Introduction to Biostatistics

Kidanemariam A. (BSc in Statistics ,

MSc & Assistant Professor in
Biostatistics From UoG)

School of Public Health

 Objectives

At the end of this session students are able to:

• Define Statistics and Biostatistics.

• Explain the role Biostatistics in health particularly in Health

Informatics.

• Explain the types of Statistical methods and data (variable)

types.
• Familiarize with the different types of scales of measurement.
• Describe the different sources of data.

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 Statistics
• Refers to numerical facts/figures or quantitative
information that describes every aspect of Health, Social,
Education and Economic phenomenon's. But all
figures/data are not statistics.

• Is a branch of scientific method deals with planning and

design of data collection, organization, presentation,
analysis, interpretation and drawing conclusions based on
the data.

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 …Cont’d
A numerical data to be statistical data:

The data should be numerically expressed.

The data must be comparable.

The data should be collected in systematic manner.

The data should be collected for a pre determined

purpose.

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 Generally Statistics
• Is a science that helps us make better decisions
in Health, business and economics as well as
in all other fields.
• Teaches us how to summarize, analyze, and
draw meaningful inferences from data that lead
to improve our decisions.

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 Biostatistics
The tools of statistics are applied in many fields:
business, education, psychology, agriculture,
economics, Medicine… etc.
When the data analyzed are derived from the
biological science and medicine, we use the term
biostatistics to distinguish this particular
application of statistical tools and concepts.

Hence, Biostatistics is statistics as applied to the

life and health sciences.
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 Types of statistical methods
Descriptive statistics

Is concerned with describing important features of the available

data without going beyond that data themselves.

Describe the data by summarizing them using summary

calculations, graphs, charts and tables.

Inferential statistics

Techniques, by which inferences are drawn for the population

parameters from the sample statistics.

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 Definition of Some Basic Terms
Population: consists of the set of all measurements under
study for which inferences are to be made. The population
could be finite or infinite. May, consist of animals,
machines, places, plants or cells.
There are two ways of investigation: census and sample survey.
Census: Complete enumeration or observation of the elements
of the population. It is the collection of data from every
element in a population.
Sample: It is a subset of the population, selected using some
predefined sampling technique in such a way that they
represent the population.
Sample size: The number of elements or observation to be
included in the sample.
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 …Cont’d
Parameter: a statistical characteristic or measure obtained from a
population data.
Statistic: A statistical characteristic or measure obtained from a sample
data.
Sampling: The process or method of sample selection from the
population.
Data: refers to a collection of facts, values, observations, or
measurements that the variables can assume (The raw material of
statistics/Weight, Number of patients ).
Variable: It is an item of interest/characteristics that can take on different
numerical values in different persons, places, or things.
Examples: diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, heights of adult males,
weights of preschool children, number of decayed, missing, or filled teeth
per child and ages of patients seen in a dental clinic.

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 Role of Biostatistician's

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 Why do we need Biostatistics
 More and more things (facts) are now measured
quantitatively in medicine and public health.
 Everything in medicine, be it research, diagnosis or
treatment depends on counting/measurement.
 To make it easy complex and large data by presenting in
the form of tables, graphs, diagrams, central tendency &
dispersion.
 To present and summarize data for end users.

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 …Cont’d
Is this new drug or procedure better than the one commonly
in use? How much better?
In testing a new drug how many patients must be treated, and
in what manner, in order to demonstrate its worth?
What is the normal variation in some clinical measurement?
Which group of the population is more affected by malaria?
Therefore, it is necessary to make ourselves familiarize with
statistical techniques in order to understand the medical
literature and to undertake our own research work.

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 …Cont’d
It is applicable in any field of study which seeks
quantitative evidence. For instance,
• In almost all fields of human endeavor.
• Almost all human beings in their daily life are subjected
to obtaining numerical facts e.g. about price.
• Applicable in some process e.g. invention of certain
drugs, extent of environmental pollution.
• In industries especially in quality control area.
• To compare the improvement in yield due to application
of fertilizer, pesticide………..

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 Limitations of Statistics
 Statistical results are only true on average.

 The conclusions obtained statistically are not

universal truths. They are true only under certain
conditions.

 Cannot be used to study qualitative phenomenon.

But possible to analyze statistically by expressing
them numerically.
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 …Cont’d
•Deals with those subjects of inquiry that are
capable of being numerically measured and
expressed.
•Mainly deals on aggregates of facts: best only
when group characteristics are desired to be
studied.
•Statistical data are only approximate but not
correct mathematically

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 Types of Variables (Data)
On the basis of information contained:
Qualitative Variables: are non numeric variables and can't be
measured. Some of them can be ordered or ranked.
Examples: Gender, Religious affiliation, Color, Nationality,
Marital status, income level, educational level and state of birth.
Quantitative Variables are numerical variables and can be
measured.
Examples: The heights of adult males, the weights of preschool
children, the ages of patients seen in a dental clinic, Number of
children in family, Temperatures, Salaries, Number of points
scored on a 100 point exam, Number of students in a class,
Number of patients per year.

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 …Cont’d

Note: the quantitative variables are either discrete which

can assume only certain values, and there are usually
"gaps" between the values, such as the number of chairs
in your class.

Or continuous

which can assume any value within a specific range, such

as the air pressure with in a tire.

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 Discrete Variables
• Are variables which assume a finite or countable number of
possible values.
• Usually obtained by counting.
• Is characterized by gaps or interruptions in the values that it
can assume.
• These gaps or interruptions indicate the absence of values
between particular values that the variable can assume.
Example:
• The number of daily admissions to a general hospital.
• The number of second year Pharmacy students.
• The number of houses constructed every year.
• The number of decayed, missing or filled teeth per child in an
elementary school.

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 Continuous Variables
• Are variables which assume an infinite number of possible
values between any two specific values.
• Are usually obtained by measurement.
• Does not possess the gaps or interruptions characteristic of
a discrete variable.
Example:
• Weight, age, length, temperature, speed and mark of
students.

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 Measurement Scale
Refers to the property of value assigned to the data
based on the properties of order, distance and fixed
zero.

Order: The property of order exists when an object

that has more of the attribute than another object, is
given a bigger number by the rule system.
• The property of ORDER exists:
When for all i, j if Oi > Oj, then M(Oi) > M(Oj)

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 …Cont’d
Distance: The property of distance is concerned with the
relationship of differences between objects.

More precisely, an equal difference between two numbers

reflects an equal difference in the "real world" between the
objects that were assigned the numbers.

Fixed Zero: True zero is related to the property of absolute

absence of characteristic under consideration.

The property of fixed zero (true zero) is necessary for ratios

between numbers to be meaningful.

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 Scales of Types
On the basis of the measurement scales
– Nominal

– Ordinal

– Interval and

– Ratio

Each possessed different properties of

measurement systems.

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 Nominal
Measurement systems that possess none of the three properties
stated above.

Only "naming" and grouping or classifying observations is

possible.

Classifies data into mutually exclusive, all inclusive categories

in which no order or ranking can be imposed on the data.

When numbers are assigned to categories, it is only for coding

purposes and it does not provide a sense of size.

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 …Cont’d
No arithmetic (+,-,*, / are impossible) and relational
operation can be applied.

Comparison is impossible.

Examples: Sex (Male=1 or Female=0)=> dichotomous

• Blood type: O = 1, A = 2, B = 3, AB = 4=> Polytomous

• Marital status (Married=0, Single=1, Widow=2, Divorce=3)

• Country code

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 Ordinal
• Level of measurement which classifies data into
categories that can be ranked.
We can talk of greater than or less than and it conveys
meaning to the value but;
Impossible to express the real difference between
measurements in numerical terms.
Order matters; magnitude does not
Used for grouping and ordering
+, -, *, / are impossible
The magnitude between the values is not clearly
known

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 …Cont’d
• Arithmetic operations are not applied but relational
operations are applied.
Examples:
– Letter grades (A, B, C, D, F).
– Rating scales (Excellent, Very good, Good, Fair, poor).
– Military status/ranks.
– Recovering patients may be characterized as unimproved=0,
improved=1, and much improved=2
– Intelligence of children may be above average, average, or
below average
– Socio-Economic status (poor, medium, higher) or (very low,
low, medium, high, very high)
– Severity of illness (mild=1, moderate=2, sever=3)
– Blood pressure (very low, low, high, very high) etc.

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 Interval
• Level of measurement systems that possess the properties of Order and
distance, but not the property of fixed zero.

• Data can be ranked and differences are meaningful. The magnitude b/n the
values is clearly known.

• All arithmetic operations except division are applicable. However, there is no

meaningful zero, so ratios are meaningless. Relational operations are also
possible.

• The zero point is arbitrary and does not infer the absence of the property being
measured. Examples: IQ

• The difference between 30 and 40 is the same as that between 70 and 80

degrees. But 80 is not twice as hot as 40.

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 Ratio
• Level of measurement systems that possess all three properties:
order, distance and fixed zero.

• The highest level of measurement scale, characterized by the

fact that equality of ratios as well as equality of intervals can be
determined.

• Level of measurement which classifies data that can be ranked,

differences are meaningful, and there is a true (fixed) zero.

• True ratios exist between the different units of measure.

All arithmetic and relational operations are applicable.

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 …Cont’d
Examples: • Length
• Weight • Money
• Height • Time
• Number of students/
• Speed
items

• Age

• Volume

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 Sources of Data

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 Data (Variable)
Depend up on the source statistical data can be divided in to two:

Primary Data

Data measured or collected by the investigator or the user directly

from the source.

Such data are original in character and are mostly generated by

surveys conducted by individuals or research institutions.

The data collected by the investigator himself for the purpose of a

specific study.

Census and sample survey are sources of primary types of data.

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 …Cont’d
Secondary Data
Data gathered or compiled from published and unpublished sources or
files.

When an investigator uses data, which are already collected and

recorded by others.

The data can be obtained from journals, reports, government

publications, publications of professionals and research organizations
newspaper, magazines, CSA, DHS, hospital records and existing data
like: Mortality/Morbidity/ Epidemic reports.

Reports of laboratory utilization (including laboratory test results)

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 ……Secondary Data
Advantage:
Minimize cost.
Examination of trends over time.
Disadvantage:
Data is not always easily accessible.
Ethical issues concerning confidentiality may arise.
Information may be imprecise, limited to some
variables or incomplete.
Data collection may not be standardized.

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 …Cont’d
According to the role of time, data are classified in to two

Cross-sectional data

Observations taken at one point in time,

Longitudinal/Time series data

Observations collected for a sequence of times, usually

at equal interval which may be on weekly, monthly,
quarterly, yearly, etc basis.

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 …Cont’d

Depending up on the Study:

Independent variables
Precede dependent variables in time
Are often manipulated by the researcher
The treatment or intervention that is used in a study
Dependent variables
What is measured as an outcome in a study
Values depend on the independent variable

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 Summary
• Biostatistics is statistics applied to life sciences
particularly humans in our case.
• The knowledge and skill of Biostatistics important
for:
1) Assessment of a problem
2) Policy development and
3) Assurance of the problem at individual or
community level.
• Descriptive and Inferential statistics are the
methods of Biostatistics.
• School of Public Health
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