IM TUCKMANTEL timization tic tsHans Joachim Tiickmantel The Optimization of Static Gaskets with 42 Tables First English edition kempchen 1991Copyright 0 1991 by Kempchen 8 Co. GmbH, D-#200 Oberhausen, Germany All rights reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmited, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, econding, or otherwise, without the waiten permission of the publisher ISBN-No.: 3-88432-020-3, PREFACE “To the Fist Bition in 1978 “The method of optimization for bolted flange connections presented herewith has been tested for many years, The data given in the tbles are proven and reliable. However, no liability related thereto can be accepted. Its of great importance to optimize bolted connections from all aspect: ‘Technically ‘The gasket often determines the function or son function of the elements to be sealed, Commercially ‘Tight apparatus and piping ead to Tow maintenance costs. The price of the ga IF is not relevant in this Environmentally I gaskets are not only leak sight, bat also remain tight for a Yong period, then they make a very important contibu- ion 10 the protection of our environment against leaking ses of guid 1 would lke to thank Messrs Kempehen & Co GmbH, D 4200 Oberhausen, West- Germany, for graming me facilities to check theoretical findings in the laboratories, and for the ‘opportunity to atin the capacity of gasket advisor / consultantPREFACE “To the Second Eaition in 1984 During the last ten years, in all branches of industry, great improvements in equipment, piping, valves ete have been achieved. is was possible only because of the further improvements in seating technology for bolted flange connections or sel-sealing closures. Said improvements relate w at not eas the computability ofthe behaviour ofa flanged connection. (Customers have been able to save maintenance costs and to prolong the operational lite of their equipment. i the writer's hope that within the next few years a revised DIN 2505 and a similarly od AD Mer ASME-Code will be produced. I is further hoped thatthe saggestions given in this publication willbe incorporate. PREFACE ‘To the Fist English Eiition in 1991 Several more years of valuable experience with the ‘ow available, The same valuable experience also exis sven in the tables of chapter 8 are for te theoretical pats ofthis book, In many cases of filed connection seas, it has been possible to perfectly analyse the causes. hem a perfectly acceptable solution of the problem could be given. ‘The determination of the required bolt load is obviously the ly a lea repeated retightening. achieve not ‘As an addition, chapter 8 con (Chapter 9 based upon the igues which show gaskets in cross section perience and laboratory tests has been added, express my thanks to Mr.J.G, Smart, who gave helpful assistance wi 20 eegees geeeee Sse LIST OF CONTENTS CCiticism ofthe existing, discussion ofthe standards Internal (asker materials, 3.82 Allsmetal gaskets, 3.83 Residual ‘84 Maximum allowable se Bott load and bot Uncertainty factor ‘and largest seating wit ‘The optimum gasket width and seating stress ‘The sealing diagram » The thor “The basi equation of sealing technology Etfect of internal pressure and enteral Torces ur of flange, bots and gasket Convex solid meal gaskets& gece 100 101 102 103 no 120 24 122 1B0 Discusion of the basic equation ‘The dimensior oe Grade of effect of the panicular parameters ‘Determination ofthe inital boe load bot oad ‘Tables of allowable surface pressures ‘Tables of all-metal gaskets Tables of flat gaskets from surface pressure ted to decreasing surface pressure jproved optimization Some data ‘on sealing factors “a and "b Examples Spiral wound gasket inner and outer ring lange connections with rng type joints Index Index of figures Index of tables Bibliography ua CCiticism ofthe Existing 9 CHAPTER 110 Diseussion ofthe Existing Standards Gasket design as itis described in standards, rules or regulations is either part of Mange sien (DIN 2505, ASME-Code) or of bolt design (AD-Merkblatt BT). There is no independent standard specifically for complete gasket design. explanatory by vue ofthe history of technology. I Subsequently as with now, wi user of flanges and bolts and may even be accepuble for the people who deal wi calculation of stress and sain for piping and apparatus. The users of gaskets and the operators of chemi the power stations ae aware d account. There is no standard reference as leakage rate of a specific Manged connection, The following 7 aspects are considered to have been inadequately dealt with by the codes. ighiness ofthe connection to be si ot the gasket ite) Ieaks before the test pressure is reached. The reason may be that the ‘bolts have only been pretensioned forthe service pressure and not fr the test pressure. ‘On the other hand it can be surmised that the gasket may be overstessed, due tothe fat ‘was not even considered. The gasket is required to withstand atleast the If there was an absolute cenainty that the gasket could never ible bolt loa. surefhigh tempe toad is then exerted on If gasket is very highly loaded under a service condition of rature and a rapid pressure the heated and weakened gask If one handles gase important when using10 CCitcism ofthe Existing Onup. 1 and includes spiral wound gaskets etc, Only for solid metal gaskets ean the partial pressure be neglected, Because the diffusion of gases may be excluded. 1.2 The Actual Sealing Width ‘The actual sealing wid DIN 2505, The factors given in ble UA 49.2 of the ASME-Code to reduce the gisket width do so in a quite arbitrary manner. For octagonal rng type joins it i implied that an eighth of the width of the cross section ‘ill be the actual width, but the cross section indicates otherwise. For oval ring type joint itis assumed that the actual width wi ‘width of the cross section in spite of knowing thatthe act ne modulus of elasticity, the strength and the loa, ‘troduced into the call nin either the ASME-Code of in also be an eighth of the is dependent upon the The DIN- sotwal width josophy for gaskets such as C.A.. or spiral wound is to mix up the unknown h the Ukewise unknown material criterion in the product form ko: in Nimes. On the other hand DIN-Phiosophy states thatthe sealing width of. is taken a8 the actaal width, oid flat metal gasket spite of knowing that even reduce the contact surface width to a minimum, thus creating a high edge pressure, and Increasing the sealing diameter 3 Mange rotation will 1.3 The Effect of Forces ‘The minimum design seating stress is assumed not to depend upon the service temperature that the gasket has to withstand. Is also assumed thatthe minimum design seating stess has only to act once ~ and that i when the gasket is installed is somewhat disconcerting to discover thatthe greatest bolt lod is required to achieve for inte ressure reasons. This unfortunate meters, and large widths, while at high pressures and happens at low pressures, larger diameters, the bolt load is adequate enough to achieve the required 3 set DIN 2505 allows a reduced load Plyy < Py Ppy=02Ppy + 08-| Poy -@; + Pog) o -ASME-Code only takes hal, or even test of the gasket ith into account, which result similarly reduced bolt Toad. If the above mentioned allowables are used, then the residual surface pressure under service conditions must be increased, because in tis ease the gasket ‘would not have been corectly prestressed, (Citcism ofthe Existing u Up to the present itis not usual to recommend an increased initial bolt load at elevated ‘temperatures with gaskets consisting of porous materials such as C.A.., or graphite alone, or 88 filer material for spiral wound gaskets, or as layer ma shaped gaskets. ‘The maximum allows DIN 2505 or AD-Merkblatt B7 or inthe ASME-Code. Extemal forces are only considered in respect to flanges and bolts. The fact that these also have an important influence in the gasket design as unfortunately been neglected. Note that the gasket is required to resist the compressive component of any extemal forces and not solely that of the inital bolt load ‘As a result of the forgoing the effet ofthe pipe bending moment is incorrectly estimated for grooved or convex load or surface pressure under service conditions i not given in the smaller diameter dg, - has been omitted. Infact, it should be stated as Fg 74 Mplilg, ® and identified as the additional foad on the gasket which is to be considered when pipe bending moments Mp act. 1.4 The Stress Suain-Diagram A Stress-strain-diagram for bolted flanged connections, a it was original pre-tandard DIN V2505 October 1964 hes now been revised, but fact resented in the i an easily overlooked few users of the diagram can find a specific relationship. Too many assumptions are required t9 be mde, such athe ung’s modulus of the gasket, and its kind of "set I bolt load, the thermal behavior and the temperature distribution. ‘The ease becomes really hopeless if it is intended to use the strese-strain-diagram to Predict the behavior of the pans of the bolted Manged connection at elevated temperatures ater afew operating cycles. The user must avoid being lulled into a false sense of security ‘hen applying the stress-strain diagram, because the values ob assumptions made, hence a great effort in calculation time does ted relate only t0 the ly relate 10 1.5 lange Rotation For the first time in the November 1972 draft DIN 2505 a ruling was made that thesm ofthe Existing Chap. nearly unavoidable flange rotation must of 1 degree was given, The Mange rotation, and wi face, has a great influence on the choice of a suitable gasket fortunately no hints are given in standards for the maximum allowable degree of flange peet 10 the different types of gaskets and their ability to seal under a specified or even varying angle. The January 1986 draft DIN 2508 gi taken into account in addition to the stress. A the deformation ofthe flange 1.6 Solid Metal Convex Gaskets (Including LenOvaO-Ring Type) There is no standard wh he calculation of bolted flanged connee- tions which include gask id metal with a convex shape Therefore, up to the present, convex gaskets consisting of toroidal parts can only be 1d using the gasket factors in DIN or in the ASME-Code. Addltionally these gasket to be arbitrary, because they don' refer to suring it fut the dependence of the leakage upon and decreasing surface pr The authors results ae described and analysed in chapter 9. ‘Objective ofthis Publication 1B (CHAPTER 2 Objective of this Publication This book det ase f i important parameters in obtaining reliable tight loads and knowledge of how variations of influences affect the gasket seal have been learned and are reviewed, caleulaing ving chapters 3 to 7 induce a system for calculating bolted Nanged connections oF combinations of these subjected tothe “main losd”or to the socalled “ot oad The infloence parameters are all ken into consideration, namely ‘The gas or lquid to be contained. The pressure and temperature “The allowable maxi leak rate ‘The materials ofthe gasket, the flanges and bolts The design of the flanged connection, Planges" is set up and explained. The assumptions which chapter 5. ae those given in chapter 8. In particular: kets ‘Table 8.2. "Flat Gaskets Comprising Metal and Soft Materials" Minimum and maximum allowable surface pressures are given in chapter 8 for ambient peratures and up f0 700 0C in addition tothe recommended opt wm surface pressure for [A descriptive explanation of the properties of various gaskets is provided herein, Reference ‘canbe found to leak rates depende mainly upon the type of gasket and surface pressure as S,y for gaskets with constant width and the sted radius respectively. well as to the "Safety Factor of App "Safety Factor of Application” S, for gaskets wi“ Objective Chap. 2 For the first time, the selection of gaskets based upon objective and practical criteria and related to increasingly recommended surface pressures is possible by reference t0 tables 8.4.0 to 849. Tables 8.48 t0 8.4.15 aze formulated with increasing re y and S, respectively), (safety factor of ap on installation rules are provided inthis book in addition to the estimated lic behaviour whichis given forthe various gaskets discussed is thus possible to estimate for example the spring rate of an as yet unknown gasket knowing onl values such as type and mater Rules for gasket design are given, and asa es pressure, temperature, etc ‘The recommended minimum initial and maximum allowable surface pressures given in the tables 8.1.3 to 8.2.9 are derived from this knowledge for usual leak 1 are given in 8.3. Consideration should be given to the fact that usual leak rates for C.A.. are greater for instance than those for spiral wound or eing-ype-joint gaskets. 18s concerning the tes. For other than usual leak rates itis still le 19 evaluate minimum initial and residual surface pressures based upon leak test ofall herein types of gaskess. Chapter 9 shows clearly that the hitherto wsed gasket factors are merely mechanical Explanation of the Basic Values 15 CHAPTER 3 Explanation of the Basic Values easy to fally understand is chapter, the influence ofthe Pressure and temperature ofthe medium tobe contained Diameter and width ofthe gasket ‘Gasket shape and material, External load and/or pipe bending moment ermal load by thermal expension Boling up procedure 3.1 Design Pressure - Test Pressure mn Should be tight and leakproof, not 0 all three of the following cases must be checked: under service, bo also Test condition forthe test pressure, After the te they are htened for the service condition, Service condition Bolts are tightened Combined cases happen shut off Teaving the flanges ng temperature ands For gases, ashes ‘especially when the surface pressure is low. For example: On both sides of a given panition sheet, there is near Ihydtogen and 40 bars air. After a certain time, hydrogen will diffuse into the ‘which leads to highly dangerous explosive mixture because the ait respect to its hydrogen content, and conversely, the hydro and oxygen, led paris empty with respect head type heat exchangers, extemal pressure also acs upon the floating head gasket, This feature is mosily neglected, but is responsible for very important adltional16 Explanation ofthe Basie Values Chap. 3 forces imposed upon the gasket, Many dificulties, which aze typically encountered with this type of apparatus ean be explained due to this omission, 32 Inflence of Temperature ‘The temperature level has an important influence upon the lifetime of the gasket. Tables 8.1.3 w 829 show how temperature affects the maximum allowable surface pressure, Unforunately, the tables cannot show the influence of time, which in tis context is also a very important factor. The tabulated values ae based upon the experience of many yeas ‘As the "braced pans” of a connection (ic. mainly the flanges and bolting) are warmed up, Table 32 Ratio of Young's Modulus at 20 (Cin Relation to Elevated Temperatures Materials E-Moduls “Temperatures at 200, inc inkNinm? 100-200-300" 400 Non-Alloyed Iron 12 3 116 3% Cr + Mo-Steel 206 ‘0s M4 5.9% Cr+Mo-Stee! 189) oO 112 12.27% CrSteel 201 os 2 I8/R CeNi-Steel 195 or 16 [NuCuFe Tncone! 214 03 ” Niele 197 07 16 67% NilCu S 185 02 a 10-30% NuCu 130 07 19 Copper no 06 18 - ‘Titanium 107 13 35 Bronze of 06 is Aluminium B u Explanation ofthe Basie Values 17 “Thermal stresses may affect the oad on bolts and gasket and so we can calculate these stresses when we know the materials. Mentieal temperature T of flanges and bolts, but Aiferent coefficients of expansion A lead to an adltional positive or negative stress Ac as ‘well as materials withthe same coefficients of expansion Pat different temperatures AT, Ao=T-Ap-E (a) Ao= AT: BE a ‘Auention most be paid when bolts and flanges are made of different materials and operate under diferent temperatures. Aa = AT-Ap-E. ) 3.3 The Sealing Diameter ‘The ouside diameter of the contact area between gasket and flange face shall be called ua the inside diameter d,, The sealing diameter of the gasket dis assumed to be the arithmetic average o As the designer seeks narrower gasket widths, the assumptions made in equation 5 will be suficiemly accurate, and do not exceed those made in the ASME-Code, 344 Actual Gasket Sealing Width rections with solid flat metal gaskets, anges are designed the gaskets are as narrow as possible. very rigidly and ‘or combinations of this material kets, corrugated type, oF grooved gaskets with insertions, or layers of soft material, are compressed over the whole ©) This known that only the radial wid is to be considered even when the flange face is ‘cone shaped, such as for etagonal ring type joints, oF double cone gaskets.18 Explanation ofthe Basic Values Chap. 3 Figure 1 ets Seating width a lat Gaskets rom a), b) and e) we derive the actual gasket seating and sealing width Wo, as © tis self-evident thatthe two sealing surface to be added: thas wo = Wig) + Mga i 43.5 The Actual Sealing Width of Convex Gaskets 11 884 Wp of ectagonal sing type joints are Figure 2: CCone shaped gasket Figure 3: (Octagonal ring type joint \ Explanation ofthe Basic Values 19 ran? 20 e ESI or most metalic materials this simplifies to for radi about 20 to 80mm, and the factor «= 6 for adit th plastic deformation ofthe surface, whereas the core remains in sasket deforms to achieve a sal, The following is used due to vonages 0) ection at elevated tempera and pressures. In general the rule applies:20 Explanation of the Basic Values Chap. 3 ‘ange surface must be with respect to a tolerable le ‘The surface roughness is measured in the so called to valley height” or R, instead le seratch may cause a leak, knowledge of the average behaviour of the Table 3.6.1 shows the recommended surface roughness for meta askets or gaskets with surfaces ofthese metals. ‘Table 3.6.1 Recommended Maximum Flange Roughness of Solid Metal Gaskets Gasket Matera Brinell Hardness Recommended Maximum ‘of Solid Metal ‘Nim Roughness Ry in um 0 100 150 25 200 25 300 i2s 500 63 700 63 00 32 1100) 32 1200 32 1200, 32 1300) 32 1600 16 1600) 16 Wo account. The Thickness fof these coatings or layers should be tthe su of the roughneses Ry of flange and Ry of the tet Rg ay With Gaskets composed of more than one material, itis only the materi of the gasket face whieh determines the recommended maximum roughness ofthe flanges. Table 162. Recommended Maximum Flange Roughness for Soft Gasket Materials “Material of the Gasket Face Recommended Maxionum ‘Roughness Ry inj 100 100 ‘0 50 30 Explanation of the Basie Values 21 1 goes without saying that itis posible ro ‘seal’ with even greater roughness than given in lables 3.6.1 and 36.2. The recommended maximum roughness when achieved, enables the scope of acceptable leak rates to be obtined (see table 8.3) 3.7 Gasket Shape and Material In addition 19 the selection of gasket material for its chemical iy exists that an assembly may develop a tendency if the diameter of the raised face dy i8 much greater than the outer diameter of the gasket contact area d.- Flange rotation leads toa reduced surface pressure which may result fn leak when the raised face contacts the outer rng. ‘Tongue and groove flanges with non-metal gaskets of graphite, PTFE or other soft ‘materials, are not considered as having good containment features due to width tolerances being generally too great. Extrusion of the gasket material may oveur, in particular when pressure oF thermal cycles operate. Asa result, the bolt load decreases and the connection is ‘0 longer tight. ‘A lens gasket may have its diamejer reduced by the radial component ofthe bolt load acting towards the center of the gasket, This disadvantageous characteristic may occur when ‘the material is too weak under ambient or elevated temperatures. Therefore for high pressure/ Ihigh temperature service, a support at the inner diameter by at least one flange is recommended, {In addition tothe above mentioned influence ofthe material strength, the angle of slope of For gaskets such as AF-materal, or spiral wound, or comrugated with insertions of ‘non-asbestos fibers, grease will improve the sealing characteristic. For all-metal gaskets, such as ring type, lens type etc. the particles of solid mater inChap. 3 ‘occur when the particles are impressed between the opposing metal faces ‘ean be destroyed by the oily matter if the consultation with the gasket manufacture, Te above examples are intended to ensure that attention is given not only to the gasket bu 3.8 Recommended Surface Pressure lange connection, suicient surface pie ting faces, - the so calle “sealing area" - must gover. The level ofthe surface pressure is when both the gasket und the flange surface are mutually formed and compatible, her the connection becomes. An uppet 3f the gasket, or finally the flange material. More fundamental leakage behaviour of gasket materials under surface pressures are given in chapter 9 ‘The success of the inital bolt Toad on a bolted connection, which will work under varying temperatures andor pressures originates from the knowledge of an adequate vam surface pressures for different tempers procedure represents the birth of the connection, all parameters be introduced in correct to each other mn for Bolted-Plange Connections" performs. For more details see chapter 5 paragraph 2 3.8.1 Compressible Gasket Materials The i which the in contradiction wi requited tobe achieved only once. 5 been learnt from tests and by experience that 6, on the one hand depends upon gasket material, shape and surface roughness of the flanges, and on the other hand upon the Temperature and time. The higher the expected temperature is, the higher the initial jon of the Basic Values 23 Seating stress must be. The reason being to anticipate the loss of volume under temperature using higher value ofthe inital bolt loa. 3.82 AllMetal Gaskets Allmetal gaskets dont show the type of behaviour indicated in par. 3.8.1 when they are ‘made from one solid metal. The minimum seating stess 6; should be about 20% higher than the yield sess 9, and the 6,alue. This ensares thatthe surace of the gasket materi is plastically deformed, which i a prime requirement for leak tight sealing tare made from two kinds of metals, for instance as is usaal for ssress 6, at elevated service temperatures with these types of all-metal gaskets 38.3 Residual Seating Suess seating stress under service co depends linearly upon the internal pressure p to be sealed. If the seating stress has been applied, o,=m:P ») and similar asbestos-fee (AF) products. In this draft it is pointed stress cannot be in accontance with equation (1 tion references made herein are purely for information. There is no intent to rocommend same, As can be seen in chapter 9, preferable to work with higher intial seating stress 6 instead of higher residual seating sess % “The correct method to obtain a lower i al bol load for connections of small diameter or low pressure ist reduce the seating width, and thus to use a higher seating suess 3.84 Maximum Allowable Seating Stress ‘The maximum allowable seating show t under service of des temperature is called 6, 10 temperature is of great importance inthis lower value o, than the gasket, then the Tower value is 0 be24 Explanation ofthe Basie Values Chap. 3 ‘The maximum allowable seating stress depends not only upon the gasket or flange material, bot also upon the seating stution, OF great influence onthe evel of stress ae, for instance, 1 the gas tained” between the flanges or not, eg, tongue and groove Whether a spiral wound gasket has only an outer guide ring, oF additionally an inner support rin, If the surface roughness ofthe lange is low or high et, mum allowable seating stress 9, is about 20% above the tensile strength or the longtime rupture strength, of surface pressures are ‘required leak rate. Por more details see chapter 9, involved in maintaining the seating sess 0; depends upon the behaviour of the surface of the the flange surface, the softness of a galvanized coating, oF of layers of of 6; being adjusted accordingly. For instance, the minimum ‘The maximum allowable stress o, on the other hand depends upon the strength sustaining ‘core ofthe sealing ring ‘This necessary supposition for the behaviour of complex gaskets is explained in detail in 36, Similar relationships occur with grooved gaskets having soft layers. The minimum i seating sess is determined by the soft layer and the maximum allowable stress is determi by the body ofthe grooved materia 3.8.7 Surface Pressures for Gaskets inthe "Oft-Ioad" Condition mare mostly arranged in a groove. The area 186 supporting the load, Explanation ofthe Basie Values 25 ‘considered to resemble a parallel connection ofa relative soft and hard par. Remember, that in 3.8 the gasket with its layers were compared toa series connection of soft and hard pats principle, two cases are defined for gasket design in the off-load Fange rotation takes plae around a circle whichis smaller than that ofthe bolts. The angle and consequently the gap berween the Manges, wil be greater shan zero, They depend upon ied moments contac takes place on the width w of the Mange par inside the bolt circle, The groove width wg epresets min the gasket width especialy with spiral wound saskets or gaskets made of Hexble grup Both areas - the gasket and the metal area ~ cary the loadin relation 1 their elastic properties. Therefore the width ofthe gaseting system in the offload has a total with Moun ge 0 sine ten Baza) Figure 4: *Oft-load" condition, Meta-to-metal contact inside the bot cick case? 1f ange roration occurs at ‘costly design gives the advant are stong enough to clamp th kes place around 2 circle out voiding any gap betweer 00 the fll flange face. The load tobe carried, and the i eaton, are accordingly higher than inthe case 1.26 Explanation of the Basic Values Chap. 3 Figure 5: ‘Of-load” condition. Meta-to-metal contact outside the bot circle diameter Gaskets for use inthe “ofF-oad” condition needa certain minimum surface pressure to reach this position and condition. This minimum stess scaled yp ggg = 70 Nim? For spiral wound gaskets with graphite filler For exible graphite alone For rubber gaskets, if they can be transformed unhindered ‘The maximum allowable surface pressure in the “offload” position is given by the flange ‘material and depends upon the temperate, Call it 6 Now the minimum and the maximum seating stress in relation to the tat width Wey ean be detemnined as follows ‘The recovery of the gasket is in general not as great as expected. Under high service pressure the "gap" (se figure 4) may be particulatly wide and the required residual surface pressure may in addition be high. Tests have shown that @ gap of 0.05 mm can be tolerated for spiral wound gaskets at 200 bars. Gaps equal to or greater than 0.10 mim lead to leakage. 3.8.8 Surface Pressures of Solid Motal Convex Gaskets Convex gaskets are charocterized by the radius of the curvature of the contacting Explanation of the Basic Values 27 surfaces, while flat gaskets are characterized by their radial width, 1f 9) and (10) are equated, the following is obtained 06 and 7 o-1.|*_*o an GF G {As willbe life later in chapter 4 minimum ands maximum sufce pes dg Gaz an be ten foreach ind of psht orguskeng mater depenfen onthe temperature T, [From equation (17) it can be seen that with convex gaskets, the increase of surface pressure is only proportional to the root of the increasing lead, since the gasket width Increases simian 3.8.9 Final Remarks on Surfuce Pressures For surface pressures 0; < 0 < othe minimum residal seating stress under service condition 4G, is assumed as linearly proportional to the intemal pressure p. This factor of proportion n. The factor m depends not enly upon the above mentioned condition, but also upon the 235 o liquid to be sealed, and the tolerable Teak rate (See paragraph 3.8.3 and chapter 9) 3.9 Bolt Load and Botting Up Procedure Bolts should be suocessively tightened disgonally. If there are more than 4 bolt (42) Smin Er “pia. mP ap ft Fep) max * Feo? Fy Fey + BS gt nt Fep tO ESS 3) : a Pr eg (44) Frc “na Goes 46) 86° Cmax ~ Fmin? ‘The required radius of convex metal gaskets can be arranged according to equation 38 with “GF ign AGS. ss R ‘ea tegs o 4G FE Ongy — Fpjg) A SiNee ‘The expression “n-sina inthe denominator of equation 47 is explained in 5.11 and takes Jno account whether the gasket contacts the Mange only in one circular ares or in sw. ‘56 Gasket Choice Acconting to Allowable Surface Pressures B, En) Fy EB 20, Fe.c +m) P+ Ue, 8) [rsg*"] ied BEE EG ENG “ “This important factor Gg enables the choice ofa stale gasket 1 be made Kom the tables40 Basic Equation of Sealing Technology Chap. 5 5.7 Bfect of External Forces from Pipe Moments chapter, extemal forces 1 to wider gasket size from which the width, Pipe bending moments act asa pair of equal but opposite forces. The force on the bolts is calculated with the bolt circle diameter dp, whilst the force on the gasket is caleulated with diameter dg following «9 60) be sheet, f expansion level using diferent materials, or using the same kindof materials at ferent vemperatres The na ey are able to equally loud or unload the Bolts and the gasker resp. context “interal forces” from thermal « piping system Fe. and Fg ‘on the’ one hand Fy, is added t0 at service temperature. On the other hand, to be checked whether they are oversressed, because Fy, i added to thei ad taking into consideration the changed E-modulus at service temperature ese forces from thermal exp il Basie Equation of Sealing Technology a 59 Be Setting F537 96 Cena on F 85-6; 2 eB , S5°CmG 025 WGP + aoe t Ge oe" —_—_ 3" “a we ont” ee Sept Tp i Fao 2nd coven fr he he equ conte PES deg fee t %6rma} P20, Fe. )-P Ss (53) a a » ‘Avoid the we of grease in (©) Flange surface roughness too high. This may be obtained for easkets, when the applied contact stess isn't adequate press easket material entirely into the grooves. Later with the influence of eat and time, the ereep process may star. ® fly louded bolts or flanges may also result in eeep and consequently a loss in gasket thickness Table 5.9 gives standard values for the setting behaviour of some gaskets thus additional hy py can a The numerical onder is explained i opt found,2 Basic Equation of Sealing Technology Chap. 5 Basic Equation of Sealing Technology 48 Al values given above are standards which show the relations and the behaviour of the discussed gaskets, All-metal gaskets have a behaviour, which can easily be derived from ,can be obtained from the E-moduli of steel and of silver consid ald forthe discharge line ofthe stessstrain- Table 59 eoo5) Fess Gp #20 C in Nim? respectively MPa Figure 10: Compressibiity and recovery of apical composite gasket Surface pressure & Deérease in height ig —“4 Basic Equation of Sealing Technology Chap. 5 “Tests which check the compressibility and recovery of a gasket are valucless ifthe recovery is measured according to ASTM F36 method A. ‘STM nomenclature the more ‘expressive spring-back under loud should be calculated as follows Spring-back = 8 —_M 6) M accordance with 52 and 3.8.8, The angle between the direction of force, (which is normally axial to the pipe or vessel), (0 1) and double contact (a = 2). ‘The force Facts perpendicularly onto the gasket contact area Ag, of the width Woy AGante™ ea 65) which makes an angle a with the direction ofthe bolt load Fy YG" %Gq°h sine 66) Fy =Fyen-sina on Fa Wo Figure 11: Relation between F and Fg a8 well as between We, and We Basic Equation of Sealing Technology cy ‘The following figures 12 and 13 show examples for single contact are, figures 14 and 15 same for double contact areas O-ring raped faces with, a= 450 0707 F 8) According to equation 10 Fea" 8a * "Ga?46 Basic Equation of Sealing Technology Chap. 5 thus the basic equation for convex gaskets can be written vsing equtions 12 and 58 and seting = 0, 2.9. P Fyn gn eo ag o oB°5 ge fg: 4? m-P on sina e, Fg = (eee Soo re reg) up e2e ) ‘ Fo er ‘As was shown for flat gaskets in 5.3 and 5.6 this equation can be solved forthe radivs rg or the surface pressure 6 10 obtain imporant information regarding the bolted flanged connec: tion which isto be designed ‘The radius Fg of the gasket should be selected BetWEEM fun AMA nay UNE the following, F, E.R 0.25dg-P + gE! io? *aGt pax * —— —2*— @ 2 | asin a coup? | pean F, oad + Ee b9p¢° SS ) = (22st ont J steps 30 < , ; EB E.G Er 0.25 GgP + GE ‘nino 8 Bg Pi Fo @) [Rt own? | apne i Fao a noes " req (63) > and in particular We, > pq, conditions will be uneconomic, Flanges G ‘opt ‘max and bolts willbe larger than necessary, and therefore be t90 expensive Alternatively, when 6 << Wop, Comections will bE NO 50 FE. WG < Wig MUSE Be ‘excluded because in this instance the gasket is inadequate {6.1 The Dimensionless "Factor of Load” In the following theoretical discussions, equations are derived without consideration for any extemal forces F, to simplify representation, Use will be made only of the basic ‘equation 37 for flat of fat shaped gaskets. The same thoughts however, but somewhat more ‘complicated, ae valid for conven gaskets 59. ‘Aitonally,wse wil be made for these dtcusions only of the opium values Wop. Spy Noting that Fy, can be obtained from part () and (II) ofthe "basic equation” 37,35 fellows, Fpopt "46°* ope “opt oo and that from part (and (I) 025-g-P opt ° 5) Spee, - me48 Discussion ofthe Basic Equation Chap. 6 The combination of 64 and 65 by substituting for Wop, 65 into 64 will yield a remarkable result 2 Br ane - —ert_ Faye? 6) Sop To 1 Fao ‘The fis term of this equation is aevording to 33 Fy and the second term is defined asthe "actor of load fp" fp=—— abt « ne Seite sean Feope Fu frp (66a) ‘The index P when related of indicates that the factor of load is in addition a funetion ofthe pressure P, ‘The required bolt load is, as can be seen in equation 66a equal to the hydraulic end thrust yg multiplied by the dimensionless factor fp Asis shown in (7 for example, the Factor of load corresponds closely with the test results tis for example ndvantageous to design piping systems Gavolving various sizes) using the “factor of Tou, since this makes it posible to quickly obtain the intial bolt Youd, if there are ferent diameters bat otherwise equal conditions. 6.2 The Dimensionless "Factor of Width” is now evident that, when the expression forthe width wp, is split into the form of two toms fr baie vi nor vinaoen ae, opt f 5) Speed me — wg 82545 wo gle? im Discussion ofthe Basic Equation 0 P fyp2 68) {63 The Dimensionless "Factor of Elasticity” ‘A third factor can be derived for easier cal tat is the “actor of elasticity sible, even when the setual io C of the gasket of thickness fg, and alteration ofthis thickness Aig under the load Fis defined as ost - © Ne suing ht cro of ay fr yl as eS a tue wing euion 7. & (66a) u -m-P Wey the total spring ratio ofthe gasket can now be writen oF 5 W o get Gig o ‘opt, Er PT mp is Fao tis evident that the expression on the right of equation 71 isthe third dimensionless factor fop m™0 Discussion ofthe Basic Equation Eo Pee gE, on Fy hem [Additionally equation 71 can now be writen inthe short form fe, , it oH Cana toe 64 Consideration ofthe Practical Application ofthe Dimensionless Factors Chap. 6 m™ co) ‘materials are used for sealing higher pressures, and softer materials for lower pressures ‘The required initial bolt load for harder gaskets is lower than for softer gaskets since their 66) Case T Case I Case It: Basi values . af to ee 4% FBopt FB altered Percentage Basic values Fpaltered Percentage Discussion ofthe Basic Equation © required bolt load will be examined, Piping dg= 200mm P= 100 bar Heat exchanger dg = 1000 mn P= 40 bar Vessel gg= 2000 mm P= 10 bar Table 6.4.1 (Case I: Piping. d= 200 mm, P= 100 bar (10 Nim?) Varied values Nimm® 100110 - 14 1s uM 121 - 1s 165 Nima? 10 u mm 200 20 NOt iN 624 735 35 6186 7135 7613 % 27 34 43d 4 Hd LL ‘Table 64.2 1000'mam, P = 40 bar (4 Nim) Varied values Ninm® 100110 = 12 132 1 121 ~ 1s 165 Nimme 4 44 mm 1000 1100 KN 4508 kN 446949974997 4543 4997 S449 % 07% 4109 +109 432 +109 42102 Discussion of the Ba ion Chap. 6 Table 6.43 (Case Il: Vessel, dg = 2000 mim, P= 10 bar (1 Nimm?) Basic values ‘Varied values Sp Nim? 80 BB. uy; - 12 132 ExgE, - 1 121 ™ 1s 165 P10 bar Nim? 1 éG mm 2000) 2200 Font KN 4252 Fy shered kN 42462 4689 46894263 4689 S145 Percentage % 024 +103 4103 4026 +103 4210 43.1%, 40.52% and 40.265. Thi ere, but is equally valid with exten 6.5 Grade of Effect of the Panicular Parameters From 6.4 it is clear that itis more important to know the parameters exactly, thus the important 1 know exactly can be ‘The ratio of E-modoli Eyo/E, ‘atures are important to know, Internal press Jmporn factor and must be clearly known, n be seen that “seating stress” and "gasket factor” are insigifi explain why Discussion of the Basic Equation 53 65 Particular Parameters coc Gast pam 4 “up raft ‘im | on = gama on Soa If extemal forces Fy OF Fc are to be expected, then these are to be considered in accordance with the basic equation of sealing technology 37 or 59. Shoul ceonceming the grade t be made, including external forceDiscussion ofthe Basic Equation Chap. 6 Determination of the Initia Bolt Load 55 CHAPTER 7 Determination of the ial Bolt Load ‘The "basic equation of sealing technology 37” yields the inital bolt load equating part 1 and par I 114 The Minimum Initial Bolt Load ‘The minimum inital hott oad is obtained by multiplying the gasket sealing atea Ag for fat gaskets Ag=46-%G es) ,consideing 6 and S8, for conve gaskets Aga dg: -n-sinarg ag cn) by the greater of either ‘he minimum design seating ste8S pig, fom equation 20 HES Ogg. fom equation 48 for Ma gaskets or fom ‘equation 63 for convex gaskets respectively 172. The Optimum tnital Bolt Load bot load is obtained by area Ag according to equation 35 of 74 with the greater of either ‘The recommended optimum the optinam design seating SHe88. Oope from equation 29 quired se from equation 48 for flat gasket convex 856 Determination of the Initial Bolt Load Chap. 7 1.3 The Maximum Allowable initia! Bolt Load ‘The maximum allowable initial bolt load is obtained by multiplying the gasket seating area ‘Ag, aecording to equation 35 or 74, with the maximum allowable design seating stress from equation 21 Extemalforees which may additionally compress the gasket are to be considered, max ‘74 The Range of the Inia Bott Load Considering the foregoing, the range of the Initial bolt load can be writen for the minimum required bolt load, the recommended optimum bot load, and the maximum allowable bolt lod. 1) for fla gaskets o flat shape gaskets with constant width eG Onin Fain = MAX| 05) "Bmin tg G'F req =ax|{o 7 8G opt Fron MXC 86 Freq 7) Fema “4G %G' Tmax FG ™ for convex gaskets where widths area function of the seating stress ag FAAS ine FG- Gyn? form ins Ene Gin Faymin = MAX! 6 a8) a log: P-0-S iNC IGG peg? 6 lag: F rP-0-$ inekG- Gye? FG Fp ope = MAX! a), Bont Mig: Fn SinaFG Oey? G deg H NaS MG Ong? 's ‘G'S Fama" Eg EB ~ Determination ofthe Bolt Load 3 115 Some Applicaton Hints “The following steps are recommended to rapidly choose an appropriate gasket design which ‘meets all requirements 8) Make a selection from gaskets described in chapters 8 and 9 considering common experience. This will give 0,0, and Eg ete: b) Equations 38, 39,40 for flat gaskets or ‘equations 60, 61,62 for convex gaskets ve an impression ofthe allowable range of gasket wid or radius respectively ©) Examine whether the suggested gasket width w lies between the limits Wag and 8) Make a selection so that the width of the gasket Wg lies Between Win AMY Win Win © "G< Mena 8 Prefered. G7 Mop focommended. ©) Caleulate aig ftom equation 48 for flat gaskets or from equation 63 for convex shaped metal gaskets and Ojeq > Oj Wil be Obtained. 1) Ifthe possible width we, is wider than oy, only the property ofthe gasket material will detemine the gasket behaviour DECRSE Cyn > Sag 2) If the possible width wg is smaller than wa, then the bolted flange connection will fil. Another gasket witha greater 6, value must be selected. hy Return toa)58 Load Chup. 7 Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures 8 CHAPTER 8 Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures and tables 82.1 10 82.9 ‘gasket and flange inforcing met 20 9C wp to 700 °C. surface pressure othe maximum allowable the recommended optimum surface pressure for solid metal gaskets only and surface pressure due to the temperature (shih is derived from 6; and o}) the modulus of elas ‘Additional details about the leakage behaviour is given in chapter 9. “The data contained herein are based upon laboratory tests caried out at the premises of ‘Kempehen & Co GmbH, D4200 Oberhausen, West-Germany, on literature, and on long time experience. Dee 0 important ones, or the most important material combinations. If a requested. material (combination) can not be ‘behaviour can be estimated from the knowledge of 2 gasket with similar abasic requirement thatthe flange material mast have atl the gasket mat sure should be = the case ofa softer flange material, the maximum allowable surface 2.0015) Ry of this Mange material asker catalogue of Kempchen & Co ference number is piven to each gasket type. This reference number is also used inthe tables of chapters 8 and 9. ‘The recommended flange surface roughness should be considered. I ‘grooves made by 1 ining the Manges on a lathe ‘operation are in a radial direction, and should thereo Tables of Allowable Surface Presures Chap. 8 ‘They will cause the leakage rate to increase. AS a rule: the greater the roughness, the larger the leakage willbe. 8.1 Tables of AI: Metal Gaskets Flat gaskets with rectangular cross section should have a widthto-hefght ratio of more than 4. Yo 24 @ Tg D is also valid for other than fat gaskets (with constant width) e.g, Gasket profile HS consist of an H-shaped supporting ring of hard and elastic metal, such as steel and one or two pentagonally shaped sealing rings on each side ‘The minimum required surface pressure 0; depends upon the behaviour of the sealing ings, which are preferably made of Figure 17: Profile H5-D ‘Three sizes of sealing rings are available, so that in total 6 widths exist. Table 8.1.1: Gasket Widths of Profile HS and HS-D Profile HS oa Profile SD we 152 5mm Hs.D2 16mm 1525 10mm HS-D 25 20mm #33 mm HSD3 24 mam ‘Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures 6 6; x45 f0"& gasket containing silver rings with; = 100 MPs is thus, 2100 2¥ 2 100. Gigs = 100-5e = 5g 40 Me ‘The calculation is made withthe fictitious width wg = 25-wy. Convex gaskets are often relatively thick, as shown in figure 18. The axial projection of Figure 18: Maximum height ofu lens gasket Figure 19 explains for a flat convex gasket how the toal gasket width w depends upon the ‘contacting width We, and the height of the gasket hg - Ww “7 G6 La} | EKA Figure 19: Width-to-height ratio ofa fla convex gasket62 Tables of Allowable Sutace Pressres chap. 8 Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures 63 In the following table 8.1.2, typical and commonly used radi and angles are given ‘Table 8.1.2: Standard Radii and Angles for Convex Gaskets ‘Table 8.1.3: Data for Iron Based Gasket Materials mee Sin Tapers inte gating Ace Gas ye and Raf ae 20% 1c Re NG ERE ne mane ores : as 2s aS as 2S Sold met Oving yr 8 tw q Bs 4s sis at re d Convex pte a er s isle as core om 1 8 on, MPL 350 330 0 2m 250 4 20 2 B opt 4 RB 2 B Em Gp. 210 205 m0 S15 2 « 22020 7 181d sia @ MP 6S 265 aS ass etal gases ih tn coatings on tee ace eg iver hve the sa oo ib te ose te asic material Steel 8 - 1s LS ies 12 ree for HS gaskets. The modulus of elasticity of these may be cn, Mf 0 39035) 300280 GPa 210-205 20018575 cireular cross section are mounted in between two s, 23°22 «19 1612 V-shaped grooves then two cases are distinguishable: : 8133 MPa 300 300300300, CASE a) The gasket material ly deformed, Low Alloy 6, MPa 675 675 630388, In this case the cross section of the sealing ring may be smaller than the Heat Resistant Sy 1s 1s Ld 1d cross section ofthe empty groave (or grooves) Steel Sop MPL 450 450435420 FG GPa 210 205 20018, CASED) The gasket material is mainly 5, 230230 22 24 134 a, MP 335 435335335, High Alloy 3, MPa 750 720 675 630 Austenitic Sy WS Sak Stainless Steel Sy MPs 500 490475460 AISI 304, 316 FG GPa 200 197 193186 ‘The following tables 8.13. 10 8.1.5 provide data related to the design temperature to be a 5 t2 22a) to considered * ee? 8135 o MPa 360 360 360360 36050360360 imilar composition and strength High Alloy o, MPa 730 695 650 6503510 SW 430 Austenitic Sy Mig 13 1388 High Temp, Sop MPa 51S 500485585 48D aT] 40395 Steel eg. EG GPa 200 1961S RDS, 16716. ASS Incoloy 5, 20 20 19 19 19 19 AT 164 ‘Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures Chap. 8 ‘Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures 6 ‘Table 8.1.3: Data of tron Based Gasket Materials, cont, Site Se yi 2mnc tome 200 SIC iE STAC E00 TOE a136 3 MPa 400 400400400 400400400 Fete Heat 4, MPa 500 0 8007306802080 Sy 1S 1S sD Come MPx OO 56554] S20 S00 ata Eg GPa 210 205 20019 ARS TSS 5 230230200 19187 MPa 400 mt eo a focused am ao ash cat aa : ae" fT PEN ooo : Alloy Gey MPa 60 sm 50 53549) 40 a AIST 309, 314 EQ GPa 200 198 186178170160 s or similar S788 21 19 18613 on - ®o S: ‘Table 8.1.4: Data of Metal Combinations for Gaskets 8145 o MPa 5555 3s 35 35 —_——___mantieoersnentcninnimircrt __ | ans oe HE om woe we BIEBER acre | Mie San Ge as i a14t 6 MPa BS BS 13S 135 Copper Ge tite fom oo oe smh ae ww a a a a iets io sos) sme A ae oo eae a | Seating Ring Gop, MPa wows oe waa 2% MPa 100 100-100 «100100100 Siver om oe eS oe HA. SSteel 6, MPa 750 720 675 63085525; so AsTypeB134 Sy 2727262242 © Stee Soa me oe aot S78 732068 6662cy ‘Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures Chap. § ‘Tables of Allowable Surface Pressures o ‘Table 8.1.5: Data of Noo-Ferrous Metal Gaskets Gasker Sign appear ne gesting Ac ‘Table 81.5: Data of Now Ferrous Metal Gaskets, con Materia Usie 20% ro0ec 2008 “09 7008 —— eeOo Mate! rt 2086 10006 2 OPE ONE SEINE OPC TOPE Gasket Sign Temeer nh gakeng ve S151 MPa oo 0 0 0 0 Materia Unit 208¢ 1002008" ‘009 TOC Pre Silver 3 MPa 1381580135129 100 80 98.9% Sy 18 M7 Le SA 8156 oP 200 200 Sop, MPa eo 2 7 on 8 ‘Titiom 3 MP 310 240 Ee GPa 0 7 BT ot Gide Sy Ll s, Bi 312902723 Sap, MPa 219 ee Fg. GPa 85 152 % MP 100 100-100 100-1001 so. 14 Low Alloy MP 190 180 160 SHO Silver 13% Ni Sy, Mois 18a 8157 MPa 2a) 280 Fine Grin Type Sop, MPX 138M 125620114 0s Tianium o, MPa 640 410 a a Grade Sy 1613 Soo. 18 AR OT Ske Gi, MPa 392 34 —__-— Fg. GPa 115105 4153 o MPa 70 70 70 st 271k Aluminiam a MP MO 1m 8 95% Sy oie we 8158 3% Mm 20200 260260 Co MPO HM Mone! MPa 660) 650 445300 i a Sy 16 16 wo s, 20 1714 Oop, MPA 414 Ad 340279 oo Eg) Gra 178 178 167160 wisa «Mm 13s BSS s as 25 oo Copper a, MPa 300 270198180 - SottAmeded = Sy SDL Soe 4159 MPa 310 310 310 «310-310-310 rn Inco! 3, MPa 760 1 180720 Fg. Ge. 18 sD Sy 16 16 1643 s, 220200 «1S 12 Soy, MPa 485 as aa oe | FQ Ge 218 208 200192 a155 5 101919019019) ss ts 2s 2s Nickel ¢, 500 490 48040029210 ———————————— ope 308 MS 302275285200 Fy 204196 188181607