge 137
Treatment Technologies for the Removal ~f
Radionuclides 13 7
2- 9 Biological Constituents 139
Sources of Microorganisms in Wastewater 140
Enumeration and ldentification of
Microorganisms 144
Pathogenic Organisms and Prions 151
EvoLving Pathogenic Microorganisms 161
90
2- 10 Tox..icity 161
Sources ofToxicity 161
Evolution ancl Application f1{Toxicity Testing 162
Toxicity Testing 163
Analysis of Toxicity Test Results 165
Application of Toxicity Test Results 167
ldentification ~f-Yoxicity Components 169
Problems and Discussion Topics 171
3 Wastewater Flowrates and
Constituent Loadings 183
114 3- 1 Wastewater Sources and Flowrates l85
Municipal Uses (~{Water 185
Domestic Wastewater Sources and Flowrates 186
Strategiesfor Reducing Interior Water Use
and Wasrewater Flowrates 189
Water Use in Other Parrs of the World 194
Sources cmd Rafes of Industrial (Nondomestic)
Wastewater Flows 194
Varia.tion.s in Wastewater Flowrates 195
Long-Term Mulliyear Varfotions Dueto
Conservation 198
lmpact of Water Conservation on Future
Planning 200
3- 2 Impact of Collection Systcm on Wastewater
Flowrates 200
InfiLtration//riflow 200
lnjlow into Collection Systems 202
Exfiltration from Collection Systems 204
Combined Collection. System Flowrates 205
Direct Measurement of Combined Sewer Flowrates
and Wastewater Characteristics 207
Calcula/ion <!f Combined Sewer Flowrates 207
 Contents ix

3-3 Analysis o f Was tewate r Flowrate Data 208 Owner Needs 270
S1atistical Ancilysis of Flowrate Data 208 E11vironmer11at Considerations 270
Developing Design Parameters .fimn Flowrate Compatibiliry with Exis1ing Facilities 27 1
Data 2 11 Energy and Resource Requirements 271
Observed Variability Íl1 lnfluent F/owrates 2 12 Cost Considerations 272
3-4 Analysis of Wastewater Constituents 214 Other Design Considerations 273
Was1ewater Consti1Ue11ts Discharged By 4-2 Considerations in Process Selection 274
lndividuals 21 4 lmpor1ant Fac1ors in Process Selection 274
Constiluent Co11ce11tra1ions Based on Individual Process Selection Based on Reaction Kinetics 276
Mass Discharges 218 Process Selection Based On Mass Tran.¡fer 277
Mineral lncrease Resulting from Water Use 2 18 Process Desig11 Based on Loading Criteria 277
Composifio11 of Wastewater in Collection Bench-Scaie Tests cmd Tesr-Bed Pilot-Scale
Sysrems 2 19 Srudies 277
Varia1io11s in Constifuellf Conce111ralions 2 19 Wastewater Discharge Permit Requiremen1s 278
Statistical Analysis o.f Constituenf 4-3 Treaunent P rocess Relia bility and Selection of
Concentmtions 225 Design Values 279
Observed Variability Í11 l11jhumt Constituent Vu.riability in Was1ewater Trearrnem 280
Concenr ratio11s 225 Se/ec1io11 of Process Desif?n Parame1ers to Mee,
3-5 Analysis of Conslituent Mass Loading Data 226 Dischcirge Permit Limils 286
Simple Average 226 Pe1formance (~{ Combined Processes 289
Flow-Weighted Average 226 4-4 Elements of Process Design 29 1
Mass Loadings 229 Design Period 29 1
E.ffect of Mass Loading Variability 011 Treaunent Treatment Process Flow IJiagrams 29 1
Plan/ Pe1forma11ce 23 1 Process Design Criferia 291
3-6 Selection of Design Flowrntes and Mass Prelimir1ary Sizing 292
Load ings 232 Solids Balance 293
Design Flowra/es 234 Pla11t Layout 294
Design Mass Loadi11gs 240 P/ant Hydrauiics 295
3-7 Flow ancl Consti tuent Load Equalization 241 Energy Management 296
Description!Applica1io11 of Flow Equalizatio11 242 4-5 Tmplementation of Wastewater Management
Tite Bene.fi1s of Fiow Equa/ization 243 Programs 297
Design Considercuions 243 Facilities P/c11111ing 297
Equalization of Constit11ent Mass Loading Design 297
Rates 253 Value E11gi11eeri11.g 298
Equalization of Sludge ami Bioso/ids Processing Co11struction 298
Rewrn Flows 253 Facilities Srcmup and Opera/ion 299
Problems and Discussion Topics 254 4-6 Financing 299
Long-Term Municipal Debt Fincmcing 299
Non-Debt Financing 300
4 Wastewater Treatment Leasing 300
Process Selection, Design, Privatization 300
and lmplementation 263 Problems and Discussion Topics 300

4-1 Planning for New and U pgrading Existi ng

Wastewater T reatrnent Planls 265
Need 10 Upgrade Exisling Wastewater Treaunent
5 Physical Unit Processes 305

Plants 265 5-1 Screen ing 3 10

Plan11i11g for New Wastewater Treat111en1 Ciass(fication. of Screens 3 1O
Plants 266 Screenings Characterisfics and Quantilies 311
Treatment Process Desig11 Considerations 266 Coarse Screens (Bar Racks) 3 12
X Contenls
Fine Screens 318
Microscreens 323
Screenings Handling, Processing, and
Disposal 324
5-2 Coarse Solids Reduction 325
Comminutors 325
Macerators 326
Grinders 327
Design Considerations 327
5-3 Mixing and Flocculation 327
Conti1wous R(lpid Mi.xing in WastewC1ter
Treatmellf 328
Contim,ou~· Mixing in Wastewa.ter Treatmen1 329
Energy Dissipa1ion in Mi.xing a.na
Floccu/a,/011 330
Time Sea/e in Mixing 332
Types of Mi.xers Used for Rapid Mi.xing
in Wastewarer Treatment 332
Types of Mixers Usedfor Maintaining Solids in
Suspension in Wastewater Trewment and
C/remica/ Mixing 335
Types of Mixers Usedfor Flocculation
in Wastewater Trearment 338
Types of Mixers Usedfor Continuo11s Mixing
in Wasrewarer Trearmem 341
New Developmenrs in Mixing Tec/1110/ogy 344
5-4 Gravity Separation Theory 344
Description 345
Panicle Serrling T/reory 346
Discrere Portie/e Settli11g 350
F/occulent Partic/e Se11/i11g 354
lnclined Plate and Tube Se11/ing 356
Hindered (Zone) Seuling 360
Compression Set1/i11g 364
Gravity Separarían in an Accelerated Flow
Field 364
5-5 Grit Removal 365
Wastewarer Grir Clwracteristics 366
Gril Separatorsfor Wastewater 370
Grit Se/larators for Combined Wastewarer
and Stormwater 379
Grir Was/ring 380
Grit Dryi11g 382
Disposal o.f Grit 382
Solids (Sludge) Degritting 382
5-6 Primary Sedimeotation 382
Descriptio11 383
Sedimentation Ta11k Pe,:/ormance 391
Design Considerations 393
Characterisrics and Qua11tities o.f So/ids (Sludge)
and Scum 397
5-7 High-Rate Clarification 398
Enhanced Parric/e F/occula1io11 398
Analysis of Ballasted Particle Flocculation and
Settling 399
Process Application 401
S-8 A otation 403
Descriprion 404
Design Co11sideratio11sfor Dissolved-Air Flotation
Systems 406
5-9 New Approaches for Primary Treatmeni 408
Microscreening of Raw \Vastewater 409
Charged B11bble Flotation 409
Primary Ejf111ent Filtra1io11 410
5-1 O Gas Liquid Mass Transfcr 411
Historical Developme11t of Gas Tra11sfer
Theories 411
Tite Two-Film Theory o.f Gas Tra11sfer 412
Absorption of Gases Under Turb11/e11t
Conditions 415
Absorprion of Gases U11der Quiescent
Conditions 417
Desorptio11 (Removal) of Gases 4 18
5-11 Aeration Systems 419
Oxygen Transfer 4 19
Evaluation ofAlp/,a (a) Correctirm Factor 421
Types of Aeration Systems 424
Dijfused-Air Aeration 424
Mecha11ica/ Aerators 436
Energy Requiremem for Mixing in Aeratirm
Systems 439
Generation and Dissol11tion of High-Puriry
Oxygen 440
Postaeration 443
Problems and Discussion Topics 448
6 Chemical Unit Processes 455
6-1 Role of Chemical Unit Processes
in Wastewater Treatment 458
Applicmions of Chemical Uni.t Processes 458
Considerations in the Use of Chemical Unit
Processes 459
6-2 Fundamenta Is of Chemical Coagulation 460
Basic Defi11irions 461
Na.ture of Particles in Wa.vrewarer 46 l
Developmenr and Measurement of Surface
Clwrge 462

Parricle-Particle lnteractions 463
Particle Deswbilization and Aggregarion
with Polyelectrolytes 466
Particle Destabilization and Removal with
Hydrolyzed Metal Ions 468
6-3 Chemical Precipitation for Lmproved
Plant Performance 473
Chemica./ Reactions in Wastewater Precipitation
J\pplications 474
Chemically Enhanced Primary Treatment
(CEPT) 477
!ndependenr Physical-Chemica/ Treatnumt 478
Estimation of Sludge Qua11tilies ji-om Chemical
Precipitation 479
6-4 Chemical Phosphorus Removal 481
Chemicals Usedfor Phosphorus Removal 481
Plwsphorus Removalf,vm rhe Liquid Stream
wíth Metal Salts 487
Phosphorus Renwvc1/ from the liquid Stream.
with Calcium 489
Strategies for Chemical Phosphorus Remo val 491
6-5 Chernical Formation of Struvite for Ammonium and
Phosphorus Removal 492
Chemistry of Struvite Formation 493
Conflvl cmd/or Mitigation Measures for
the Formation of Struvite 496
Enhanced Struvite Formation .for Nutriem
Removal 496
Chemical Precipltation for Removal of Hcavy
Metals and Dissolved Substances 498
Precípitation Reactions 498
Co-precipitalion wilh Plwsphorus 500
6-7 Conventional Chemical Oxidation 501
Applications for Conventional Chemical
Oxidation 501
Oxidants Used in Chemical Oxidation
Processes 501
Fundamentals of Chemica/ Oxidation 503
Chemical Oxidation of Organic Constituents 508
Chemical Oxidation ofAmmonium 508
Chemical Oxidation Process Limitations 5JO
6-8 Advanced Oxidation 51 O
Applications for Advanced Oxidation 51 O
Processes for Advanced Oxidation 513
Basic Considerations.for Advanced Oxidation
Processes 517
Advanced Oxidation Process Limitations 520
6-9 Photolysis 521
Applicalion:; for Photolysis 52 1
Confenfs xi
Photolysis Processes 522
Basic Co11sidera1io11sfor Photolysis Processes 522
Photolysis P,vce:;:; l.,imitu1ions 528
6-10 Chemical Neu tral ization, Scale
Control, and Stabilization 529
pH Adjustmenl 529
Analysis of Scaling Potential 530
Scale Control 535
Stabilizalion 536
6-11 Chemical Storage, Feeding, Piping,
and Control System5 536
Chemical Storage and Handling 536
Dry Chemical Feed Systems 538
Liquid Chemical Feed Systems 542
Gas Chemical Feed Systems 542
/nitial Chemical Mixi11g 543
Problems and Discussion Topics 544
7 Fundamentals of Biological
Treatment 551
7-1 Overview of Biological Wastewater Treatrnenl 555
Objectives of Bioiogical Treatme,11 555
Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater
Trealmelll 555
Types of Biological Processes for Was1ewater
Treatmenf 556
7-2 Composition and C lass ification of
Microorganisms 561
Cell Components 562
CeLI Compositüm 564
Environmentul Factors 564
Microorganism ldem(fication and
Classification 565
Use of Molecular Tools 568
7-3 lnlroduction to Microbial Metabolism 571
Carbo1·1 and Energy Sources for Micmbial
Gmwth 571
Nutrient (//Uf Growth Factor Requireme/lJs 573
7-4 Bacteria! Growth, Energetics, and Dccay 573
Bacierial Reproduction 574
Bacteria/ Growth Pattem s in a Batch Reactor 574
Bacteria/ Growth and Biomass Yie/d 575
Measurin.g Biomass Growth 575
Estimating Biomass Yie/d mul Oxygen Requirem.ents
from Stoichiometry 576
Esti111ating Biomass Yield.frmn Bioe11ergetics 579
Stoichiomefly (!( Biofogical Reactio11s 586
xii Contents

Biomass Synrhesis Yie/ds.for Different 7-9 Biological Oxidation of Inorganic Nitrogen 618
Growth Condirio11s 587 Process Descriptio11 6 19
Biomass Decay 587 Microbiology 6 19
Observed versus Synthesis Yield 588 Stoichiometry of Bíological Nitriftcation 622
7-5 Microbial Growth Kinetics 588 Nitijica1ion Kinetics 624
Microbial Growth Kinetics Terminology 589 AOB Kinetics 626
Rate of Uti/ization of Soluble Substrates 589 NOB Kinetics 627
Other Rate Expressions for Soluble Substrate Environmenta/ Factors 628
Utilization 591 7- 10 Denitrification 63 1
Rote of Soluble Substrcue Production from Pn1cess Descriptio11 632
Biodegradable Paniculate Organic Microbiology 633
M atrer 591 Stoichiometry oj Biologica/ Denilrijicatio11 ,md
Net Biomass Crowth Rate 592 Denirritation 634
Kinetic Coefficientsfor Su.bstrate Uti/ization and Organic Substrate Requirementsfor Denitrification
Biomass Growth 593 and Denitritaticm 635
Rare of Oxygen Uptake 593 Denitrification Kin.etics 637
Effects of Temperature 594 Em,ironmental Factors 640
Total \lolatile Suspended Solids cmd Active 7- 11 Anaerob ic Anunoitium Oxidation 640
Biomass 594 Proces.1· Description 640
Net Biomass Yield cmd Observed Yield 595 Micmbiology 641
7-6 Modeljng Suspended Growth Treatmem Anammox Stoichiometry 64 1
Processes 597 Growth Kinetics 644
Description of Suspended Growrh Trea/ment Environmemal f'actors 645
Processes 597 7- 12 Greenhouse Gas from Biological Nitrogen
Solids Reten/ion Time 597 Transform ations 645
Biomass Mass Balance 598 Source of Nitrous Oxide Emissions 645
Sub.mate Mass Balance 600 Nitrous Oxide Production Pathways 646
Mi.xed Liquor Solids Concemration and Solids
7-13 Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal 648
Production 600
Prvcess Descrip1io11 648
The Observed Yie[(l 603
Prvcesses Occurring in the Anaerobic Z.me 650
Oxygen Requirements 603
Proce1>\fes Occurring in a D0wns1ream Aerobic
Design and Operating Pararnerers 606
or Anoxic Zone 650
P1vcess Perfornumce and Stability 607
Microbiology 651
Modeling Plug-Flow Reaccors 609
Other Process Considerationsjor EBPR 652
7-7 Substrate Removal in Attached Growth Treatment
Swichiometry of Enhanced Biological Phosphorus
Process 610
Removed 653
Biofilm. Chara.cteristics 61 l Growtlt Kinetics 655
Biomass Characterizalion 611 Environmenral Facrors 655
Mechanistic Models 612
7- 14 Anaerobic Fermentation and Oxidation 655
Substrate Flux in Biojilms 612
Pivcess Description. 656
Substrate Mass Balancefor Biofilm 613
Microbiology 657
Substrate Flux Limitations 613
Stoichiometry of Anae,vbic Fermentation and
7-8 Aerobic Oxidation 615 Oxidation 659
Process Description 615 Process Kinetics 660
Microbio/ogy 615 Enviromn.ental 1'11ctors 663
Process Operation lssues 6 16
7- 15 Biological Removal of Toxic and Recalcitrant
Stoichiometry of Aerobic 8 iological Oxída1ion 617
Organic Compounds 663
Growth Kinetics 6 17
Development of Biological Trea/ment
Environmental Factors 6 18
Methods 664

Aerobíc /Jíoclegradation 665
Abio1ic Losses 666
Mode/i11g Biolíc and Abio1íc Losses 669
7-16 Biological Removal of Trace Organic
Compounds 671
Removal oj"li'ace Organic Co111po1111ds 672
S1eady-S1ate Fr¡/() Mnde/ 672
7-17 Biological Removal of Heavy Metals 674
Problcms ancl Discussion Topics 674
8 Suspended Growth Biological
Treatment Processes 697
8-1 Introduction to the Acrivmccl-Sludge Proccss
Hístoríca/ Deve/opment af Aclirnted Sludge
Procesr 701
Basic Pmcess Descríptio11 701
Evo/u1io11 <l the Cu11ve111io11a/ Activwed-Sludge
Process 702
Nutríent Re1110\'{// Processes 706
8-2 Wastewater C haracteri7ation 707
Key Hi1stewmer Co11sti111e111s for Process
Desígn 707
Measurement Methods far Waste1rnter
Characterí::,ation 7 12
Recycle Flmvs 011d Loadi11gs 7 J6
8-3 Fundamcnrals of Proccss Sclection, Dcsign. and
Control 717
Overa// Co11.1íderations in Treatme111 Pmcess
lmple111e111a1ion 7 17
lmportant Fl,i·tors in P,vcess Se/ection cmd
Des(i:n 717
Process Cmuml 726
Opermimwl Problems i11 Activated Sludge Systems
1vith Sec(Jlu/wy C/arifie,:r 732
Operaticmal Prvble1m with MBR Systems 738
8-4 Selector Types and Design Consideration 738
Selector Types anti Desig11 Considem1io11.1· 739
Poor Settling Even wi1h Use of Selector 741
8-5 Activatcd Sludge Proccss Design
Considera1ions 742
Steady-Swte Design Approach 742
Use o.f Si11111/atio11 Mod<!I 744
Model Matrix Formal, Co111po11e111s, a11d
Reacti011s 747
Other Simuftttion Model Applications 751
8-6 Processcs ror Bod Removal al)(! Ni trifica1ion
01·ervieiv of BOD Re111ova/ and Nitri.ficatio11
Processes 752
Contents x iii
General Process Desig11 Corrsiderations 754
Comple1e-Mix Activa1ed-Sl11dge Process
Design 754
Seq11e11ci11g Batch Reactor Process Desig11 771
Staged Activated-Sludge Process Design 782
Alternative Processesfor l:JOD Removal c111d
Nitrificatio11 786
8-7 Processes for Biological Nitrogeo Removal 795
Process Development 796
Overview of Types o.f Biologica/ Nitrogen-Removal
Processe.1 797
General Pmcess Desig11 Co11sideratio11s 802
Prea11oxic De11i1rijica1i011 Processes 804
Postanoxic De11irrijicc11io11 Processes 831
700 Low DO 011d Cyclic Ni1r(tirarion!De11irr(fication
Processes 833
Alternmfre P1vcess Conjigurwions Jor Biological
Nirrogen Removal 838
Denitrification wirh Externa/ Carbo11
Addition 848
Process Co1111vl and Perfnmrance 860
8-8 Processcs for Enhanced Biological Phosphorus
Remova l 861
P,vcess Development 86 1
01·el"l'iell' of E11ha11ced Biological Phosphnnis
Remova/ Processes 862
General Proc:ess Design Consideratio11s 864
Operatio11al Factors That A.fJect Enlwnced
Biological Phosplrorus Removal 878
E11ha11ced Biological Plrosplrorus Removal Process
Desig11 880
Provision .for Chemical Addition 883
Process Control and Pe,formance
Op1i111i:.01io11 884
8-9 Aeration Tm1k Design for Activated-S ludge
Processe~ 885
Aeration System 885
Aera1io11 Tw,k:. aI1d App11rte11a11ces 886
8-10 Analysis of Liquid-Solicls Separation for
Activatccl-Sludge Processes with C larificrs 889
Solids Separatio11 by Secondary Clarifiers 889
A.rsessíng S/udge Tlricke11i11g Characteristics 891
Clarífier Design Based on Solids Flux
Analysis 893
C/arífier Desig11 Based 011 State Point
Analysis 900
8-11 Design Considemtions for Secondary
752 Clari fíers 906
Types e!{ Sedí111e11tatio11 Tank 906
Sidewater Depth 91 O
xiv Contents
Flow Distribution 910
Tank lnlet Design 9 JO
Weir Placement a11d Loading 912
Scum. Removal and Managemen.t 912
8- 12 Soli ds Separation for Membrane Bioreactors
Design Parameter 913
Membrane Properties 9J4
Membrane Design and Operating
Characteristics 917
Membrane Usage 917
Membrane Fouling lssues 917
Problems and Discussion Topics 9 19
9 Process Developm.en.t 1026
Attached Growth a nd
Combined Biological
Trea tment Processes 941
9-1 lntroductioo to Attached Growth Processes 943
Types ofAuached Growth Processes 943
Mass Transfer Limítations inAttached Growth
Processes 947
9-2 Nonsubmerged Attached Growth Proce~ses 947
General Pro<.:ess Description 947
Trickling Filter Classijication an,/
Applications 950
Advaniages ami Disadvantages of Trickling
Filters 953
Physical Facilítíesfor Trickling Filters 954
Design Consi.derationsfor Physícal
Facilities 957
Process Desí.gn Considerarionsfor BOD
Removal 968
Process Analysisfor BOD Removal. 972
Process Analysis for Nitrijication 978
9- 3 Sequential Combined Trickli ng Filter and
Suspended Solids Processes 987
Process Development 987
Process Applications 987
Trickling Filter/Solids Contact Process 988
Trick/ing Filter!Activated Sludge Process 990
Series Trickling-Filler Activated-Sludge
Process 997
9-4 lntegrated Fixed-Filrn Aclivated
Sludge Process 997
Process Development 998
Process Applications 1000
!FAS Process Adl'antc1ges and
Disadvantages 1002
Design of Physical Facilities l003
I FAS Process Design Analysis 1005
BOD and Nitrijication Design Approach l 008
9-5 Movi ng Bed Biofilm Reactor (MBBR) lOJ 5
913 Background 1015
MBBR Process Applications JO 16
MBBR Process Advantages ami
Dísad11antages 1016
Design o.f Physica/ Facilities 1019
MBBR Process Design Analysis 1020
BOD Removal a11d Nitrification Design. 102 1
9-6 Submerged Aerobic Attached Growth
Processes l 026
Process Applicalions 1027
Process Advantages and Disadva,11ages 1027
Desig11 of Physical Facilities 1029
BAF Process Desigrz Analysis 1031
FBBR Process Design Anal.ysis 1034
9-7 Attached Growth Denitrification Processes l034
Process Development 1034
Description and Application <~f'Altached Growth
Denürification Processes 1035
Process Design Analysis of Postanoxic Attached
Growth Denitr(fication. 1037
Operational Considerations fór Postan.oxic Attached
Gl1)wth Denitrijication. 1041
9-8 Emergíng Biofilm Processes 1045
Membrane Biofibn Reactors 1045
Biofilm Airlifi Reactors 1046
Aerobic Granules Reactor 1046
Problems and Discussiou Topics l 046
10 Anaerobic Suspended and
Atta ched Growth Biological
Treatment Processes 1059
10-1 The Rationa le for Anaerobic TreaU11ent 106 1
Advamages ofAnaerobic Treatmen.t
Processes 106 1
Disadvaruages ofAn.aerobic Treatment
Processes 1062
Summaiy Assessmen.t J063
10-2 Development of A naerobíc Technologíes 1063
Historical Developments in Liquefaction. 1063
Treatment ofWastewater Sludges 1065
Treatment of High Strength. Wastes 1066
Future Developments J067

10-3 Avai la ble Anaerobic Technologies 1067
Type.1 of Anaerobic Tecluwlogies 1067
App/ication of Anaerobic Teclmologies !071
lo-4 Fundamental Considerations in the Appl ication of
Auaerobic Treatment Processcs 1075
Characteris1ics ofthe l.füstewater !075
Pretrealment of Wastewa1er 1080
E.xpecled Gas Producli<m 1083
Energy Produc1io11 Pote111ial 1085
Suljide Produclion 1088
Ammrmia Toxicily 1090
10-5 Design Considerations for lmplementation
of Anaerobic Treatment Processes 1090
Treatmellt Efficie11cy Needed 1091
General Process Design Paromeiers 1091
Process lmplememation Jssues 1093
1()-6 Process Design Examples 1095
Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanker Pmcess 1095
Anaerobic Conracl Process 1103
Use of Simularion Models 1107
10-7 Codigestion of Organic Wastes with Munici pal
SJudge 1108
Problems and DiscllS.5ion Topics 1109
11 Separation Processes for
Removal of Residual
Constituents 11 11
11-1 Need for Additional Wastewater Treatment 1120
11-2 Overview ofTcchnologies Used for Removal of
Residual Paiticulate and Dissolved
Constituents 11 20
Separa/ion Processes Based 011 Mass
Transfer 1120
Tra11sformation Based on Chemical and
Biologica/ Processes 1122
Applicalion of U11i1 Processes for Removed
of l<esidual Constiwents J123
11-3 Unit Processes for the Removal of Residual
Particulate and Dissolved Constituents 1123
Typical Process Flow Diagrams 1124
Process Performance Expectations 1125
11-4 lntroduction to Depth Filtration 1129
Description of the Filtratio11 Process 1 129
Filter Hydraulics 1134
Mode/i11g 1/ze Fi/tration Process 1142
11-5 Oepth Filtration: Selection and
Design Considerations 1144
Contents XV
Avoi/t1ble Filtration Technologies 1144
Perfon11a11ce of Different Types of Deptl,
Fillers 1146
Considerations Re/ated to Design and Operation
of Treatment Facilities 11 56
Selecrion of Fi/tration Technolngy 1158
Design Considera1ions for Granular Medium
Filters 11 61
11-6 Surface Filtration 1171
Available Filtra1io11 Teclmologies 1172
Description of the Swface Fi/1ratio11 Process 1175
Performance of S111face Filters J178
De~ig11 Considerations 1180
Pilot Plafll S!udies 1180
11-7 Membrane Filtration Processes 1181
Membra11e Process Ten11i110/ogy 1181
Membr<me Process Classijica1ion 1182
Memhrane Comaimnent Vessels 1185
Operationa.l Modes for Pres.mrized
Conjigurations 1189
Pmcl'ss Analysisfor MF and UF
Memhranes 1190
Opera1i11g Strategiesfor MF and UF
M embranes 1192
Process Analysis.for Reverse Osmosis 1193
Membrane Fouling 1198
Cnnr rol ofMembra11e Fo11Li11g 1201
Application and Pe,fnmwnce of Membranes 1204
Fnrwtml Osmosis: An Emergi11g Membrane
Technology 1212
Pilor-P/ant S111dies for Membrane
Applications 12 14
Management o.f Retentate 1215
11- 8 Elcctrodialysis 1217
Descriplion of the E/ectrodialysis Process 1217
Electrodialysis Reversa/ 1218
Power Co11sumprio11 1220
Opera1ing Cnnsidera1ions 1222
Electrodialysis Versus Reverse Osmosis 1223
11-9 Adsorplion 1224
Applications for Adsorptio11 1224
Types of Adsorbe11ts 1224
Fundam.entals of Ad.rnrp1io11 Processes 1227
Deve/opmenr o/Adso,ption lsothenns 1227
Adsorption of Mix111res 1232
Adsorption Capacity 1232
Sma/1 Sea/e Co/1111111 Tests 1240
Analysis o/ Powdered Actil'{//ed Carbon
Co111ac1or 1243
xvi Contenfs
Acrivated Sludge-Powdered Activated Carbon
'freatment 1244
Carbon Regenera/ion 1245
Adso11-1tíon Process Limitatíons 1245
11-10 Gas Stripping 1245
Ana/.ysis of Gas Stripping 1245
Design o.f Stripping Towers 1256
Air Stripping Applications 126 1
11-11 loo Exchange 1261
Ion Exchange Materials 1262
Typica/. Ion Exchange Reactions 1263
Exchange Capaciry of Ion Exchange Resins 1264
fon Exchange Chemistry 1266
App/.icatüm of Ion Exchange 1270
Operationa.l Considerations 1275
11-12 Distillation 1275
Distillation Processes 1276
Performance Expectations in Reclamatio11
Applications 1277
Operating Problems 1278
Disposa/ of Con.cen.trated Was te 1278
Ptoblems and Discussion Topics 1278
12 Disinfection Processes 1291
12-1 Tntroduction to Disinfectants Used in
Wastewater 1294
Characteristics for a11 ideal Disi11fec1a111 1294
Disinfection Agen1s and Methods 1294
Mechanisms Used to Explain Ac1ion of
Disinfecranrs 1296
Comparison of Disü!fe c1ams l297
12-2 Disinfection Process Considerations 1297
Physical Fa.ciliries Usedfor Disinfection 1297
Factors Ajfecting Pe1:formance 1300
Developmenr of rhe CT Concep1 for Predicring
Disin.fe ction Pe,jorman.ce l 306
Application of the CT Concept 10 Wastewarer
Disinfec1ion 1307
Performance Comparison of Disinfection
Techno/ogies 1308
12- 3 Disinfection with Chlorine 1312
Characterisrics of Ch/orine Compounds 1312
Chemistry of Chlorine Compou11ds 1314
Breakpoint Reaction with Ch/orine 13 16
EjJ'ectiveness of Free and Combined Chlorine
as Disinfectants 1320
Measurement and Reporting of Disinfe ction Process
Pe,jormance 1322
Faciors that Ajfecl Disinfectio11 of 1*1stewa1er
with Ch/orine Compounds l 323
Modeling the Ch/orine Disinfection Pmcess 1328
Required Chori11e Dosages jor Disinfeclion 1329
Forma/ion and Control of Disinfection Byproducts
(DBPs) 1333
Envimnmental Impacrs of Disirif'ection with
Ch/orine l 336
12-4 DisiJ1fection with Chlorine Dioxide 1337
Characteristics of Ch/orine Dioxide 1337
Chforine Dioxide Chemistry 1337
Ejfectiveness of Chlorine Di oxide as a
Disin.fectant 1338
Modeling the Ch/orine Dioxide Disin.fection
Process 1338
Required Chlorine Dioxide Dosages for
Disinfeclion 1338
Byproduct Formation and Control 1338
Environmental lmpac1s 1339
12-5 Dechlorínation 1339
Dechlorination of Treated Wastewater
with Sul,fur Dioxide 1339
Dechiorirwtion of Treated Wastewafer with Sodium
Based Compounds 1341
Dechlorinatíon with Hyd1vgen Peroxide l 342
Dech/orination with Activated Carbo11 1342
Dechlorination. of Ch/orine Dioxide with Sulfur
Dioxide 1342
12-6 Design of Chlorination and Dechloriuation
Facilities 1343
Sizing Chlorinalion Faciliries 1343
Disinj'ec1ion Process Flow Diagrams 1344
Dosage Conrrol 1347
Injection a,ut lnitia/ Mixing 1349
Chlorine Contact Basin Design 1349
Assessir1g the Hydrau/ic Performance of Existing
Chlorine Contact Basins 1359
Outlet Control and Ch/orine Residual
Meas1.1rement 1365
Ch/orine Srorage Facilities 1365
Chemical Contaimne/'11 Facilities l366
Dechlorination Facilities l 366
12-7 Disinfection with Ozone 1367
Ozone Properties 1367
Ozone Chemistry 1368
Effectiveness of Ozone as a Disiefectant 1369
Modeling the Ozone Disinf'ection Process 1369
Required Ozone Dosages for Disinfection 1372
Es1imation of th.e CT Value 1372
 Contents xvii

Byproduct Formation and Control 1374 13-2 Regulations for the Reuse aod Disposition of SJudge
Environmental lmpacts <~f Using Ozone 1374 in the U11ited States 1461
01her Bene.fits of Using Ozon.e 1375 Land Application 1461
Ozo11e DisinfeClion Systems Components 1375 Su,face Disposition 1462
12-8 O ther Chemical Disinfection Methods 1378 Paihoge11 and Vector Attraction Reduction 1462
Peracetic Acid l379 lncineration 1463
Use of Peroxone as a Disinfectant 1380 13-3 Sludge Processing Flow Diagrams 1466
Sequential Chlorination 1381 13-4 Sludge and Scum Pumping 1467
Combined Chemical Disinfection Processes 1381 Pumps 1467
12-9 Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation Disinfectioo 1.382 Headloss Determination 1475
Source of UV Radiation 1383 S/udge Piping 1480
Types o.f UV Lamps 1384 13-S Prelimioary Sludge Processing Operations 1481
UV Disiufecrion System Co11/iguratio11s 1387 Grindi11g 1481
Quartz Sleeve Cleanin.g Systems J 390 Screenillg l 482
Mechnnism of /11activatio11 by UV Degriuing 1482
lrradiation 139 l 8/ending 1483
Gennicida/ Effectiveness of UV Jrradiation J 393 Storage 1484
Estirnating UV Dose 1399 13-6 Thickening 1486
Ultraviolet Disi11fection Guidelines 1404 Application 1486
Relc1tionship of UV Guidelines to UV System Description and Design <~f Thickeners 1487
Design 1405
13-7 lntroduction to Slu dge Stabilization 1497
Validation of UV Reactor or System
Pe,formance 1405
13-8 Alkaline Stabilization 1498
Chemicai Rea.ctions in Lime Stabi/iza1io11 1498
Factors Effecti11g UV System Design 14 13
Heat Generation 1499
Se/ection and Sizi11g of a UV Disinfec1io11
Applicatiori oj Alkali11e Stabi/ization
System 1420
Processes 1500
Use of Spot-Check Bioassay to Validare UV System
Pe1.formance 1422 13-9 Anaerobic Digestion 1.502
Troub/eshooting UV Disinfection Systems 1426 Pmcess Fundamentals 1503
Enviror1111entaL lmpacts o.f UV Racliation Description of Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion
Disinfection 1428 Processes 1504
Process Design for Mesophi/ic Anaerobic
12-10 Dis.infection By Pasteurization 1428
Dige.1·1io11 1506
Description of the Pasreurization Process 1428
Selectio11 ofTank Design and Mixing System 1512
Thermal Disi1if'ec1ion Kinetics 1429
Methods for Enhancing Sludge Loading and
Germicida/ E.fj'ectivene.u of Pasteurizc,tion 1433
Digester Pe,forman.ce 1520
Regularory Requirements 1433
Gas Production, CoLlection, a11d Use 1520
Application of Pasteurization.for
Digester Heming 1525
Disi11fection 1433
Advancerl Anaerohic Digestion 1530
Problems and Discussion Topics 1434 Sludge Pre-treatment.for A11aerobic
Digestion l 533
13 Processing and Treatment Co-digesrion with Other Organic Waste
Material 1538
of Sludges 1449
13-10 Aerobic Digestion 154 1
13-1 Sludge Sources. Characteristics, and Process Description 1542
Quantities 1453 Conventional Air Aerobic Digestion l.544
Sources 1453 Dual Digestion 1549
Characteristics 1454 Autothermal Thennophilic Aerobic Digestion
Qua11tities 1456 (ATAD) 1549
xviii Contents
lmproved ATAD Systems 1553
High-Purity Oxygen Digestion 1553
Problems and Discussion Topics 1554
14 Biosolids Processing, Resource
Recovery and Beneficial
Use 1561
14-1 Chemical Conditioning 1564
Polymers 1564
Factors A.ffecling Polymer Conditioning
Polymer Dosage Determination 1565
Mixing 1566
Condirioning Makeup and Feed L567
14-2 Dewatering J567
Overview of Dewa.tering Technologies
Centrifugation 157 1
Belt-Filter Press 1574
Rotary Press 1577
Screw Press 1580
Filter Presses 1583
Elec1ro-Dewatering 1585
Sludge Drying Beds 1588
Reed Beds 1.592
Lagoons 1593
14-3 Heat Drying 1593
Heat-Trans.fer Methods 1593
Process Description 1595
Produce Characteristics and Use 1599
Product Transport and Storage 1600
Fire and Explosion Hazards 1601
Air Pollution and Odor Con.hvl 1601
14-4 Advanced Thermal Oxjdation 1602
Fundamental Aspect.~ of Complete
Combus1ion 1603
Multiple-Hearth lncineration 1606
F/uidized-Bed Incineration 1608
Energy Recovery from Thermal Oxidation 1610
Coincineration with Municipal Solid Waste 1611
Air-Pollution Control ] 612
14-5 Composting 1613
P1vcess Microbiology 1614
Composting Process Sta.ges 1614
Composting Process Steps 1614
Composling Methods 16 16
Design Considerations 1618
Co-composting with Municipal Solid Wastes [620
P11blic Health and Environmental lssues 1620
14-6 Sludge and Biosolids Conveyance and Storage 1621
Conveyance Methods 1621
Storage 1622
14-7 Solids Mass Balances 1623
Preparation of Solids Mass Balances 1623
Performance Data.far Solids Processing
Facilities 1623
lmpact of Return Flows and Loads 1623
14-8 Resource Recovery from Sludges ancl
Biosolids 1636
1565 Recovery oj Nutrients 1637
Agricultura/ Land Application 1637
Non-Agricultura/ Lana Applications 1637
14-9 Energy Recovery from Sludge and Biosolids 1638
Energy Recovery through Anaerobic
1568 Digestion 1638
Energy Recovery by Thermal Oxidation 1639
Energy Recoveryfrom Dried Material through
Gasifica/ion and Pyrolysís 1639
Production <1f Oíl and Liquid Fue[ 1640
14-1 O Application of Biosolids to Land 1640
Benefits oj úmd Application 1640
U.S. EPA Regulations for Beneficia.( Use and
Disposal of Biosolids 1640
Management Practices 1641
Site Evaluation and Selection 1643
Design Loading Rafes 1644
Application Methods 1648
Application to Dedica.red Lands 1650
Landjilling 1651
Problems and Discussion Topics 1651
15 Plant Recycle Flow Treatment
and Nutrient Recovery 1659
15-1 Sidestream Identifü:ation and
Characterization 1661
Sidestreams Derived fivm Primary
and Secondary Sludges 1662
Sidestreams Derived from Fermen.ted Primary
and Digested Prima,y and Secon.{Ú¡ry
Sludges 1662
15-2 Mitigating Recycle Flows and Loads 1667
Sidestream Pretreatmenl 1667
Equalization of Sidestream Ffows and Loads 1667
1S-3 Reduction of Suspended Solids and Colloidal
Material 1673
Sidesrreams Derived from Sludge Thickening 1673
 Contents xix

Sidestreams Derived from Biosolids Design Loadi11.g and Load Equalizatio11 1717
Dewatering 1673 Sidestream Pretrea1111ent 1717
Remo val of Colloida/ Matter 1674 Sidestream Reactor Volwne 1718
Aeration System 17'18
15-4 Physiochemical P rocesses for P hosphorus
Recovery L674
Sl11dge Rete11tio11 Time and Mixed Liq11or Suspended
Description of 1/ie Crystailiza1ion Solids Concen1ratio11 1721
Process 1675 Chemica/ Requirements 1721
Recove1y of Phosphorus as Magnesium Ani111011iw11. Operaling Tempera111re and pH 1723
Plwsp/wte (Struvite) 1678 Opera1ing pH 1723
Recovery of Phosphorns as Q1lcium Energy Balance to De1ermine /?eactor Cooling
Requirements 1723
Phosphate J 683
Plwsphorus Recovery from Mainstream Problems and Oiscussion Topics l728
Pmcesses 1684
15-5 Physiochemical Processcs for Amrnonia Recovery 16 Air Emissions from
a11d Destruction 1686
Wastewater Treatment
Recove1y of Ammonia by Air Stripping
and Acid Absorption 1686 Facilities and Their
Recovery of Ammo11.ic1 by Steam S1rippi11g 1690 Control 1737
Air Stripping with Thermocatalytic: Destruction
16-1 Types of Em issions 1739
of Ar111nonia 1692
16- 2 Regu latory Req uirernents 1739
15-6 Beneficia! Use of Recovered Phosphate a nd
Ambienl Air Quaiity and Attainmenl
Ammonium Products 1693
Status 1739
Magnesium Am111011i11m Phosphate Hexahydrate Preconstruc1io11 and Operaling Permitting
(Struvite) 1693 Programs 1741
Calcium Phosphate (Hydroxapatite) 1694 S1a1ionary Source Control Technology
A111moniu111 Sulfme 1694 Requirements 1741
Ammonium Nitra/e 1695
16-3 Odor Management 1742
15-7 Biological Removal of Nitrogen from
Types of Odors 1742
Sidestrea ms 1696
S011rces of Odors 1742
Nitrogen Removal Processes 1696 Measurement of Odors 1745
Separate Trearme111 Processes .f<)r Nitrogen Odor Dispersion Modeling 1746
Removed 1697 Movement of Odors from W.:1stewcaer
lntegrated Sidestream-Mainstream Treannent
Treatment Facilities 1746
a11d Bioaugmentation 1699 Strategiesfor Odor Manageme,u 1747
15-8 Nitrification and Deuitrification Processes J700 Odor Treatment Methods 1751
F1.111da111e111al Process Co11.sideratio11s 1700 Selection and Design of Odor Control
Trea1me11t Processes 1703 Facilities 1760
15-9 Nitiitalion and Denitritation Prucesses 1706 Design Comideralions for Chemical
Fundamental Process Considera1io11s 1706 Scrubbers 1760
Trearment Processes 1709 Design Consideracions for Odor Control
15-10 Partial Nitritation and Anaerobic Am monium Bio.filters 1762
Oxidation (Deammonification) Processes 1709 16-4 Control of Volati le Organic Carbon
Fundamental Process Considera1ions 1710 Emissions 1767
Treatment Processes 17 15 Physical Properties of Selected VOCs 1768
15- 11 Process Design Considcrations for B iologicaJ Emission <i VOCs L768
Treau11ent Processes 1715 Mass Transfer Ra1es for VOCs 177 l
Sides1ream Characteristics and Treamrelll Mass Transfer of VOCs from Swjace
Objectives 1716 and Dijfused-Air Aerc,tion Processes 1771
XX Contents

Control Strategies for VOCs J774 Energy Recovery from Gaseous Fuels with
Trearmen1 ofOff-Gases 1774 Boilers 1824
16-5 Emissions frorn the Combustion Energy Recovery fmm Solid Fuels 1826
Of Gases And Sofids 1777 Energy Recovery from Syngas 1833
Sources of Fuels 1777 Energy Recovery with Fuel Cell J833
Combustion Systems Used al Wastewater 17- 7 Recovery and Utilization of Thermal
Treatmen.t Plants 1778 Energy 1834
Emissions of Concem .from Combustion Sources of Heat 1835
Sources 1779 Dem.andsfor Hea1. 1836
Flaring of Digester Gas 1780 Devices for Waste Heat Recovery and
16-6 Emission of Greenhouse Gases 1784 Utilization 1838
Frameworkfor Greenhouse Gases Reduction 1784 Design Considerations for Thermal Energy
Assessment Protocols 1784 Recovery Systems 1843
Opportunitiesfor GHG Reduction at Wastewater 17-8 Recovery and Utiljzation of Hydraulic Potential
Trealment Facilities 179 1 Energy 1846
Problems and Discussion Topics 1793 Type of Hydraulic Potential Energy Recovery
Devices 1846
Application of Hydraulic Energy Recovery
17 Energy Considerations in Devices 1847
Wastewater Management 1797 Use of Residual Pressure Head in Treatment
17-1 Factors Driving Energy Managemen1 1799 Processes 1849
Potentialfor Energy Cost Savings 1799 17-9 Energy Management 1850
En.ergy Supply Reliability 1800 Process Optimization and Modijication
Considera.tüms far Sustainability 1800 far Energy Saving 1850
17-2 Energy in Wastewater 1800 Process Modificationfor lncreased Energy
Chemical Energy 1800 Produclion 1856
Thermal Energy 1804 Peak Flmvrate Ma.nagement (Peak Energy
Hydraulic Energy 1805 Usage) 1857
Selection of Energy Sources 1858
17-3 Fundamentals of a Heat Balance 1807
Concept of a Heat Balance J807 17-1 O Future Opportunities for Ahernative Wastewater
Preparatio11 of a Heat Balance 1808 Treatment Processes 1858
17-4 Energy Usage in Wastewater Treatrnent Enhanced Energy Recove,y of Particulate Organic
Plants 1809 Matter 1858
Reduced Energy Usage in Biological
Types of Energy Sources Used at Wastewater
Treatment 1859
Treatment Facilities 1810
Reduced Energy Usage through the Use of
Energy Usefor Wastewater Treatment 1810
Altern.ative Treatment Processes 1859
Energy Use by In,lividual Treatment
Prospects for the Future 1860
Processes 18 lO
Advanced and New Wastewater Treatment Problems and Discussion Topics l860
Tecfmologies 1811
17-5 Energy Audits and Benchmarking 1813 18 Wastewater Management:
Benchmarking Energy Usage 1814
Future Challenges and
Benchmarking Protocol 1815
17-6 Recovery and Utilization of Chemical
Opportunities 1865
Energy 1819 18-1 Futurc Challenges and Opportunities 1867
Fuels Derivedfrom Waslewater 1819 Asset Management 1867
Energy Recovery fmm Gaseous Fuels with Engines Design for Energy and Resource Recovery 1869
and Turbines 1821
 Contents xxi

Desig11 of Wastewater Treatment Plant.v SSO Guidarice 1895

for Potable Reuse 1869 Wet-Wea1her Management Options 1895
Decet11ralized (Satellite) Wastewater Discussion Topics 1899
Treatment 1872
Low lmpact Development 1873
Triple Bottom Li11e 1875 Appendix es
18- 2 Impact of Population Demographics, Climate A Conversion Factors 1901
Change and Sea Leve! Rise, Uocontrollable Events, 8 Physical Properties of Selcclcd Gases and the
and Uninteoded Coosequences 1875 Composilion oí Air 1909
lmpact of Popu/(ltion Demogruphics 1876 e Physical Properties ofWater 1913
lmpact of Clima te Change and Sea Leve/
D Statislical Analysis of Data 1917
Rise 1877
lmpact of Unco111rollable Evems 1879 E Dissolved Oxygen Concenlration in Water as a
lmpact of the Lc1w of Unintended Function ofTempernture, Salinity, and Barornetric
Consequences 1879 Pressu re 1923

18-3 Upgrading Trcatment Plant Performance Through F Carbonate Equilibrium 1925

Process Optimization and/or Operational G Moody Diagrarns for the Analysis of Flow in
Changes 1882 Pipes 1929
Process Optimization 1882 H Analysis of Nonidcal Plow in Rcactors using
Operational Ch(l11ges to lmprove Plan/ Tracers 1931
Performance 1886 Modeling Nonideal Flow in Reactors 1941
18-4 Upgrnding Treaunent Planl Performance Through
Process Modilication 1889
Upgrading Physical Facilities 1889
Indexes
VpRrading to Meet New Co11sti111ent Re111oval Namc lndex 1953
Require111e111s 1890 Subject Tndex 1966
18-5 Management of Wet-Weather Flows 1890
SSO Policy Issues 1892
 Suspended Growth Biological
Treatment Processes

8- 1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS 700

Historical Development of Activated Sludge Process 70 7
Basic Process Description 101
Evolution of the Conventional Activated Sludge Process 702
Nutrient Removaf Processes 706
8- 2 WASTEWATER CHARACTERIZATION 707
Key Wastewater Constituents far Process Design 707
Measurement Methods far Wastewater Characterization 77 2
Recycle Flows and Loadings 716
8- 3 FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESS SELECTION, DESIGN, AND CONTROL 717
Overa// Considerations in Treatment Process lmplementation 717
lmportant Factors in Process Sefection and Design 717
Process Control 726
Operationaf Problems in Activated Sfudge Systems with Secondary Cforifiers 7 32
Operotionol Problems with MBR Systems 138
8-4 SELECTOR TYPES AND DESIGN CONSIDERATION 738
Selector Types and Design Considerations 739
Poor Settling Even With Use of Selector 7 41
8-5 ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 7 42
Steady-State Design Approach 7 42
Use of Simulation Model 7 44
Modef Matrix Formal, Components, and Reactions 7 47
Other Simufation Model Applicotions 751
8-6 PROCESSES FOR BOD REMOVAL AND NITRIFICATION 752
Overview of BOD Removal and Nitrification Processes 752
General Process Design Considerations 754
Complete-Mix Activated Sfudge Process Design 754
Sequencing Batch Reactor Process Design 771
Staged Activated Sludge Process Design 782
Afternative Processes far 800 Removaf and Nitrification 786
8- 7 PROCESSES FOR BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN REMOVAL 795
Process Development 796
Overview of Types of Biological Nitrogen-Removal Processes 797
General Process Design Considerotions 802
Preanoxic Denitrification Processes 804
Postanoxic Denitrification Processes 831
Low DO and Cycfic Nitrification/Denifrificotion Processes 833
Afternative Process Configurations for Biofogicol Nitrogen Removaf 838

697
698 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biologicol Treolment Processes

Denitrification with Externa/ Carbon Addition 848

Process Control and Performance 860
8-8 PROCESSES FOR ENHANCED BIOLOGICAL PHOSPHORUS REMOVAL 861
Process Development 86 1
Overview of Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal
Processes 862
General Process Design Considerations 864
Operational Factors That Affect Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal 878
Enhanced Biological Phosphorus Removal Process Design 880
Provision for Chemicaf Addition 883
Process Control and Performance Optimiza/ion 884
8-9 AERATION TANK DESIGN FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES 885
Aeration System 885
Aeration Tonks and Appurtenances 886
8-1 O ANALYSIS OF LIOUID-SOLIDS SEPARATION FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE
PROCESSES WITH CLARIFIERS 889
Solids Separation by Secondary Clarifiers 889
Assessing Sludge Thickening Characteristics 891
Clarifier Design Based on Solids Flux Analysis 893
Clarifier Design Based on $tate Point Analysis 900
8-11 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SECONDARY CLARIFIERS 906
Types of Sedimenta/ion Tank 906
Sidewater Depth 91 O
Flow Distribution 91 O
Tonk In/et Design 91 O
Weir Placement and Loading 912
Scum Removal and Management 912
8-12 SOLIDS SEPARATION FOR MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS 913
Design Parameter 913
Membrane Properties 914
Membrane Design and Operating Characteristics 917
Membrane Usage 917
Membrane Fouling lssues 917
PROBLEMS AND DISCUSSION TOPICS 919
REFERENCES 934

WORKING TERMINOLOGY
Term Definition

Activoted sludge process
Biologicol treotment process thot involves the convers ion of orgonic motter ond/or other constit-
uents in the wostewoter to gases ond cell tissue by o lorge moss o f oerobic microorgonisms
mointo ined in suspension by mixing ond oerotion. The microorgonisms form flocculent particles
that are separoted from the process efAuent in a sedimentation tank (clorifier) and are returned
subsequently to the aeration process or wasted.

Term
Aerobic (oxic} processes
A naerob ic processes
A noxic process
Biomoss
Biological nutrient removal
{BNR)
Denilrification
Enhanced biologica l phos-
phorus removal (EBPR)
Hindered settling
Focultotive processes
Fermenlalion
Membrane bioreoctor (MBR)
Membrane flux
Mixed liquor suspended
solids (MLSS}
N itrificotion
Nocardioform foom
Nonbiodegradable volatile
suspended solids (nbVSS)
Phosphorus occumuloting
orgonisms (PAOs)
Readily biodegradable
COD (rbCOD)
Sequencing ba tch reactor
(SBR)
Simulo tion models
Simultaneous nitrificalion
and denitrificotion {SNdN)
Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes 699
Definition
Biologicol treatment processes that occur in the presence of free d issolved oxygen; oxygen is
consumed by oerobic microorgan isms in oxidation/reduction reaclions to produce energy for
cell growth o nd cell maintenonce.
Biologicol treatment processes that occur in the absence of oxygen.
Biologica l treatment process that occurs in the absence of free d issolved oxyg en where nitrate
and nitrite ore used as the main electron acceptors in biologi cal oxidotion/reduction reocti ons;
denitrification is an exomple of an a noxic process.
The total mass of solids in a reactor consisti ng mainly of organic matter ond microorgonisms.
The term opplied to the removol of nitrogen ond phosphorus in biologica l trea tment processes.
The biological process by w hich nilrate ar nitrite is reduced to nitrogen ond other gaseous end
products.
Removal of phosphorus by exlraord inary storoge in bacteria selected in anoerobic/oerobic
process configuration ond subsequent solids separation.
Settling which occurs when the octivoted sludge flocs interfere wi th each other as they settle.
Biologico l treotm ent processes in w hich the organisms con function in the presence or obsence
of molecular oxygen.
The conversion o f orgonic matter to volotile fatty ocids in the obsence of oxygen, nitrate, ond
nitrite.
A process thot combines a suspended growth process with o membrone seporation systern
w ithin !he process oeration tan k; membrane seporotion is accomplished by either microfiltrotion
ar ultrofiltration.
The rote of flow ocross a membrane per unit of surloce orea, L/m 2 ·h.
The biomoss contoined in a treo tment reactor used to bring obout treotment of the organic
material in wastewater.
The two-step biological process by wh ich nitrogen (mostly in the form of ammonio) is converted
to nitrite and then to nitrate.
A thick layer of brown, biologica l foom caused by o filamentous bacteria that forms o n the top
of aeration tanks and secon dary clo rifiers.
These ore suspended solids contained in influent wastewoter to octivated sludge processes that
ore organic but not biodegradoble. They impacl sludge production.
Heterotrophic bacteria selected in EBPR processes that hove the obility for high inlracellulor
phosphorus storoge.
Dissolved biodegradoble orgonic substroles w hich ore removed by bacteria much faster ~, on
colloidal or porticulate degradoble COD. Th e rbCOD impacts spotia l oxygen demand, EBPR
removal efficiency, and denitrification roles.
An SBR is a batch fill and draw octivated sludge lreatrnent process. lt involves o treatment
sequence of fi ll, reoct, settling, supernaton t deconting, a nd idle. Activated sludge aerotion and
liquid solids separotion occurs in the sorne tank.
Mathernoticol models, bosed on a set of equotions, used to ossess the effects of ki netics ond
changes in the wostewater characterizes on process performance.
Nitrogen removol occurs in sorne activated sludge floc or in a biofilm due to nitrificotion in
oerobic outer layer and denitrification in interior due to the lack of dissolved oxygen and
presence of nitrate or nitrite.
700 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biologicol Treotment Processes

Term
Sludge production
Sludge yield
Solids flux onolysis
Solids retention time (SRT)
Stoged process
Surface overflow rote
Suspended growth processes
Volumetric orgonic loading
role
Definition
The omount of solids produced during the biologicol processing of wostewoter including
influent nonbiodegradoble solids ond the biomoss resulting from the conversion of orgonic.
The omounl of solids produced relotive to the omount of BOD or COD removed during the
biologicol processing of wostewoter.
A method used to determine the oreo requ ired for hindered settling bosed on on onolysis of the
solids (moss) flux.
The average period of time in which solids remoin in o suspended growth process (olso called
sludge oge).
Processes which occur with more thon one independent reactor or comportment in series.
The hydraulic flowrote applied relative to the clorifier surface oreo (m 3/m 2 ·d ).
Biologicol treotment processes in w hich microorgonisms responsible for the conversion of
organic matter or other constituents in the wostewaler lo gases ond cell tissue ore maintoined in
suspension within the liquid.
The omount of BOD or COD opplied to the aeration tank volume per doy (e.g ., kg BOD or
C0D/m 3 ·d).

The theory of biological wastewater treatment is presented and discussed in detail in

Cbap. 7. Biological treatment processes, as noted in Chap. 7, may be classitied as aerobic
and anaerobic suspended growth, attached growth, and various combinations thereof. The
focus of this chapter is on s uspended growth treatment processes as exemplified by the
actívated sludge process for BOD and nitrification and for nitrogen and phosphorus removal.
Attached growth and combined processes are cliscussed in Chap. 9, a.ne! suspended and
attached grnwth anaerobic processes are considered in Cbap. 1O. lncluded in this chapter
are ( 1) íntroduction to the activated sludge process. (2) wastewater characterizatioo, (3) fun -
damentals of process selection, design, and control, (4) selector types and design consider-
ations, (5) use of simulation models for activated sludge process design considerarioos,
(6) proce~ses for BOD removal and nit1ification, (7) processes for biological nitrogen
removal, (8) processes for enhanced bio\ogical phosphorus removal, (9) aeration tank design
for activatecl sludge processes, () 0) analysis of liquid separation for activated sludge pro-
cesses with clarifiers, ( 11) design considerations for secondarily clarifiers, ancl (12) solids
separation for membrane bioreactors. Aerated lagoons, non-aerated lagoons, ancl stabiliza-
lion ponds are not covered in this text, as they are used mainly for small rural communities
where sufficient land is avai\able and discharge requirements may not be as st1ingent as in
urban areas. Detailed design information on aerated lagoons and stabilization ponds may be
found i.n the 4th edition of this textbook (Tchobanoglous et al., 2<X)3). Additional sources
of information may be found in Crites and Tchobanoglous (J 998) and Reed et al. (1995).

8-1 INTRODUCTION TO THE ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS

To provide a basis for the process designs presentecl in the subsequent sect.ions of this
chapter, it will be useful to consider (1) a brief summary of the historical development of
the activat.ed sludge process, (2) a description of the basic process, (3) a brief review of the
evolution of the activated sludge process, and (4) an overview of recent process
developments.
 8-1 lntroduction to the Activated Sludge Process 701

Historical Development ol Activated Sludge Process

Tbe activated sludge process is now used routinely for the biological treatment of
municipal and industrial wastewaters. The antecedents of the activated sludge process
date back to the early l 880s in England, to the work of Dr. Angus Smith, who inves-
tigated the aeration of wastew,1Ler in tanks, which hastened the oxidation of the
organic matter. The aeration of wastewater was stuclied subsequently by a number of
iuvestigators, and in 19 l O Black and Phelps reported lhat a considerable reduction in
putrcscibility could be secured by forcing air into wastewater in basins. In experiments
with aerated wastewater, conducted at the Lawrence Experiment Station during 1912
and 1913, Clark and Gage found that growths of organisms could be cultivated in
bottles and in tanks pa1tially filled with roofing slate spaced about 25 mm (l in.) apart
and that these growths greatly increased Lhe degree of purificalion obtained (Clark and
Adams, 1914). /
The resulLs of the work at the Lawrence Experiment Station, with respect to Lhe treat-
ment of wastewater, were so striking that knowll?dge of rhem led Dr. G. J. Fowler of the
University of Maochester, England to suggest that experiments along sinúlar lines be
conducted at the Manchester Sewage Works where Ardero and Lockett carried out valu-
able research on the subject. During the course of theü· experiments, Ardern and Lockelt
found that the sludge played an important pai1 in the results obtained by aeration, as
,mnounced in their paper of May 3, 1914 (Ardem and Lockett, 1914). The process was
named activatecl sludge by Ardern and Lockell because it involved the production of an
activated mass of microorganjsms capable of aerobic stabilization of organic material in
wastewaler (Metcalf & Eddy, 1935).

Basic Process D~scription

By definition, the basic activated sludge treatment process, as illustrated on Figs. 8- 1(a)
and (b), consists of,the following three basic components: ( 1) a reactor in which thc
microorganisms respousible for treatment are kept in suspension and aerated; (2) liquid-
solids separation unit, usually in a sedimentation tank; and (3) a recycle system for
returning solids removed from the liquid-solids separation unit back to the reactor.
Numerous process configurations have evolved employing these compone11ts. An i_mpor-
taot fealure of the activated sludge process is the forma ti oo of flocculent settleable sol ids
lhat can be removed by gravity settling in sedimentation tanks. In most cases, the acti-
vated sludge process is employed in conjunction with physical and chemical processes
that aJe used for the prelim.ínary and primary treatment of wastewater (discussed in
Chap. 5), and post treatment, incl uding disinfection (Cha p. 12), and possibly filtration
(Chap. l J).
Historically, most activated sludge plants have been used to trcat wastewaters that
have been pretreated by primary sedimeotation, as shown on Figs. 8-l(a) and (b). Primary
sedirnentation is most efficient at removing settleable solids, whereas thc biological pro-
cesses are essential for removiog soluble, colloidal, and particuJate (suspended) orgaiúc
substances; for nitrification and dcnitrification; and for biological phosphorus removal. For
apptications such as treating wastewater from smaller-sized cornmunüíes, primary LTeat-
ment is often not used as more cmphasis is placed on simpler and less operator-iutensive
treatmcnt methods. Primary treatment is ornitted frequently in areas of the world tbat have
hot climates, wbere odor problems from primary tanks and primary sludge can be signifi-
cant. For these applications, various modifications of conventional activated sludge pro-
cesses are used, including sequencing batch reactors, oxidation d.itch systems, and mem-
brane bioreactors.
702 Chapter 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes

Primary
clarifier

lnílu~ o _ _ , _ (: -)

T Plan view of aeration tank

Sludge
Return activated sludge

(a) Sludge

Aeraüon tank

lnfluent

Return activated sludge

- Fill - React/ - Settl e - Decant -

aeration
(e) Time sequence

Figure 8-1
Typica l octivated sludge processes w ith di fieren! types of reactors: (a) schematic llow d iagram of p lug-
llow process ond view of plug-ffow reactor, (b) schematic flow diogrom o f complete-m ix process a nd
v iew of complete-m ix activoted sludge reactor, a nd (c) sc hemolic d iagram o f sequencing bolch
reactor process a nd view of sequenci ng batch reactor.

Evolution of the Conventional Activated 5/udge Process

Prior to the 1980s, the pri ncipal objective of actívated sludge process designs was aimed
mainly at achieving a "secondary treatment" standard of 85 percent BOD and TSS
removal. Since then, more emphasis has been placed on meeting more stringent discharge
limits as well as the removal of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus). Thus, a number of
activated sludge processes and design configurations have evolved in response to (J) the
need for higher-quality eftluents from wastewater treatment plants; (2) the need to remove
nutrients; (3) increased discoveries and understanding of microbial processes and funda-
mentals; (4) technological advauces in equipment, materials, electronics, and process
control; and (5) the continua) need to reduce capital and operati ng and energy costs for
municipalities and industries. Many activated sludge processes used today and expected to
be used in the foture may incorporate nitrification, biological nitrogen rcmoval, and/or
biological phosphorus removal. Typically, reactors in series, operated under aerobic,
anoxic, and anaerobic conditions are used. T he general types of activated sludge processes
used (i.e., plug flow, complete mix, and sequencing batch reactor), illustrated on Fig. 8- 1,
are considered in the followi ng discussion.
 8-1 lntroduction to the Activated Sludge Process 703

Plug-Flow Process Configurations. Since the process carne into common use in
the early 1920s and up until the late l 970s, the type of activated sludge process used most
commonly was the one in which a plug-tlow reactor with large length to width ratios
(typically > 1O: l) was used Lsee Fig. 8-1 (a)). In considering the evolution of the activated
sludge process, it is important to note lbat the discharge of industrial wastes to domestic
wastewater collection systems increased ÍJl the late 1960s. The use of a plug-flow process
became problematic when industrial wast.es were introduced because of the toxic effects
of sorne of the discharges.

Complete-Mix Process Configurations. The complete-mix reactor was devel-

oped, in part, beca.use the larger volume allowed for greater diJution and thus mitigated the
effects of toxic discharges. The more common type of activated sludge process in the
1970s and early 1980s tended to be single-stage, complete-mix activated sludge (CMAS)
processes [see Fig. 8- l(b)J, as advanced by McKinney ( 1962). For sorne niuification
applications, two-stage systems (ea.ch stage consisting of an aeration tank and clarifier)
were used with the first stage designed for BOD removal, followed by a second stage for
nitrification.

Comparing Plug Flow and Complete Mix Process Configurations. In

cornparing the plug-flow [see Fig. 8- 1(a)] and complete-mix activated sludge (CMAS)
ísee Fig. 8-l(b)] processes, the mixing regimes and tank geometry are quite different. In
the CMAS process, the mixing of the tank contents is sufficient so that ideally the concen-
trations of the mixed-liquor constituents, soluble substances (i.e., COD, BOD, NH4 -N),
and co!Joidal and suspended solids do not vary with location in tbe aeration basin. Tbe
plug-flow process involves relatively long, narrow aeration ba~ins, so that the concenu·ation
of soluble substances and co!Joidal and suspended solids varies along tbe reactor length.
Altbough process configurations employing long, nan-ow tanks are commonly referred to
as plug-flow processes, in reality, b·ue plug tlow does not exist. Depending on tbe type of
aeration system, back mixing of the mixed liquor can occur and, dependi ng on the layout
of the reactor and the system reaction kinetics, nominal plug flow may be described more
appropriately by the series of complete-mix reactors as discussed in Chap. 4.

Sequencing Batch Process Configuration. With the development of simple

inexpensive program logic controllers (PLCs) and the availability of leve! sensors and auto-
rnatically operated valves, the sequencing batch reactor (SBR) process [see Fig. 8- l(c))
became used more widely by the late 1970s, especially for smaller communities and i11dus-
trial installatfons wit.h intermittent 11ows. In recen! years, however, SBRs are being used for
larger cities. TJ1e SBR is a fill -and-draw type of reactor system involving a single complete-
mix reactor in which all steps of lhe activated sludge process occur. Mjxed liquor remains in
the reactor during ali cycles, thereby eLiminating tbe need for separate sedimentation tanks.

Other Activated Sludge Processes. Other activated sludge processes that have
fou nd application, with their dates of major intcrest in parentheses, include the oxidation
ditch ( 1950s), contact stabilization ( 1950s), Krause process ( 1960s), pure oxygen activated
sludge (1970s), Orbal process (J970s), deep shaft aeration (1970s), and sequencing batch
reactor process ( 1980).

Development of Selectors. Activated sludge process designs before and until the
late J970s generally involved the configurations shown on Figs. 8-l(a) and (b). These
designs very often suffered from solicls settli ng problems in the secoudary clarifiers dueto
704 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biologicol Treotment Processes

the proliferation of filamentous-type bacteria. Jn the early 1980s researchers and practiciJ1g
engineers advanced the concept of a "biological selector" in activated sludge design, wbich
was first introduced in a patent by Davidson (1957) to select for good settling "floc-
forming" activated sludge over fiJamentous bacteria. Selectors are smaller single or multi-
staged aerated reactors in front of the main activated sludge treatment aeration basin. The
selector concept is also inherent in designs with single or multi-staged anoxic or anaerobic
reactors before the main aeration tank to select for conditions for denitrification of nitrate/
nitrite or for phosphorus-storing bacteria. The anoxic or anaerobic reactors also serve as
selectors resulting in the development of good settling activated sludge. Selectors are con-
sidered in detail in Sec. 8-4.

M embrane Bioreactor Process Configuration. A membrane bioreactor

(MBR) is an activatecl sludge system witb membranes located at the end of the activated
sludge basin(s) for liquid-solids separation in lieu of using secondary clarifiers (see
Fig. 8- 2). In the integrated MBR system shown on Fig. 8-2 the key componen! is the
microfiltration or ultrafiltration membrane that is immersed directly into the activated
sludge reactor. The membraoes are mounted in modules (sometimes called cassettes)
that can be lowered into the bioreactor. The modules are com.prised of the membranes,
support structure for the membranes, feed inlet and outlet connections, and an overall
support struclltre. The membranes are subjected to a vacuum (less than 50 kPa) that

Mixed liquor solids Solids

,--- -'-'='ª::::.ºirc::,u::::l
"-' a:,::lis:,on.,___ _ _~_t_o~waste

Screened
influ ~ Screened
Aerobic influenl
zone Aeration
basin

Solids
towaste
Interna! r~ycle
Membrane Submerged
compartment membrane
(a) (oplional) (b) modules

(e) (d)

Figure 8-2
Membrane bioreoctor (MBR). A multi-stoged octivoted sludge system with membrones far liquid-solids
seporotion: (o) section through MBR wi th seporate comporfment far the membranes, (b) p io n view of
MBR, (e) view of membrana cassettes being placed in seporote compartment, and (d) view o f
seporate membrane comportment.
 8-1 lntroduction to the Activoted Sludge Process 705

draws water (permeate) through the membrane while retaining solids in the reactor. To
minirnize the accumulation of solids and fouling on the exterior of the membranes, com-
pressed air is inrroduced through a disufüution manifold ar the base of the mernbrane
module. As lhe air bubbles rise to the surface, scouring of the membrane surface occurs;
the air also provides oxygen to maintain aerobic cooditions and solids suspension
within the reactor.

lmplementatioo of MBR Proccss. In 1969, U.S. Patent 3,472,765 was issued to

William E. Budd and Robert W. Okey of Dorr-Oliver for a process that integrated com-
plete-mix activated sludge process with rnembrane technology. Membrane separation for
activated sludge treatment was first demonstrated al Pikes Peak, CO, in 1974 by Dorr
Oliver, but it was not economically feasible for widespread use unlil membrane materials
and rnanufacturing methods improved. 1n addition, the initial designs employed cross-
flow mernbrane separation units located outside the activated sludge tanks, whicb had
high energy requirements for pumping mixed liquor across the membrane to control foul-
ing. Placement of the membrane separation unit in the activated sludge reactor and using
co~u·se bubble aeration, in the late 1980s, was less eoergy intensive and led to future MBR
applications (Yamamoto et al., 1989). The lower energy MBR systcm was first commer-
cialized with flat plate membranes by Kubota for wastewater treatment in Japan in l 990.
About three years later an MBR system using Zenon's hollow fibcr ZceWccd® system
was installed at Stoney Creek, Ontario Canada. The first MBR installation for biological
wastewater treatment in the U.S. was in 1998 at lhe Arapohoe County Lonc Tree Creek
WWTP in Colorado. The use of ultrafiltration (UF) and microfiltration (MF) membranes
in MBR systems for activated sludge treatment was well accepted in the late 1990s and
carly 2000s.

MBR Proccss Advantages and Disadvantages. The use of membrane liquid-solids

separation provides many advantages compared to activated sludge processes with gravity
clarifiers. Tbese are (l) a much smaller area requirement (less than 50%) dueto operation
with a higher mixed liquor concentration (typically 8000 to 12,000) and the reduced space
for membrane separation compared to clarifiers, (2) simpler process operation with no
concerns about the effect of filamentous activated sludge, (3) a redaimed water quality
eft1uent due to complete suspended solids capture across the membrane separation, and
(4) a lower disinfection dose requirement dueto the low turbidity effluent. Disadvantages
are an increased energy cost, the need for future mernbrane replacement, and the cleaning
and operational demands for membrane fouling control.

MBR Process Applications. The mosl frequent applications for MBRs have been for
domeslic wastewater treatme11t and water reuse, ranging in flows from smaU housing
developments and apartments to large centralized wastewater treatment facilities. The Iarg-
est facility, as of 2008, is the King County, Washington Brightwater wastewater treatment
plant, at an average design flowrate of 117,000 rn 3/d (Judd, 2008a). MBR designs have
also been used for industrial wastewater treatment applications, including food and
beverage processing, chenúcal plants, automotive plants, dairy wastewater, oíl refinery
wastewater, landfill leacbate and pharmaceuticals, and also in anaerobic treatment
processes (Yang el al., 2006).
Process applications of MBRs are described along with similar applications using
activated sludge and clarifiers for nitrification, nitrogen removal and enhanced biological
phosphorus removal in Secs. 8-7 and 8-8. Design considerations assocíated with the use
of gravity clarifiers or membranes for activated sludge liquid-solids separation are
706 Chapter 8 Suspended Growth Bialogical Treatmenf Processes

discussed in Secs. 8- 10, 8-11, and 8-1 2. Membrane systems used in advanced wastewater
applications including membrane materials, membrane designs, and operating conditions
are discussed in Sec. 11-6 in Chap. 11.

Nutrient Removal Processes

Over the past JO years, achieving higher nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) removals has
gained importance in lhe implementation of the activated sludge treatment process. As a
result, a number of biologica\ nutrient-removal configurations have been developed
including those using aclivated sludge with secondary claritiers or membranes for Jiquid-
solids separation. Nem-Ly all of the various activated sludge process modifications, wbether
witb secondary clarifiers or membranes, are based on the same fundamental principies of
biological treatment as described previously in Chap. 7. Processes used in fu ll-scale
operalion are clescribed in Secs. 8-6, 8-7, and 8- 8; design examples for the processes most
commonJy used are also included.
A key element in the new nutrient removal designs is the use of interna! recycle
from the aeration or anoxic tanks to upstream reactors (see Fig. 8-3), in contrast to
recycle in the past being only from che secondary clarifier underflow to the head of the
aclivated sludge aeraLion tank as shown on Figs. 8- l(a) and (b) . The process efliciency
benefits of using reactors in series as well as staged reactors has also been recognizecl
and implemented in ful l-scale designs. However, because the design and operation of
activated sludge nut1ient removal processes has become more complex, computer mod-
eling is an increasingly in1portanr too! to incorporate Lhe large number of components
ancl reactions necessary to evaluate aclivated sludge performance in nuu"ient removal
application. The use of sirnu lation modeJs for suspended growth systems is discussed in
Sec. 8-S .

Interna! recycle
Anaerobic

lnfluent
Aerobic

Return activated sludge

Sludge

(a) (b)

Figure 8-3
Modified Borden pha process with slage reoclo rs for biologico l nitrogen removal a nd enhonced
biologicol p hosphorus removol: (o) schemalic diagram o f slaged process and (b) view o f a Modified
Bardenp ho lreatmenl plan! in Pa lmetto, FL; the firsl o f ifs type in the United Stafes built in 1979.
[From H. D. Stensel.) (Coordinates 27.5256 N 82.5959 W, view a l oltitude 360 m, since then,
an oxidotion d itch has been built alo ng side.)
 8-6 Processes fer 8od Removal and Nitrification 793

1 Table 8-19
Typical design parameters for commonly used activated sludge processes
Volumetric looding
F/M,
Type of kg BOD/ lb BOD/ kg BOD/ MLSS,
Process name reactor SRT, d kg MLVSS·d 1000 ft3·d m 3 ·d mg/L Total T, h

High-rate aeration CMAS or 0.5-2 1.5-2.0 75-150 1.2-2.4 500-1 500 1-2
(first step in AB Process) plug Aow
Contad stabilization CMAS or 5-10 0.2-0.6 60-75 1.0-1.3 1000-3000° 0.5... 1°
plug flow 6000-1 O,OOOb 2,_4b

High-purity oxygen Staged 1-4 0.5-1.0 80-200 1.3-3.2 2000-4000 1-3

Conventionol plug Aow Plug Row 3-15 0.2-0.4 20-40 0.3-0.7 1000-3000 4.8
Step feed Plug Row 3- 15 0.2-0.4 40-60 0.7-1 .0 1500-4000 3- 5
or staged
Complete mix CMAS 3-15 0.2-0.6 20-100 0.3-1.6 1500- 4000 3-6
Extended aeration CMAS or 20-40 0.04-0.l 5-15 0.1-0.3 2000-4000 20-30
plug Aow
Oxidation ditch CMAS+ 15- 30 0.04-0.l 5-15 0.1-0.3 3000-5000 15-30
plug flow
Batch decont Plug flow 12-30 0.04-0.1 5-15 0.1-0.3 2000-5000 20- 40
(ICEAS, CMS)
Sequencing batch Batch 15-30 0.04-0.1 5-1 5 0.1-0.3 2000-5000 15~40
reactor
Counter current aerotion Plvg Row 15-30 0.04-0.1 5- 10 0.1-0.3 2000-4000 15-40
system (CCAS™)

ª MLSS and detention time in contact bosin.

b MLSS ond detention time in stobilizotion basin.

may be completely mixed, staged, or plug flow. The oxidation ditch is a combj.nation
of complete mix and plug flow. The recirculation flowrate in the ditch provides a
flowrate that is typically 20-30 times the intluent flowrate so the dilution factor
approaches a complete mix substrate condition. In additíon, plug flow kinetics condi -
tions are approached as thc flow moves down the ditch channels away from the mixed
acration zone.

Process Selection Considerations. Selection of an activated sludge process for

BOD removal and 1útrífication is a function of many considerations including spec\fi.C site
constraints, compatibility with the ex.isting process, compatibility witb existing equipment,
present and futurc treatmenl needs, level of capability of the operating staff, capital costs,
and operating costs. Significant features and limitations of the various activated ,sludge
process alternativcs that affect process selection in certain applications are summartized in
Table 8-20.
 8-9 Aeration Tank Design far Activoted Sludge Processes 885

8-9 AERATION TANK DESIGN FOR ACTIVATED SLUDGE

PROCESSES
Tbe selection and design of the aeration equipment and aeration lank dcsign is of critica!
importance in tbe implementation of the activated sludge processes used with secondary
clarifiers or membrane separation systems. Aeration system and aeration tank and appur-
tenances design considerations are considered in this section.

Aeration System
The aeration system design for the activated sludge process must be adequate to (1) satisfy
U1e oxygen demand for the biological ox idation of the bCOD in the wastewater, (2) satisfy
the oxygen dernand dueto the endogenous respiration of the biomass, (3) meet the oxygen
demand for biological nitrification, (4) provide adequate mixing within U,e reactor, and
(5) maintain a minimum dissolved oxygen concentration throughout the aeration tauk. If
the oxygen transfer efficiency of the aeration system is known or can be estimated, the
actual aiJ requirements for diffused air aeration or installed power of mechanical surface
aerators may be cletermined. The characteristics of air diffusers and the energy require-
ments for mixing for diJfused air ancl mechanical aeration systerns are discussed in
Sec. 5-J2 in Chap. 5. An important issue considered in this section is the effect of the
activated sluclge process design on the oxygen transfor efticiency in mixed Jiquor.

Alpha Factor for Activated Sludge Process with Clarifiers. Aeration

desig11 for activated sludge processes involves using clean water oxygen transfer pe1for-
mance data for aeration equipment and adjusting the oxygen transfer rates at the same
diffuser air tlow or rnechanical aerator kW output for the effect of mixed liquor operating
conditions. One of the most important factors in tbe mixed liquor correction is the effect
that the rnixed liquor has on the aeration design alpha factor. The alpha factor is defined
as the ratio of the oxygen transfer rate in mixed liquor to that in clean water. In mixed
liquor, the alpha is less than 1.0 dueto the effect of surfactants and organic contarninants
011 gas-liquid mass transfer and the effects of viscosity. The sllrfactant and organic con-
tarninant concentrations clecrease as the SRT is increased dueto biodegradation. A range
of alpha val ues for activated sludge/secondary clarifier systems as a function of SRT has
been presented by Rosso et al. (2005b) after evaluating oxygen trru1sfer test data for
30 facil ities in the United States for fine bubble aeration. Average alpha values increased
from about 0.53 to 0.60 to 0.65 as the SRT was increased from IO to 20 to 30 d.

Alpha Factor for Membrane Bioreactors. The alpha values for fine bubble
aeration in MBR systems are further affected by the increased viscosity caused by the
higher MLSS concentration. The effect of MLSS concentration on alpha valnes is shown
on Fig. 8-40 for four reports with fine bubble diffused aeration and one report with coarse
bubble diffused aeration. The references and correlations of alpha as a function of MLSS
concentration are listed in Table 8- 32. Approximate alpha values for fine bubble diffusers
in MBR aeration tanks are 0.47 at an MLSS concentration of 8000 mg/L and 0.35 for an
MLSS concentration of 12,000 mg/L.

Modeling Peak Oxygen Demand. Activated sludge simulation models can

include the effects of diurna! changes in tlowrate and influent bCOD and TKN concentra-
tions in determining daily sustained peak oxygen demands for different reactor configura-
tions. Experience and enginee1ing judgment can also be used to estimate oxygen demand
at peak load cooditions as well as design for average oxygen demand conclitions. A peaking
886 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biologicol Treotment Processes

Figure 8-40 1.00 1 1

~, - FBRef. 1
Effect of MLSS concentrotion on
0.80
'' '... ' - • FB Aef. 2
diffused oerolion alpho values in
MBR systems. References ore Q)
' ' ", , .. ' - - - FBRef. 3
- -· FBReí.4
~'
::,
given in Table 8-32. ] ,..., _ .. _ CBRef S
"' 0.60
.s:;

-a ~
'
',,
Q)
g> 0.40 ~ r--...
·=
-..... _ ..
:» ' ... ~
¿
.....:':
', ~ --.:. ~ .
0.20
',
-- '

0.00
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
MLSS, g/L

factor of at least 1.5 to 2.0 times the average BOD and TKN load should be used. Aeration
eguipment may also be sized based on a residual dissolved oxygen (DO) of 2 mg/L in tbe
aeration tank at the average load and 1.0 mg/L at peak load. The aeration eguipment must
be designed with enough flexibi lity to (I) meet mínimum oxygen demands, (2) prevent
excessive aeration and save energy, and (3) meet maximum oxygen demands. Consideration
of using muJtiple smaller blowers to meet mínimum oxygen demand is often needed so that
the system is not over-aerated and energy wasted at low loads. Excessive aeration can harm
biological nutrient removal process performance. Toe impact of the use of blowers with
adjustable guide vanes and variable speed drives on the energy requirements for aeration is
considered in Sec. 17- 8 in Chap. J7.

Aeration Tanks and Appurtenances

After the activated sludge process and the aeration system have been selected and a
preliminary design has been prepared, the next step is to design the aeration tanks and
support facilities. The following design aspects are considered in the following discussion
(1) aeration tanks, (2) flow disufüution, and (3) frotb control systems. Energy require-
ments for aeration tank mixing are discussed in Sec. 5-12 in Chap. 5.

Aerotion Tonks. Aeratioo tanks usually are constructed of reinforced concrete and
left open to the atmosphere. The use of rectangular or square shapes permits common-
wall construction for multiple tanks. The total required volumetric capacity of the tank is

Table 8-32 Reference on Alpha Reference

Summary of Figure 8-40 calculation

relationships between FB Ref. 1 e-<0.082'MLSS) Gunder and Krauth (1999)

alpha and MLSS FB Ref. 2 e-(0.0SS'MLSS) Krompe ond Krouth (2003)
concentration in MBRs FB Ref. 3 (] .Ó)e-(0.IS·MLSS) MBR Plant l , Racoult et al. (201 O)
FB Ref. 4 (J.0255)e-(009A6"MLSS) MBR Plant 2, Rocault et al. (201 O)
CB Ref. 5 (] .2888)e-(00818'MLSS) MBR, CB Racault et al. (2010)

Note: FB - Fine bubble diffuser, CB - Coarse bubble diffuser.

 8-9 Aeration Tank Design for Activated Sludge Processes 887

determjned from the biological process design, as set forth in Secs. 8-6, 8-7, and 8-8.
For plants in a capacity range of 0.22 to 0.44 m 3/s (5 to 10 Mgal/d), at least two tanks
should be provided (a mínimum of two tanks is preferred for smaHer plams as weli, for
reduodancy). In the range of 0.44 to 2.2 1113/s (1 O to 50 Mgal/d), four tanks are often
provided to allow operational flexibility and ease of maintenance. Large plants, over
2.2 1113/s (50 Mgal/d) in capacity, should contain six or more tanks. Sorne of the largest
plants have from 30 to 40 tanks arranged in severa! groups or batteries. Although the air
bubbles dispersed in the wastewater occupy perhaps l percent of the total volume, no
allowance is made for this in tank sizing.

Use of Diffused Air Systems. If the wastewater is to be aerated with diffused air, the
geometry of the tank may sigruficantly affect the aeration efficiency and the amount of
mixing obtained [see Fig. 8-41 (a) and (b)]. The depth of wastewater in the tank should be
between 4.5 and 7.5 m (-15 and 25 ft) to maximize the energy efficiency of diffuser sys-
tems. Freeboard from 0.3 to 0.6 m (1 to 2 ft) above the waterlioe should be provided. The
width of the tank in relation to its depth is important if spiral-flow mixing is used in the
plug-flow configuration. The width-to-depth ratio for such tanks may vary from l.0/1 to
2.2/1, with 1.5/1 being the most common. Ln large plants, the channels become quite long
and sometí mes exceed 150 m (-500 ft) per tank. Tanks may consist of ooe to four channels
with round-the-end flow in multiple-channel tanks. The Jength-to-width ratio of each chan-
nel should be at least 5/ 1. Where complete- rujx djffused air systems are used, the length-
to-width ratio may be reduced to save construction cost.
For tanks with diffusers on both sides or in a grid or paoel pattern, greater wiclths are
permissible. The important point is to restlict the width of the tank so that "dead spots" or
zones of inadequate mixing are avoided. The dimensions aod proportions of each indepen-
dent unit should be such as to maintain adequate velocities so that deposition of solids will

Figure 8-41
Activated sludge aeralion
syslems: (a) ceromic d isk diffusers
in a deep complete-mix
nitrificalion tank, (b) ceramic disk
d iffusers placed in the ouler lwo
circular channels of an MBR
activated sludge process,
(e) mechanical surface aerotor,
a nd (d) view of empty reactor
with mechanical aeralor. Views
of membrane panel aeralion (a) (b)

devices are shown on fig . 5-67

in Chap. 5.

(e) (d)
888 Chapter 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes

Table 8-33 Aerator sixe Tank depth Tank width

Typical aeration tank hp kW ft m ft m
dimensions for 10 7.5 10-12 3-3.6 30- 40 9- 12
mechanical surface
20 15 12-14 3.6-4.2 35- 50 10.5- 15
aerators
30 22.5 13-15 3.9-4.5 40-60 12- 18
40 30 12- 17 3.6-5.l 45-65 13.5-20
50 37.5 15- 18 4.5-5.5 45- 75 13.5-23
75 56 15- 20 4.5-6 50-85 15-26
100 75 15- 20 4.5- 6 60-90 18- 27

not occur. In spiral-flow tanks, triangular baffles or fillets may be placed longitudinally in
the corners of the channels to eliminate dead spots and to deflect the spi.ral t1ow.

Use of' Mechanical Aeration Systems. For mechanical aeration systems, the most effici.ent
arrangement is one aerator per tank [see Fig. 8-41 (e) and (el)]. Where multiple aerators are
installed in the same tank for best efticíency, the length-to-width ratio of the tank should
be in even mulliples with the aerator centered in a square configuratio n to avoid interference
at the hydraulic boundaries. The width and depth should be sized in accordance with the
power rating of the aerator as i!Justrated in Table 8- 33. 1\vo-speed aerators are desi.rable to
provide operating flexibility to cover a wide range of oxygeo demand conditions. Freeboru·d
of about 1 to 1.5 m (3 .5 to 5 ft) shoulcl be provided for mecbanical aeration systems.
Individual tanks should have inlet and outlet gates or valves so that they may be
removed from service for inspection and repair. The common walls of multiple tanks must
therefore be able to withstand the foil hydrostatic pressure from either side. Aeration tanks
must have adequate foundations to prevent settlement, and, in saturated soil, they must be
designed to prevent flotation when the tanks are dewatered. Methods of preventing flota-
tion include thickening the floor slab, install i_ng hold-down piles, or i.nstalling hydrostatic
pressure relief valves. Drains or sumps for aeration tanks are desirable for dewatering. In
Jarge plants where tank clewatering might be more common, it rnay be desi.rable to install
mud val ves in tbe bottoms of ali tanks. The mud valves should be connected to a central
dewatering pump orto a plantel.rain discharging to tbe wet well of the plant pumping sta-
tiou. Dewatering systems are commonly designed to empty a tank in 12 to 24 h.

Flow Distribution. For wastewater treatment plants containing mttltiple units of

p1imary sedimentation basins and aeration tanks, consideration has to be given to equal-
izing the distríbution of flow to the aeration tanks. ln many designs, the wastewater from
the prímary sedimentation basins is collected in a common conduit or channel for transport
to the aeration tanks. Por efficient use of the aeration tanks, a method of splitting or con-
troHing the flowrate to each of the individual tanks shou.ld be used. Methods commonly
used are splitter boxes equippecl with weirs or control valves or aeration tank infl uent
control gates. Hydraulic balancing of the ffow by equalizing thc headloss from tbe pri-
mary sedimentation basins to the individual aeration tanks is also practicecl. Flow regimes
using a form of step feed particularly need a positive means of flow control. Where chan-
nels are used for aeration tank intluent or eftluent tnu1sport, they can be equipped with
aeration devices to prevent deposition of solids [see Figs. 8-42(a) and (b)]. The air required
ranges from 0.2 to 0.5 m3/lin m·min (2 to 5 ft3/lin ft·min) of channel.
 8-1 O Analysis of Liqu id-Solids Separation far Activated Sludge Processes with Clorifiers 889

Figure 8-42
Aerotion tonk oppurtenonces:
(o} o nd {b) views of octivoted
sludge aerated mixed liquor
tronsler channels ond (e) o nd
(d) views o l loom spoy nozzles
used to breokup and move foam
to waste callection points.

(a) (b)

(e) (d)

foam Control Systems. Spray nozzles are commonly mounted above the liquicl
surface aJong sides of aeration tanks to break up foaming and to help move foam into
surtace wasting collecrion points [see Figs. 8-42(c) and (d)]. During system start up or
seasonal load changes foaming may ctevelop anct sprays can help move the foam back inco
the mixed liquor and to keep the leve] of foam down. Screened or filtered plant efl:luent is
commonly pumped through the spray nozzles. Nocardioform froth is undesirable on aera-
tion tanks and its prevention and control has been discussed previously in Sec. 8- 3.

8-1 O ANALYSIS OF LIQUID-SOLIDS SEPARATION FOR

ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESSES WITH CLARIFIERS
Liquid-solids separation is critica! to the operation and successful performance of the
activated sludge process. Liquid-solids separation involves two very important fonctions
( 1) gravity settling to remove over 99.5 percent of the mixed liquor TSS from the treated
effluent and (2) thickening of the settled activated sludge to reduce the volume before
returning it to the process for mixing and treatment with the influent wastewater. In prior
sections of this chapter, activated sludge treatment flow schemes for BOD removal and
nitrification, biological nitrogen removal, and enhanced biological phosphorus removal
have been shown using two different methods for liquid solids separation : gravity settling
in secondary clarifiers and membrane separation. Liquid-solids separation by gravity set-
tling is considered in this section. Design considerations for secondary clarifiers are con-
sidered i11 the following section. Membrane separation of solids is considered in Sec. 8- 12.

Solids Separation by Secondary Clarifiers

The surface overflow rate and solids loading rateare the two principal parameters used for
the anaJysis and design of secondary clarifiers. These two parameters are both dependent
on the activated sluclge system design and operation, which determines the rnixed liquor
890 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes

!loe characteristics and lhe amount of dispersed sol ids not captured in the floc particles
during settling. Larger and denser tloc particles, usually the result of having biological
selectors in the activated sludge design, result in better settling and thickening anda more
efficient clarifier performance.

Surface Overflow Rate. The surface overflow rate (SOR), defined as follows, is
related to the time needed to allow particle separation from the effluenl liquid flow.

SOR= Q (8- 80)

A
where SOR = surface overflow rate, m3/m2 ·d
Q = influent t1owrate, m 3/d
A = clarifier surface area, m 2
Overílow rates are based on wastewater llowrates instead of on the m:ixed-liquor flowrates ro
the clarifier, which includes the influent and recycle sludge flowrates, because the overflow
rate is equivalent to an upward flow velocity. The retmn sludge tlow is drawn off the bottom
of the tank and does not contribL1te to the upward ílow velocity. Floc and small particles with
settling velocities Jess than the SOR will be removed with the efl1uent from the clarifier. Floc
and small particJe,5 settling velocities greater than the SOR will be removed by graviry settling.
Selection of a surface overflow rate is intl uenced by the efl1uent requirements and the
need to provide consistent process performance. Typical surface overflow rates are given in
Table 8-34 and range from 16 to 33 m/d (400 to 800 gal/ft2·d). Because steady-srate

Table 8-34
1 Typical design information for secondary clarifiers for the activated sludge process
Overflow rate Solids loading Side-
gal/ft2 ·d m3/m 2·d 2 water
Type of treatment lb/ft •h kg/m 2 ·h
depth,
Average Peak Average Peak Average Peak Average Peak mb
Settling following oir 400-600 1000-1200 16-28 36- 56 0.8-1 .2 2.0 4-6 10 4.0-5.5
octivoted sludge
(excluding extended
aeration)
Selectors, biologicol 600-800 1200-1600 24- 32 40-64 1.0-1 .5 2.0 5- 8 10 4.0-5.5
nutrient removol
Settling following 200- 400 600-800 8-1 6 24- 32 0.2-1.0 1.6 1.0- 5 8 4.0-5.5
extended aeration
Settling For effluent P
concentration after
chemical additionº
Total P = 2 600-800 24- 32
Totol P = l < 400-600 16-24
Total P = 0 .2-0.5d 300-500 12-20

ª Adopted in part from Kong (1987), WEF (2010).

bm X 3.2808 = ft.
<Occosionol chemicol oddition required.
d(ontinuous chemicol oddition required for effluent polishing.
906 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biologicol Treotment Processes

For A = 314 m3 and X = 2 g/L,

(15,070 m)/d)(I d/24 h)(2 kg/m' )
SFQ = m2 = 4 kg/m 2 ·h
314

The MLSS concenlration possible is the "state point'' where the overflow rate
operating line intersccts the underflow rate operating line. In the above fi g ure, the
state point is approximately 2. 1 g/L (2 100 mg/L) MLSS concentration.
6. Determine clarifier solids loading.
a. For 2 c larifiers: A = 628 m2; MLSS = 3.5 g/L, and R = 0.41
Solids loading = Q(I + R)(X)IA
( 15,70 m 3/d){ l + 0.41)(3.5 kg/m3)
= (314 m2)(24 h/d) - - = 4.93 kg/m2·h
b. For onc clarifier: A = 314 m 2
(15,070 m 3/d)(1 d/24 h)
Clarifie r overflow rate = m = 2.0 m/h
3 14 2
Underflow velocity (from step 3d) = 0.41 m/h
R = (0.4 1 m/h)/(2.0 m/h) = 0.205
. . ( 15,070 m 3/d)(l + 0.205)(2.1 kg/m 3)
Solids loadmg = (3 14 1112) ( 24 h/d) = 5.06kg/m2 ·h

8- 11 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SECONDARY

CLARIFIERS
Solids separation is the final step in the procluction of a well-clarified, stable cffluent low
in BOD and TSS and, as such, represents a critica! link in tbe operation of an activated
sludge treatment process. Althoug h much of the information presented in Chap. 5 for the
des ign of primary sedimentation tanks is applicable, the presence of a large volume of
fl occulent solid in the mixed liquor requires thal special considcration be given to the
design of activated sludge settling tanks. As mentioned previous ly, these solids tend to
form a sludge blanket in the bottom of the tank that will vary in thickness. The blauket
may fi ll the entire depth of the tank and overflow the weirs at peak flowrates if the return
s ludge pumping capacity or the s ize of the settling Lank is inadequate. Further, the mixed
Jiquor, on entering the tank, has a tendency to flow as a density current, interfcring with
the separatio n of the solids and the thickening of the s ludge. To cope successfully with
these characteristics, the follow ing factors must be considered in the design of sccondary
sedimentatio n tanks: (1) surface and solids loading rutes, (2) tank types, (3) s idewater
depth, (4) flow distribution, (5) inlet design, (6) weir placement and loading rates, and
(7) scum removal. Surface a nd solids loading rutes have been cons idered previously in
Sec.8-10. T he re maining factors are considered in this chapter.

Types ol Sedimentation Tanks

The most commonly used types of aclivated sludge settling tanks are e ither c ircular
[sce F igs. 8-49(a) and (b)] or rectang ular [see Figs. 8-49(c) a nd (d)]. Square tanks are
used on occas io n but they are notas effective in reLaining separated solids as circular
 8-1 l Design Considerotions far Secondory Clorifiers 907

Figure 8-49
Typicol views of secondory
clorifiers: (a) circular clarifier with
inboord effluent weirs, sludge
colleclion mechonism is maunted
in lhe center, (b) circular cla rifier
peripherol weir and rim drive
bridge for the collection of sludge
and surfoce ski mming, (e) lorge
rectangular clorifier shown full,
and (d) fank shown on (e) empty.
Note chain ond flight sludge (e) (b)
collection ond skimming
mechanism. Because of width of
clarifier three choin ond !light
mechonisms ore used.

(e) (d)

or rectangular taoks. Solids accumulate in the corners of the square tanb and are
frequently swept over tbe weirs by the agitation of the sludge collectors. Circular tanks
have beeo constructed with diameters ranging from 3 to 60 m (10 to 200 ft), although
thc more common range is from 1O to 40 m (30 to 140 ft). The tank rad ius s hould pref-
erably not exceed five to six times the sidewater depth.

Center and Rim Feed Circular Clarifiers. Two basic types of circular tanks are
used for sccondary sedimentation: center-feed and rim-feed (see Fig. 5-41 in Chap. 5).
Botb typcs use a revolving mechanism to transporl and remove the sludge from the bottom
of the clarifier. Mechanisms are of two types: those that scrape or plow the sludgc to a
center hopper similar to the types used in primary sedimeotation tanks, and Lhose that
remove the sludge directly from the taok bottom through suction orífices that serve the
cntire bottom of the tank in eacb revolution. Of the latter, in one type che suctioo is maio-
tained by reduced static head on the individual suction pipes [see Fig. 8-50(a) l. ln aoolher
patented suction systcm, sludge is removed through a manifold either hydrostatically or by
pumping. Spiral-typc scrapcrs are also used to accelerate movement of settled solíds from
Lhe tank periphery to the collection sump [see Fig. 8-50(b)l

Rectangular Clarifiers. Rectangular tanks must be propottiooed to achieve proper

distribution of incoming flow so that horizontal velocities are not excessive. The maxi-
mum length of rectangular tanks normally s houlcl oot cxceed JO times the depth, but
lengths up to 90 m (300 ft) have been used successfully in large plants. Wbere widths of
rectangular tanks excccd 6 m (20 ft), multiple sludge collection mechanisms may be used
to permit tank widths up to 24 m (80 ft). Regardless of tank shape, the sludge collector
sdected should be ablc to meet the followiog operational conditions: (1) the collector
should have enough capacity so tbat when a high sludge-recirculation rate is desired, chan-
neling of tbe overlying liquid tbrough thc sludge will not result, and (2) the mechanism
908 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biologicol Treotment Processes

(a) (b)

Figure 8-50
1 Typicol circular sludge collection mechonisms: (o) suction·type and {b) spiral·type scropers.

should be sufficiently rugged to traosport and remove very dense sludges that could
accumulate in the settling tank duriog periods of mechanical breakdown or power failure.
Two types of s ludge collectors are commonly used in rectangular tanks: (1) traveling
füghts [see Fig. 8- 5 1(a)] and (2) traveling bridges [see Fig. 8-5 1(b)l Trave ling fli ghts are
similar to those used for the rcmoval o f s ludge in primary settling tanks. For very long
tanks [see Fig. 8-52(a)], it is desirable to use two setS of chains and flights in tandem with
a central hoppe r to receive thc sludgc to minimize the sludge transport distance Lsee
Fig. 8-52(b)]. Sludge may be collected at the influent or eflluem end of the tank. The
traveling bridge, which is s imilar to a traveling overhead crane, travels along the s ides of
the sedimentation tank or on a support structure if severa! brídges are used. The bridge
serves as the support for the sludge-removal system, which usually consists of a scraper or
a suction manifold from which the s ludge is pumped. The sludge is discharged to a
collection trough that runs tbe Jcngth of tbe tank.

Other Types for Clarifiers. Other types of settling tanks that are used include
stacked clarifiers, and tube and platc seulers (see Chap. 5). Stackecl claritiers (see
Fig. 5-45 in Chap. 5) are used in installations where limited land area is available for
clarifiers. Stacked clarifiers are used at the Deer Is land Wastewater Treatment Plant in
Boston, MA, for secondary sedimentation and were selected because of limited land area.

Clarification Tank lmprovements. The ef/icíency of conventional or shallow

clarifiers may be improvcd by the installatioo of tubes or parallel plates to establish lami-
nar flow (see Fig. 5-25 in Chap. 5). Constructed of bt111dles of tubes or plates set at
selected angles (usually 60º) from tbe horizontal, tube and plate settlers have a very short
settling distance and circulation is dampened because of the small s íze of the tubes. Solids
that collect in the tubes or on the platcs tencl to slide out due to gravitational forces. The
major drawback in wastewater treatment is a tendency of lhe tubes and piares to clog
because of the accumulation of biological growth, g rease, and small objects that pass
through coarse screens. Another drawback that can occur is if the characteristics of the
MLSS change, the .fixed a ngle of tbe plates or tu bes may no longer be optima!.
 8-1 1 Design Considerations for Secondory Clarifiers 909

Figure 8-51 Flow ports

Scum collector Effluent launders
Typical rectangular sludge
collection mechanisms: (a) chain o

-
lnlet baffle
and Aight ond (b) troveling
bridge.
o
o Flow-

o
o
Plan
Effluent
Gollector adjustable
drive Waterlevet
lnfluent Efftuent
·-

Travel
·-· -

-
- · - ·- ·
Ftow

~ligh'.s ':--

Elevation
(a)

Traveling Scum Effluent

Bridge

-
tnfluent bridge lrough weir
travel
Collecting Skimmmg
Water lovel
Sk1mming positlon
Sludge colloction position

Elevahon
Studge
(b) hopper

(a) (b)

Figure 8-52
Sludge-collection in long reclongulor clorifiers: (a) chain and flight mechonisms ore used to bring
sludg e to o centrol locotion from both end s of the clorifier where il is removed with o cross collector
(coordinoles 40.6 430 N, 7 4.0343 W, view al a ltitude 750 m). The cross collector shown in (b) is
located under centro! wolkwoy dividing lhe clorifier. The flight mechonism on left side of divider olso
includes skimmers to collect ffooting material.
910 Chopter 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treotment Processes

Sidewater Depth
Liquid depth in a secondary clarifier is normally measured at the sidewall in circular tanks
and at the effluent e nd wall for rectangular tanks. The I iquid de pth is a factor in the effective-
ness of suspended solids removal and in the conceatration of the return sludge. Olher factors
such as inlet design, type of sludge-removal equipment, sludge blanket depth, and weir type
and location also affect clarifier performance. In recent years, the trend has been toward
increasing liquid depths to improve solids inventory capacity for periods of high tlow varia-
tions and highe r Lransient solids loading to the clarifier, which improves overall perfor-
mance. Typical s iclewater depths are presented in Table 8-34. Current practice favors a
minirnum sidewater depth of 4 to 5 m (13 to 16 ft) for large secondary clarifiers. Depths up
to 6 m (20 ft) have been used. The cost oftank construction has to be cons idered in selecting
a sidewater deplh, especially in areas of high ground water Jevels. Tanks with dcpths less
than 3.5 m (- 12 ft) often have d ifficulty containing the typically low-density activatcd
s ludge, and Jow-density sludge blankets are more easily disturbed by hydraulic fluctuations,
espec ially morning diurna ( variations. Deeper tanks therefore provide greater flcxibi lity of
operation and a larger margin of safety when changes in the activated s ludge systcm occur.

Flow Distribution
Flow imbalance bctween multiple process units can cause under- or overloading of the indi-
vidual units and affect overall system perfonnance. In plants where parallel tanks of the same
size are used, flow between the tanks should be equali:i:ed. In cases where the tanks are not
of equal capacity, tlows should be distributed in proportion to surface area. Methods of flow
distribution to the secondary sedi rnentation tanks include weírs, tlow distribution boxes, flow
control valves, hydraulic d istribu tion using hydraulic symmetry, and feecl gate or inlet po1t
control (see Fig. S-53). Effiuent we ir control, although frequenlly used to effect flow split-
ting, is usually ine ffective and should be used o nly where tbere are two tanks of eq uaJ size.

Tank lnlet Design

Poor distribution or jetting the influent to the clarifier can increase the formation of density
currents and scouring of seltlecl sludgc, resulting in unsatisfactory tank perfonnance. Claritier
inlets should be designed to dissipate the influent energy, distribute the flow evenly in
horizontal and vertical directions, mitigate density currents, minimize sludge blanket distur-
bance, and promote tlocculation. 1n circular center-feed clariíiers, a common design is to use
small, solid-skirted, cylindrical baftlcs to dissipate the influent energy and distribute tlow.

Figure 8-53 Flow

¡
/ i ff'"
Pipe mannold control
Alternotive methods of Row
splitting: (o) hydroulic symmetry, ~
(b) llow meosuremenl ond
feedback control, (e) hydraulic
11
,...-...
,........... 11
--.. ,..--.. -= § ~ ~ ~ ~
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ~
split with weirs, ond (d) inlet feed Meter
9ate control. (a) (b)

Distributioo
lnfluent ohannel

-·
--- -

(c)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Effluent
(d)
 8-11 Design Considerolions for Secondory Clorifiers 911

Figure 8-54 Top or influent

Effluent launder diffusion well lnfluent port
Typical secondary clorifier with Diffuser Scum box
Scum skimmer
o flocculoting center feed well. port and gate

Aetum sludge line

Aocculating
oenterwell lnfluent line Sludge collection header

However, it has been found that a density current waterfall can be creatcd in clarifiers using
sldrted baflles resulting in poor vertical flow distribution (Crosby and Bender, 1980). Methods
to overcome these problems include the use of a Iarge center diffusion wcU ora floccuJating-
type clarifier (sce Fig. 8-54). Thc large center diffusion well, with a minimum diameter of
25 percent of thc tank diameter, provides a greater area for dissipation of the intluent energy
and distribution of the incoming mixed liquor. Toe bottom of the feed wcll should end wcll
above the sludge blanket interface to minimize turbulence and resuspension of the solids.
Flocculating center-feed clarifiers can incorporate an energy-dissipating inlet (EDl)
and meaos to promote flocculation in the center-feed wcll [see Fig. 8-55(a)]. Typical
flocculation feed wells have díameters of 30 to 35 perceot of the tank diameter. An altcrna-
tive device for diss.ipating energy, developed by the City of Los Angeles, is shown on
Fig. 8-55(b). Operationally, the llow is dischargcd from a centerwell through a series of

lnner chamber

Lower elevation
altemate (lowering
llocculating center well
to Just below water level
oliminates need for scum ports)
(a)
(b)
• Adjustment
chain
Hinged gate altemate
(difluser pipe and other altematives
to pass flow through the EOI wall
exist but are not shown)

Figure 8-55
Energy-<lissipoting in let devices used in c ircular clorifiers: (o) schomalic of o center column energy-
dissipaling inlet ond flocculating feed well (WEF, 1998) ond (b) view of on energy-dissipoting feed
well (courtesy of the city of Los Angeles).
912 Chapter 8 Suspended Growth Biological Treatment Processes

dow nward-facing discharge ports. By arranging the discharge ports so they discharge fac-
ing each other, che momentum energy is dissipated as the discharge streams impact each
other. ln rectangular tanks, inlet ports or baftles should be provided to achieve flow distri-
bution. lnlet port velocities are typically 75 to 150 mm/s (15 to 30 ft/min) (WPCF, 1985).

Weir Placement and Loading

When dcnsity cuffents occur in a secondary clarifier, mixed liquor entering the tank fl ows
along thc tank bottom until it encouncers a countercurrent pattern or an end walJ. Unless
dcnsity currents are considered in lhe design. solids may be discharged over the eftluent weir.
Experimental work performed by Anderson (l 945) at Chicago on tanks approximately 38 m
( 126 ft) in diameter indicated that a circular weir trough placed at two-thirds to three-fourths
of the radial distance from the center was in the optimum position to interccpt well-clarificd
effluent. With low surface loaclings and weir rates, the placement of the weirs in small tanks
does not significantly affect the performance of the clarifier. Circular clarifiers are manufac-
tured with overflow weirs located near both the center and the peri meter of the tank. If weirs
are located at the tank perimeter or at encl walls in rectangular tanks, a baffle should be
provided to deflect the clensiry cun-ents toward the center of the tank and away from the
cftluent weir. Alternative baffle arrangements are shown on Fig. 8- 56.
Weir loading rates are used commonly in the design of clarifiers, although they are
less critical in clarifier design than hydraulic overflow rates. Weir loading rates used in
large tanks shoulcl preferably not exceed 375 m3/lin m·d (30,000 gal/lin ft·d) of weir at
maximum tlow when located away from the upturn zone of the density currcnt, or
250 m' /lin m·d (20,000 gal/lin ft·d) when loc¡¡ted within the upturn zone. In small tanks,
thc weir loading rate should not exceecl 125 m3/lin m·d (10,000 gal/lin ft ·d) at average flow
or 250 m1/l in m·d ac maximum tlow. The upflow velocity in the immediatc vicinity of the
weir shou ld be limited to about 3.5 to 7 m/h (] 2 to 24 ft/h).

Scum Removal and Management

In many well-opcrating secondary plants, very little scum is formed in the secondary
clarifiers. However, occasions arise when sorne tloating material is presenl (see "Operal-
ing Problems" in Sec. 8-3), neccssitating its removal.

Scum Removal by Skimming. Where primary settling tanks are not used, skim-
ming of the final tanks is essential. Most dcsigns in recenl years provide scum removal for
both circular and rectangular secondary clarifiers. Typical cum-removal equipment
includes desert beach and scraper ty pe, rotating pipe-through skimmer, and slotted pipes.

Figure 8-56 Scum baffle

Scum baffle Scum baffle
Alternativa peripheral baffle Scum baffle
arrangements: (o) Stomford,
(b) unnamed, (e) McKinney (olso .,,.. .
known os the l incoln baffle), ond
(d) Interior trough. (WEF, 1998.)

SB SB SB
SB

(a) (b) (e) (d)

Note: SB will vary from 0.5 to 1.5 m, depending

on the diameter of the clarif1er
 8-12 Solids Separotion for Membrana Bioreoctors 913

Scum Management. Scum should not be returned to the plant headworks because
microorganisms responsible for foaming (typically Nocardioform such as Gordonia ama-
rae) will be recycled, causing foaming problems to persist because of continuous seeding
of the unwanted rnicroorganisms. In some plants, scum is discharged to sludge-thickening
facilities or is added dircctly to d igester feed st·reams, as appropriate.

8- 12 SOLIDS SEPARATION FOR MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS

In membrane separation, liquid-solids separacion is accomplisbed by filtration or sicving.
Water to be removed is withdrawn through a thin synthctic membrane which excludes
colloidal and suspended solids bccause of thc membranc pore sizcs. In MBR systems thc
membrane.c: are placed (immersed) in the activated sludge mixed liquor with a dedicatcd
air supply system to provide a tangcntial tlow across the membrane to preven! fouling by
mixed Liquor accumulation on the mcmbranc surface. MBR technology background, appli-
cations, and advantages and disadvantages have been discussed previously in Sec. 8-1.
Process configurations for biological nitrification and nitrogen rcmoval, and enbanccd
biological phosphorus removal, with liquid solids separation using membranes in mem-
brane bioreactors (MBRs) have been presented in Secs 8-6 and 8-7. The following topics
are considercd in this section: (1) design parameters for membrane separation in MBRs,
(2) types of membranes and their characteristics, (3) membrane applications, (4) operating
characteristics, (S) membrane fouling issues and (6) membrane fouling control methods.

Design Paramefer
Key design and operating parameters for membrane separation are the membraneflux and
transmembrcme pressure (TMP). The flux is thc flowratc per unit area of membrane and is
commonly expressed in Um2 ·d or gal/ft2·d. The higher the allowable flux, the lower is the
membrane arca requircd for a dcsign tlowrate. An acceptable pressure drop across the
membrane or TMP is dcsired at the design flux. Pemieability is a parameter used to reflect
both flux and membrane pressure drop (fMP), and is the flux per unit of pressure driving
force [(Um 2·h)/kPa]. A decline in the permeability in a membrane system is typically due
to membrane fouling.
The effluent from membrane separation is termed permeate and the rernaining solids
collected behind the membrane is called retentare. In the case of MBRs the retentate com-
prise solids in the return activated sludge tlow and mixed liquor wasted. Recycle flowrates
from the membrane separation zonc are in the range of 4 to 6 times the iníluent flowrate
to prcvent excessive MLSS concent.rations. Whereas solíds thickening characteristics and
thc rate of solids and liquid applied per unit cross-section clari.fier area (SOR and SLR) are
key design parameters for the design of secondary clarifiers in activated sludge treatment,
thc liquid application rate across the membrane area (flux), pressure drop (TMP), and foul-
ing issues apply to liquid-solids separation by membranes.

Membrane Flux. The membrane flux rate is a critica! design parameter lhat is used
to determine the required membrane surfacc area, mcmbrane air scour supply require-
ments, and mcmbrane tank volume. Thc flux is a function of the MBR MLSS coocentra-
tion, temperature, TMP, and degree of membrane fouling. At a given TMP the flux is
related inverscly to viscosity, which incrcascs at lowcr temperature and higher MLSS
concentration (Trussell et al., 2007). Therc is, howevcr, a tradeofT between using higher
MLSS concentrations and smalJer total tank volume for a giveo SRT, and having a greater
mcmbrane surface area.