MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKE Magnitude is a measure of the energy released by the earthquake, which defines its size of the neta Size of the earthquake. Because earthquakes vary a lot in size, earthquake magnitude scales are logarithmic. Professor Charles Ricluer in 1935 devised a logarithmic scale - Richter seale - the first earthquake magnitude scale. The scale is a base-10 logarithmic scale. It's obtained from the seismograms and accounts + This scale is also called Local Magnitude scale. | MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKE + Earthquakes are classified based on magnitude as Group | Magnitude Great _ | Sand higher Major 7-79 ‘Strong 6-66 Moderate | 5-59 Tight a49 Minor 3-39 Very Minor | <3.0 es INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE An indicator of the severity of shaking generated ata given location Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual shaking at a location during an earthquake, andi assigned as Roman Capital Numerals, ‘There are many intensity scales. Two commonly used ones are the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale and the Medvedev-Sponhener-Karnik (MSK) Seale Both scales are quite similar and range from I (least perceptive) to XIE (most severe) INTENSITY OF EARTHQUAKE * The intensity scales are based on three features of shaking, Perception by people and animals, performance of buildings, and ~~ Changes to natural surroundings. Scanned with CamScannerZoneV + Covers areas with the highest level of risk that is expected of earthquakes of intensity MMLIX or greater. + Itis referred to as the very high-damage risk zone. + IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 to the areas situated in this zone, + Designers use this value for earthquake resistant design of structures in Zone V, ‘+ The state of Kashmir, the western and central Himalayas, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall inthis zone es SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA Zone 1V. + This zone is referred to the as high-damage risk zone and covers areas liable 10 earthquake intensity levels of MMI VIII + The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for this zone, + The Indo-Gangetic basin, the capital of the country (Dethi), and some parts of Jammu and Kashmir fall in Zone LV, + In Maharashtra 1. Patan area (Koyananager) also lies in Zone 1V. _—_—_—— eee SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA ‘Zone 1H + Moderate-damage risk zone + Liable to earthquake intensity level of MMI VI, and of magnitude 7.8 + 1S code assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone II + Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some parts of Kashmir, and Western Himalayas fall under this zone. TS SEISMIC ZONES OF INDIA Zone + Low damage risk zone ‘+ Liable to earthquake intensity level of MMI VI or less. +18 code assigns zone factor of 0.10 for Zone I. ‘+ Parts of U.P, Bihar and West Bengal fall under this category. Scanned with CamScannerINIERNAL SERUCLURE OF KARIN The real interior of Earth is nowhere exposed to our direct observation With our present skills we can hardly penetrate upto a few kilometers below earth’s surface The study of internal structure of carth is based on evidence yielded by indirect geophysical methods The study of seismic waves (released during earthquakes) forms the most important source for the study | NTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH Seismological evidence + Inevery earthquake, body waves and surface waves are generated at the focus These types of seismic waves are recorded during each earthquake in a definite sequence at various seismographic stations + The P and S waves are recorded on the surface after having passed through materials deep within the earth and hence are considered important in the study of internal structure of the earth. SE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF EARTH Seismological evidence * These waves travel with characteristic velocities through different media * From their arrival times many important conclusions can be made regarding the nature of the materials lying in their paths, Scanned with CamScanner1, Meteoric water * Water derived from precipitation (rain and snow). * Itis.a reliable source of water. * It is dependent on duration of rain, porosity of ground and nature of ground during rain. SOUICEeS O ground water OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER 2. Connate water —It is the water that were trapped in the pores of sedimentary rocks as they were deposited. =When the sedimentary rocks form in lake, sea or river, deposition is followed by compaction, which squeezes out water between the sediments —However, incomplete compaction causes retention of water by these rocks —Commonly saline in nature Of no importance as a source of exploitable groundwater a OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER 3, Juvenile water + Water that exists within a magma or water-rich volatile fluids that are ‘Terwilliger Hot . Springs, U.S.A derived from a magma * This magmatic water is released to the atmosphere during a volcanic eruption * Some hot springs and geysers are = SENT ag derived from magmatic water. Scanned with CamScannera. Aauifer + An aquifer (rom Latin aquacwate, fereto beat) is a water-bearing, geological formation. + Notonly stores the water but lo yeti im adequate quantity. + Water can be economically tapped from an aquifer + Quality ofan aquifer depend on how moch quantity of water arock formation can hold per unit volume and at what rate it can yield water when tapped fr supplies + Gravel, limestone and sandstones generally form good aquifers when occurring in suitable geological conditions and geographic situations. b.Aquiclude + Arrock body or formation which may be porous enough to hold enough quantity of water. + Not capable of transmitting water through it (practically impermeable rock mass) + Itcontains a large amount of water in it but it does not permit water through it and also does not yield water + Compacted clay formations are the best examples c. Aquifuge + An impermeable geological formation which is neither porous nor permeable - which means it cannot store water in it and at the same time it cannot permit water through it. It does not have any pores and interstices Compact interlocking granites and quartzite are examples d. Aquitard + A saturated formation that has low permeability and yields water slowly in comparison to the adjoining aquifers + Capable of storing groundwater but does not yield in significant quantities ite compared to an aquifer. + An Aquitard transmits water at a low + Ibis an Aquifuge or Aquiclude that has become locally leaky due to development of partial perviousness caused by excessive jointing or cracks. Scanned with CamScannera. Unconfined aquifers. + Also called water table aquifer or free aquifer or phreatic aquifer * The most common type * The upper surface of an unconfined aquifer is defined by the water table and it is in direct contact with the atmosphere. TYPES OF AQUIFERS a, Unconfined aquifers. *+ Water in an unconfined aquifer is under atmospheric pressure and therefore does not rise above the water table. + When tapped through a well, the free water will rise to a level in the well equivalent to the water table of the area b. Confined aquifers, 2951 / 124 : + An aquifer that is confined from above and below by an aquiclude or an impervious bed > rock + Water held in such aquifers is under a greater pressure due to the confining medium. + If a well taps the aquifer, the water level will rise above the top of the aquifer, ie. above the base of the overlying confining bed + The imaginary surface, conforming to the elevations to which water will rise in wells penetrating confined aquifers is known as the piezometric surface or potentiometric surface. | TYPES OF AQUIFERS b. Confined aquifers. ‘+ If this elevation is greater than that of the land surface at the well, the water will flow from the well and such wells are termed artesian or flowing wells Scanned with CamScannerAdvantages * Quantitative modeling is possible using either computer software or published master curves. * The resulting models can provide accurate estimates of depth, thickness and electrical resistivity of subsurface layers. * The method is useful for groundwater exploration and determination of overburden thickness Electrical Resistivity method Limitations * Electrodes must be in direct contact with soil; if concrete or asphalt is present, holes must be drilled for inserting the electrodes and then refilled when the survey is complete. * For deep investigations, electrode arrays can be quite long. * Measurements may be limited by highly conductive or highly resistive surface soils. If shallow clays and extremely shallow groundwater are present, most of the current may concentrate at the surface. Electrical Re: ity method Limitations + Electrical resistivity surveys require a fairly large area, far away from power lines and grounded metallic structures such as metal fences, pipelines and railroad tracks, * The fieldwork is labour intensive as a minimum of three crew members are required for the fieldwork. Scanned with CamScannerAlso called saltwater intrusion * The movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers, which can lead to groundwater quality degradation, including drinking water sources, and other consequences. * Naturally occur in coastal aquifers, owing to the hydraulic connection between groundwater and seawater. The fresh groundwater flows from inland areas towards the coast where elevation and groundwater levels are lower. a SEA WATER INTRUSION * Because saltwater has a higher content of dissolved salts and minerals, it is denser than freshwater, causing it to have higher hydraulic head than freshwater. + Hydraulic head refers to the liquid pressure exerted by a water column + A water column with higher hydraulic head will move into a water column with lower hydraulic head, if the columns are connected + The higher pressure and density of saltwater causes it to move into coastal aquifers in a wedge shape under the freshwater. SEA WATER INTRUSION * The saltwater and freshwater meet in a transition zone where mixing occurs through dispersion and diffusion. * Ordinarily the inland extent of the saltwater wedge is limited because fresh groundwater levels, or the height of the freshwater column, increases as land elevation gets higher. Scanned with CamScanner1. Porosity. + Porosity isa measure of the capacity of a rock or soil mass to store fluid in it + Defined as the percentage of the voids present in a given volume of soll Volume of voids Porosity.n = otat volume ofrock * +9 + Pores may be left in between individual grains and particles during the process of deposition in rocks. + Sedimentary rocks are relatively highly porous. a PROPERTIES OF AQUIFER 1. Porosity, + Only porous rocks can be aquifer, but high porosity itself is not sufficient to ensure water yielding capacity of a rock inthe release of water from + Effective porosity, is the volume of pores which is effect an aquifer. + Factors that adversely affect the porosity of rock are, = Adhesion to Grains = Unconnected Pores Permeability + Permeability is the capacity of a rock or any other solid medium to transmit fluids through it + Itis offen expressed as intrinsic permeability + ILis the capacity of a rock of lem length and Iem? cross-sectional area to allow a flow of Lem*/see at a difference of 1 atmosphere. + Permeability is related to the quality of pores and interstices in a rock. + Rocks with closed or dead end pores will not transmit water through it. FACTORS AFFECTING FLOW IN AQUIFER i. Permeability + Rocks are generally classified into three based on their coefficient of permeability, k. Cas x Examples Bitemelypemeable | >10 | Coane sandstone, imsione, pebbles, gravels emi permeable 10-0.1 [Fine grained sands, foams permeable =O.1__| Clays: mars and compact igneous rocks Scanned with CamScanneri, Hydraulic Conductivity + Darev's law, + According to this law, the flow of ground water through a column of saturated sandis i. Diely proportional othe diferencia halle head the end ofthe colar and ii, Inversely proportional tothe length ofthe columa FACTORS AFFECTING FLOW IN AQUIFER 4i,Hvdraulie Conductivity + Darey’s Law ache) + Hydraulic gradient ,1 =: v=Ki + The discharge Qis given by, VA + The value of K ranges from 0.5 m/day to aah of came 200 miday oF even more GHYBEN-HERZBERG RELATION + In the equation, The thickness of the freshwater zone above sea level is represented as h and that below sea level is represented as z 1, Gm + The two thicknesses h and 2, are related by p, and p, where p, is the density of freshwater and p, is the density of saltwater + Freshwater has a density of about 1g/cm? at 20°C, whereas that of seawater is about 1.025 g/em? ee GHYBEN-HERZBERG RELATION + The equation can be simplified to z=40h + ‘The Ghyben-Herzberg ratio states, for every foot of fresh water in an unconfined aquifer above sea level, there will be forty feet of fresh water in the aquifer below sea level. Scanned with CamScannerCALCITE (CaCo,) Rem Caco, een -xagonal ca Rhombic form rons Colourless, white/pale colour a Vitreous forts Rarely found a 3 set, well developed, cleavage angle - 105° Hardness Sree eee Medium ~2.71 ce ey Transparent to 's with acid vigorously Re ~ Very Common rock forming carbonate mineral Chemical composition EXORIE Ce Monoclinic ie Platy, fibrous, foliated Conn Colourless (maybe pale coloured) ford ret Conchoidal to uneven Coren nt 1 set (perfect) ft Ree - Can be scratched by finger nail Arua kere na ng eS tray Transparent or Translucent Sectile i.e. can be cut with knife VUANKRLA SIV) ce Peer oar Sta Hexagonal ny Massive, sometimes as crystals a Colourless when pure. Also occurs in ae coloured varieties td reat Conchoidal erennra Absent Srerrirae Medium — 2.65 Streak ‘White in coloured varieties \s on prismatic Seen nated = Most resistant to weathering Scanned with CamScannerROCK CYCLE * The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. * The phenomenon of the transformation of .# igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks from one type to another is known as rock cycle, ROCK CYCLE * Igneous rock can change into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock. + Sedimentary rock can change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock. * Metamorphic rock can change into igneous or sedimentary rock. Scanned with CamScannerDIP + Maximum angle of inclination of a layer of rock with the horizontal. + It is expressed in terms of degree of inclination (angle of inclination) and direction of inclination (layers maybe directed in any direction) * Degree of inclination may be from zero degree (horizontal) to 90 degree (vertical). ATTITUDE OF GEOLOGIC. * Disposition of rocks in space or the way in which they are exposed at a place is called the attitude o! rocks. + Dip & Strike are two basic terms used to express the attitude of any rock body DIP + The layers may be inclined in any geographic direction ice. east, west, north or south or in between. + The direction is determined with a simple compass whereas the angle of dip is determined with an instrument called clinometer. sition of rocks in space or the way in which they are exposed at a place is called the attitude oF rocks. * Dip & Strike are two basic terms used to express the attitude of any rock body STRIKE + Itis a geographic direction given by the line of intersection of a horizontal plane with a bedding planc of a Inyer of rock + In which direction, the bedding plane is inclined with the horizontal is called strike. + Itis measured with the help of a compass. Dip and Strike Explained Scanned with CamScannerGEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION * Adam may be defined as a solid barrier constructed at suitable location across a river valley + Decision regarding constructing a dam across a river and creating a reservoir is always based on socio-economic considerations * Whereas its design and construction is strictly based on geological investigations along the river valley GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTIO: + Topographically, a place which is most suitable for the purpose is selected. + Ideally it would be a narrow gorge or small valley with enough catchment area in order to store calculated volume of water. + Site should be selected such that, it shall not be involving uprooting of population, loss of cultivable Jand, minimum damage to public during its failure or destruction, GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION + ‘Technically, the site should be as sound as possible: strong, impermeable and stable. + Construction wise, the site should not be far off from deposits of construction materials + Economically, the benefits of a new dam should be realistic and justified in terms of land irrigated, power generated etc. + Environmentally, the site chosen for dam construction should not involve ecological disorder, especially in the life eycles of animals and vegetation Scanned with CamScannerGEOLOGICAL CHARACTERS FOR INVESTIGATION Geology of the area + Following factors are considered: Main topographic Features (stope of the area) Natural drainage patterns (ie. rivers) General characters and structures of rock formations such as their stratification, folding, faulting ‘and igneous intrusions ~The trend and rate of weathering and erosion in the area, GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION Lithetogy + Litology means the yes ofthe eck hat make the tea. Testis may would reveal the pe, the compoion and textures of rocks. Structures + The rota features of reks of thst areas thoroughly investigated + Weak regions needs treatment GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION * Geology of the site Structures + Dipand sirike There are 2 forces acting on the Dam: Self weight of Dam and thrust of impounded water. The Resultant of these forces may be inclined. This resultant determines the safe and unsafe condition ofthe dam construction, GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR DAM CONSTRUCTION + Geology of the site + Eaulis, ‘The faulted rocks are generally shatter along the rupture surfaces. Sites with faut planes require great caution alculating the design strength in various sections of the dam, In case some fault surface or zone gets ignored or overlooked, the stability of dam gets endangered, Scanned with CamScannerTqwors vecks are ANarlbe 1415 3B sub Syeups 2 + Velconte Yorks ° Plutontc -YoCKS 2 HY Parysea{ vecks Vol come yecks oo these one formal on the Sufate of fhe earth by cools y ave crysHtizedion gt lovey ew pied From vo leares, L) Plodonte Youks AR oc hege: yochs one - Bred ot congrhaable APs, Genuraly betweerh 7- bo vam below caath 5 Ng tAedet. ‘ : Hy Paby sok Youus” 6 ee “t- 1g 5 ferml mt Intermntige, depis, gently ap to ZEN below te carth's Sevfoate. . Thay Shows “mined chorncteursar of volcanic ane Scanned with CamScanner