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(Stella Cottrell) The Study Skills Handbook (B Ok - Xyz)
(Stella Cottrell) The Study Skills Handbook (B Ok - Xyz)
EDITION
STELLA COTTRELL
PA LG RAVE
STUDY SKILLS
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THE GRADUATE
IMPROVE
YOUR
THE STUDENT
PHRASE BOOK GRAMMAR joanvanemden
Sark™™" &LUANDA BECKER
STEVE R00
VANESSA JAKEMAN
KEN PATERSON
www.facebook.com/skills4study
^ www.twitter.com/skills4study
The Study Skills
Handbook
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www.palgravestudyskills.com - the leading study skills website
Stella Cottrell
palgrave
macmillan
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© Stella Cottrell 1999, 2003, 2008, 2013
Illustrations © Stella Cottrell & Palgrave MacmillanLtd1999,
2003, 2008, 2013
ISBN: 978-1-137-28925-4
10 987654321
22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13
Printed in China
Acknowledgements vi
B Academic skills
Appendices
1 Quick multiplier 399
References 415
Index 418
Contents
mm
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the following: the University of Leeds; staff at the British Council
in Tashkent; the University of Almaty in Kazakhstan;
Those who provided encouragement, support
the University of Liverpool; the Institute of
and comments for earlier editions of the book,
Technology Tallaght; Durham University; and
especially Kate Williams at Oxford Brookes, Lynn
Queens University Belfast. The many other people,
Chiswick, Robert Simpson, Pam Dixon, David
teaching staff and students, from around the world
Gosling.
who have provided comments and feedback on
Lecturers across the University of East London what they have enjoyed about the book, how they
(UEL) who used the first iteration - then called used the material, and what else they would like to
Skills for Success - as well as other materials which see developed. I hope I do justice to their inspiring
have been incorporated into this Handbook. I owe thoughts.
especial thanks to the dyslexia support tutors who
For the production of this fourth edition: Tina
piloted some of the material with dyslexic students
Graham, Jennifer Schmidt, Jim Weaver and Jocelyn
at UEL and elsewhere. I am immensely grateful for
Stockley; Suzannah Burywood and other staff at
the feedback of all these staff on what to include,
Palgrave for their continued support, enthusiasm
and on how to adapt some of the early material for
and belief in the book over many years.
later editions.
My partner, who kept everything going whilst I
Lecturers from British and international universities
scribbled and typed away, not only feeding me at
for their constructive feedback on the first three
regular intervals but also contributing so much to
editions; wherever possible their suggestions have
thinking through the various updates and proof
been incorporated into later editions. Mary Drury,
reading the drafts.
Karry Omer and Andy Lloyd for specific suggestions
for the third edition. The hundreds of students who were open to
discussing with me what they found difficult
For their insightful conversations that inspired
about studying and willing to elaborate new and
particular directions in the development of the
individual ways of approaching their study - to
fourth edition, Patricia Owens and Wendy Trevor
them, and to all future students who may struggle
from the Lifelong Learning Centre at the University
for even a day, this book is dedicated.
of Leeds; Stella Butler and Julia Braham also from
Acknowledgements
Introducing
The study skills needed for Higher Education are undertaken with hundreds of students over
ultimately gained only through studying at that twenty years. The core of the book has now been
level. Study skills don't hatch fully formed, any used by hundreds of thousands of students and
more than a grown hen pops from an egg. They lecturers worldwide, whose varied comments have
evolve and mature through practice, reflection, contributed to this edition of the Handbook.
trial and error, and feedback from others as you
move through the different stages of your course. Quick tips and deeper learning
You may be surprised at how your thinking and A reflective, active, self-evaluating approach to
language skills develop simply through continued learning develops deeper understanding in the
study. long term. However, quick tips are also invaluable
to students, especially in emergencies. This
However, there are some basic approaches which Handbookoffers both approaches. To meet your
can start you off on a good footing, help you immediate and long-term study needs, move
cut corners, and accelerate the learning process. flexibly between the two approaches.
This Handbook developed out of practical work
The key aim of The Study Skills Handbook is to help you to manage your own success as a student.
It does this by:
• encouraging an understanding that success is not simply about being 'bright' or 'clever' - good
marks, and other kinds of successful outcome, are possibilities for any student
• supporting you to take individual, or personalised, approaches to study- that work bestforyou
• preparing you for what to expect from Higher Education at university or college
• offering guidance on how to develop effective study habits and a positive approach to study
• providing strategies and techniques for addressing core academic tasks at this level of study
• offering insights on how to tackle study activities that many students find difficult
• developing understanding of how learning, intelligence and memory work - so you can apply that
understanding to your own studies
• developing core methodologies and thinking skills needed in Higher Education
• supporting you in identifying skills you have already, which you need as a student and forworking
life
• providing the resources to help you evaluate, reflect upon and manage yourstudies.
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How to use The Study Skills Handbook
This is a guide that you can dip into as you need through different senses, too - see page 4 below
- or use by working through the chapters related and Chapter 8 for more details.
to a particular aspect of study. You can do as little
or as much as you find helpful. Of necessity, the The self-evaluation questionnaires
Handbook focuses on a different aspect of study The self-evaluation questionnaires will help you in
in each chapter. However, in practice, these are three ways:
interconnected: developing one area of your study
will also help with other aspects. • they break down major study skills into their
component sub-skills
Finding what you need • they enable you to pinpoint which components
make a study skill difficult for you, and to
• Each section provides an overview of the cluster identify steps that you missed out in the past.
of study skills it covers. Often, once you identify that missing step, it is
• Each chapter begins with an outline of the fairly straightforward to address it
learning outcomes for that chapter. Browsing • they enable you to monitor your progress and
through this list may help you decide whether or identify your strengths.
not you need to read the chapter.
• Each chapter deals with several topics, and each Challenging material
topic is introduced by a heading like the one
If you are returning to study after a few years'
at the top of this page. These headings make it
easier to browse through to find what you need absence, or if there are aspects of study that are
quickly. new to you or that proved difficult in the past,
don't let these put you off now.
• The index (at the back) gives page references for
specific topics. It is very common for students to find that material
which was difficult the first time around becomes
Copiable pages comprehensible when they return to it after a gap.
Pages containing self-evaluations, checklists, Even students who find academic language and
planners and record sheets may be copied for methods unexpected or difficult usually adapt to
individual re-use. (You may like to enlarge some these quite quickly.
of them onto A3 paper.) If you use such copies, Knowledge of specialised terms and of underlying
keep them with your reflective journal for future theories empowers you as a student. It sharpens
reference.
your thinking, allows you to describe things more
accurately, and improves your overall performance.
Using the website
Additional free material can be found on the Keeping a journal
Palgrave website at www.palgravestudyskills.com.
You can download some of the resource materials,
rather than copying these from the book.
Cartoons and page layout This symbol reminds you to note down your
The cartoons and the variety of page layouts act reflections in your study journal. For details, see
primarily as visual memory-joggers. Even if you page 99.
cannot draw well, you can use visual prompts
such as these in your own notes. The visual
distinctiveness of the pages along with the page
headers will also help you to find things more
quickly within the book. This encourages learning
• Browse through the Handbook so you If you have studied for A-levels, BTEC, Access to
know roughly what is in it. You may HE diplomas or the International Baccalaureate
not know what to use until you start
assignments.
You may find that you can browse through the early
• Read through the Seven approaches sections of each chapter quite quickly. Chapters 1, 4, 5, 7,
to learning used by The Study Skills 10, 12 and 13 may be the most useful for you. If you feel
Handbook (page 4). The Handbook will uncomfortable about a book that uses images as learning
then make more sense to you. tools, read page 68 and Chapter 8 on Memory and the
• Complete the What would success look methods may make more sense.
like for me? questionnaire (page 33).
This will help you to orientate yourself
as a student.
Dyslexic students
• Use the Study skills: priorities planner There are now thousands of dyslexic students in Higher
(page 48) to focus your thinking. Education. Many aspects of this book are designed with
• If you are unsure where to begin with dyslexic students in mind, including:
a study skill, use the Self-evaluation • the contents
questionnaire in the appropriate
• the use of visual images
chapter to clarify your thinking.
• the book's layout
• Chapters 1-5 cover groundwork and
study management approaches basic to • the emphasis on structure
the rest of the Handbook. It is generally • the use of varied and multi-sensory approaches to
helpful to gain a grasp of the material learning.
in these first.
Pace yourself
If you are new to Higher
If you have been away from study for a while, or ifyou
Education ...
are finding study difficult, be kind to yourself. It takes time
Start with Chapter 1. This gives you an and practice to orientate yourself to the Higher Education
idea of what to expect as well as guidance environment and to develop study habits, especially
on what to find out and do in order to academic writing skills.
make sense of Higher Education and take Your first-year marks may not count towards the final
control of your experience as a student. grade, which means you have time to practise and
You may also find it helpful, early on, to improve.
look at:
• identifying your current skills and Everybody learns in their own way
qualities (Chapter 2)
• building your confidence in your There are many avenues to successful study. Experiment.
learning abilities (Chapter 3) Explore. Be creative. Find what suits you best.
• what will keep you motivated, focused, Chapters 2-4 encourage you to look for your own learning
and help performance (Chapter 4) patterns, and make suggestions on how to experiment
• time management (Chapter 5) with your learning.
• brushing up on reading skills
(Chapter 6) and writing skills
(Chapter 11).
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Seven approaches to learning
From this introduction, you will probably have Good strategies count...
gleaned that an important premise of this book is
Putting in place the right study skills and strategies
that academic success comes about as the result
can make a significant difference to academic
of many factors. Intellectual ability is one, but not
performance. Students are surprised and pleased
necessarily the most important of these.
to find that they can achieve well if they develop
Whatever your experience of academic study
study strategies that are relevant to their ways of
in the past, this may not be the same in Higher
thinking and working and that draw upon their
Education.
personal interests and preferences.
Didn't achieve well in the past?
Many people who didn't do well at school find
Developing study skills in context
that they thrive in the very different atmosphere Even study skills strategies and techniques are not
of Higher Education. For some, this is because the much use in a vacuum. These are more likely to be
approaches taken in Higher Education suit them effective if they are fine-tuned to the level of study
better; for others, it is because they take a different and the study context. For Higher Education, this
approach themselves to their work. Ifyou under means considering such factors as:
achieved in the past, this may come as welcome • understanding what is different about studying
news. This Handbook was designed to help you in Higher Education
challenge beliefs that have often led to students
• knowing what is required at your level of study
under-achieving in the past, and offers practical
steps for managing your current studies. • understanding the learning process and how
you can manage that process to best effect
Have always been good at study? • being aware of what you want to gain from
Ifyou did well in the past, you have the benefit your time in Higher Education in relation to your
of excellent building blocks for study that should longer-term life and career aims.
boost your confidence. Those who gain the
Before looking at study skills in depth, the
highest marks are generally keen to find ways of
following three chapters encourage you to stand
studying more effectively. Even excellent students
back and consider these broader contextual issues.
can find ways of saving time, fine-tuning their
These provide many of the tools you need for
study techniques, and adapting their approaches
applying the specific skills and techniques covered
to meet the demands of higher level study.
in later chapters.
1 Success as a student
In Higher Education, the key responsibility This section, Managing yourself for study,
for academic success lies with you. That provides background and approaches that help
responsibility increases with each level of study. you to build a solid foundation in managing
This change in emphasis can come as a surprise your studies. It helps you to understand the
to many students, and can catch many out. context of Higher Education - and why you
are expected to take on such responsibility.
Students who do well tend to be those who
As you are expected to take charge of your
appreciate, early on, that higher level study is
own learning, it is useful to understand what
different from their previous experience, who
'learning' is about so that you gain insights into
grasp what this responsibility means, and who
how to do this well. It looks at the range of
have the mind-set and strategies to respond
skills and understandings typically expected of
well to the challenge.
students at this level, so that you can check for
Being in control of your own learning isn't yourself whether you are on the right track.
easy. It requires a range of personal skills and
attributes to manage independent learning
successfully, to use time well, to interpret
sensibly what is going on when study seems
more difficult or your motivation wanes, and
to adapt your strategies when your current
ones don't seem to deliver what you want.
'Managing yourself is, then, a key aspect of
managing study.
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Chapter 1
Success as a student
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• identify what is expected from you as a student
• appreciate how Higher Education differs from previous levels of education
• understand the teaching methods used at this level, and the pivotal role of independent study
• clarify what success at this level would look like for you
• consider how to make best use of the experience
• explore your anxieties and identify resources
• build your resilience as a student so as to maximiseyour chance of success.
Higher Education involves study at university level, Whilst starting out as a student is exciting, it is
although this may be completed in institutions also natural to feel some anxieties about what you
that are not, themselves, universities. The might be taking on, whether you are up to it, and
experience of being a student in Higher Education whether you are doing the right things to achieve
can be life-changing. Most graduates look back on well.
this time with great fondness. That is because of Higher level study is different from study at
the unique opportunities to:
previous levels. This chapter helps you to identify
• study interesting subjects how and why this is the case, and what that means
• feel stretched intellectually for you as a student. It encourages you to think
• explore new ideas through what you want from the experience of
• engage in a wide range of new activities being a student and to identify things you can do
to succeed.
• find out about yourself, not least how you rise to
the challenge of academic study
• consider the kind of person
that you want to be in the
world
• make friends that will last you
for life.
Success as a student
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Make the experience work for you
In Higher Education, success lies largely in your own hands. Although help and guidance is provided, it is
up to you to take the initiative. This means being active on your own behalf.
•1 Success as a student
•L
What is expected from you?
You have to be
Ability to organise your time
able to work on You need to keep track of time. You must:
your own a lot. • know when and
MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY \
where you should
9-10 put notes Ecology prepare /
be for scheduled in order lecture for botany
RmG10 seminar \
Openness to working with others classes, events and
10-11 lecture
exams Dr Shah
You will need fjj^ • know when work RmX22
Success as a student
Success as a student: where am I now?
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Success as a student isn't just about intellectual ability. Awide range of factors contribute,
some ofwhich are outlined here. For each statement, circle the emoticon if you feel you are
confident in this aspect. Circle the arrows if you want to investigate this aspect further.
Management of assessment
Success as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Skills High levels of personal engagement
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Success as a student
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How is higher level study different?
Success as a student
m:
Understanding higher level study
Studying at the cutting edge of As a student, you are not simply learning about
knowledge 'facts'. Rather, you are being trained to think in ways
that will enable you, in time, to conduct your own
Moving beyond generalisations research using secure methodologies. This means that
Study at previous levels often makes you need to learn:
learning more manageable by using broader • the specialist language of the subject
generalisations or 'brush strokes'. These are • what is valued, and why, within the subject
helpful when you are new to a subject. As you discipline
become more expert, you become aware of • how knowledge has developed and is developing in
what lies behind some of the generalisations. the subject - and how to do this for yourself.
As a result, things which had seemed
straightforward become more problematic. 'Learning the rules of the game ...'
Journeying into the unknown As with many pursuits, success is easier if you are
familiar with the system. In this context, that means
This is especially the case when you come to
understanding such things as:
look at new research. Your tutors' research
or scholarship may be at the 'cutting edge' • how you will be taught: see pages 16-1 7
of what is known, as will much of the • what gets good marks: see page 323
recommended reading. As a result, course • how language is used and the right style and level
material may take you to that 'edge' too. You of formality: see Chapters 9-11
may study issues where: • academic conventions: see pages 39 and 308-11
• making the best use of opportunities to develop
• the answers are not yet known
skills and experience: see Chapters 2 and 15.
• there may be no 'easy answers'
• there isn't a clear 'right' or 'wrong'
• research findings are ambiguous or
contradictory
• knowledge advances in very small steps - or
may seem to be going backwards
• there are conflicting points of view.
You may find this to be frustrating or,
alternatively, you may find this to be
intellectually exciting and feel driven to think
about interesting possibilities.
Success as a student
Teaching: what to expect in Higher Education
I^^^9 Success
si as a student
Laboratory work, studio work and practicals provided through a mixture of set appointments,
Science students may spend most of their time surgery-hours or drop-in times, a help desk, online
doing practical work in laboratories; fine arts contact or specialist student support departments.
students may work predominantly in studio space
they are allocated. The amount of practical work of
Lecturers' varied approaches
this kind will depend on the course. Different subject areas or departments have their
own traditions, and even individual lecturers may
Distance learning have strong personal tastes in how things should
Students on some courses study mostly at home. be done. You need to be alert to this and notice
Materials are sent by post or over the internet. your lecturers' preferences.
Contact with tutors may be by letter, email, video
conferencing, Skype, or in local meetings. !Now let me get this
straight. Mr Jiff wants
Independent study work on both sides
This is the most common and possibly the most of the paper, Drlank
challenging feature of university study. Apart from on one. Ms Snape
timetabled elements such as lectures, almost all wants everything
courses expect students to work independently for word-processed. Mr Kip
wants essays sent by
the rest of the week. (See pages 18-19.)
email. Ms Snape wants
Technology-enhanced learning sub-headings...
It is worth
booking an
appointment in
advance ...
Success as a student
mm
The role of independent study
Success as a student
m
Independent study: benefits, challenges, risks
More control over • To manage time effectively. Losing a sense of time. Wasting time.
your study time • To meet deadlines. Underestimating how long study tasks
take. Forgetting things that must be
done. Missing essential deadlines.
More control over • To use spare time effectively in Using all your spare time for study.
your spare time building your personal profile. Mistaking time not spent in taught
• To recognise the difference between sessions as 'spare time'. Missing
spare time and independent study opportunities to develop a wider
time. personal profile that will benefit you
• To put time aside to relax, rest and later when applying for jobs.
enjoy yourself.
More choice about • To create structures for your day. Not getting down to study. Not
when and where • To organise a place to study. creating a place that allows you to
to study • To work out the best places and study without interruption.
times for you for different kinds of
study activity.
More choice about • To identify your learning style for Not bothering to explore and develop
how you study different types of tasks. your learning style. Doing what you
• To take responsibility for your enjoy most rather than what works
learning and achieving your goals. best for you, if these are different.
More responsibility • To identify barriers to your learning Failure to understand previous barriers
for your own and to address these. to learning. Not addressing weaknesses
successes • To identify ways of improving your in your performance. Giving up too
own performance. easily. Ignoring feedback. Becoming
• To make effective use of feedback despondent at early failures rather than
and to learn from mistakes. using these to guide improvement.
More choice about • To find the right balance between a Devoting too much time to topics that
how much energy broad set of interests at a superficial interest you at the expense of those
you devote to level and too much depth in a needed to complete the programme.
topics that interest narrow range of topics. Becoming specialised in too narrow a
you • To broaden your range of interests. range of topics.
There isn't a • To keep on target with little Letting things slip. Falling behind in
teacher looking guidance. your work. Losing motivation. Losing a
over your shoulder • To keep yourself motivated. sense of what you are supposed to do.
all the time • To take responsibility for pursuing Not asking for help, not finding out
solutions to problems on your own. what help is available, or not using it.
• To recognise when you need help Running for help too soon instead of
and to ask for it. trying to solve the problem yourself.
More control over • To create a coherent programme of Choosing topics that do not fit
choice of topics study that interests you and meets together well, or that do not contribute
your goals. towards your goals.
Success as a student
Technology enhanced study
A student portal
Depending on its design, this might offer:
Programme administration - to check
Virtual learning environment (VLE) course details such as key dates and exam
VLEs such as Web-CT, Blackboard or Moodle may results.
be used either instead of face-to-face teaching Programme resources - links to the
or to supplement it, in some of the following department website, online notes, VLE or
ways: useful websites.
|^^^^J Success
Su< as a student
Studying with technology
''^•**3t^m§&$^4
)Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Success as a student
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Resilience as a student
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Success as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
5 I use support
and guidance
available.
( 6 I use my time
effectively ... to
|^>^ help me stay on
top of all I have
to do.
©12 3 4 5©
©12 3 4 5©
7 I use a routine
... to keep myself
on track even
when I don't feel
like it. 8 I keep myself
motivated and
am effective in
encouraging
myself to study.
©12 3 4 5©
© 1 2 3 4 5 ©
9 I persevere, even when I don't feel like 10 I build and maintain relationships with
studying or staying on the course. others, for mutual support and to enrich my
©12 3 4 5© llfe* © 1 2 3 4 5 ©
© Stella Cottrell (2013) 777e Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan Success as a student
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Managing life as a student
• Get to know the campus, See Appendix 3 for useful sources of information.
online resources, library,
and facilities. Tour these and
consider when and how you
will use them.
• Visit Careers services as early Reflection: Taking care of yourself
as possible, even if only to
see what is available. • Which, if any, of the issues identified in the box above are ones
• Make time to take part that you tend to neglect?
in academic and social • Make a 'to do' list of things that you could do differently in order
activities, especially if you to take better take care of yourself.
are part-time, live away from • Which of the items on your list are priorities - things to do now?
campus or study by distance
learning.
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Success as a student
Managing anxieties and resources
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It is quite natural to feel some anxiety when you
start something new, and many students
have concerns about starting at university. Study and learning
It is easier to work out strategies for QKeeping uP with other people
handling potential challenges and to • finding the tin* to do everything
manage your anxieties if you have:
• sorted out in your own mind what your
QUnderstanding academic language
worries are QHaving the confidence to speak
• considered how serious they really are
• realised that many other people feel the
QDeveloping confidence in myself
same way.
Q Writing essays
On the right are listed some anxieties which
• Getting used to university life
are common amongst new students. Tickthe • Meeting deadlines
box beside any that apply to you, or add in
others in the empty spaces. Personal fam%.«»'" commttmenB
Look again at the items you have ticked.
DMaking Men* with Che, students
Beside each, write the number of the • Coping with travel
statement below that most closely
corresponds with your feeling. Then read the Q organising child care
comments on the next page. • People treating meo different y/
Mifferently/'fitting in
1 I expect this to be a minor difficulty: I will • Coping with job requirements
get round it easily or in time.
2 I expect this to be quite a serious difficulty: I • Family responsibilities
will work on a solution.
3 I expect this to be a major difficulty: I may Others
need to ask for help.
•
•
© Stella Cottrell (2013) 777e Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan Success as a student
Managing anxieties
In many universities and colleges, Student Services The short passages on the next pages were written
and the Student Union offer advice on managing by students about their first few months. You may
finance, finding work, grants, child care, health notice that their time seemed very pressurised;
care, counselling, disability, and many other being organised is an important theme in these
issues that arise for students. Use these services writings. However, these students made time
to help resolve problems. Advisers can help more to relax, meet others, use the facilities and
successfully ifyou approach them before problems opportunities for sports or drama, which are also
become emergencies. important to the overall student experience.
j^^^^S Su
Success as a student
Students' experiences
?£i—"^ — •
On -r. *
The mystery of time ~ haveloads 12 noon -n?. r/,ave aterfi
Time moves in weir^^ timetabies compared
of time on your hand* ' JJjJJ eveningS in the diary.
t0 school, and all +h°se^0Yfit everything m. It
And then not enough™" t°J ^ ^^ one
took me awhile to reahse *ha ing done J fhe doy i' fUf you 9et used +P' '* CQ" be
the site I free' but as r °'*• The nil
wh0 organises thmgS_ to see g^ ^^ ^
ifaround
severaltheassents hav
same t^andJiiif9 ^ there f0r fh* seZ eCfur^ o?dTdpre^e f0r
and mixing so I have a m^a t*«**CSr r> on£:°** -*4
fUdyi"theeve2ons>I9o
Ve«i"9 mstead
Krishna
Success as a student
Students' experiences
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br^^toZ tudenf —-
^iLZ?**ZEST "I0 ^ >** ^ 10 s<
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Success as a student
What are my personal resources?
\ %*
Have you considered all the resources that might be available to you?
Try brainsatorming (adding in your own ideas) around key words on
the pattern notes below. If you feel you have few resources, it may help
if you speak to a student counsellor.
computers
counselling
service
babysitter
organising
events
to persevere
making friends
parking
permit
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan Success as a student
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Be well informed: find out...
^
Read what you are given
At this level of study, it is assumed that you will:
• find out what kind of information is available
• read everything that has been provided, thoroughly, and in a timely manner
• work out what it means for you
• ask if you don't understand its significance.
^^^Q Si Success as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan
Find out about assessment: Get to know your library
LJ The details of how you will be assessed LJ Who are your library contacts this year?
LJ How marks are allocated ED If you are not a regular library user, spend time
in the library or resource centre. (See page
LJ The marking criteria and what these mean 157.)
D When and how you are expected to hand in
Many students are fearful of appearing foolish in
your work, such as in person or electronically
libraries, especially when using online catalogues,
D The kind of receipt or acknowledgement consulting special collections, or working out the
provided when you hand in your work. numbering system. It is best to get over these fears
before term begins. Librarians are used to people
not being able to use libraries: if you need help,
How this level of study is different: ask for it.
© StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Success as a student
Success as a student: what lecturers say
Success as a student
Your vision of success as a student
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Success as a student
Review
This chapter was designed to assist new or In practice, students vary a great deal in how
struggling students to gain a clearer picture of ready and able they are to take on this level of
what to expect from Higher Education and to responsibility at the start of their studies. If it feels
provide a steer on how to place yourself in a strong daunting to you, then be reassured that there will
position to succeed. It provides an overview of be others who feel the same way. However, most
the broader academic context in which university students find that their skills, including those of
level study takes place, in order to help you make resilience and self-management, are stretched and
sense of its culture, teaching practices and ways of then strengthened as they take on the increased
thinking. That context informs the ways that you challenges of university level study.
will be asked to engage in learning and the ways
that your work will be assessed. As motivation, self-management and well-founded
self-confidence are so essential to success as a
Depending on your previous education you student, it is especially helpful if you are clear
may be surprised, at first, at the amount of about what you want to gain from the experience
responsibility and independence expected of you of being a student and use this to good effect in
at this level: independence of thought, enquiry, maintaining your morale and sense of purpose.
decision-making and overall management of your
study. It is generally assumed that you will have Finally, the chapter has emphasised the importance
the appropriate levels of maturity, intelligence and of 'taking charge' of your student experience.
motivation to manage such independence - and Plan how you will use your time as a student to
to be able and eager to take charge of your own gain your broader life and career aims. Don't wait
work. to be told, asked, guided, engaged or inspired.
Decide what you want. Search out resources and
This approach to teaching represents a great deal help. Create your own opportunities. Find ways to
of respect for your abilities and potential, although energise, motivate and inspire yourself, and look
it also brings its own challenges. It requires you to for the enjoyment in your studies that will help to
be active on your own behalf, working out what strengthen your enthusiasm.
you need to do and then getting on with it. This
includes grasping that there is information that
you need to know and use without always being
directed or assisted to do so. It also means that you
need not only academic skills, but also a broader
range of understandings and qualities that enable
you to manage your studies as is expected.
Success as a student
Chapter 2
Developing your skills
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• reflect on what is meant by terms such as 'skills', study skills and academic skills
• use the APT-S study skills framework
• consider five components that support study skills development
• sharpen your awareness ofskills and qualities you bring with you as well asthose you gain through
your studies
• identify areas of strength in your current study skills and areas to develop further
• set priorities for developing your study skills, monitor your achievements and record these.
This chapter focuses on the skills that you: However, there are subtle differences in the way
that similar skills are understood at different
• bring with you into academic study
levels of education and in the world of work. This
• develop through study
chapter provides a means of thinking about the
• can transfer to other contexts such as relationship between skills and context. It enables
employment. you to audit your current skills and consider how
you could make use, in other contexts, of the skills
There isn't a sharp divide between the skills needed you develop as a student.
for academic study and those used elsewhere. This
means that, whatever your previous education,
you will have experiences that you can draw upon
and adapt to support your studies. Similarly, once SKILLS
you graduate, the academic skills you use as a
student will be applicable to other contexts. PeopU (21
PcoWem r-™
Solvit M
Being aware of this can increase your confidence EJ
in taking on academic study ifyou have been
out of education for some time or are uncertain
about your academic ability. It can also help you
to feel more confident about progressing into
employment ifyou haven't had a graduate job in
the past.
"•-^m
What are study skills?
What is a skill?
Skill
To be skilled is to be able to perform a learned
activity well and at will.
(Student)
A skill is a learned ability rather than an outcome
achieved through luck or chance and can, therefore,
be relied on reasonably securely when you perform
an equivalent task again. You can fine-tune skills
through practice, feedback and reflection, just as
athletes improve their performance by developing
underlying skills in movement, breathing and pacing.
You as the starting point
What are study skills? In practice, the skills you will need and acquire
The term 'study skills' is used here to refer to as a student will be different from those of other
more than just 'academic' skills. It includes a students.
wider range of abilities that enable achievement
in your studies. These can be viewed as four Past experience
categories of skills:
Yourstarting point will be different: your
1 Self-management skills for study educational history, past opportunities and
2 Academic skills
personal challenges influence the way you are
3 People skills for studying with others now as a student. They shape your current levels
4 Task management skills. of knowledge, confidence, motivation, study
The first of these, self-management, helps you to habits, preferences and skills.
develop the other three sets of study skills.
Your current experience
• Your choice of subject, course, options and
The APT-S study skills framework topics will develop specific sets of skills.
The skills landscape in Higher Education can • Your own motivation for, and application to,
sometimes seem complex, as subject disciplines, learning new skills will be distinct.
institutions, employers and professional bodies • Many other current factors will also differ,
produce ever longer lists of skills they feel students from the people you study with to other
should develop. The APT-S framework simplifies such aspects of the learning environment described
complexity by looking at three key things: overleaf.
PAST
EXPERIENCE
The 'learning environment' refers here to Academic, people and task-management skills
everything that forms part of the wider context in
As detailed below, your learning environment will
which you are studying. It includes such factors as:
frame the particular range of study skills that you
• the academic discipline and its conventions will need and develop, and to what extent.
• the subject content of your course
• the way you are taught and assessed and the Self-management skills
tasks and assignments you are set
The sets of interactions between the learning
• the people, tutors, students or others environment and you as an individual are
• the communications required complex. These will change frequently as you
• technological and other resources available progress through your course. Good skills in
• the everyday demands on your time that you self-management help you to manage these
juggle with those of being a student. interactions more effectively and to identify the
skills and qualities you need at any given time.
-mm •MM
Self: managing yourself for study
Combining skills
(See Chapter 10.)
The skills are outlined here, for clarity, as if they were
separate categories. In practice, you would combine
many skills from each category for most study tasks.
For example, you cannot easily separate out basic
research tasks, such as searching for information,
from the process of thinking through what is relevant
for a given assignment in the context of your
discipline.
As you develop through your course, you will
integrate a wide range of skills fluidly, without
noticing that you are doing so.
m:
Which skills?
Skill clouds
Course 1
Course 3
Analysing data Maths skills
Applying formulae Describing results
Researching other people's
practice Making presentations
Observation Taking precise notes
Recording details accurately writing essays
Technical skills Working with
Working collaboratively on Clients Writing group blogs GMng
experiments Presenting results toagroup
and receiving criticism
Group discussions Reading Writing essays
Reading research papers Group wiki
Understanding scientific Time management StUQIO
methods Writing a dissertation work Portfolio work
Using numbers
Writing research reports Group project
Managing projects
reports Understanding and using theory
Course 4
Course 2
Writing reports
Listening in lectures Writing essays Writing essays Project WOrk with
Revision and Exam skills Memory clients Field work Communicating with
skills Groupwork Writing style a wide range of people Interviewing
Using source materials
skills Making decisions and
Thinking critically about recommendations Thinking critically
teXtS Presenting aseminar KeaOing
about texts Revision and Exam skills
Note-making Using a range of
source materials Managing Thinking critically about
independent study data Reading Listening in lectures
Contributing to seminars Managing independent study time
Technology skills Presenting data
Note-making Contributing to groups
Using information available to you about your course, identify the range and relative importance of
differentskills on your course. Use the boxes below to sketch out the skills clouds for your course.
in
^^Q D
Developing your skills © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan
Developing skills: five study skills components
• the special preferences of each lecturer - if in When you consider these study skills
doubt, ask. components, it is clear that good study skills
have little to do with being 'naturally clever'.
They owe much more to awareness, strategies,
3 Strategy, method and organisation confidence and practice, leading to an overall
It is easier to study and saves you time if you have development in your learning. Each of these
a method for working and are well organised. A aspects is covered in the various chapters of the
skilled student uses strategies, and with practice Handbook.
these become automatic.
wMvwmmmwmm.- mmm
Recognising your skills and qualities
This section offers you the chance to: Example: the beautiful
• audit abilities and qualities that you have garden
now Supposing one year your
• consider how everyday skills such as garden or a window box looked
observation, selection and support for absolutely beautiful. How did that
others can be applied to academic study happen?
• identify your current study skills priorities Many small things may have led to
• consider how academic skills are relevant a perfect outcome. You may have
to future employment. watered the plants very carefully,
depending on the weather. If so,
Skills audits you used powers of observation and
Skills audits are useful in helping you to: deduction. You may have weeded and
• become used to forming a judgement pruned in the rain, when you wanted
of your own performance through self- to stay indoors. Here you kept in mind
evaluation, rather than depending on yourlong-term goal for the garden,
others' estimation
showing dedicationand perseverance.
• become aware of your strengths, so that You may have selected plants from a
you can present yourself well to others wide range of options, to match your
• develop the confidence and insight to garden conditions. You probably did
identify areas that need more attention research, possibly online or by reading
• set your own priorities for developing gardening books, questioning others
skills.
who had grown them or watching
television programmes. You followed
specific instructions on how to grow
Activity Skills from experience
them, and purchased special fertiliser,
prepared the ground in a certain way
Choose one thing you do well, a or pruned at particular times: such care
difficulty you overcame, or a personal requires method, attention to detail, time
achievement, no matter how small. It management and task management.
might be success in arts, performance,
All these skills are relevant to study.
sports, with people, coping with illness
Whether your experience is in household
or life challenges, or being accepted for
management, performing arts, sports
your course. Use the beautifulgarden
or other areas, it is likely that you have
example for ideas.
developed a range of skills, qualities and
How did I do it? behaviours such as those above. The
1 What did you do to create the important thing is to recognise these so that
conditions that led to success? Did you can draw on them when needed.
you practise? Did you urge yourself
on in a particular way? Did you
find people to help? Or did you just
believe you could do it?
2 Which skills, attitudes and qualities
did you exhibit?
m.
»•'-
profile and self-evaluation will change. Take D Independent study • Personal setbacks
time to update your skills profile or portfolio, D Emergency events • III health
at least once every six months. (See page 56
and Chapter 15.) D Sport
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan Developing your skills
Current skills and qualities
SflS
People
• Consideration of others' feelings
• Ability to get on with people from different
backgrounds • Caring for others
• Understanding other people's points of view • Supporting and motivating others
• Sensitivity to cultural differences • Understanding others' body language
• Dealing with the general public • Coping with 'difficult' people
• Teamwork and collaboration • Speaking clearly and to the point
• Networking • Audience awareness
• Managing or supervising others' work • Taking direction from others
• Teaching, training or mentoring others • Giving constructive feedback
• Negotiating and persuading • Leadership skills
• Helping others to arrive at decisions • Other:
\m=r Developing your skills © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan
Using personal skills in academic study ^
%
*%
The Current skills and qualities exercise (page 46) includes specific skills which have more relevance to
some courses than others. For example, 'selling' is more relevant to marketing than to history.
The following activity enables you to map out your current skills in terms of the general (or 'generic') skills
required for most academic courses, and to rate how well you already perform them. This will give you a
better idea of how well you may cope with academic study.
Academic skills (skills used in Self-rating Examples: where or when you developed this skill
everyday life which relate to 5 = good;
academic skills) 1 = very weak
e.g. Managing deadlines 4 Get childrento school ontime; submitted application form
despite illness
1 Managing deadlines
7 Comparing different
opinions and deciding
what are the best grounds
for judging who is right
8 Being able to weigh up
the 'pros' and 'cons',
good points versus bad
9 Writing things in my own
words
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan Developing your skills
Study skills: priorities, stage 1
/
*v
3 thinking creatively
4 solving problems
Developing your skills © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan
Study skills: priorities, stage 2
**
Column A Using the scoring from stage 1, decide whether each item really is a priority, whether it could
wait, who else could do it, or any other options you have.
Column B Number your priorities in order. Highlight in yellow the one you are going to work on next.
Highlight it in red once you have worked on it.
Column C Shows the pages of this Handbook related to the given study skill.
22 evaluating my work 98
) Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Developing your skills
Study skills: action plan
^
/
V
Date:
Summary of my current strengths, skills and qualities: what I have achieved so far
How will I know that I have improved? (E.g. What changes would Iexpect in my work, in myself, or in
the attitudes of others?)
Developing your skills © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Monitoring skills development
\ %„
Goal
What I want to be able to do (aspects, sub-skills, qualities I want to develop):
Record of progress
Note down steps in your development of this skill. Decide what progress would look like in each
case. This might be the achievement of a personal goal (such as gaining a particular grade for an
assignment), or a step towards achieving a personal goal(such as asking a question in class for the
first time, ordeveloping a successful strategy for arriving on time ifyou find time management is a
challenge).
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan Developing your skills
Personal profiles
Area of academic activity Examples of potential transferable and soft skills which could be
developed
Independent study Working without supervision; organising your own time and work; taking
personal responsibility; self-reliance; knowing when to ask for help.
Lectures Listening skills; identifying and selecting relevant points; recording salient
information; preparing for meetings; using the information heard.
Oral presentation Speaking in public; persuading and influencing others; making a case;
time management; presentation skills; using audiovisual aids; planning;
sharing knowledge; adapting communication style.
Writing essays and other Task analysis; structuring writing for specific audiences using relevant
forms of academic writing style and conventions; developing an argument; making a strong case;
working to word limits and deadlines; sharing knowledge; breaking tasks
into component parts; attention to detail.
Research projects Time management; using search tools; managing large amounts
of information; working to deadlines; decision-making; project
management; using technology; developing ethical understanding;
taking responsibility for larger pieces of work.
Exams and revision Planning; working towards deadlines; using time effectively; decision
making; managing stress; coping with challenges; resilience.
• Verbal skills
LJ Team working
^^^B D<Developing your skills © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Recording achievement
**m
Developing a portfolio
Checking and
updating your e^'s confiXTX f^'^ a^ne
portfolio acopy of aIn' y'mp'es /nc'«de
Update your portfolio 10 Personal
regularly-at least statement or acopy of an J- I Y°Ur artWo*>
once or twice a year,
and whenever you
- see page ^dentXle ey°UWr0tef0-
55.
achieve something
new. Re-reading or \
rewording whatyou
have written may
77 Degree or COUrse
refocus your energies. certificates;
transcript.
Every university and college identifies skills and opinions, attitudes and states of mind influence
qualities that it wants its graduates to achieve. The your success. Fundamental to that process is self-
list of desired skills keeps growing, and students awareness, based on reflection and self-evaluation,
can find the length and complexity of the skills so that you know what you do well and why, and
requirements bewildering. The APT-S framework what needs to be improved and how.
outlined in this chapter is just one way of
simplifying the skills needed as a student. It makes Some students feel as if they have no academic
it easier to: skills. Others, especially those who entered
• see how the range of skills fits together, and Higher Education courses straight from school,
• navigate your way through an otherwise can be anxious about having the right skills to
complex skills landscape. find employment when they leave. It is useful to
look for parallels between skills used in academic
The APT-S framework and skills cloud activity draw
study and those used elsewhere. Everybody brings
attention to the differences in skills and attributes
experiences and skills that are transferable to
developed by each student. Students arrive with
academic study.
different starting points and focus on particular
areas during their course: all graduates are not the
same. It is for you to consider, early in your course,
In turn, academic study develops skills and ways of
thinking that are of benefit in employment. Skills
what you can do to ensure that your profile of skills
are generally most transferable from one situation
and qualities will make you stand out from others
in ways that you will want.
to another when you can see similarities in the two
situations. This takes creative reflection, but it is
worth the effort. Graduates who do well in the job
This chapter has encouraged you to look at your
market are not necessarily more skilled than others,
current qualities and skills. The process of self-
but they have learnt to identify their skills and can
evaluation can begin in quite mechanistic ways,
therefore talk about them confidently and with
such as filling in questionnaires, rating yourself,
examples of their application.
setting priorities, and assembling information
about yourself. In time, however, this can develop
Students may also feel that they do not know
into a deeper process of self-reflection and self-
development that benefits any aspect of your life, where to begin to develop their study skills. The
including your study. ideas of mapping or profiling skills, identifying
weak points for improvement, setting priorities,
and drawing up action plans, are themes that run
This chapter and Chapters 3 and 4 emphasise
throughout this book. However, it also encourages
that real progress in study skills occurs when
you to look at opinions, states of mind or belief
skills development is treated as part of a wider,
systems that can affect learning. Chapters 3-4
general process of learning. At its best, this is a
focus on attitudes, beliefs and approaches that can
process in which you learn about yourself and
help or hinder study.
how you perform to your potential under any
circumstances, not just academically. It involves
developing an understanding about how personal
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• reflect on your own views about intelligence and learning, considering how these affect your
confidence in your academic abilities
• identify your learning styles and preferences, and ways of drawing on these to personalise your
learning
• consider ways that you can optimise yourown academic performance through taking strategic,
personalised approaches to study.
Successful study
intelligence' - or intelligent study?
Intelligent study
been lucky ...
Intelligent study means applying good strategies
It is very common for students to underestimate
to study, appropriate to the academic level and
their potential or to lose confidence, especially
to your own ways of learning. University level
if, as happens to most students at some point,
study makes greater demands, so requires new
they receive a lower mark than they had hoped
approaches. The right strategies and mentality
for. Many students can remember an occasion
can bring success to any student, whereas failure
in the past when someone such as a teacher or
to apply these can result in any student under
relative undermined their confidence in their
achieving.
abilities. Such memories can resurface, exercising a
disproportionate power to undermine self-belief.
Identify
Then return to the notes that you jotted which option
down above and add to them. Note in from a-f fits
what ways, if any, your opinions about the space
your own intelligence change as a result r
Successful study
However, although Raven's is supposed to be This supports Gardner's view that intelligence is
culture-free and language-free, it was found that 'multiple' rather than 'general'.
Asian children's scores, scaled according to age,
went up by 15-20 points after they had lived in It is obvious that most of the intelligences on
Britain for five years - a very significant change Gardner's list can be developed. Forexample,
(Mackintosh and Mascie-Taylor 1985). This people can attend workshops to develop
suggests that what is measured by an intelligence interpersonal skills, and counselling or meditation
test is at best only a snapshot of a person's to develop intrapersonal awareness. A scientific
experiences and learning up to that moment. It way of thinking is formed through practice,
is not necessarily a true indication of the person's training and exposure to the language and
underlying intelligence or potential. conventions of scientific research (see pages 311—
12). Skill in writing poetry or essays can also be
developed through practice.
2 Logical, mathematical
- such as ability with numbers, or legal or
scientific thinking
3 Spatial
- such as navigating a boat or plane,
A snapshot of current driving, or architecture
performance
4 Musical
- such as singing, composing, playing an
2 There are multiple intelligences, not instrument, or appreciating music
one general intelligence 5 Bodily-kinaesthetic
Thurstone (1960), after experiments involving - such as sports, drama, dance, or making
hundreds of college students, concluded that things
there was no evidence of any general form of
6 Interpersonal
intelligence. Similarly, Gardner (1993) argues
- such as counselling and teaching skills, or
that intelligence consists of many separate,
understanding others
independent systems, which interact with each
other. For Gardner, there are at least seven main 7 Intrapersonal
'intelligences'; each consists of abilities to solve the - such as self-understanding, self-
problems or produce the objects that are relevant management, or reflection
within the person's culture and environment.
Research in neuropsychology suggests that
different cognitive abilities, such as speech, may
be semi-separate 'domains' of ability, controlled Reflection: Multiple intelligences
by different circuits within the brain (Karmiloff-
Smith 1992). Some people show a weakness in Forwhich of Gardner's multiple intelligences
one area, such as a complete inability to recognise do you show most aptitude? What reasons
faces. Other people show poor development for might there be for your having developed those
most skills, but have an outstanding ability in one intelligences rather than others?
area, such as drawing or mathematical calculation.
Successful study
•L
doing courses at a local college or university,
3 Intelligence can be developed and even through your choice of newspaper and
In Japan, the Suzuki Violin Talent Education radio or TV programmes. If you did not have ideal
Programme has trained many children to play the opportunities for learning when you were younger,
violin to virtuoso level. The programme begins or if you were not then readyfor them, it may take
with exposure to music from soon after birth, and some time to catch up. But it can be done - and it
involves daily practice from an early age. Even the is done, every year, by thousands of adult students.
less remarkable students perform to a level that in
other cultures would be considered that of a child
prodigy (Gardner 1993). Reflection: Using opportunity
Similarly, children exposed to several languages In what ways could you make more of the
from an early age tend to become multilingual opportunities currently available to you?
quite naturally. Peoplewho start later in life can
also develop into good violinists or linguists. The
Suzuki Programme suggests the importance of the
belief that anyone can learn to a high standard, 5 Intelligence depends on what
as well as showing the role of environment and is needed and relevant within a
practice in developing skills. Excellence need not culture
be the preserve of the few.
According to this view, intelligence is not just
Just as we would not, in general, expect excellent something that individuals carry around in their
violin playing from somebody who rarely played heads, but includes the equipment and tools
the instrument, we would not expect outstanding available to them - their filing systems, the
intellectual performances from people whose amount of memory on their computers, the
minds are not regularly challenged by ideas sophistication of the tools they can use, the lines
and problems. University provides part of that of communication within their society, the people
necessary stimulation. As you go through your they meet. Intelligence is not cut off and measured
course, the language and thinking styles of your in relation to individuals, but regarded as a social
subject will become part of your own thinking phenomenon (Vygotsky 1978; Resnick, Levine and
processes and linguistic expression. Teasley 1991).
For example, the intelligence needed in industrial
4 Intelligence depends on life settings may be very different from that required
opportunities for a rural economy or for life in the mountains.
Similarly, the education valued for girls, or for the
As the Suzuki example illustrates, life opportunities
youngest child within a family, may be different
can make a significant difference. Academic
from that sought for boys or for older children.
intelligence may be fostered by opportunities such
Children are skilled at adapting to what is
as these:
expected of them.
• easy access to books, equipment, and
appropriate teaching Sternberg (1985) described intelligence as being,
• sufficient time to study, think or practise in part, a sensitivity to the environmental context.
• stimulating conversations that require active This can apply to learning contexts also. One
engagement and reflection learning environment may match what a person is
• validation by people who are important to you, used to, making learning easy. For another person,
of your specific learning interests, whether for the same teaching methods may not work. Some
geometry, philosophy or cordon bleu cookery people learn best in quiet stillness; others find that
• being part of a culture that values academic sitting quietly is a torture. Some find it difficult to
intelligence. learn from books and learn better by ear. Some
learn best when the curriculum is very structured;
There are ways in which you can increase these others when it is flexible and open.
opportunities, such as making use of local libraries,
Successful study
If you did not do as well at school as you might However, it is not necessarily an easy matter to
have done, it may be worth reflecting on how transfer a skill from one learning situation to
you learn best - then compare this to the way another. Research into mathematical problem-
you were taught. You might also consider what solving suggests that for skills to be transferred
you were good at when you were a child, and from one problem to another, the student has first
what you valued as important. Were your interests to be helped to identify their common features
shared and valued by the people around you - and the underlying principles in solving that kind
your teachers, parents and friends? If not, this may of problem. If students can recognise that two
have made learning more difficult for you. problems have similar underlying structures, they
Are the things you value today shared by the can apply the principles for solving one problem in
solving the other.
people around you? Do they understand and
support your desire to study? If not, as an adult, Also, unless the teacher makes the link between
you can now take responsibility for setting up the the old and the new learning explicit, the student
right environment for yourself as a student. You may not realise that two problems are connected.
may need to find a table you like in the library, or Further, the new learning needs to be at around
set up a space to study that nobody else can use. the same level of complexity as that already
Similarly, you can organise information in a way covered (Reed, Dempster and Ettinger 1985).
that suitsyour learning preferences. For example, If teaching has not followed these lines, the
you could record your materials or convert student may feel lost and give up. In addition, the
information to images- whatever works for you. student may think that the fault lies with her or his
On the whole, your lecturers will not be able to intelligence, rather than in the way the problem
create the ideal environment for you, as each was presented. A good teacher will help students
person's needs will be different. So it's up to you to to see what they already know, and to use this as
look after your own needs. the basis for the next step in their learning.
Applying multiple intelligences to study
Reflection: Managing your contexts
learning environment Gardner suggests that different intelligences
interact. Students who work in a multi-sensory or
How could you change your total learning a multi-disciplinary way often find that learning in
environment so that you don't repeat earlier one area enhances learning in other areas. If you
learning experiences? Do you need to surround develop a sense of rhythm, this can improve not
yourself with more people who support your only music and dance, but maths and spelling.
study ambitions? (Chapters 1, 4, 8 and 14 may Similarly, students who are sensitive to shades of
give you some further ideas.) colour can use these to structure and organise
information visually and spatially, which in turn can
help memory and understanding.
It is important to look for connections between
6 Intelligence is about applying what the intelligences you have already developed and
you know to new contexts those in which you feel you are weak. You don't
Sternberg (1984) emphasised that any skill is made need to be a genius in music or art to harness
up of underlying processes and sub-skills; he saw music, colour, shape, and movement as learning
intelligence as the ability to transfer those skills tools. Croaky singing of chemical formulae,
easily when confronted with a new task. What is imagining your relatives as courtroom personalities
important is not just that you are able to perform for law revision, or using the rainbow to sequence
a given task, such as making a pancake or writing paragraphs from pattern notes, are ways of using
an essay, but that you are able to apply what you multiple intelligences to make studying easier-
know to new situations, such as making a cake or and more interesting.
writing a report.
J^^^Q' Successful
Su study
when we are not. We may need somebody to
Reflection: Working from your
point out the similarity between what we already
strengths know and the new learning. When we see the link,
we can do the problem.
Look back to your reflection on multiple
intelligences (page 62). How could you transfer Plastic brains
abilities from your area of strength to help your The brain has 'plasticity': it is capable of change
learning? and development. When a person takes up a
new skill, millions of fresh connections are set up
between different neurons in the brain to deal with
the new information - rather like a set of telephone
7 Intelligence is a question of how
wires relaying information. The more you develop
much you know an ability, the more elaborate the neural networks
The popular view of intelligence is that it is an or wiring system, and the faster your brain can
ability to answer the type of closed questions process information related to that skill.
set on Mastermind. This does not take into
When you begin to study a new subject, the speed
consideration aspects of intelligence such as
at which you will be able to take things in and
creativity or coping in real-life situations. Another
make sense of them will depend on how far your
view is that intelligence is a capacity for abstract
brain can use past learning experiences. If you
reasoning, such as formulating general hypotheses,
have studied something very similar in the past,
and that you don't need to know much at all to
you may experience the new learning as quite
reason well.
easy.
Donaldson (1978) argued that the way we reason
If a subject is very new, however, there is little
depends upon the particular context we are in
foundation for you to build upon. Your brain has
and on what we already know. For example,
fewer connections it can use to make sense of
she demonstrated that both children and adults
the new information. Ifthe language used is also
interpret what they hear by attending not just
unfamiliar to you, the brain will need to build
to the meaning of words, but also to their
connections for this too. You may experience this
understanding of those words based on their own
as finding it harder to listen or harder to read: you
thoughts and previous knowledge. Itfollows that
may get tired more quickly, or you mayfeel that
the amount and kinds of background knowledge
your brain is 'dead', or that nothing makes sense.
you bring to academic study will affect the ease
As you go over the same material from different
with which you can process new information and
angles, though, the new connections will get
reason with it.
stronger and learning will become easier.
Our ability to think in abstract ways about
something may depend on having already 8 Intelligence can be measured
had real-life experience of similar problems.
Butterworth (1992) describes how abstract notions IQ tests only measure things that can be measured!
such as 'generosity' are actually concrete social Many areas of human excellence, however, cannot
realities. The real-life, concrete experience allows easily be measured - such as artistic and musical
us to develop a mental model, and this model later creativity, emotional maturity, intuition, sensitivity
provides the basis for abstract thinking. If we have to the needs of others, keeping a cool head in
gaps in concrete experience - for example, with emergencies, being able to impersonate other
manipulating numbers- we are likely to find it people, and inventiveness. Some people may excel
harder to move on to more abstract examples until in these areas and yet perform poorly in tests that
we have filled the gaps. are language-based. Students who havefailed in
language- or number-based GCSEs often do very
Butterworth suggests that when presented with a well on university courses in the arts. Similarly,
familiar problem in an unfamiliar context, we may some people who are poor at languages are
be unable to recognise that the two are the same. excellent at computer sciences.
This can make us look like complete beginners
Successful study
i^mm
Einstein's schoolwork without really looking
was not very good - yet IQ at why the work was set,
tests are supposed to correlate what the information means,
well with school performance. Einstein or its relevance to themselves. With
claimed that his initial ideas on the relativity most university assignments you will benefit from
of time and space struck him in a moment of taking time to reflect, clarifying what is really being
inspiration while he was daydreaming that he was asked, the issues within the title, the reasons for
riding on a sunbeam. This kind of imaginative that piece of work being set, and the best strategy
thinking is difficult to measure using IQ tests. to use. Over time, this way of working becomes a
habit.
^^^^9 Successful
Su< study
What is 'learning'?
Successful study
*******
<f$MM
2 With different levels of 4 By detail or by the whole picture
attention
Some people learn best when they see the overall picture
Our level of attention may vary, depending first; they are confused or overwhelmed by too much
on: detail early on. Others learn best through building up
• our mental or physical state for learning details, allowing the whole picture to emerge. This whole
• the way information is presented to us picture may be meaningless to them until they have a
• whether the material is completely new. flavour of the specific details.
Successful study
Six conditions for learning
Successful study £
3 Rehearsal
Memory and recording are only part of learning,
however. If we use only surface methods, we don't
Academic learning is similar to learning physical develop a sense of the underlying structure or the
activities, such as dance or football. We generally significance of what we learn. This makes it more
need to repeat the action or the new information difficult to apply the new knowledge in other
several times to take it in, and we need to come situations.
back to it or practise. Otherwise, we become
'rusty' and forget. This is just as true of writing Deep processing - making sense of what you
essays or reading academic books as it is of learn
football, drawing, playing a violin or making a Alternatively, we may try to make sense of
souffle. Hannah's experience, looking for explanations.
We may ask ourselves questions to stimulate
If you think back to what you learnt at school,
our thinking, exploring the problem from many
you will probably be aware of a vague overall
angles. Perhaps Hannah is very good at exercising
knowledge of some subjects even though the
mind over matter? Maybe she has a neurological
details may seem hazy. You would learn these
condition that prevents her from feeling pain?
subjects more quickly a second time around. Just
Maybe she does feel pain, but hides this?
glancing again at some old schoolbooks may bring
whole areas of knowledge flooding back. We may also start to wonder what pain really is.
How does it work - is it regulated by the brain? Or
chemicals in the body? Or our attitude? Or maybe
4 Processing new information
the flame was different from the flames we are
used to? Maybe the answer is not in Hannah but in
Superficial or 'surface'processing chemistry?
We may process new information at a superficial
level. For example, we may just note and As you analyse the experience from different
remember that Hannah (page 69) does not feel angles, raising new questions and experimenting
pain, and then think no further about this. We with possible answers, you process at a deeper
level.
may learn it by heart as a fact, like learning maths
tables, or record it as an entry in our notebooks.
j^^^S Successful
s study
machinery or producing a new design. In other
5 Moving to another level of
cases, such as understanding how pain works, we
understanding
can demonstrate learning by explaining it to other
In order to understand a new phenomenon, such people. If we can do this
as what happens when Hannah's hand is in the • in writing, speech, diagram, or by practical
fire, we may have to change our previous views of demonstration
the world. We may have thought that everybody
• without checking the details as we do so
would feel pain from fire.
• and in a way that is clear and makes sense to
• When we realise that there are situations in
our audience,
which people don't feel pain in quite the same
way as others, we move to a different level of then our thinking is also likely to be clear, and a
knowledge. stage in our learning is complete.
• When we know why this occurs, we move to a If we cannot demonstrate what we think we know,
deeper level of understanding. then our knowledge and understanding are likely
• When we appreciate how we came to hold to be incomplete. We may need to check back
our previous set of beliefs, and why we now over what we have learnt. It may help:
hold a different set, we are learning at an even • to take a different angle on the issue
deeper level - understanding how knowledge
• to use a different book
is constructed, and how we come to know and
understand at all.
• to see whether we missed a step earlier.
See also page 210 and The CREAM strategy for
learning (Chapter 4).
Successful study
mm
# What is my learning style?
S©S #
Below are a range of approaches to learning. Identify which, if any, most aptly describes you. Note your
learning strengths, and things you could develop to broaden your study strengths.
Characteristics Characteristics
j^^^Q Successful
si study © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
The logician Jlra n The searcher
Characteristics Characteristics
EH You like to know the n You like to see the big picture.
reasons behind things.
E] You have bits of information on lots ofthings.
EH You are organised in your approach to study. Q You are fascinated by details butdon't
C] You enjoy tackling complex problems. remember them.
D You are good at analytical and critical thinking. CH You have high motivation and interest.
D You have organisational skills. ED You have broad general knowledge.
D You are good at science, maths, law, problem- [Zl You can see connections between things.
solving.
EH You are creative and inventive.
CD You have a questioning approach.
Areas to develop
Areas to develop
Q Setting goals and priorities.
D Creative and imaginative thinking. CD Analytical and critical thinking.
IZ] Sensitivity to the differences in others. C] Categorising and selecting.
Q Personal reflection.
Q Editing skills.
D Working with others. \Z\ Developing memory for detail.
[Zl Stress management.
Reflection: 'Searcher'
Reflection: 'Logician' characteristics
characteristics
Do you have any strong 'searcher'
Do you have any strong 'logician' characteristics? When are these most apparent
characteristics? When are these most apparent in your study?
in your study?
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Successful study
Learning types or personal learning style?
C^Draw arinq> round those factors below that you consider contribute to your performing at your best.
T^erFmaybe many or just afew. Add in any others that you consider relevant to you.
1 Social On my own. With friends. With other students. Amixture. It depends on the day or task.
2 Input from others Motivating myself. Working to my own agenda. Working things out for
myself. Studying collaboratively. Sharing ideas. Encouragement. Support. It depends on the day
or task
3 External direction Detailed instructions. Lots of guidance. Some guidance. Some instructions.
Freedom to study my way. Some choice. Few choices. Lots of choice. It depends on the day or
task.
4 Timing Start early. Well-paced. Last minute. No fixed pattern. Studying for hours uninterrupted.
Studying for aset amount of time. Lots of short breaks. Studying with no fixed pattern. Breaking
up time with different tasks. It depends on the day ortask
5 Sensory Visual: Colour; Shape; Film; Layout; Seeing material on the page or screen; observing.
Auditory: Listening to lectures/podcasts/recordings of own voice; Singing/rapping information.
Kinaesthetic: Moving around; making things; making a diagram or model of the problem; writing.
It depends on the day or task.
6 Planning Systematic. Well-planned. Clear priorities. Using lists. Studying what Ifeel like at the
time. Going with the flow. Creative chaos. Organic development. Browsing. It depends on the day
or task.
7 Global: detail Seeing the big picture first. Sorting out the details first. Moving back and forth
between the big picture and the details. It depends on the day ortask.
8 Location On campus. At home. In a library. In a set place. Anywhere. It depends on the day or
task. It makes no difference.
9 Noise In silence. With music. With the TV on. It depends on the day or task. It makes no
difference.
10 Light Bright light. Dim light. Average light. It depends on the day or task. It makes no
difference.
Successful study
©Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
^
^^m
What kind of learner are you?
Student comments
Jumoke - I selected 'It depends ...' for nearly
every answer. For example, for new topics and
problems we have to solve, I develop my Ideas
best when we chat about these in the library or
on a discussion board. But I get to a point when
I want to clear my head about what I really
think. Then, it Is better if I withdraw to a quiet
place where I car\ work through my thoughts
without interruption.
hAi\ar\ - I want to say creative chaos' is my style
as that suits my nature. But actually, what
works best for me \s to plan everything
Activity Name that style
phenomenally well so nothing can deflect me
from what I have to do. This counteracts my
natural disorganisation and tendency to drift It is useful to name your own personal learning
style.
into what entertains me.
Louis - Although I think of myself as an • It helps you to formulate in your own mind
what is distinctive about how you learn best.
introverted person, I am quite a social learner.
• It helps you to sum up the factors that
If I talk about lectures or what I read, it
contribute to your learning best.
becomes clearer to me and I remember it
better. I learn a lot from sharing ideas \r\ • When you sit down to study, this helps you to
groups - they just need to be small, quiet remember to apply the specific approaches
that help you achieve best.
groups that are focused on the task.
Adele - I work best ir\ a heightened environment - Choose a word or phrase that accurately sums
bright light, lots of space, big tables so I can up how you learn. Make this as individual and
spread out my books and papers and have specific asyou can so that you are more likely to
everything opened at once, lots of stimulus to remember it - as in the example below.
keep my ideas flowing. If I am at home, I put
the TV on \r\ the background - I don't really
watch it, but it blocks out other distractions.
Student examples: Name that style
Saskia: 'Ninja Learning Style': Ithink oflearning
as a secret mission where Ihave to sneak up
Reflection: Characteristics of my on myself and get engaged before the boredom
personal learning style baddiesget me.
Using the evaluation from page 75, consider the Mark: Icall my style 'Extreme Learning' as I
following: work best in extremes ofquiet, applying all my
attention.
• What characterises the approaches that help
you to study at your best? Abi: Squirrel Learning Style, that's me. Isquirrel
• Can you detect any patterns in the factors away lots of details that Ithink nobody else
that help you to study best? will find out, little nuggets of information, and
then feast on them when Ihave to write my
assignment.
Successful study
•t
Learning preferences and habits
'^^t*i^%
The way we enjoy learning, our preference, is not Harnessing your learning preferences
necessarily the same as our learning style, or what It makes sense to find ways of using approaches
produces our best work. we enjoy - ifwe can make them workfor us.
Etienne I prefer to spend my time browsing
interesting facts on the Internet, especially
late at night, and then assembling these into Reflection: Style versus
some sort of order for my assignments. My preference?
learning style is 'Global chatter', as I work best • How different are your learning preferences
when I get a sense of the overall subject from (above) from your learning style (page 75)?
discussing it with others. It took me a long time • How can you adapt your study methods so
to realise this as I don't really enjoy working as to gain a good balance between those you
that way. enjoy (which are likely to motivate you and
Claire I get my best grades when I start early, keep you on task), and those that help you
am methodical, make a lot of notes, and work on gain the best results?
a draft over several sessions. I call that my All
Method No Madness learning style. In stark
contrast, my learning preference could be
characterised as High Pressure High Intensity. Activity Study habits
When I studied to my preferences, I used the
approach of 'get in, do it, and get out quickly'. What study habits haveyou developed over the
This meant reading whatever I could get my years? How far do these equate with each of the
hands on fast, ignoring any material unavailable following:
on that day, and rushing out a rapid piece of 1 your learning style (what helps you learn
work with no drafting or proof-reading. best)?
Nita By preference, I am very competitive and 2 your learning preferences (what you like
enjoy studying on my own, using every minute doing)?
effectively. I don't like groupwork as I don't
3 your early learning experiences ratherthan
really want to share my ideas and it can feel
what you need now?
like a waste of time, a bit slow. Overall, my
learning preferences and style match each 4 the attitude, or mind-set, that you bring to
other, as I do get good grades. However, even your study?
though I find collaborative work annoying, I Which study habits might it be useful to
have found that I get my very best grades change?
from this: the range of ideas and perspectives
stimulates me to come up with richer answers.
Successful study
mmm
m
Personalise your learning
•1 Successful study
Using technology to personalise learning
";'lfc^^m*3M&f&*gft'*;.<&?%£&
Successful study
MtH
Reflection: Using library resources Designing materials for assignments and
revision
What kinds of library-related activities do you
find work best for you when present in the Consider working on paper, in notebooks, on large
library itself, and which online? card, and using software such as Impress (which
is Open Source), Publisher, Powerpoint or Adobe
Illustrator for:
Successful study
m:
(•HUH
Videos, photos,
t animations
Course-based discussion
board
Micro-blogging tools
e.g. Twitter
Podcasts
Blogs
Wikis
Lecture chat
For each aspect of study, a different combination of approaches a, b, orc below is best for you. Jot down
which combination of these you would use, and how, for the following 9 aspects of study.
Engaging and
maintaining
my interest in
the subject
Reading
around the
subject and
researching
new topics
4 Understanding
difficult
concepts and
making sense
of material
covered in
taught sessions
j^^^S Successful
Si study © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Aspect of study (a) Studying on my own
(b) Studying with others face-to-face
(c) Studying with others online
5 Making sense
of assignment
briefs
Keeping
motivated and
staying on task
7 Developing
my ideas
and gaining
different
perspectives
Managing
time and
being
organised for
study
Reviewing
and revising
material
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Successful study E]
Optimal learning
Successful study
When you use the 5 When information is When you enjoy
learning dimensions to organised what you learn
best effect Organise Make the learning fun.
Create opportunities for: Make sure:
information so
• conscious and unconscious that it is easier
• that it has meaning
learning for your brain to for you
• varying your level of attention structure it (see page 215). • that you really care
• using your senses in preferred about the outcome,
attracted to success like a
sequences
• learning from detail or When you use CREAM bee to honey
globally strategies /7 • that you are fully engaged in
• at different speeds and what you are learning
intensity. • that you create points of
See pages 67-8. interest, challenge and
enjoyment where these do
not occur naturally for you in
a given text, topic or learning
When you combine context.
Be creative, reflective, effective,
technologies to suit you
active and highly motivated (see
Experiment with paper- Chapter 4). When you put into place
based and technology the 6 conditions for
enhanced learning to find learning
the combination that is most When you use your whole See pages 69-71.
effective for you in practice. brain
Combine technologies with
each other
Take full advantage When you work
of your brain. Use: with others
to find the
• all your senses
optimum • for interest and
to encode
selection for enjoyment
information (see
the activity. • for support and solidarity
page 212)
• for different viewpoints
• both the 'left' and
• to use time effectively.
'right' sides of
• Use face-to-face methods
solely, or in combination with
technology, where you find
your brain (see
pages 207-8)
XX
W
$ See Chapter 10.
Successful study
yj^am
Review
Learning is a complex process and many factors One of the reasons why students have under
impact on our capacity to learn new material achieved in the past is because much of their
easily, effectively and with enjoyment. Amongst formal learning took place in class in conditions
these are, first and foremost, our attitudes towards, that didn't necessarily suit the way they worked. In
and understanding of, the learning process itself. Higher Education, however, much of yourstudy is
by independent learning where you have far more
This chapter has provided an opportunityto choices and control. You can decide when and
reflect upon what is meant by intelligence and how you want to learn.
learning and the different conditions that give rise
to intelligent learning. Understanding more about The chapter has encouraged you to consider
these can help to make sense of what affects your influences on your own learning, and provided
ability to achieve well on your current course, and you with some ideas about how you might
to design personal study strategies that are likely to personalise your study to enhance your academic
be more effective for you. performance. Chapter 8 provides further ideas
about personalising your approach to study with
There are many different views about intelligence. a focus on memory. Once you give these some
Some traditional attitudes have been limiting. thought, it is likely that you will find many other
They reduced people's self-esteem, making it ways that you could adapt the content, pacing and
more difficult for them to learn and undermining timing of your study and develop new strategies.
their potential to achieve. Different cultures and
environments require, appreciate and develop
differentaspects of intelligence. These differences,
and their impact on individual students, haven't
always been fully appreciated in academic
contexts.
|^^^3 Successful
s study
Chapter 4
The CREAM strategy for learning
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• become aware of the contribution of each aspect of the GR-E-A-M strategy to the learning process
• develop ideas on how to take more creative and active approaches to your study
• understand the difference between being a virtuous student and being an effective student
• consider effective approaches for different kinds of study
• clarify your motives for study and develop strategies for maintaining high levels of motivation
• build upon the reflective workof previous chapters.
CREAM
GR-E-A-M stands for:
C - Creative
Have the confidence to apply imagination
to your learning and problem-solving.
R - Reflective A - Active
Be able to sit with your experience, analyse Be personally engaged physically and mentally, in
and evaluate your own performance, and draw making sense of what you learn.
lessons from it.
M - Motivated
E - Effective Be clear about the outcomes you want to
Organise yourtime, space, priorities, state of achieve, the steps you need to take to achieve
mind, resources, and use of technology to these, and what you will do to build and
maximum benefit. maintain your engagement and enthusiasm.
cttfif
Finding your creative streak
Jupiter
professor look like? Sound like? How do How would others do it?
you move your hands and head when Consider: how might Pablo Picasso approach this
you are in 'professor' mode? Let your
study problem? Or Nelson Mandela? Aung San Suu
professor come alive, and talk to you
Kyi? J. K. Rowling? Mozart? Beyonce? Apolitician? A
about possible approaches to study
choreographer? Your mother? Your internal professor?
problems.
Whose approach would most help and inspire you?
People devise manydifferent strategies to help them to learn. Here are a few.
Tick the box beside any you could use. What other methods can you think of?
• 10
(f^V' / I use 'look and cover':
I read or try to learn
something; then Icover • 12
the page. Iwrite down
what I can remember. Then
I check back to see what I &*> sft\Sk CK3> I C<fi4^ OA^L
got right. Then Itry again.
*y
its rvvL. I Sent that*, crwc l*&*
• 11 tc szjl ookJicA, (sits I 6#*V
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The C-R-E-A-M strategy for learning ©Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Creative problem-solving
'%»ip
Creative problem-solving: stages in problem-solving
w
Defining the task: clarify the problem
precisely 2 Identify a strategy
For your subject, there will be
formulae, precedents or protocols
that would be applied to the kind of
problem you have been set. Ifyou
identify the nature of the problem
correctly, this generally gives you a
clear steer about the steps needed to
arrive at a solution.
i^^^q The
ti GR-E-A-M strategy for learning
Creative problem-solving: identify the task
It may help to draw up a chart. An example is provided below, that you can copy or adapt for your use.
1 Definition of the problem
Sketch it
• How do the different
parts of the problem
relate to each other?
• What information can
you write in?
• What else can you
work out and add in
that would help?
• What do you need to
find out?
Similarity to other
problems?
Which kinds of problems
have you solved before
that were similar in some
way to this?
Other information?
Which of your notes,
texts, learning resources,
websites etc. would be of
most use?
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan The GR-E-A-M strategy for learning
Ml
# Creative problem-solving:
?vv ## organise your approach
Working through, checking and writing up (Fill each box with a / once the stage is completed.)
3 EH 1have worked through the problem systematically.
4 EH 1have checked back through my solution, step by step, to check for errors and omissions and
to see that it works overall.
5 Q 1have written out the problem succinctly and accurately, demonstrating clearly how 1arrived at
the solution.
jljjj The CREAM strategy for learning © Stella Cottrell (2013) TheStudy SkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
m
Reflective learning
mm
How well am I doing?
so*
Course, unit or module: Date:
3a To do better in this unit, 1need to improve: 3b How will 1 bring about this improvement?
What prevents me from doing as well at present? My timescale for this improvement is:
4a What have 1already learnt, or improved, 4b How do 1 know this? How do 1 measure
since starting this unit? or monitor what 1 have learnt? (How
long it takes? My level of confidence? My
understanding? My level of enjoyment?)
^^^Q
^3 T
The GR-E-A-M strategy for learning © StellaCottrell (2013) The StudySkills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Reflective learning journals
In a strong
I can't believe the difference between my
notebook, or using
your computer
first essay (very bad!!!) and this one. Keeping
or mobile device,
an ideas book has helped."
start a reflective
learning journal.
I US6d f° read th* ^rdest books first -to
be a real student Now I look for asimple
Why? overview first.' Pe
• The act of writing things down helps you to
clarify your thoughts and emotions, work out "^V^ Ithink it's because I
strategies, and focus on your development. always try to get somewhere on time, whereas
• A written record will help you see your progress I should think about getting there 5minutes
and improvements: it can be easy to lose sight early - then I might be on time!
of this otherwise.
4 She writes her notes neatly, • Using abbreviations would save time.
and in full sentences. • As long as she can read her notes and find information easily,
they do not need to be neat.
5 She works long hours with • She gets tired and cannot think as clearly.
few breaks. • She gets bored and loses interest easily.
• Her mind wanders and she forgets what she has read.
• Sometimes she takes notes without realising she has done so -
with no idea what they say.
6 She locks herself away to work • She misses out on other people's opinions, suggestions and
solidly. perspectives.
7 She never asks for help or • She would benefit from guidance on how to use her study time,
attends support workshops. and the experience of being a student, more effectively.
^^^^J The
Tl CREAM strategy for learning
Effective and efficient study
mmm
Effective study checklist
AA J
^
Check your own effectiveness time and effort. (See pages 103- 8 • I use active
as a student. For the following 4, 134-5 and 182-4.) strategies
items, indicate (/) all that apply
to you already. Follow up on 5 • I use sensible short These can help maintain your
areas for improvement using the cuts
attention and focus. (See pages
relevant chapter or pages. 108-10.)
It makes sense to use efficient
study methods, freeing up time 9 • I reflect on my own
1 • I take the initiative
and mental effort for where you performance
As we saw in Chapter 1, in need it most. (See page 100, Effective study means being able
Higher Education, success lies Virtue versus effectiveness, and to recognise when your work is
mainly in your own hands. It is Chapter 5.) good and how to make it better
up to you to be proactive on
- rather than relying on grades
your own behalf. 6 • I personalise study or feedback from others. (See
At this level, you have far more pages 97-8.)
2 • I find out the 'rules
opportunity to adapt your
of the game' study methods to suit your 10 Dl look for ways to
As with many pursuits, success preferences. (See pages 76-83.) 'up my game'
is easier if you understand the Each year of full-time study is
'rules'. Find out such things as: 7 • I maintain high referred to as a 'level'. At each
• How Higher Education works. motivation level, there isn't simply a change
(See Chapter 1.) Find ways of keeping in touch in the material covered, there
• Academic conventions. (See with your reasons for study. is also an increase in difficulty
Chapters 1 and 12.) Look for ways of staying and complexity. Consequently,
• Expectations in your subject. engaged and interested. your study skills, strategies and
(See page 314.) coping mechanisms need to
(Seepages 111-18.) improve year on year. To some
extent, this happens naturally,
but you can benefit from putting
time aside each year to reflect
on what is needed.
Reflection:
Higher
expectations
3 • I make excellent use
of my time • In what ways will
the demands of your
This is an essential component of
programme require you to
effective study. (See chapter 5.)
refine your skills or change
4 • I am highly your approach in order to
organised 'up your game' in the year
ahead?
Good organisation of your life, • What will you do differently
study space, materials, notes, in order to gain the marks
online time and searches saves that you want?
SI
The GR-E-A-M strategy for learning © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan
Effective organisation: space and resources
Dedicated study space Make the study area a pleasant one to come back
to, preferably with a comfortable chair, so that
Create a separate space for study where you
it encourages you to return to study. As far as
can leave things and come back to them. If you
possible, keep surfaces clear and papers organised.
don't have access to a desk or table, use a shelf or
This not only makes it easier to find things, but is
cupboard to keep all your study things together.
relaxing for study.
Light and comfort
Good broadband or wireless connection
It is good to work near a window so that you have
Ifyou need to go online to access material or link
adequate light. Sitting with the window behind
in with tutors, make sure that you have a strong
or to one side will cut down on distractions. A
and reliable connection before you start to study.
reading lamp and natural daylight bulbs are a
good investment if you study in the evening.
Study resources
• A table clear of clutter
• An adjustable, stable chair for
working
• A computer, laptop or tablet
• Memory sticks
• Flexible lighting
• A diary or planner - ideally with
'a week to view'
• Essential books (make sure you
know which of the books on your
reading list you are expected to buy)
• A4 lined, punched paper
• An A4 ringbinder for each subject -
use different colours
• Lots of coloured file dividers
• A smaller folder to carry your
day's work. Use file dividers to
separate the contents by subject
• An attractive notebook for your
reflective journal
• A dictionary and a thesaurus
• A calculator
• Large sheets of paper or wallpaper
(or backs of posters) for wallcharts
• Lots of coloured pencils, felt-tips,
pens and highlighters, plus a ruler,
correction fluid, glue, etc.
Optional items
• MP3 or MP4 • Digital recorder Flip camera
player
*$*Kmmm mmm
Organisational skills on your computer
or mobile device
Choose filenames carefully You can store files online such as through Google
Docs and Dropbox. Files saved online can be
Use names that will help you recall the contents.
accessed from any computer or mobile device,
Name and date it in the footer provided you have a wifi connection. This has
As soon as you name a file, type this in the running
many advantages such as saving time retrieving
material, not having to copy material across from
text at the foot of each page, so that it will appear
one device to another or save everything to sticks.
on the document when you print it. This helps you
to find it again when needed.
9 Be aware of compatibility issues
2 Keep file sizes manageable Make sure your own software is compatible with
Avoid creating large files, as these slow you down. that of your institution. Install antivirus software
and update regularly. Many antivirus programs
3 Use a different file for each draft update automatically whenever you are online.
Add a number or letter to indicate each new draft:
e.g. 'piagetla' and 'piaget1b.doc'. 10 Leave time for hitches
Leave time for hitches such as not being able to
4 Save your work open large files or documents in certain formats.
If there is a computer glitch or loss of power, Tutors expect you to plan for such hitches and do
you could lose all work completed since the last not usually accept them as reasons for late work.
time you saved it. This can be very frustrating. To
protect your work, save it frequently or set the 11 Use opportunities selectively
computer to save files automatically every few
minutes. Copy files to a memory stick, save to The opportunities offered through electronic
cloud storage or email to yourself. media are vast. On the internet, for example,
there are fascinating forums, chat groups, and
5 Organise your electronic storage distribution lists. Choose carefully what is really
valuable for you, so that such facilities don't eat
Copy important files twice. Keep your memory
into your time. Select just a few such groups at any
sticks where you can find them easily. Accessorise
one time.
or paint them so you can identify them easily.
Most computers have some way of grouping There are many study apps and tools available that
files or folders. Use this to keep files relating to a help with study tasks such as searching for, and
particular subject together so you can find them referencing, information. See page 400.
again at speed.
Students may combine work and study in various Before you start
ways and circumstances, such as: If you want to combine study and employment, it
• part-time students in employment is worth investigating, early on, potential obstacles
• students whose work is home-based, including and ways of managing these. For example:
family and care commitments
D Check that you can attend as required.
• full-time students who need to work for money
D Find out if there are tutorials, trips and other
or help out with a family business
non-timetabled events you need to attend.
• students whose programmes or options include
work placements
n Plan out typical weeks to see whether your
• students on programmes that are primarily proposals are manageable.
work-based, such as for medicine-related n Check how your timetable might change from
professions and Foundation Degrees. one term or year to the next.
D Sort out your finances - study costs, loans and
Benefits financial support can vary depending on what
you earn and your mode of study.
Which of the following potential benefits of
combining work and study are relevant to you? Look for creative and efficient work/
D Abroader range ofexperience and skills. study synergies
n Greater confidence in adult work settings. If you are already in employment and have
n Increased maturity and self-reliance. sympathetic employers, talk to them about how
n Professional and/or business awareness. best to manage your work alongside study:
D Understanding how academic theory relates to • Are there ways your study could be counted
professional practice. as professional development as part of a work-
C] Income from work. related appraisal scheme?
d Networks and work contacts. • Can you undertake relevant work-based projects
that could count towards your qualification?
Reflection:
• Would your employer be willing to provide
Working whilst study leave, quiet space and time to study at
studying work, or support towards costs?
.-s . • Some jobs lend
What other benefits would * themselves less
work/study combinations easily to work-study
bring for you? combinations
What arrangements would than others, but
you need to make? appropriate projects
may still be possible.
Stud
IN
PROGRESS
O
The CREAM strategy for learning
mm
Effective management of work-based projects
j^^^Q The
Tr GR-E-A-M strategy for learning
Effective management of study leave
Employers may offer study-leave time at work or Half-day or full-day study release?
off-site. If managed well, this is a valuable resource.
Half-day study leave can be the more difficult to
manage effectively. It can mean time is wasted
Student comments
. • 1 in travel, and it provides less opportunity for
Half aday aweek study leave made all the consolidated study. It tends to suit people who:
difference to me. It meant I could get onto • prefer short bouts of academic study
campus to sort out administrative b.ts and • like to study 'little and often'
pieces, meet tutors and so on, that would have • have little travel to undertake
been hard to do outside college hours. • manage study time well.
fo th?,'Kan Qftern°°n QWeek was OK. Iwent Reflection: Making best use of
tO(the,lbrary to read things that werenT time
•>wm
Active learning
1 You wait for directions and information to be 1 You look for ways of being more involved in
fed to you. what you are learning.
2 Information is delivered to you - you just 2 You are engaged in the whole learning
follow what is said or written, and do as you process (and in a position to see why
are told. information has been selected).
3 Different pieces of information are treated as 3 You look for links between different things
separate units. that you discover.
4 You repeat information without 4 You make a conscious effort to make sense
understanding it. of, and find meaning in, what you learn.
Understanding is usually deeper.
5 You don't reflect upon what you have learnt. 5 You are involved in reflection and self-
evaluation.
6 You may become bored and tired easily. 6 Your attention span is longer because your
mind is more fully engaged.
7 You use surface processing (see page 70), in 7 Long-term memory is assisted. Ifyou
which case you are less likely to understand understand what you learn, and keep
or remember. relating what you learn to what you already
know, you are more likely to remember what
you have learnt.
8 You are less likely to be able to use what you 8 Linking information helps you to see how
learn. you can apply it to different situations.
9 What you study may seem irrelevant. 9 Learning is personalised and interesting.
10 You expect others to prompt you or to 10 You take charge of your learning and
remind you of steps, stages and deadlines, manage it like a project, so you feel confident
so you often feel uncertain about what to do that you know what to do, when, and why.
next.
- I'd better
^)^rspectacular)^write a|| of
'v%PH
^Active learning strategies
t^
1 Put a tick by any of these active learning strategies you could try.
2 Select two to try this week.
3 Select two more to try later this month.
The CR-E-A-M strategy for learning © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan
Motivation
Your level of motivation will affect your success. No matter how much you love your subject or want to
gain a good degree, there may be times when you don't feel like studying or wonder whether you would
be better off doing something else. You need strong motivation to keep yourself going at such times.
• clarity of purpose
10 1create the time 1need to complete tasks well 12 3 4 5
• being on the right course
• managing the 'boring bits' 11 1set personal challenges that inspire me 12 3 4 5
• confidence of the outcome
• using time well. 12 1take pleasure in achieving milestones/goals 12 3 4 5
Reasons for weak 13 1study well even when 1don't feel like it 12 3 4 5
motivation
14 1keep going even when things get tough 12 3 4 5
• loss of direction
• boredom, resulting from 15 1give thought to how to keep myself inspired 12 3 4 5
poor study strategies
• too much or too little
16 1find ways of making study sessions enjoyable 12 3 4 5
study
20 1manage anxieties and crises of confidence 12 3 4 5
• not being able to settle
down to study Total score out of 100
• losing interest in the jT~~|f~~\ What do you think that your overall
subject \ %Ji score anc' vour rat'n9 °f individual items
• becoming easily distracted \?~^~^ tell you about your motivation?
• giving up quickly.
© StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan The GR-E-A-M strategy for learning
Keeping motivated
Below are some strategies that can help to raise and then maintain your
motivation. Identify / which ones would work best for you.
BiPltdj
Grad Jobs LJ Give yourself a precise
focus
Make Mum & want a
J3ad proud Work If you are easily distracted
degree overseas from study, start each session
REWARD SYSTEM |
study EMERGENCY
by jotting down a quick list of
the things to complete in that
]hr= 15mins surfing session. Check these off as you
MEASURES
4hrs = go for swim RiNG JOHN TO TELL complete them.
onrs = watch DVD ME TO KEEP GOING
The CREAM strategy for learning © StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
n Develop a routine LJ Manage anxieties and confidence
If you find it difficult to put time aside for Academic study is demanding, so you may
study, take a more structured approach. Write feel anxious at times about what you can
specific times for study into your diary, and achieve.
keep these as appointments. Where possible, • Take note of your feelings but don't dwell
study at the same time and place each day. on them. Speak to a counsellor to gain a
See Chapter 5 on time management. clearer picture of what you need to do to
succeed.
• Set yourself short-term goals to provide
Q Manage the boredom focus and a sense of achievement.
JJ Meaningful reward
Give yourself treats for undertaking the
LJ Awareness of positive triggers aspects of study you find least motivating.
Take note of the conditions that encourage Identify different kinds of reward,
you to get down to study, and then create proportionate to how much time or emotional
these around you. So, ifyou work best with effort it takes to undertake the activity.
others, set up a study group. If you work
best under pressure, set yourself demanding
challenges to complete during a study session
rather than leaving work to the last minute. D Have a 'Motivation plan'
Feelings of low motivation may just pass, but
it is wise to plan for such occasions.
D Awareness of negativetriggers • Decide which strategies you are going to
• Become aware of the circumstances that use for various kinds of circumstance.
demotivate you; plan how you will avoid • Write these out and put them where you
these. can see them.
• Take note of the people around you who • Put the necessary resources into place (such
have a demotivating impact on you. as putting money aside for rewards, or time
• Notice those aspects of your own thinking to spend with a mentor).
or behaviour that demotivate you. Devise • In your diary or planner, write in times
a strategy for using your positive triggers when you will check whether your plan is
instead. working. If it isn't, revise it so that it does.
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4thedition, Palgrave Macmillan The CREAM strategy for learning
# Clarity of purpose: what I want
#
<#
fttf from my study
What are the outcomes you wish to achieve from your studies. Draw a ring round the
number that indicates how important each potential outcome is to you.
Course-related
Other reasons
Select two outcomes you have decided are important to you. Write in more detail about what you aim
to achieve.
Look back at this from time to time to see if your aims, and motivation for studying, are changing. Use
pages 115-18 to explore your goals further.
Your reasons for studying and your goals can guide Analyse goals in detail
the way you proceed with your study, as in the The following questions are based on an approach
following examples. known as Neuro-Linguistic Programming (NLP).
For each goal, go through the following questions
Coal A: to learn about the subject and the resource sheet on page 118.
If learning about the subject is the most important
outcome for you, then reading around the subject Are your goals 'well-formed'?
and doing what interests you may be more • Are the goals clear and specific?
important than following the curriculum. • Are they at all limiting?
• Do they help you?
Coal B: to have a good grade
• Are they realistic?
Ifyour chief priority is getting a good grade, then • Are they sufficiently motivating?
it is likely to be important that you 'play the game' • Are the outcomes worth it?
and find out exactly what is required. • Are they really desirable?
• How will you know you have achieved the
Coal C: just to get through
outcomes - what will be different?
Ifyou have many other demands on your time,
or gaps in your education, you may have to limit What are the implications of having these
yourself to covering essentials. What is important goals?
is that you know how to find and use information • Will you need to put everything else on hold?
to get you through - you can fill gaps in your • Will you have to change your study options?
knowledge later in life.
• Who else will be affected?
• Are there other implications?
Stating your goals
What are the potential gains?
Goals are most motivating when stated in the
present: • Will you feel more in control of your life?
I am able to achieve a 2.1! • Will you have more respect for yourself?
• Are there other potential gains?
It is also best to state them as positive objectives:
I am able to gain a good job. What are the potential losses?
Negatively worded goals, such as 'A degree will • Will you see less of family and friends?
help me to escape from my current employment', • What sacrifices are involved?
are less effective in providing motivation. • Are there other potential losses?
•*m mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
Using your goals to guide your study strategy
j^^^S The
Tl CREAM strategy for learning
Motivation: managing the challenge
Mark success
Note down your achievements and successes
in your reflective journal. It is important to note
what you do well, so that you can do it again!
After a few months, look back on your early
work. Give yourself credit for any progress you
Give yourself manageable short-term goals
have made.
Set yourself mini-goals as milestones, so that you
have a sense of achievement. In time these add up
to greater achievements. Aim for higher peaks
• Break larger assignments, such as writing a
report, into smaller tasks: 'Read course notes', When you achieve one set of goals, set new ones,
'Find resource materials', etc. making these a little more challenging.
• Break each of these tasks into smaller ones:
^J^VA
'Make notes of pp. 20-40 Media Now.'
• Set a realistic time allowance for each mini-goal: ( The peaks are calling me.
'Make notes on pages 31-70: 20 mins.'
• Give yourself a start time - and stick to it!
• Set a target end-time and work to that. The key
aim isn't to keep to time but to complete the
goal, so keep going until you do.
Effective mini-goals or milestones are:
• integrated: clearly linked to a larger plan, such
as your essay, project, or your overall motivation
for the course
• manageable and realistic: set yourself achievable
goals Keep setting yourself new goals and challenges
• specific: decide precisely what you are going to
tackle
• measurable: such as a set number of pages to
read, or a report section to write
• flexible: plan time in for emergencies; be ready
to change things round if necessary.
Potential gains
©
Potential losses
6
How I'll recognise when
the goal has //
been achieved — ^
Targets (short-term
goals and
milestones)
Possible obstacles
Steps to overcoming
obstacles
•£HE
How I'll celebrate success «9
j^^^Q T
The C-R-E-A-M strategy for learning © Stella Cottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
The C-R-E-A-M strategy
**
Increasing my motivation
© StellaCottrell (2013) The StudySkills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan The C-R-E-A-M strategy for learning
Review
j^^^Q The
Tt CREAM strategy for learning
Chapter 5
Time management as a student
Learning outcomes
This chapter gives you opportunities to:
• understand the key importance of effective time management to successful study
• consider the time requirements of your own programme of study
• gain a clear sense of where you spend your time now and where you want to spend it in future
• apply time management strategies to help you make good use of time put aside for study and
identify where you can save time
• organise your independent study in ways that make the best use of your time.
Oh mydaysi Ithoughtthe \
ark was leaving nextweek. )
4 keep good track of all the things 1need to do? Yes No Don't 128; 136; 138
know
5 have an accurate sense of where my time goes? Yes No Don't 129; 131-2; 149
know
6 use breaks and blocks of study creatively, to Yes No Don't 140; 141; 147
support effective study? know
7 know how many study hours are expected for my Yes No Don't 128
course? know
8 know how many hours 1am expected to spend Yes No Don't 127
across the year in different kinds of study? know
9 prioritise effectively the things 1most need to do? Yes No Don't 134-7
know
11 know when all assignment deadlines and/or exams Yes No Don't 139
fall? know
15 use time management strategies effectively? Yes No Don't 125-6; 141; 143; 145;
know 148-9
What do your answers to these questions suggest about how well you manage your time now?
Do you need to change any of your attitudes to time in order to manage your studies well?
I^^^S T
Time management as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan
Why time management matters to students
^mmmmtmm**,
01 ^
You feel more confident that you are
in charge and can cope - and that you
don't forget or miss out on things that are
important.
You make sure you have time to do the basics,
such as eating and sleeping properly and making
friends.
You learn to
There \ juggle the various
.weren'ttwo ] demands of
lab reports *l study, social life,
to hand \
employment,
in - were /
family, and
there? K~s
personal
interests and You learn where you can take short cuts
commitments. that save you time.
Time = choice
Ifyou use time effectively, this gives you choice in how you spend the time saved, such as in ...
• pursuing some topics in more depth, so that • preparing for exams and assignments so as to
you are more expert in these and so that your achieve better grades
work stands out • being with your family
• reinforcing what you have learnt, so that it • enjoying your social life.
makes more sense to you
Sorting out how you use time - that is the one big
Ithought time management was just
thing to get right about study - especially ifyou
a catchphrase, not something Ishould
go onlinea lot. In myfirst year, it just disappeared
actually think about. I had no idea how much
before I knew it and everything was rushed and my
time I wasted until Iactually started to take
marks were OK but not great. This year, Iam the
note of it. It made me realise all the things I
other extreme. Iam constantly thinking about how I
could do if Iwas more disciplined in howIuse
am using the time I have.
time-so now I am!
I make myself study for 45 minutes and Reflection: Learning from others
then Ilet myself 'play' - play is looking
at football scores, music videos, emails, Are any of these students' experiences similar
games, anything I want. I need constant to your own? What could you learn from their
reward, so that is how I do it. experiences and strategies?
T
Time management as a student
10 steps to effective time management
10 steps to good time management 3 Clarify how you use your time now
1 Be systematic in your time management
2 Find out your time requirements Be aware of how much time it takes you,
3 Clarify how you use your time currently personally, to do things. Use or adapt the resources
4 Decide how you want to spend your time on page 149 to check:
5 Prioritise what is most important • where you think your time goes
6 Plan what you will do when • where it actually goes.
7 Do it, keeping to your plan
8 Apply time management techniques
9 Manage distractions and procrastination 12hrstxting?No
10 Monitor Keep checking it is all working (way! it can't be
morethan 10mins!
1 Be systematic ...
mummmm
6 Plan 9 Manage distractions and
procrastination
Be very specific and comprehensive in your time-
planning. Build your understanding of when and how you
• Keep a detailed diary/planner (see pages 136- become distracted from using time effectively,
7). despite your best intentions.
• Work backwards from deadlines such as Plan strategies to manage
assignment hand-in dates (see page 139). this, (see pages 146-7).
fYes-1 will manage*
TINET/4BLE procrastination and
£Bj — — *m) *
=: —" m j^ distraction but...
5T "*sJJ . later.
—
* r r^
;*: 3r
~ ~
- - ~—
7 Doit
Total study hours expected per year [ A blank chart is provided below so that you
Average hours per week [ can map out roughly how much time you are
Average hours per week during breaks [ expected to spend on different kinds of activity.
-5"
Expected weekly study requirements
,w«^
Using your course materials to guide your estimates, shade in the time you are expected to spend in each
kind of activity each week. The pattern may differ across the year, so copy this sheet for re-use. Then go
to page 129 to compare these expectations with how you actually spend your study time.
Activity/Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16+
in hours
Lectures
Seminars
Tutorials
Practical studio/
field/clinical/lab/
work-based
Face-to-face study
groups
Other classes or
workshops
Independent
reading/thinking
Organising and
planning
Using online
course materials
Online reading/
research
Online directed
study activities
Online tutor
contact
Online study
group(s)
Writing a blog
and/or reflective
journal
Writing up and
fine-tuning
assignments
Other activity:
Other activity:
Time management as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Current use of study time X
TOQi
Copy this sheet for re-use. Over a period of 1-3 weeks, use these copies to shade in how much time you
actually spend on each type of activity. Compare this with the programme requirements (see page 128).
Activity/Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16+
in hours
Lectures
Seminars
Tutorials
Practical studio/
field/clinical/lab/
work-based
Face-to-face study
groups
Other classes or
workshops
Independent
reading/thinking
Organising and
planning
Using online
course materials
Online reading/
research
Online directed
study activities
Online tutor
contact
Online study
group(s)
Writing a blog
and/or reflective
journal
Writing up and
fine-tuning
assignments
Other activity:
Other activity:
© Stella Cottrell (2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Time management as a student
Preferred use of study time
^
/
You may wish to spend more, or less, time on some activities than is outlined in the course requirements.
Plan out how much time you will spend on each type of activity. This may differ each term or semester,
and during breaks. Compare this with the programme requirements and consider the reasons for
differences in your own planning. Copy this sheet for re-use.
Activity/Time 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16+
in hours
Lectures
Seminars
Tutorials
Practical studio/
field/clinical/lab/
work-based
Face-to-face study
groups
Other classes or
workshops
Independent
reading/thinking
Organising and
planning
Using online
course materials
Online reading/
research
Online directed
study activities
Online tutor
contact
Online study
group(s)
Writing a blog
and/or reflective
journal
Writing up and
fine-tuning
assignments
Other activity:
Other activity:
,^^^9 T
Time management as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan
Where does the time go?
As a student, there will be many other demands which eat up your time apart from study. Clarify where
your time goes by pencilling into your diary everything you do for a few days - sleep, exercise, lectures,
etc. - noting this roughly every hour. Chart this using the Timecircle. Then use the second time circle to
chart how you would want to use your time each day. Compare the two.
Example
• sleep- 10 hr
• eating - 2 hr
• socialising - 3 hr
• personal/home - 3 hr
• travel - 1 hr
• lectures, seminars, tutorials - 2 hr
• reading - 2 hr
• writing - 1 hr
• thinking - 0 hr
• exercise/relaxation - 0 hr
^
Time circle
x*
,w*
Date:
\5 11
12
Key to shading
• • •
• • •
• • •
It Time management as a student © StellaCottrell (2013) The StudySkills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Time circle
%
ro0i
Date:
Key to shading
• • •
• • •
• • •
© Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Time management as a student
''*mm
Set your priorities
You may find that you have more things to do Rating your priorities
than there is time to complete. If so, you will need Ifyou have difficulties with prioritising, it can help
to set your priorities for the day, week or year. The to use a rating system.
following checklist helps clarify what to do and
when. • Use one rating to identify the level of
importance.
• Use a second rating to decide on urgency.
Priority-setting checklist • Weigh up the scores for one against the scores
n 5 completed).
Number the items in the best essential is it that you do it soon? (1 = must be
done at once; 5 = it can wait.)
orderto do them.
D 6 work out how long Ican spend Column C: Balance the scores. Subtract the score
in column B from column A. The highest scores
in column C are the most likely to be priorities.
Q 7 onDecide
each.
what might have to be However, double check to see if that is really the
missed out. case.
Complete the organiser below, following the directions on page 134 above.
List of things to do A B D
need to do do now (A4B) order of
(scale 6-10) (scale 1-5) priority/when
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan Time management as a student
>&*mm
Effective planning and diary-keeping
A good student planner or diary can be invaluable Colour codes and symbols
in managing your time. A 'week to view' diary for
Use colours and symbols to indicate different
the academic year is ideal.
activities and subjects in your diary. Ifyou use
these consistently, you will find that after a while
What to put in about your study
you don't need to 'read' the entries: you will
A comprehensive record be able to note at a glance what is there. Use a
To be effective, your diary or planner needs to be a positive or energising symbol for activities you
complete record of what you have to do. Write in: dislike.
• all non-study activities, such as family holidays, Examples of symbols you could devise
medical appointments, work hours, birthdays,
volunteering, travel, etc.
• exam dates, field trips, work placements, o
socialising writing
deadlines for handing in assignments, etc.
• exactly where, and with whom, each
appointment or lecture is
lecture library
• specific study tasks, such as 'Read Chapters 2-4
of Urban Ecology
• dates and times when you need to log-on for
specific activities or when course resources are fnal draft travel
made available online
• free time, to be used to catch up on things you
missed, emergencies, unforeseen events, rest, Diary entries
and enjoyment.
MONDAY, 20 JULY
A plan for completing assignments
Map into the diary the times when you will: 9-11 W Rm 33, 3 Block. Dr Olafemi
j^^^93 T
Time management as a student
Make your planning work for you
m
Using 'To do' lists
'^f/*iim$mmm&< ***Afflt*:-^*-- '"-v-,1 'JW*<«fi<? ?«WM:.
Research
• Final deadline
Use this information in planning your next assignment. Write the time for each stage into yourplanner.
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan Time management as a student
Apply time management techniques: time blocks
j^^^Q Time
Ti management as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
Apply time management techniques: multiple methods
• When the timer goes off, be strict in bringing your current activity
L] Set early deadlines
to a close so that you can start the next.
Set yourself deadlines for • It may take some experimentation to work out realistic amounts of
completing assignments earlier time to set for each type of activity.
than the official hand-in time.
This gives you time to fine-tune E] Use support networks
your final drafts and manage
unforeseen emergencies. If you have demanding commitments outside of study, it helps iGf-.v
to build the kind of support networks that fit your life style. For
D Keep track of time example, if you volunteer or work part-time, there may be ways of
sharing shifts with others so that there is cover available for when
• Jot down as a list your start you need to be in class. Ifyou have children, you may be able to
times for each new activity. organise childcare with other students who are parents.
• Put this where you can see it
easily, such as on a sticky note LJ Organisation =time-saving
on your diary or computer. Good organisation is a key way of saving time.
• Check it frequently as you • Manage your files, so that you don't keep more material than you
study. Adapt your times need.
sensibly if you start to fall
• Organise space, including your online space, so that you can find
behind.
everything quickly.
• Name it and label it, so you can find things easily.
• Plan your day so that you use pockets of time well.
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan Time management as a student
*mm
Apply time management techniques: online study
•_
Time management as a student © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Ten time-saving strategies
mental input. Ideal study tasks include listening to • Use 'brainstorming' and pattern notes to
podcasts of lectures or revision points, memorising generate ideas quickly (pages 279 and 1 73).
flash cards, or reading short sections from books.
9 Save time organising information
4 Save time looking for notes • Don't note down the same information twice.
• When making notes, write each major point If two writers make the same point, note a
under a different heading. Use a large bold font reference to the second source in the margin
for headers so you can find points quickly when next to the first time you noted that point.
browsing your notes for specific items. • Use shading on the computer, or highlighter
• Name and date your folders and files clearly. pens on paper, to group information relevant to
• Maintain an updated contents guide to your the same section of your assignment.
folders and files, so that you know exactly where • Cut and paste together items shaded the same
to search for what you need. colour. Read these again once regrouped.
• Keep detailed records of source materials and • If you have the option, read your shaded notes
page numbers in your notes, so you can find on a page or in a window alongside the one in
them again easily if needed to check details. which you are writing your assignment.
• Use a folder or a resource such as ThePalgrave
5 Save time reading Student Plannerto draw together study-related
• Use 'smart reading' strategies (Am I a smart information in one place (see Appendix 3, page
reader?, pages 165-7). 402).
• Read only what is relevant to this essay or
10 Avoid duplicating effort
assignment. If something looks interesting for
the future but is not relevant now, make a note Find a study partner to bounce ideas, exchange
of it rather than becoming distracted by it now. study strategies and share permitted study tasks.
•<$m
Manage procrastination and distraction
Effective study depends on having your state of mind, space, time and
materials organised in the ways that best suit your learning.
Creating a state of mind for study Use your distractions to help you study
Many students find it difficult to get into the right Study on the move
mood for study. They put it off to another day. Ifyour distractions involve movement (such as
Everyone has their own particular distractions: sport, shopping or housework), spend ten minutes
endless cups of coffee, texting and tweeting, first browsing a chapter or going over notes.
phone calls, TV, browsing online, housework, Then give in to your distraction if you still want
anything rather than settling down to study. to - but go over what you have just read as you
do it. If you are an active person, combine sport
Give yourself study triggers or movement with study tasks such as thinking
Many people need a 'trigger' to start a study through how you will approach an assignment,
session. One student clears his desk each time or rehearsing material covered in class to see how
he finishes studying: his study trigger is a clear, much you remember. Some people learn better
inviting surface. Another has a 'ritual' of switching 'on the move'.
on the computer, bringing in a glass of water and
'Stealth study'
then opening her books at the appropriate pages
before she feels she is ready to begin. Another Ifyou find it off-putting to be 'obliged' to study,
begins by making a coffee while standing in the begin by allowing yourself a limited time to study
kitchen, brainstorming ideas onto paper. He feels initially - maybe just 5-10 minutes. Ease yourself
he has already started to study before he sits gradually into increasingly longer spells.
down. Alternatively, after ten minutes, move away from
your study, changing activity, but doing something
that enables you to continue thinking about what
Reflection: Study triggers you have just studied. Set yourself questions to
answer if that helps you to remain focused. For
What actions or thoughts can trigger you into example, consider whether you agree with what
'study mode'? If you don't know, experiment you have read, or decide how you would use it in
until you find triggers that work for you. under 30 words in an assignment. Jot down any
ideas or phrasing that occurs to you.
Create the right environment If you feel compelled to sit down to check a point
Make a conscious note of the kind of environment
or write something up, then do so. You may find
that suits you best for different study tasks. Do you become engaged in your study at that point.
you need quiet, music, background noise? Is Use distractions as resources
study better at home or in a library? Alone or with
If you tend to phone or text friends as a
friends? In clear space or chaos? What else do you
distraction, ask them to help you focus on your
need?
work. Tell them to ask you about the assignment or
use them as a sounding board, but be considerate
Reflection: Study environment - your friends will probably be delighted to hear
from you, but may also be trying to concentrate
What kind of study environment works best for on their own study. Set time limits for calls
you? Does this change for different aspects of
study? Connect to your motivation
See pages 111-18.
^^^^H Time
Tii management as a student
¥:
»StellaCottrell (2013) The StudySkills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Time management as a student
w*Nm
# Identifying and managing distractions
#
s#
%&
Time-eating 'danger zones' online
As time spent online often creates the greatest
challenges to students' time management, it can
help to identify your personal 'danger zones'.
These are the websites and e-resources that take
up a disproportionate amount of your time. They
could be useful sites that you over-use, distract you
too easily from your main purpose or serve too
easily as launch pads to other sites.
• Note which sites, apps and tools you use most.
• Decide how much time you really want to spend
on these.
• Decide how you will build a reasonable use of
your favourite sites or resources into your day.
• Consider how you will keep yourself to that
amount: how will you monitor how long you are
using each? How will you motivate yourself to
close the site or app?
(7) (2)
(8) (3)
I'll manage my
time using these by: (4)
(5)
Time management as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
Staying on task
\v??%M
Once you have started on a task, the next time • Set a schedule of tasks for the time allocated.
management challenge is staying on task. This is Alternate tasks of reading, noting, writing,
sometimes referred to as 'stick-with-it-ness'. listening to podcasts, thinking, searching, etc. to
maintain your interest through variety.
Using the first few minutes effectively • Set short questions relevant to your assignment
to focus your attention for that study session.
It can help to stick with a task if you feel you have • Look for the debates and controversy in the
made a good start. To achieve this, set yourself topic: these add interest. Consider how these
a time challenge to complete in the first 10-15 will impact on your own perspectives on the
minutes of each period of independent study. issues, and on your assignment and revision.
• Consider spending some time working with
others - agree a time schedule together for
Reflection: The first 10-15 minutes
staying on task.
How effectively do you use the first 10-15
minutes of study?
Reflection: Remaining focused
What kinds of challenges could you set for
yourself to use those initial few minutes in
effective and motivating ways? What could you change about the way you
study to help you to remain focused on the
task?
Remaining focused
Some of the reasons that students give for not Life balance
staying on task are listed below. Which, if any,
Organise your time so that you take care of
apply to you?
yourself generally and can replenish your energies.
1 LJ continuing the same activity for too long It is better to plan these into your week along with
2 ED getting bored time to deal with unforeseen circumstances. Make
sure you get enough time for:
3 E] finding the material too difficult
• sleeping and relaxing
4 E] not seeing the relevance
• eating
5 d getting tired.
• exercise
Strategies for remaining focused • family, friendships and social activities
• Break up your study time into blocks of different • having fun.
lengths: see page 140.
• Set yourself specific challenges for each block -
with just enough time to complete them. Don't Reflection: Life balance
give yourself the luxury of thinking there is time
to waste. • To which aspects of life, work and study do
you pay most attention?
• How effective are you at replenishing your
energies? What could you plan differently?
'•*mm
Activate your time management strategies
(6)
(2)
(7)
(3)
What other strategies, if any, could you devise
for yourself to improve your time management?
0)
(4)
(2)
(5)
(3)
(6)
(4)
(7)
(5)
I^^^M Time
T' management as a student © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
Monitor your use of time ^
%
rooL
Use a photocopy of this sheet for each study period until you are happy with how you use your time.
Column 1 (fill out during study) Column 2 (fill out after study)
Date: Were the conditions, time and place the best
possible? Could 1improve anything?
Where:
How long am 1going to study for altogether? How long did 1study for?
Length of breaks?
© Stella Cottrell (2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Time management as a student
Review
Time management is an essential skill for students. and for everyday life, and plan into your diary or
Student life can be very demanding and that is planner exactly when you will do these.
especially the case if you combine study with other
commitments such as work, volunteering, family It is unlikely that you will need the same level
and caring responsibilities, sports or creative and of monitoring of your use of time throughout
performing arts. It is easy to assume that there is your time as a student. However, most students
more time available than is the case, and to believe experience periods when it is hard to get down to
that study tasks can be completed more quickly study, or to stay on task, or to fit in everything they
than proves possible in practice. need to do. At such times, it can help to focus in
on your time management strategies, using those
It is not unusual for people to forget to put techniques and resources outlined in the chapter
any time aside even for such essential tasks as that you find of most use.
preparing food, eating, travelling between home
and college, celebrating a friend's birthday, finding This chapter has outlined a 10-step strategy for
course materials they have been told to use, or effective time management. All 10 steps are
planning out their assignments. It pays to develop important - you can't really pick and choose, or
a sharper sense of what exactly needs to be done, opt to miss any out, and still be managing your
and by when, and how long it takes to complete time to best effect.
each aspect of the task.
However, it is likely that you will be more effective
Investigate as early as possible the amount and in some areas than others. Good self-knowledge,
nature of expected study commitments for your planning and organisation help with most aspects
programme, so that you can plan for these well in of time management. You can draw upon the
advance. Develop a keen sense of the total range chapter for ideas for more elaborate strategies to
of tasks that you will need to complete for study address those areas you find most problematic.
Part B
Academic skills
Study skills consist of more than simply reading and listening in Higher Education.
academic skills, but academic skills are a key You will be expected to demonstrate this
aspect of what we understand by the term in your written assignments. Depending on
'study skills'. Chapter 2 outlined a wide range of your course, you will need to be able to recall,
skills that could be considered to be academic at speed, your course material in a range of
skills. This section focuses on just four sets settings: in discussion, for exams or for practical
of academic skills that are essential to most application. Many courses expect at least a
courses of Higher Education. basic understanding of, and confidence in,
manipulating numbers.
As research of one kind or another is central
to academic work in Higher Education, you are Although the subject specialist aspects of
expected to have the strong core skills relevant research, statistics, maths and critical analysis of
to researching your own assignments. These sources are generally included within courses,
include finding good quality information at it is generally expected that you have a good
speed, reading selectively and at speed, and grasp of the basic underlying concepts. These
using taught sessions to help you build your are addressed by this section.
information base in support of independent
It would also be expected that you have good
study. They also include knowing how to use
basic skills in writing. Those academic skills are
the information you find in appropriate ways.
covered within the context of writing specific
As well as finding information, you need to be assignments, in Part D on task management
able to select and interpret it with a critical skills.
eye. Critical analysis is an essential skill for
Academic skills
Chapter 6
Core research skills
Reading, note-making and managing information
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• fine-tune your skills in information-finding, reading and note-making for higher level study
• understand the processes involved in managing information for academic tasks
• appreciate what is meant by 'good quality' sources
• consider how to adapt your reading and note-making for different types of study task
• know what is meant by 'plagiarism' and how to avoid it
• learn how to cite sources and reference your work
• make effective use of lectures and taught sessions.
It also means:
• knowing what is meant by (7) Storing for academic use
plagiarism and cheating Knowing how to store or tag
• understanding how to cite your information so that you can ...
sources and provide appropriate (a) find it again quickly if needed for
references. (See pages 179-81.) assignments
(b) cite and reference it
appropriately
• Downloads
• Memory sticks
• Bookmarks
• Delicious
• Reference management tools.
Library services
The starting place for most research
is the library. Join your college
library as soon as possible, and find
out about the range of services
available. Typically, these include:
• support and resources for using
the library and for finding material
online
• silent areas, study rooms and
reference sections, and discussion
areas
mmm
Finding information: getting started
Indices and abstracts are separate See pages 400-1 (Appendix 2) for useful databases,
publications which give brief details of services, repositories and tools.
journal articles, including who wrote
what and where to find it. In an index,
you can search by subject heading
and by keywords for all the articles
on a given subject. They are updated
regularly and are well worth using.
Ifyou enter a general keyword, such as 'mouse', For speed, type in words such as 'research',
you will be offered millions of options - on rodents, 'journal', the names of leading theorists or schools
electronic mice, cartoon mice, pest control, science of thought as well as the topic.
experiments, mice in children's story books and
so on. A search on Google Scholar (15 July 2012) Conference papers
gave the following results:
Ifyou have an Athens authentication number,
Search string Number of entries conference proceedings and papers in your subject
mouse 289,000,000 are available through the 'Web of Knowledge' at:
fieldmouse UK 219,0000 http://wok.mimas.ac.uk (select ISI Proceedings).
fieldmouse habitat UK 1,170
fieldmouse urban habitat and owls UK 154
Saving web addresses
Narrow your search For useful sources, save their web addresses as a
To narrow your search to more relevant items, 'favourite', 'bookmark' or 'mark' it. Set up folders
include more keywords in your 'search string' and to group your most used addresses. Name these
choose your search string with care. clearly, just as you would with your files. Ifyou use
a free social bookmarking tool such as Delicious,
• Which keywords best describe what you are
you can save your bookmarks online and access
looking for? Which are most likely to be used as
them from anywhere with online access.
keywords for making electronic links?
• Consider synonyms (words with the same
meaning such as 'city', 'town', 'urban' and Automated searches using eTOC
'metropolitan').
Some bibliographic databases let you save searches
• Might unrelated subjects share keywords with and return to them later. For many, you can
your topic? If so, use at least one keyword that request to be emailed details of all publications
applies only to your topic. that meet your search criteria. For journals that
• Which specificareas of your topic do you need to you find especially useful, request an eTOC - the
focus on? Which keywords identify these? electronic copy of its contents. You can receive
• To find additional material, use new keywords. these by email, with direct links to the articles.
• If a search string proves particularly useful, note
it down for future use.
-**WP
Narrowing or extending your online search
You can vary your search by using OR, AND and NOT (known in this context as
'Boolean operators'), and truncation symbols or wildcards. These allow you to
broaden or narrow your search in order to find the most relevant pages.
Too many items? Limit your search Too few items? Extend your search
AND OR
Ifyou type AND between two keywords, Use OR to search for pages that contain one
the seach will produce only those pages that or more of two or more words. For example,
include both of the keywords. For example, a search for car OR bicycle would list pages
field AND mice would find only pages that that include car but not bicycle, pages that
contain both field and mice, not those include bicycle but not car, and pages that
containing only one of these keywords. include both car and bicycle. This kind of
search is useful when authors may use different
Inverted commas (" ") terms for the same topic (often synonyms or
abbreviations): "vitamin C" OR "ascorbic
In many situations you can use double inverted acid"
commas to specify a phrase rather than a single
word. This will narrow down the search and Truncation symbol (*)
reduce the number of items you find, but must
be used with care. For example, "electronic The truncation symbol can be used to find
mouse" would yield references to computer variations of a keyword that begin with the
mice, excluding those that mention rodents, same set of letters (the 'stem'). For example,
but equally it would only list pages where those crit* would find critic, critical, critique and
two words appeared together in exactly that criticism.
form.
Wildcards (?)
NOT
Wildcards find variations of a keyword, such
Use NOT to exclude items from your search. as alternative words in a phrase or alternative
For example, to find references to mice but not letters in a word. The exact operation of ?
to pest control, you could enter: mice NOT varies between search engines: check the help
extermination system.
• Alternative words: car ? would search for car
More keywords plus any other word, and might find used
cars, sports cars, car insurance, car hire,
The more keywords you use, the fewer pages
and so on. Beware: this may yield a long
are listed. For example, a library database
list. In a publications database, for example,
search may allow you to specify the author's
Smith ? would list publications by any author
name, words in the title, the publication date,
named Smith; it would be better to include a
and so on. The more of these you provide, the
specific initial to limit the list (Smith W).
more precise your search will be.
• Alternative characters: wom?n might find
woman and women; organi?e might find
organise and organize.
|^^^9 C
Core research skills
Advanced online searches
Advanced searches
With some databases you can use a more
Efficient search strategies
sophisticated search string that uses parentheses An efficient search strategy is one that:
( ) to link operations and to specify their order of • finds the most relevant items
precedence. You can continue to use operators, • does not exclude relevant items
truncations and wildcards (page 160), within and • does exclude irrelevant items
between the groups of keywords. • is successful in the fewest attempts.
You need to put some thought into what you are
including and excluding. However, experiment
and you will soon get a feel for whether your Activity Advanced searches
search strategy is finding the kinds of items you
need.
1 Ifyou use AND in a search, you are likely to
find additional references. True or false?
Example 1
2 Ifyou use OR in a search, you are likely to
Suppose you wished to find articles about mice in
find additional references. True or false?
cities. You might try this search string:
(mice NOT rat) AND (urban OR city OR 3 Which search string would find most items?
metropolitan NOT field) A global OR world
B global AND world
The search engine would list items in the database C global NOT world
that:
4 Which search strategy would find the fewest
• include the keyword mice but do not include
items?
the keyword rat
A graphic OR design
and also B (graphic OR design)
• include any combination (one or more) of the C "graphic design"
keywords urban, city or metropolitan, but not 5 How could you enter the keyword 'design'
the keyword field. to find references to 'designs' and 'designers'
However, this search might exclude some useful also?
articles that mentioned 'rat' or 'field' even once. 6 For the following topics, how could
you search for references to items using
Example 2 alternative versions of the keywords?
"global warming" AND (glaciers NOT North) A A compendium of nursing methods
B Monopoly as a trend in world trade
The search would look for items that:
7 Which search string is likely to be most
• include global warming as a phrase (excluding
efficient in finding references to the impact
items that contain the words global and
of global design trends on designers?
warming, but not together)
A global AND design AND trend
and also B global? AND (design* AND trend?)
• include the word glaciers, but do not include C global* OR (design AND trend)
the word North. Answers are given on page 408.
Again, this would exclude any articles that
mentioned the word North even once.
>*m
Using material of suitable quality and content
Only a small portion of the vast amount of Even if you do not recognise the authors or editors,
information available in print and online will be you will become familiar with the characteristics
suitable for academic assignments. Being able of good quality sources for your subject. Typically,
to identify good quality material is an essential you would look for:
requirement of study at this level. • where items appear: are they in a reputable
You can find excellent materials online as well as series, in a peer-reviewed journal or by an
in print. Little of what is printed or put on the academic publisher?
internet is subjected to academic scrutiny so it is • the number and quality of the references they
useful to know: make to other experts in the field
• where to find good materials, especially those • use of original source material and data
that have been peer-reviewed • clear references and details of source materials,
• how to differentiate between good and poor such as would enable readers to check these
quality material for yourself. sources for themselves.
• Check whether there are reviews of their work in • whether anything is misleading in the way
journals and read these. the material is presented.
• Check the qualifications, experience and Just because a book has been reviewed it does
occupation of the authors: are they academics not mean that errors and inconsistencies are
such as doctors or professors at an HEI, or eliminated or that you need to take on board
otherwise leading experts in the field? its findings in an uncritical way. The issues listed
above are ones that you are also expected to
consider for yourself. These are covered in more
detail in Chapter 7.
available as a podcast.
• Study resources may be available as podcasts:
e.g. www.palgravestudyskills.com
• Good sources for students are: iTunes, Juice,
Podnova, podcast.com and ted.com
• Check details of the speaker in order to find out
whether the material in the podcast is likely to
be reliable.
• Check the date to see if it is recent.
Identifying and selecting relevant information
Know exactly what you Use reading lists Examine sources for suitability
are looking for selectively nil! 11 11 I-S-tI
U Do Iconsider the questions • Do I use the
I'm trying to answer? recommended
Find information
O Do Iread the chapter heading?
quickly ED Do Iread any sub-headings?
LJ Do I read the first sentence of each
ED Do Imake good use of paragraph (which should introduce the topic
the index?
or idea)?
LZ1 Have Igot faster with ED Do Ilook at any diagrams, graphs orcharts?
practice?
EH Do I read any summaries or conclusions?
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Core research skills
Use photocopies
Make posters to link information
E] Do I make copies of • As you read, make reduced copies
important pages? of short key passages, maps and
vs*vV
CH Do I use marker pens to diagrams. Organise these out onto
highlight important words a poster or chart for your wall or
and phrases (only)? workspace.
ED Do Ijotideas and thoughts • Link ideas using colour and arrows.
in the margins? • Annotate with your own notes.
D Do I make notes about the • These posters are very useful for
revision.
points I highlighted, to help
myself remember them?
^^^Q cCore research skills © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
There are
three major
conclusions...
Use markers
LJ Do I label a corner of my
own texts with a keyword
summary? Listen to yourself read Using two recorders
• Do I insert labelled Ifyou have two
bookmarks so that I can find
[U Do Irecord myself reading
recorders, speak your
important passages?
details easily, and need fewer ideas into one as you
notes? El Do I listen to these as Itravel, or listen to material on the
work around the house?
Q Do Iuse tabs and give star other.
ratings to useful pages,
making them easier to find Create ideal
later?
conditions
© Stella Cottrell (2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Core research skills
Improving reading comprehension
Do I understand what I read? especially at headings and first and last sentences
of paragraphs. Select a few of the key words you
Do you:
underlined and highlight them in colour. Use bold
• understand most of what you read? or add a symbol such as a star to indicate the most
• know how much you understand? important points. Be selective: if you underline
• understand material you don't find interesting? or highlight everything, nothing will stand out as
• actively monitor your understanding? important.
• know how to improve comprehension?
Ifyou answered 'no' to one or more of these Colour-code information
questions, experiment with these reading
Use different colours for different kinds of
strategies to improve your comprehension.
information -for example, one colour for reference
names and dates, and one for each of the main
Active reading strategies schools of thought or major theories for the
subject. Later, just seeing that colour combination
Start with something general on the page may bring back to you what the page
was about.
Reading is easier if you have a sense of the context
and a general overview of the material. Read a very
Ask 'depth questions'
basic text first, to familiarise yourself with the main
issues and the vocabulary. Look for the underlying issues:
• What point is the writer making?
Monitor your comprehension
• Why is this detail relevant?
Read a few sentences, then stop. Without looking • Is the writer trying to answer a particular
back at the text, sum up what you have read in question?
just a few words. Say these aloud or jot them • What lessons can be learnt from this text?
down. Ifyou cannot do this, read back over what
you have read, using an additional strategy from Apply the CREAM learning strategy
below.
Consider how you can apply the C-R-E-A-M
strategy (Chapter 4) to your reading.
Guide your reading
Set yourself specific questions to start off your Relaxed reading
reading. Write them down. Adapt the questions as
Reading comprehension is improved when the
your reading progresses. The clearer you are about
body is relaxed. Use appropriate lighting; have
what you are trying to discover, the easier it is to
music or silence, as you prefer, and drink plain
find it in the text.
water. See page 381 on relaxation.
Re-read difficult passages
Reflection: Smart reading
Academic texts often contain difficult passages.
strategies
Don't panic! You are bound to need to re-read
some passages slowly, several times.
• How do I approach reading tasks now?
• How could I spend my reading time more
Highlight key words and phrases
effectively?
On your text, photocopy or screen, underline
the information you think may be relevant. Look
M
Strategies for increasing your reading speed
For each of the problems noted on page 169, there is 8 Keep your eyes moving forward
something you can do to improve matters.
Which of these sentences is easier to read?
1 Read more advanced texts A Checking back over back over what what
Reading improves with practice. Your brain becomes you have read makes understanding
more used to seeing unusual words, and your mind checking back makes understanding
to dealing with complex sentences and ideas. Also, checking back over makes understanding
look for subjects that interest you and read more for difficult.
start with something simpler on the same subject, • for formulae and equations
or read the easiest sections first. You can return to • for close analysis of texts, such as for law,
complex sections or more difficult books later. literature and history.
m
Making notes
summarise these.
^c^:ref',e/fo'd^oreach
.Surnmansepojnu^o *For Paper notes ,«„«.,
helps ensure that the now
•n your own words and not #SeP3ratet0p/csS' USef"ed'V(dersto
accidentally copied from texts 9f°r each top!'. n°teS' Use karate f/,es
into assignments.
.Note exactly where informal
comes from.
.£*«• names and quotanons
OTCllyastheyarewntten.
.[lave space to add det*,a,et. •^berany^.9^
ASM
Shortcuts in note-making
Leave space in your notes, and a wide margin, Label and number pages. Cross-refer to
so that you can add new information and ideas information already noted elsewhere - for instance,
later. (This is quicker than rewriting your notes to 'see red file, page 24, Amphibians'.
incorporate the new information.) Alternatively,
word process your notes so that you can Use abbreviations
summarise, edit, highlight and rearrange them
easily. Abbreviations save time. Use them in your notes,
but not in assignments.
Make just one set of notes • Work out a system you'll remember.
• Stick to your system.
Aim to have just one set of notes. Visual familiarity
• Introduce a few at a time, so that your notes
will make it easier to find information later, and to
make sense.
recall information during exams.
• Keep a 'key' to your abbreviations to hand.
Students' solutions
Sonja and Charlie are two students who used to have great difficulties making notes. Here are their
accounts of how they tackled their difficulties, with help from a study-skills tutor.
Sonja
Tr.ere one two thirds which. I find difficult about .**I not-
Firstly.
,» Iam notbetter.
say things veryItr^?%£XZZZ£~
,s very tempting to « nearr, _wordst %
L^
hVords of th°: bof.°k?n my essay without even realising,
-second thi.Iflnd^^^
ssir:frvx.&zz%-*~*-—-**
know, and what I need to find out- It I_"« r ^
KSfcftS
Core research skills
p«f»?:
f Reading, recording and using information
laboratory work
Before reading case studies
Large chart or pattern notes
Internet
programmes
on TV reports Fill in information
personal arrows
see page
____^_ / ___, experience where it is most 173
books appropriate
1 Brainstorm/make pattern notes - j
what do you already know? j information articles
highlighting
T ~ ! from books add details add examples
lectures
thoughts thoughts examples symbols
previous
TV/DVD add Ideas add evidence
study
numbers
data colour- and
where coding letters
Text 3
IL
'Ther • " TeXt 4
Read each of the pieces of text below and
decide whether the text is an example of
2013). cottre// wr/tes: ^'Jf™ Performance' (cbttreH
plagiarism, and why. The original text, fduCat;°" ^9ramme har;t^eVhe Suzuki VWJn '
on which the examples are based, can be
found on pages 60-6.
Text 1 ^ —
—-—" +\*nt students
Research shows %em.soW^
*hodobestatP^ her rodents
Text 5 ^
lend longer ^anwha, a The reasons for appearing 'intelligent' or not may depend
upon a complex set of factors, all of which interact
(Cottrell, 2013). Butterworth (1992) suggests that we can
^t^StUdt^and
soWe ,;feoftheP^em
thesurface owing
even believe ourselves to be incapable of a task that is well
within our capacities. This can occur simply because we do
d°notSe^makesits^arto not recognise the similarity of two tasks when the
circumstances appear different. This view is supported by
research. It has been demonstrated that students who
spend more time early onactively looking for similarities
between writing tasks and areas of existing expertise are
—_ Text 2 then more successful at the writing task (Bloggs, 2014).
This suggests that academic success may be more a
question of good strategy and of building upon experience
rather than underlying 'intelligence'.
^^^^9•1 Core
c research skills
Writing out your references
At the end of your assignment, provide a full list Sample references (see also pages 415-17)
of your references - all the sources to which you A book:
referred within the assignment. Each time you
draw on a source of information in any way to Bailey, P. (1978). Leisure and Class in Victorian
inform your own work, record the details that you England. London: Methuen.
will need for your list of references. See page 179
for a list of the details to include. A chapter in a book:
A number of tools are available free online and to the present'. In Forsas-Scott, H. (ed.).
make it easier to record details for references.
Textual Liberation: European feminist writing
in the twentieth century. London: Routledge.
Mendeley, Zotero, Endnote, Reference
Manager: all allow you to import references A journal article:
from digital sources, databases and pdfs, and
use these to produce your list of references in Jones, C. (1980). 'The welfare of the French
word-processing tools. footsoldier.' History 65 (no. 214), 193-213.
CiteULike: useful for storing articles, adding Material cited within another text, where you have
notes and tagging sources you might wish to not quoted the original source:
cite and reference.
O'Connor, J. and McDermott, I. (1996).
Principles of NLP. London: Thorsons. Cited
in Cottrell, S. M. (201 3). The StudySkills
Conventions in writing references Handbook. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
• Don't number the items.
An electronic reference (include the URL and the
• Begin each source on a new line. date on which you downloaded it):
• List alphabetically, by author's surname.
• If you use more than one work by a given author http://www.foe.co.uk. 6 July 201 3.
and published in the same year, label these a, b,
c ... (201 3a, 201 3b, 201 3c, ...) in the text and
in your References. Bibliographies
• Order information as in the examples here
A bibliography is a list of everything you read for
(author, date, title, location of publisher,
the assignment, whether or not you referred to it
publisher) or as recommended by your tutor.
in your writing. Your tutor may require both. Write
• Italicise titles of books or journals. out using the same conventions as for references.
• Use 'single' quotation marks for the title of an
article within a journal.
• Include every source referred to in your
assignment, including DVDs, TV and online
sources, but not dictionaries or reference books.
• Don't include in your 'References' materials that
you have not used for your assignment.
• List additional sources, which you read but did
not use, in a 'Bibliography'.
mmm
Tools for storing, retrieving and sharing information
• Always make more than one copy, especially • Use to create, store, update and share
of assignments. Loss of material is not usually documents, data, project work and group
accepted as an excuse for handing work in late presentations, free and online anywhere.
and penalties can be harsh. • Share documents with other students in your
• Save to one or more locations: memory sticks, group - and edit them together online from
online storage such as Dropbox, Google Docs or anywhere with an Internet connection.
cloud, as an email attachment, and to your hard • Google Docs lets you see revisions to the
drive. documents made by all users, and to revert to
an earlier version of the document.
• Glance through your notes from the previous up materials information ) you already
class, and look for links with the next one. provided know
online. ^
'5«BH
How helpful are your notes?
w.*mmmm
Review
As a student, you will be required to undertake As you move through your course, it is likely
background work, or research, into the topics you that you will develop further your underlying
are set for assignments. This chapter has looked at skills in reading at speed and with improved
generic skills useful for most academic disciplines. comprehension, being able to focus your
These cover the core processes needed to find and listening, taking more selective notes, identifying
make use of information for academic purposes. key points more quickly, generating your own
data and working with more specialist texts and
The underlying research processes are not
sources. Reading widely will build your expertise
necessarily very different from those you would use
in the knowledge base, concepts and specialist
for everyday purposes. The key differences lie in
vocabulary of the subject.
such considerations as:
• Being able to recognise material that is of Later chapters look at other skills that support the
suitable quality for academic purposes kind of research that you will undertake for student
assignments. These include:
• Knowing where to look for good quality
sources relevant to your subject • using numbers
• Managing very large amounts of material • analysing sources and data using critical analysis
• Using effective search strategies so you can • generating your own data and presenting these
find the right material quickly within the vast • selecting and applying data to meet given
range of sources available assignment briefs
• Generating your own data, such as through • writing up your findings within typical academic
experiments structures such as essays, project reports, case-
• Creating useful notes when reading, from studies and dissertations.
experiments and in taught sessions, that help As you develop such skills and apply them, you will
you to make use of information find that they are mutually reinforcing. The more
• Storing and retrieving information effectively, critical an eye you bring to your resources, the
so you can find it and make sense of it again faster and more adept you will be at recognising
quickly when needed good quality material and selecting exactly what
• Drawing upon material appropriately within you need. The better you are able to manage
your assignments information, the better use you will make of your
• Citing and referencing sources correctly, time and the more you will improve the standard
following recognised conventions. of your academic work.
•L
Core research skills
Chapter 7
Critical analytical thinking
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• understand what is meant by taking a critical or analytical approach
• become more aware of how to use critical and analytical thinking when reading and writing
• develop criteria for evaluating an argument ora line ofreasoning in a piece ofwriting
• develop criteria for evaluating the evidence given in a piece ofwriting
• learn how to identify and draw valid conclusions.
Reading
Critical thinking when reading involves the
following:
1 identifying the line of reasoning in the text
2 critically evaluating the line of reasoning
3 questioning surface appearances and
checking for hidden assumptions or agendas
4 identifying evidence in the text
5 evaluating the evidence according to valid
criteria
6 identifying the writer's conclusions
7 deciding whether the evidence given
supports these conclusions.
Writing
Critical thinking when writing involves 2 checking that body language, eye contact,
comparable processes: and speed and tone of voice are consistent, or
1 being clear on your position on the issue, 'congruent', with what is being said: does the
w including hypotheses and/or conclusions speaker look and sound as though he or she
2 constructing a clear line of reasoning - an believes what he or she is saying?
'argument' leading to your conclusion
These issues have been touched on in earlier
3 presenting evidence to support your
chapters: the following pages explore them in more
reasoning
detail, and include some basic exercises so that you
4 analysing issues from multiple perspectives,
weighing up the evidence for each can try out your critical thinking skills.
5 drawing together information and analyses,
synthesising these to construct your position Critical questions
in the issues
In general, when working in a critical way you
6 writing in a critical, analytical style, rather
will be asking questions such as those below.
than in a descriptive, personal or journalistic
• Why?
style
• How far?
7 reading your own writing critically, as above,
• How much?
as well as your sources.
• How often?
• To what extent?
Listening
• How do we know this is true?
Critical thinking when listening involves the • How reliable is this source?
same awareness as when reading, plus: • What could be going on below the surface?
1 checking for consistency in what the speaker • What do we not know about this?
is saying - does the speaker appear to • Which is preferable?
contradict herself or himself; and if so, what • For what reasons?
is going on beneath that contradiction?
^^^^J Critical
c analytical thinking
Critical thinking when reading
and contributory reason: the rise in the number It is useful to be on the lookout for false premises:
of reported injuries. However, the writer does many arguments are based on weak foundations
not consider other reasons why the number of of this kind.
reported injuries might have increased - such as
whether repetitive strain injury was known about Flawed reasoning
thirty years ago, or whether people were less likely Here are some examples of 'flawed reasoning'.
to report accidents in the past.
Assuming a causal connection
In addition, the writer has not looked at figures
for any other types of injury, or at the health of If two things occur at the same time or place, it is
|^^^^J Critical
Crit analytical thinking
easy to assume either that they must be connected
3 Question surface appearances
or that one must have caused the other. For
example: Critical thinking requires that you examine these
factors:
I revised really well for that exam and got a low
• Is the evidence what it appears to be?
mark, so next time I won't revise and I should
• Might there be other explanations apart from
get a better mark.
the obvious one?
This assumes a connection between revision and • Has all necessary information been given,
failure, without considering other possible reasons or might other details lead to a different
conclusion?
for failure. Similarly:
• Are there interested parties who would gain if
The number of cows in Britain has gone down, the conclusions were accepted?
and the amount of cheese consumed is on the • Are there hidden assumptions or agendas?
increase. Psychologically, people seem to eat • Does the evidence come from a reliable,
more cheese when they feel that it will run out. disinterested source?
:%%m mmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm
Use valid criteria to evaluate
evidence / You look healthy to me,
Critical thinking involves identifying I as your teeth are
valid criteria against which something \. not blue.
can be evaluated.
The following sections give some criteria against from emerging. Consider also how easy it would
which you can evaluate evidence in academic texts be, or would have been, for alternative views to
and for your own research. be printed and circulated. For example, in some
societies, such as sixteenth-century Britain, people
Check the date of the research who spoke, printed or sold certain viewpoints
Data may be out of date or conclusions based could be punished by death or loss of limb.
upon it may have been revised. How would your
Today, it can be difficult for small organisations
attitude to the 'Rochborough Health' article
or individuals to get the funding they need to
change if you found out that it was written in
research and validate an alternative viewpoint.
1300, or 1927, or 201 3?
The overall picture may be distorted if not all the
Check the source of your information evidence has come to light.
Articles in academic or professional journals and Whilst it is not necessary for you to write about
in recommended textbooks are usually based issues of economics, politics and media access in
on in depth research, and are regarded as more every essay, it is important to be aware of who has
reliable than findings recorded in magazines and access to power, resources and information, who
newspapers. Newspapers and magazines may be does not, and the possible implications.
useful primary sources for some subjects such as
cultural studies, but are not generally regarded as Beware the allure of numbers and statistics
'authorities' to quote in essays. It is important to check numerical data, and words
that imply numerical data, as these are often
Check for bias in your sources
misused and amounts misrepresented in order to
Bias may not be obvious, and it does not sway the reader - see Chapter 9, page 219.
necessarily mean that your source was being
'dishonest' or 'prejudiced'. If somebody has Most/many
a strong interest in the survival of a particular Notice words such as 'most' and 'many':
hospital, for example, the evidence they present
may be accurate, yet not the whole story. When Most people said that they preferred
thinking critically, we need to be continually oranges to apples.
questioning in our minds whether there may be
hidden agendas, or reasons why the evidence 'Most' is a very vague amount. If it mattered
appears to point one way rather than another. whether this statement were true or false, we
would need more details. How many people were
It is always worth considering what political or asked? How many preferred oranges? Under what
economic interests might prevent the whole truth circumstances?
or objects used in the research, whether it's an Emotive words The use of words and phrases such
experiment, a survey or whatever. Small samples as 'cruel', 'unfair', 'abuse', 'natural', 'normal',
give very unreliable information. All other things 'commonsense', 'innocent child', 'old', 'little',
being equal, the bigger the sample, the more 'massive', 'unique', 'extremist', 'radical', 'youth',
reliable the data. A thousand participants is often 'new' and even 'final offer' can prompt emotional
taken as a reasonable number for considering responses that may lead the reader away from
statistics to be 'significant'. an accurate appraisal of the evidence presented.
Representativeness The sample should be Emotive images, such as people crying, can be
representative of the overall group being studied. used in a similar way.
If all those asked about fruit preference came from
Seville and made their
living from oranges,
we might not consider You do preferoranges, don't you
- have one, in fact.
them to be either typical V^.
or reliable as a sample.
Similarly, if all those
asked about their preferences were
women, or aged ten, or from the
south of England, it would not
be safe to generalise from them
to the rest of the population. To
make the sample representative, Survey!
researchers aim for a good mix of •fruit
men and women, of different ages,
77-n
backgrounds and interests.
Persuader words These words and phrases draw have been given - the characters, the story, the
you in by appealing to what they claim is evident. atmosphere and the twist to the plot. The implicit
It may be true that what follows is evident, but conclusion is that you too would enjoy this book.
you still need to be on the alert when you see such
words. They include 'surely', 'clearly', 'obviously', Activity 6 Implicit conclusions
'it is evident that', 'it is plain to see that', 'naturally'
and 'of course'. For each of the following short texts:
• Decide whether there is an explicit conclusion
Activity 4 Evaluating the evidence and, if so, say what this is.
• Say what you think the implicit conclusions
Evaluate the evidence given in the would be.
'Rochborough Health' passage, using the 1 You want a plant. You like this one and you
criteria outlined above. (See page 408 for can afford it.
feedback.) 2 The election closed very early, but only
Happy Party voters had been told this would
happen. Happy Party supporters prevented
some opposition party voters from voting.
6 Identify the writer's conclusions
Therefore, the election was unfair.
Conclusions generally come at the end of the piece 3 The tree is dangerous. It is leaning over the
of writing. However, they may also be found at children's playground. It is heavy, rotten and
the beginning of the text or even in the middle. could break at any time.
They are then harder to find and tend to be less
(See page 409 for feedback.)
effective.
|^^^Q Critical
Cri analytical thinking
Example Critical analytical thinking
Consider the ideas discussed in the student essays Now that you have worked through one passage
about Bowlby's influential studies of the 1950s step by step, try analysing Passage 3, 'Children at
(pages 325-7). Bowlby's findings (1951, 1969) Play'. This writer covers issues similar to those in
suggested that infants who were separated from Passage 2, so you can compare the passages.
their mothers at an early age had behavioural
and emotional difficulties later. This was used to Activity 8 Critical analytical thinking
argue the case against mothers working outside
the home. The argument for mothers to stay For Passage 3:
home was no doubt based on genuine concerns • Is the line of reasoning good?
for children's well-being, but the conclusion also • What is the conclusion?
suited the economic conditions of the time, as • How strong is the evidence?
there was a shortage of jobs for men who had • What are the underlying assumptions?
returned from the Second World War (1939-45). • How well do the reasoning and the evidence
support the conclusion?
Later, the conclusion that children were damaged
by absent mothers and child care was heavily (See page 409 for feedback.)
criticised (Clarke and Clarke 1976; Clarke-Stewart
1988; Tizard 1991). For example, it was argued
that Bowlby's data was based on children in
very extreme conditions, such as frightened war Passage 3: Children at Play
orphans and sick children in bleak hospitals and
institutions of the 1950s. These children were Children need to play outdoors and
not typical, and needed to be compared with npl,?maZingh0Wfewchi'dren
average, healthy children attending friendly, well Sm thhoo°oP4PrUnity
7T ****48%A,th0"9h
(2004) argues that of
run nurseries, who saw their mothers every day.
However accurate Bowlby's research may have chrfdrer.prefer to play inside, Jones
been, his findings may not have justified the 0964) found that 98o/o of children in
conclusions drawn from them. It is quite likely B" a-prefer to p.ay outdoors. I pX
that Bowlby was affected by the dominant belief
to some parents in Rochborough who
system of his day, that a woman's place was at
»'dthe,r children missed out by not
home with the children, and that this influenced %%£***«*»"<*«*'£„
roam the countryside in safety. Most
his interpretation of the data. It is also likely that
his opponents were influenced in their research by ch.ldren are now television addicts or
worse^are addicted to computer games
changing ideas such as feminism, or by the rising
number of women in part-time work.
-Vbody WS that this is^ama^
children educationally, and yet nothing
It is quite typical for research to progress in •s done about it. This is certainly true of
this way, with advances being made as later Rochborough's children, and the main
researchers question aspects of earlier research, eason rs that they do not have anXre
such as whether the sample was representative
or whether the research contained assumptions has aga den. It would be better for
which were invisible to the researchers at the time.
the,r health if they played outdoors but
parents say they won't let them un'ess
Activity 7 Use of evidence 3uPerv1Sed play areas are provided The
parents are worried that they canno!see
Do you consider that the evidence in the
'Rochborough Health' passage supports the ^e,rch,,dren when they are'playing
What chance is there for the health of
conclusion drawn? What assumptions are made
in the passage? (See page 409 for feedback.)
^"'•tochbcHoughlftech^do
•jm
Critical analytical thinking
<•*.*
Use the following checklist to analyse a piece of writing that you need to read
for an assignment. You could also use this list to analyse your own writing.
^^^Q Critical
c analytical thinking © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, PalgraveMacmillan
Critical thinking when writing
Critical thinking when writing includes most of the 1 Early drafts help to elaborate and refine
elements of critical thinking you would use when thinking. Your final version should state your
reading. It can be more difficult to analyse your position clearly.
own work critically, however, and to recognise and 2 Create a writing plan that sets out reasons,
admit to your own opinions and bias. examples and evidence in the most logical
order.
Be clear about your position on the issue, 3 Consider how best to link up your material, so
including hypotheses and conclusions that your writing is not just a list of facts but an
Students' writing is often weakened because their organised, well-developed argument.
thinking is not clear before they start to write their 4 Keep your argument clear: including too much
final draft. Time spent in such critical analysis is detail can obscure it. Draw together your
equivalent to 'elaborating the problem' - a process best material and ideas, selecting carefully.
which, as we saw in Chapter 4, was one way in Shape these to support your argument. Use
which those who achieved good marks differed paragraphing, link words and phrasing to
from those with poor marks. signpost points clearly.
• 'More analysis needed.' Skilled writers use descriptive writing in the appropriate
• 'Less description, more critique.' sections of their writing (see Writing the report, page
• 'Too descriptive.' 360), or weave small amounts of descriptive writing
• 'Descriptive rather than analytical.' into their critical writing. Some of the main differences
• 'You have told me what the theory is rather between these two types of writing are outlined in the
than how you evaluate it.' table below.
^^^Q Critical
c analytical thinking
Identifying critical and descriptive writing
Descriptive writing: an example This is critical analytical writing. There is a clear line
of reasoning which takes the reader through what
My name is John. I live at 33 Acacia Drive. I have
the school claimed and the basis of the school's
five sisters and brothers. I am good at team
games, and enjoy football, cricket, and baseball. arguments. The writing then weighs the school's
Team games were encouraged by both my claims against other evidence. It draws upon
parents. All of my family took part in sport. Our published evidence rather than personal opinion. The
teachers at Beckfield School were very interested writer considers both sides of the argument, taking
in sports sciences. We were encouraged to drink account of published evidence that does support the
lots of water to improve our performance. Our importance of drinking water. This research has been
team always did well, so it seems to have worked. weighed against the facts of the case. The writer
I also like to go running. I live in the beautiful draws conclusions: the 'school's claims about the
Welsh borders, so it is a pleasure to take a healthy benefits of tap water... have not been proved.' The
run each day. conclusion is based upon the evidence.
Almost all of this passage consists of statements The passage does contain descriptive writing which
and descriptions. There is an evaluative gives background detail, such as the first four
comment ('our team always did well') and sentences. Although the passage contains many
this is linked to possible reasons (drinking lots statements of fact, such as 'most pupils stated that
of water). However, this link is not analysed they drank less than one glass of tap water a day',
in depth. The passage overall is descriptive. these statements are ordered in such a way that they
Compare this with the passage below. build up the argument. They are also supported
by sentences that introduce the argument, such
Critical analytical writing: an example as 'However, it is not clear that the school's sports
At Beckfield School, teachers took a scientific performance can be attributed to water intake.'
approach to school sports over a ten-year period.
In particular, pupils were encouraged to monitor Activity 9 Descriptive or critical?
their intake of liquids. All pupils were required to
drink a minimum of eight glasses of tap water Identify whether the following passages are
a day. The school did consistently well in sports examples of descriptive or of critical writing.
competitions over this period, and the teachers (Feedback is given on page 410.)
claimed that this was proof of the importance of
liquid intake to good performance. However, it is
not clear that the school's sports performance can
be attributed to water intake. Beckfield School's Passage 1
claims were investigated by an independent In the West, all life forms are divided into one of two
researcher, Martinez (201 3). Martinez argued that categories: plant or animal. Animals move and take
although Beckfield's performance was good, its nfood. Plants are rooted into the earth in some way
performance in competitions was consistent with and lack locomotion. They photosynthes.se the.r food.
what would be expected of a school of its size. Zoologists study animals, and botanists study plants
In addition, interviews with pupils showed that Bacteria were classified as plants because many kinds
most had not followed the school regulations on o bacteria photosynthesise their food. However they
drinking water. Most pupils stated that they drank also have locomotion. Recent research has shown that
less than one glass of tap water a day. Although there is an enormous variety of bacteria. Some are
other research does suggest that water intake able to survive at extreme temperatures and in the
benefits performance (Fredo 2010; Mitsuki 2010), absence of oxygen. Most plants cannot usualty su^ive
Beckfield School's claims about the benefits of tap in those conditions. Therefore, even thoug b^tena
water in its sports success have not been proved. photosynthesise, they are not now regarded as plants.
^^^^9 Critical
Cr analytical thinking
Critical thinking when listening
Critical analytical thinking is an essential skill for In the debates that you encounter as a student, in
most undergraduate and postgraduate study, and the media or at work, be active. Look for strengths
for many courses it is the most important single and weaknesses. Take note of how your tutors and
aspect of study. peers evaluate evidence and theories, and learn
from the way in which they draw on evidence and
As a student, you need to read, listen, write, speak, argue their own case.
think, create and work with increasing critical
awareness. You will be expected to bring a critical This chapter has presented approaches for
approach to every aspect of your study. You will developing your critical skills that build on what
be expected to examine arguments, evidence and you have learnt from earlier chapters. You should
conclusions closely, as well as the links between now feel confident that you have a mental toolkit
these. You will be asked to evaluate other people's that will allow you to approach new material in a
reasoning and evidence, using criteria to guide critical manner and to incorporate critical analysis
you. into your writing.
Tutors often use the terms 'critical analysis' and Ifyou are interested in developing your critical
'analytical writing' interchangeably. Both terms and analytical thinking skills in greater depth, you
refer to the 'detective-like' approach outlined may find it helpful to look at: Stella Cottrell, Critical
on page 188, and to your ability to explain how Thinking Skills: Developing Effective Analysis and
people arrived at different conclusions or results. Argument, 2nd edn (Palgrave Macmillan, 2011).
Memory
Individual memory styles
l^^^KliLM Memory
Check your memory style
book
Memory
Improve your memory
Active listening
Discuss what you're trying to learn with music simple stones jokes/puns humour
friends. Listen to your voice saying or
reading it. Tape yourself. Exaggerate.
Use accents. Be dramatic.
repetition
Writing things down repetition
childhood visual images repetition
In your own words, write things out memories
over and over again.
Invitations competitions
Personalising it to interact
Mr
Using the brain
calculation intuition
reasoning imagination
chemical formulae pattern recognition
visuo-spatial skills
Left brain-right brain you need to link the face (right hemisphere) and
the name (left hemisphere).
The brain is divided into two hemispheres, left
If something in one part of the brain makes
and right. Research into brain damage shows
learning difficult, the brain has a tremendous
that different mental functions are affected
capacity for finding a different route to learning.
depending on which hemisphere is damaged.
This suggests that if something proves difficult to
This understanding led to the idea that each
learn or memorise in one way, there is likely to be
hemisphere is generally associated with particular
a different way your brain could learn it.
thinking and memory styles.
• The two hemispheres are linked by over 200 Many people identify more with either the logical
million nerve fibres (known as the corpus or the Gestalt thinking style. Do you think you are
callosum). more 'left brain' or 'right brain' dominant? You can
• There is a crossover effect: each hemisphere use your preferred style to link information across
controls the opposite side of the body. the hemispheres. This encourages the parts of the
• The body is designed to help the two brain to work better together and makes learning
hemispheres to work together. easier.
Memory
If you have a 'right brain' preference For optimum memory, combine
• Draw a diagram or picture to show how varied different methods
information links up. Whatever your left- or right-brain
• Personalise information - find a way to make it relevant preference, find a way of linking those
to your own life or experience. skills to the skills associated with the
• Use shape and colour to highlight and organise other side. For example, if you are a
information. picture thinker, number and sequence
• Use different colours for different topics. your pictures. Ifyou use lists, then sing
• Sing the information you have to learn. or colour them. 'Left brain' thinkers need
• Move around as you learn - as you do the housework or to ensure they have the whole picture
walk to the bus stop, see if you can recall what you have and can see how everything fits together.
just learnt. 'Right brain' thinkers need to ensure
they appreciate the sequence, order, and
If you have a left brain' preference hierarchy of importance.
• Write out the information by hand.
• Turn the information into lists.
When learning something, combine a
• Number items of information so that the sequence is mixture of memory strategies -
clear. • look at it
• Use headings to break up the information into different • repeat it with rhythm
categories. • write it
• Turn information into flow diagrams so you can see • number it
progression. • give it a shape
• Build up from details until you get the whole picture. • turn it into a diagram
• say it aloud
Locate the information in the brain • sing it
• draw it
Make an experiment. While trying to visualise or recall • colour it
information, first look up and to the left; then do the same • act it out
but looking up and to the right. Also try looking left, then • make it bizarre
right, and then down to each side.
- and use any other device you find useful
Which direction worked best? Does this hold true for from this chapter.
different kinds of information? When you need to recall
something, look first in the direction that is appropriate for
you for that specific kind of information.
The brain is also divided 'top-down' into three However, the neo-cortex is only part of the story:
main areas of activity: reptile brain, limbic system other parts of the triune brain also affect what can
and neo-cortex. McLean (1973, cited in Rose 1985) be learnt and remembered.
referred to this as the 'triune brain'.
The mammalian brain (or limbic system)
The neo-cortex The mammalian brain is located above the brain
The neo-cortex is what people generally think stem, roughly in the middle of the brain, and
of when they speak of 'grey matter' or imagine consists of a number of organs which control
a brain. It controls intellectual processes such functions such as emotions, pleasure, moods,
as language, thinking, and handling numbers. romance, and immunity to disease.
•r^
The reptile brain also affects
study neo-cortex
The triune brain
Memory
Stages of the memory process
Another way of using the brain to improve Stage 2: Retaining information long
memory is to work with the different stages in the enough to remember it
memory process (see page 211).
Rehearsing new information in short-term memory
helps the working memory hold onto it. Repeating
Four stages in the memory process it gives the brain time to call up stored memories
1 Taking in information - noticing or attending to help you make sense of the information and
to information, and absorbing it. encode it for storage.
^ ^ w y Memory
Suggestions for multiple encoding
^^^^Mra Memory
Multiple encoding
'fi TheCoriolis k.
Use auditory memory Effect is the J
• Using a digital recorder, record yourself and then play defection of winds
this recording back. by the Earth's
• Sing an essay plan for a possible exam essay to a well-
known tune. Make a list of which tunes go with each
subject.
• Go over a topic with a real or imaginary friend, or your
(l knew that.)
cat.
• Read notes aloud in peculiar voices. Over-dramatise to
make the notes memorable.
There are many Assign to a topic an object such as a car, and label
views of different bits of the object with the things you need
intelligence to remember: the steering wheel with your main
Futures
Spearman point; the four wheels with four main theorists;
how Individuals
(1927) the doors with examples of practical applications
represent their
One general IQ of the theory; items in the boot could remind
worlds
you of background information or historical
development; and parts of the engine or
objects on the front seat could indicate
future developments.
• To remember complex lists and
formulae, such as accountancy balance
sheets, use a sequence of images, linked
by a story.
• Use scale (size) and visually distinct
images to separate out similar or
Past
confusing material, such as information
labelling
Gardner (1995) Hebb(1949) Thurstone
people
about similar theories. Arrange these in
multiple Inheritance & (1931) a visual hierarchy.
intelligences environment 6 types of
intelligence
ft <i
Q~B EJ H IE Jli l i
Ml
bad OK good excellent best
solution solution solution solution solution
Memory
Multiple encoding
Mr
Memory thrives on organisation!
2 Recite a nursery rhyme (to prevent rehearsal). plum elbow giraffe caravan
1 3 Write down the words you remember. puppy banana foot apple
1 4 Check List A and jot down your score.
pony cherry barge bungalow
• •
You probably remembered many more items from By contrast, a second group of people were given
List B. List B is more memorable because: the same words, also arranged into pyramid
• grouping similar items together helps recall shapes, but this time with the words randomly
• using group headings helps recall assigned to each pyramid - they were not
meaningfully (or semantically) linked. The second
• being able to see that there are only four types
group remembered only 47% of the words by the
of information gives the task manageable
third attempt.
boundaries
• many of the items on List B were also in List A -
and going over information again helps recall.
Memory
ml
Pyramids, pattern notes and pictures
Some people prefer to organise information as pyramids. You may wish to rework only some parts
pattern notes or other images. Combining pattern of the pattern into concept pyramids, and then to
notes, concept pyramids and pictures can give an stick these pyramids back onto the original pattern
even greater boost to your powers of recall. with glue or Blu-Tack®. There is scope for all kinds
of imaginative adaptations.
Pattern notes and pyramids
Pattern notes can be as big as you want - just keep
Pattern notes work best when generating ideas adding and linking information.
and for recalling information from memory. Well
organised pattern notes are easier to remember. Pictures and pattern notes
• Let your imagination wander when you make • You can select any image to anchor your
the initial pattern. Let the ideas flow (page 173). memory - like the car suggested on page 21 3.
• Ifthe initial pattern shows no clear hierarchy of • Associate each part of the picture with one
ideas, reorganise the words to fit into a concept aspect of the topic you wish to remember.
pyramid. This may take some time, but it • You can incorporate images into patterns and
clarifies your thinking (see Chapter 11). pyramids. Draw them, or cut images out of
• Colour-code the different levels of the hierarchy. magazines and stick them on.
For example: • Add small pictures to increase your interaction
- red for main headings with the material and to make it more visually
- pink for less important headings memorable. The better, brighter, odder, and
- yellow and orange for intermediate-level more exaggerated the pictures, the more
information memorable the pattern.
- dark green for key evidence, and light green
for details about evidence
The example below develops one section of
- dark blue for specific examples, and light the pattern notes on page 173. The initial ideas
blue for details about examples have been reorganised into a concept pyramid.
- violet for references (names and dates). Reworking your ideas in this way clarifies the
• Draw rings, boxes or other shapes around relationship between different ideas, and sorts
crucial information, so that it stands out. them into groups and sequences. It can also
highlight gaps in your thinking, and suggest
You may find it helpful to build new ideas.
up pattern notes as a series
of concept pyramids, or
to work back and
forth between a
pattern and
J^^^^^^S Memory
'Chunking' information
Memory
Review
r What do we remember?
Flanagan (1997) argues that we remember:
Memory is an active process. There are
innumerable ways of enhancing it: if one doesn't
work, try another approach which might suit
• 20% of what we read you better. Work with your own learning style
• 30% of what we hear and memory preferences to try out new ways of
• 40% of what we see remembering things. Creativity and imagination
• 50% of what we say are essential ingredients. To remember well, it
helps if you are relaxed, if you have fun with the
• 60% of what we do
memory process, and ifyou play with information
and until you find a helpful mnemonic. Be aware that
• 90% of what we read, hear, see, say and do. what works for one kind of information might not
These are clearly not scientific figures, but they work for another - some trial and error is involved.
suggest the importance of interaction with the
material and of using all your senses. This chapter You can enhance your memory by using your
has aimed to give you ideas on how to work brain fully. Be aware of your 'left brain'/'right
towards that 90% - or better. Participants in brain' preference, the action of the three parts
Bower's research (see page 215) were able to gain of your triune brain, and the different stages of
100% recall, and that was without multi-sensory the memory process. The way you encode and
involvement. By combining all of these strategies, organise information is particularly important.
you can greatly enhance your memory potential.
Take charge of your conscious memories. You may
achieve remarkable improvements!
•r
Chapter 9
Confidence with numbers
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• build your confidence in using numbers
• identify the kinds of number-related activities you are most likely to need at university
• recognise and understand the technical terms used in number-related study
• understand how to use fractions and percentages
• calculate three kinds of averages (modes, medians and means) and five-number spreads
• round numbers up or down
• understand the basics of interpreting data in graphs, tables and charts.
Most subjects at university involve using numbers • You are not alone!
- it isn't only science and maths subjects that • For most subjects, even a little knowledge about
require you to analyse and present data, and to using numbers goes a long way.
perform numerical operations.
• Often universities recognise that students may
Many students feel uncertain about their abilities have difficulties with number skills and provide
in working with numbers. They may struggle to additional support.
remember what they learned at school about • The topics in this chapter cover the basic
'percentages' and 'averages', or feel perplexed number skills required for most study
about terms such as 'mode', 'median', or programmes.
'quartile'. Ifyou don't feel
confident with numbers,
it may be tempting to
skim quickly over texts
that contain figures, data
or mathematical terms,
hoping that you can avoid
thinking about them.
Gaps in basic numerical
skills can make study seem
unnecessarily daunting. If
numbers worry you, then
it may be reassuring to
know:
What kind of number work is necessary? statements: '75% of students from the University
of Aremia are employed part-time'; 'Almost 40%
The amount, level and type of numerical work all
of students at Exford work part-time in bar work or
vary with the study programme, course or unit.
sales.'
Simply through practice during your programme
you will probably become used to working with Note here that the accompanying words help
numbers as required. to define the context and the meaning of the
numbers. Your presentation needs to show this
combination - the right numbers and the right
What do Ineed to be able to do? words to explain them.
Find out whether you will need to do each Subjects that require specialist skills
of the following. Tick those that apply.
Some subjects require specific statistical methods
• Make sense of numerical information in or other specialist knowledge: if so, these are
texts, charts, graphs and tables. usually taught as part of the programme. If you
• Recognise what is significant, relevant, find that you are struggling, ask your tutors for
valid or misleading about number- additional support or set up a student group to
based information. practise the numerical work together.
• Collect information for projects, reports
and other assignments. Areas I want to improve
• Calculate averages and percentages. pages
• Use fractions. D Building confidence with
• Identify numerical trends. numbers 221-2
• Present findings from experiments, • Managing distrust of numbers 223-4
surveys, questionnaires or research D Working with fractions 225-7
projects. U Understanding percentages 228
• Use specialist statistical software. U Converting fractions to
• Attend training or workshops for any of percentages 229
the above provided by your college. • Rounding up and down 230
U Understanding averages 231
U Calculating averages: means 232
How do numbers add value? LJ Calculating averages: medians 233
When you are making an argument, you can U Calculating averages: modes 234
generally make a better case if you can present U Making five-number summaries 235
numerical data that support what you are saying. A
numerical table, for example, may sum up a great
• Using graphs, tables and charts 237-40
deal of information concisely and clearly, saving • Collecting and presenting data 351-6
you thousands of words. The numbers you present • Analysing numbers critically 191-3
must be accurate and well selected, and it should be
Mypriority areas are:
clear why you have included them.
For example, 'Many students have jobs' is vague -
it could be interpreted in different ways. Compare
this vague statement with two precise numerical
^^^^9 Coi
Confidence with numbers
Build your confidence with numbers
1 I don't understand
numbers at all •
A lot of basic number work is actually
quite easy if you just follow a set of
steps in sequence. Easy-to-use tools
can also help. Maths may seem
mysterious, but if you learn the steps
and follow them exactly, you will
get the right answer. The more you
understand what you are doing,
however, the more confident you will
feel and the likelier you will be to spot subtracting, multiplying or dividing. The secret
an answer that doesn't look right. is to check back carefully over your maths, just
as you proof-read written work.
Don't over-complicate your thinking. Most maths The more you practise, the more you will notice
that you will need will build on a few simple the kinds of mistakes you are most likely to
basics such as adding, subtracting, multiplying or make. You can then check for those in particular.
dividing. It is highly likely that you can do such If you are better with words than numbers, write
calculations, even if you do occasionally make out instructions in a way that makes sense to
mistakes. you.
Set out the sequence of 'how to do it' for each
2 I make too many little mistakes • operation. Using a layout that you can easily
follow:
• It is easy to make minor errors - don't let this - write only one step per line
discourage you. - leave space between steps
• Many mistakes happen simply by missing a step - highlight key points in colour.
from the correct sequence, or in basic adding,
(S3'
you know about it and whether it suits
your purpose.
'SB*H
Questioning numbers and statistics
Do numbers provide proof? survey ten years ago, you would probably wonder
whether current customers are satisfied.
Numbers may appear to be convincing, but they
may not be as reliable as they seem. When using Remember, too, that it takes time to collect,
any set of data, be objective and critical. Consider: analyse and publish data: some are out of date
• Do these data measure what they purport to even before they are published.
measure?
• Are they likely to be accurate? What was actually measured?
• Could they contain errors or misprints? Historical data need to be treated with caution.
• How were they collected? Might this have led to During some historical periods, whole sections of
mistakes or inaccuracies? populations were simply ignored when making
• Who wanted them collected? Why? counts. For example, the number of casualties
typically cited for the Great Earthquake of San
• When were they collected? Are they up to date?
Francisco in 1906 omits the Chinese casualties,
If not, does that matter?
even though the Chinese population at the time
• Are they representative? Or do they refer was significant. For much of history, only the views
only to particular sets of people or particular of people regarded as 'important' were counted:
circumstances?
we cannot know what 'most people' thought if
• Do they cover exactly what you are looking for? they were not allowed to vote or to register their
Do they throw useful light on the issue you are opinions.
investigating?
What kind of 'sample' was used?
Are the data based on estimates?
We are often presented with claims about the
Some data are based not on actual counting but average number of televisions in each home, how
on estimates. For example, a newspaper report the average voter will vote in the next election, or
of the size of a crowd at a public demonstration what proportion of pets prefer a particular food.
may be no more than an 'informed' guess. The Such figures do not measure every home, every
estimates made by the organisers and by the voter or every pet - that would take too long
police may differ - and neither may be correct. and be too expensive. Instead, a sample is taken,
much smaller than the whole population, and is
Are the data likely to change? treated as if it were representative of the whole.
For the result to be reliable, the sample must
Estimates may change rapidly or over time.
be big enough to be a fair representation of the
For example, the first estimate of casualties
population - if not, claims about proportions or
immediately following a disaster may differ from
rising or falling trends will be unreliable.
estimates made later as more accurate information
becomes available. Data about the overall
impact of the disaster may change as long-term What kind of 'averaging' was used?
consequences, such as environmental effects, Different kinds of average may throw a different
gradually become apparent. light on an issue. Which sort is being used? Is it
appropriate? (See pages 231-4.)
Are the data still up to date?
Check whether there is a later or an earlier set
of data that is more accurate or with which you For more about examining data critically, see
can compare the current data. For example, if a Critical analytical thinking, pages 191-3.
shop claims that it won a 'Customer Satisfaction'
In maths, a fraction, represents one of a number The top number or numerator, such as the 3 in
of equal parts of a complete unit. Thus a fraction %, represents the proportion of the equal parts
could be a part of a price, a time, a width, a group into which the whole is divided.
('set'), or any other unit.
The language of fractions is straightforward. For The set of stars below consists of 28 items. They
example, if you cut a cake into 8 equal slices, each are divided into 7 equal parts, or fractions: each
slice would be one eighth. If instead you divided line represents Vi of the total. The shaded area
it into 6 equal parts, each part would be a sixth. covers 3 of those 7 parts, or 3/7.
Ifyou shared it out in 20 equal slices, then each
piece would be a twentieth of the whole cake. If
you then ate 3 of those 20 equal pieces, you would Example: fractions of 28
have eaten three-twentieths. Ifyou gave a friend 2 A set of 28 items divided into 7 equal parts
of 5 equal slices of the cake, you would have given consists of 7 groups, each of 4 items. With
two-fifths.
the items laid out as below, you can see the
relationship between the total set and the set
divided into sevenths.
i ** • *
2 • * * •
3
4
One-tenth 5
(1/io) of the 6 * * * *
cake 7 • • *
As you can see, Vi of 28 items is 4 items.
3/7 of 28 items is 3 x 4 items = 12 items. To
check this, count the items.
1/s * * • 1/12**
Va * • * 1/6 • • • •
1/3 • • • * 1/12**
•••
y2 • • • • *•** 1/8 * * *
1/12**
•••• Ve * • * •
1/12**
*•*• 1/8 • • •
1 •*•* Va ***
1/12**
•••• **• 1/6 • • * •
Vs • * * 1/12**
•••• Vz • • • *
••*• •*•• 1/12**
1/8 * * •
**•• 1/4 • • * 1/6 * * • •
1/12**
***• ***
1/2 • • * • 1/8 • • • 1/l2**
• ••• 1/6 • • • •
1/3 • • • • 1/12**
• ••• Va ***
•**•
Va * • *
1/12**
• •* 1/6 * * • •
1/8 • • • 1/12**
Comparing equivalent fractions the proportion, multiply the top number (the
numerator) by the same number as the bottom
The chart above shows equivalent fractions. By
number (the denominator) in that fraction:
tracking across, you can count, for example, how
many one-twelfths are equivalent to two-thirds. • For Va: To get 36 at the bottom, you multiply 4
• The height of each column is divided so that you by 9, so multiply the top,1, by 9 also. The result
can compare fractions visually. is %e (that is: Va = %6).
• The items in each column add up to the same • For %: To get 36 at the bottom, you multiply 9
total number (24), so you can also count out the by 4, so multiply the top, 2, by 4 also. The result
relative proportions. is %6 (that is: % = %6).
m
Using fractions
*4§m
Understanding percentages
Reliability
The reliability of percentages depends on the
sample size: see page 193.
^oood^
--i
75% remaining 25% gone amount (two cakes) amount (two cakes)
Strings of digits can be hard to read and to work • The digit in the first decimal place is 7.
with. 'Rounding' makes them easier to manage. • If the digit immediately to the right of the 7 (in
the first decimal place) is 4 or less, round down-
Whole numbers remove everything following that decimal place.
Here the digit in the next decimal place is a 4,
A whole number is one with no fractions or so round down, removing the 4 and the 8, and
decimal points attached to it, such as 75 or 921. leaving 986.7.
When you convert a fraction into a decimal, there 7b round 756.483921 to two decimal places
may be more digits after the decimal point than The digit immediately to the right of the second
are useful. This is where 'rounding' helps. decimal place is 3. For '4 or less, round down'. As
3 is less than 4, round down: 756.48.
Rounding money
To round 756.486111 to 2 decimal places
You may be used to 'rounding up' or 'rounding The digit immediately to the right of the second
down' when using money, rounding to the nearest decimal place is 6. For '5 or more, round up'. As
pound, dollar, Euro, or other unit of currency. 6 is more than 5, round up: the 8 in the second
Forexample, ifyou owed a friend 4 Euros and 75 decimal place increases to 9, giving 756.49.
cents, you might 'round up' and repay 5 Euros,
telling your friend to keep the change. Similarly, if Activity Rounding numbers
you owed 4 Euros and 10 cents, your friend might
'round down' and accept just 4 Euros. Round these numbers to one decimal place.
a 41.34675 d 99.88 g 66.55
Rounding numbers b 912.172 e 1.714 h 6.10987
c 22.222 f 10.08
Example: rounding down 986.748
Rounding numbers follows the same principle as Answers are given on page 412.
rounding money. To round 986.748 to just its first
decimal place:
Averages
One way to deal with this is to use a single number Calculating averages
that in some way summarises or represents the set
The three averages are not all the same. For
of numbers. It needs in some way to be typical of
instance, for the list of numbers already given -
the set. It needs to be an average number.
3,2,5,41,1, 76, 1,97,3,1
• An average would help us work more efficiently
with large sets of numbers. - the mean is 23, the median is 3, and the mode
• It would help us spot patterns and trends. is 1. All three averages might be useful in different
contexts.
• It would help us compare numbers more easily.
The following pages look at how to calculate these
three commonly used representative averages.
Most people, when they refer to an 'average This set of numbers records the number of US
number', are talking about the 'mean' number. dollars held by each of 6 tourists:
This is the method you would use to find out how $34, $31, $200, $11, $19, $88
to distribute money, objects, time or other items
into equal shares or amounts. To find the mean for this set:
'23' might seem a strange number to consider f 23, 36, 42, 56, 57, 58, 59, 59, 59, 69, 69
as 'representative' - most vehicles carried far
Answers are given on page 412.
fewer passengers, and 7 of the 10 vehicles each
carried only 1-5 passengers. Nevertheless, this
figure could still provide a point of reference when
comparing overall information about volume
of movement from one place to another, or at
different times.
What is the median? median is the number that falls in the middle. For
11 numbers, the middle is the 6th place. The 6th
The median is the mid-way point in a set of value, the median, is 58.
numbers that have been put in order of increasing
size. Example 2: even number of items
Here is another set of exam scores:
Calculating the median 36, 42, 56, 57, 58, 60, 61, 69, 69, 70
1 Lay out the numbers in the set in order,
from smallest to largest.
Here there are 10 scores in the set, and again they
have been laid out in order from lowest to highest.
2 The median is the middle value. The way of For 10 numbers, there is no single middle value.
calculating this place depends on whether
there is an odd or an even number of items
• The two middle numbers (5th and 6th places)
are 58 and 60.
in the set.
• 58 + 60 = 118.
Odd number of items Find the middle item
in the ordered list: this value is the median. • The median is 118/2 = 59 (59 is the mean of the
two middle values).
Even number of items Find the middle two
items in the ordered list. Add them together
and divide by 2: this value is the median. Activity Calculating the mean
wmmm
Calculating averages: the mode ('most frequent')
23, 36, 42, 56, 57, 58, 59, 59, 59, 69, 99 • Would a different method of calculating the
average give a different outcome? (It might,
• In this set, the mode - the number that occurs
depending on the numbers involved.)
most frequently - is 59.
• When averages are compared in an article or
• The median - the number that falls in the
report, were these averages calculated using the
middle place - is 58 (calculated on page 233). same method, whether mean, mode or median?
• The mean - calculated by adding all of the items
(Each average might be higher or lower,
in the set (61 7) and dividing the sum by the
depending on the method used.)
number of items in the set (11) - is 56.
These are all accurate statistics, but they do Activity Calculating averages
not match. This is one reason why 'statistics'
sometimes seem to 'lie'. As arguments are often Find the mean, median and mode for the
based on comparisons of averages, it is important following numbers. Consider how extreme
to know:
values (unusually small or large numbers) affect
each average.
• What was included in the data set? (For
a 1,1,1,3,3,4,7,7,10
example, were all the exam scores included, or b 28,14,21,28,26,62
were any omitted?) c 19, 1 70, 1 7, 19, 19, 16, 20
• Which method of calculating the average was
Answers are given on page 412.
used? Is this kind of average suitable?
m:
Five-number summaries and quartiles
Ifyou know just an average number for a set and First the numbers in the set are put in sequence,
nothing else, you cannot tell anything about the from the smallest to largest. Then five numbers can
distribution of numbers in the set, and whether be recorded:
it is in any way unusual. Are the data reliable, or 1 Minimum number The first in the sequence.
might they be distorted or unrepresentative in
2 Maximum number The last in the sequence.
some way? Can they be used as they are or do
they need further investigation? 3 Median The mid-point of the sequence.
4 Lower quartile (LQ) The value one-quarter of
The effect of extreme values the way along the sequence.
Suppose, for instance, that in a group of 12 5 Upper quartile (HQ) The value three-quarters
students (a small sample), 11 students received of the way along the sequence.
exam marks of 64% and 1 student received just
3%. You might expect the average mark for the Summaries and averages
whole group to be 64% - after all, that is what all The table below shows a five-number summary.
but one of the students received. Ifthe average Consider this information compared with that
used was the mode, it would be 64%. If the
provided by averages. It may help to note that:
average used was the mean, however, it would be
around 59%.
• The mean for the marks, by calculation, is
47.29%. The mode is 70%.
The single mark of 3% in this set is an 'extreme • The mean is brought down by the 2 extreme
value': it skews the results for the set as a whole. values, 2% and 3%. It would otherwise have
When data sets are small, or when means are used, been 51.36% (11 30/22).
extreme values can be quite misleading. In larger • Without the 2 lowest and 2 highest scores, the
samples, extreme values have less impact. mean is 49.5% (990/20).
Examples of five-number summaries The five-number summary thus gives a better 'feel'
for the whole set of numbers. When you have
large sets of numbers, such a summary can be very
Class A
useful.
For Class A, a set of 11 exam scores is:
23, 36, 42, 56, 57, 58, 59, 59, 59, 69, 99 Presenting five-number summaries
The five-number summary for this set would be: Five-number summaries can be used to compare
two or more sets of data. The numbers can be
1 Minimum number 23
presented in table form so that the equivalent
2 Lower quartile: LQ (3rd score) 42
numbers can be compared easily. For example,
3 Median number 58
the two exam scores for Classes A and B would be
4 Upper quartile: UQ (9th score) 59
presented as below.
5 Maximum number 99
7, 27, 27, 27, 55, 55, 64, 65, Scores Class A Class B
66,66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 78 Minimum number 23 7
The five-number summary for the set would be: Lower quartile (LQ) 42 27
Median number 58 65.5
Minimum number 7
Upper quartile (UQ) 59 68
Lower quartile: LQ (4th score) 27
Maximum number 99 78
Median number (mean of 65 and 66) 65.5
Upper quartile: UQ (12th score) 68
Maximum number 78
The table below provides raw data for two student groups, A and B, with names,
courses and test scoresfor 24 students. Examine the data to see what it tells you. For
example, at first view, which course seems most popular?Which group does best in
the test? Are these interpretations reliable?
Data set: 24 students' test scores, by subject and group (Aremia University, 2013)
A set of only 24 students is unlikely to be that group there are 12 students, so the mean
representative of a large university population. You score is 734/12 = 61 marks. The total marks for
probably noticed that the most popular course Group B is 628: the mean score is 628/12 = 52
overall is Geology, selected by 6 of the 24 students marks.
(25% or a Vi of students). Unless this is a specialist
This is a big difference between the two groups. To
university, it is unlikely that a quarter of the
interpret this data, you would need to know more.
students all study one subject.
For example:
Ifwe looked only at the data for Group B, it would • How were these two groups selected?
seem that Film was the most popular course and
• How do marks for these groups compare with
as if nobody studied Geology. Each group shows
those for the university overall?
considerable variation in subject choice. With only
one or two students taking each subject, in most • Does the high number of geologists in Group A
distort the data?
cases, the sample size is too small for us to make
generalisations about subject popularity. • Are there other particular differences between
the two groups, such as the proportions of
This data on programme choices is unstable - if men and women or the proportion in part-time
we were to add data about additional groups, it is employment? Do these differences affect group
likely that the proportions who had chosen each marks?
subject would change.
You would also want to know what was being
The mean test score overall for each group would tested. For example, if the test were in geology, we
allow one comparison between the groups. The would expect the geologists' scores to be higher!
total number of marks for Group A is 734 and in
Tables, graphs and charts can be used to present Pie charts are useful in indicating the relative
two or more sets of information in a way that
proportions of the various components that
makes it easier to see how one set of information
make up a whole. They cannot provide statistical
relates to the other, to find patterns and trends,
precision, however.
and to draw comparisons.
Consider the information about recruitment to
two groups on different programmes (page 239).
Bar charts
The pie charts below compare the data for the 24
Bar charts contain less detail than tables, but students with data for the university as a whole.
summarise data in a way that makes it easier to
Distribution of students by subject, 2012-13
read.
Average A number that is in some way 'typical' Numerator The top number in a fraction (see
of a group of numbers, and that can be used pages 225-6).
to 'represent' them. What is meant by 'typical'
Percentage The number of occurrences in each
depends on the context, and three kinds of
100 instances. For example, suppose 25 out
average are commonly used: mean, mode and
of every 50 people are able to swim. The same
median. (See below and pages 231-4.)
proportion can be given as 50 people in each
Data 'Data' is the plural of the Latin word datum group of 100 people: '50 per cent' or '50%'.
(meaning 'something given'). Data are facts, (Calculation of percentages is explained on page
observations and measurements; collectively 229.)
data provide information. Numerical data are Prime numbers Numbers that, without resulting
collected by sorting, measuring and counting. in a fraction, can be divided only by themselves
For example, measurements of people's heights or by the number 1. For example, the number
and weights, or of sales or industrial production, 7 can be divided only by 1 or by 7 - division by
or even of conditions on Mars, all provide any other number gives a fraction. The same is
numerical data.
true of 3, 5, 11, 1 3, 1 7, etc.
Data set A complete collection of information Qualitative data Information that comprises
on a particular topic. For example, all the data subjective descriptions rather than objective
collected in a survey of transport in London, measurements. For example, a survey of pets
Zagreb or Jakarta would together provide the might record owners' reasons for choosing a
data set for that survey. particular animal, and how they feel about their
pet. (See page 312.)
Denominator The bottom number in a fraction
(see pages 225-6). Quantitative data Information that comprises
objective measurements rather than subjective
Elements The basic categories of data used descriptions. For example, a survey of pets
for collection, counting and analysis, such
might count the number of each kind of animal,
as 'Income', 'Pieces of broken pottery', and the annual cost of keeping it. (See page
'Respondents to the survey about font styles'. 312.)
Extreme values Numbers that are much lower Raw data The basic information as collected, with
or much higher than the rest of the set. For no interpretation. (See page 239.)
instance, in the set 16, 55, 56, 56, 56, 57, 59,
61, 61, 63, 64, 68, 88, the numbers 16 and 88
Rounding 'up' or 'down' Replacing a number with
would be 'extreme values'.
a simpler number that is no longer as accurate
but is easier to work with. (See page 230.)
Mean The middle point of a sequence. This is
Statistics Sets of data, and techniques for working
the usual meaning of the word 'average' in
with them. (See page 223.)
everyday conversation. (Calculation of the mean
is explained on page 232.) Variables The aspects of the elements (or
countable items) that may differ from one item
Median The middle number in a sequence: one or group to another. For example, a shopping
way of expressing an average. (Calculation of survey might consider the kinds of product
the median is explained on page 233.) bought, the quantity of each, the number of
Mode The number in a set that occurs most often: shopping trips each week, the amount spent,
one way of expressing an average. (Calculation the age and gender of the shopper, and so on.
of the mode is explained on page 234.) Vulgar fraction Another name for a fraction (see
page 225).
This chapter has provided information about, - work systematically through a sequence
and practice in, several aspects of working of steps or rules for working out the right
with numbers. The areas covered - such as answer
j^^^Q Co
Confidence with numbers
Part C
People skills
Although 'people skills' may not seem to be an Depending on your course, you may need to
obvious study skill, on most courses you will be demonstrate good communication skills in
expected to interact with others as an integral listening and in making your point, to be able
part of the learning experience. This can be to give and receive criticism, and to take part
true of both distance learning courses as well as in group tasks in class or for group projects. In
those based on campus or in the workplace. some instances, your input to the group, or to
group outcomes, may contribute to your overall
As academic work in Higher Education is marks and grades.
developed within a learning community, you
need to understand how to work alongside This section covers, in brief, a range of people
others, to give and receive support and share skills that will help you as a student. These
ideas whilst also maintaining the academic range from in-class participation through to
integrity of your own work. As a student, you skills needed for specific tasks such as making
will benefit from understanding how groups presentations and managing group projects.
work, and how you can play an effective role as
a team member.
People skills
m
Chapter 10
Working with others
Collaborative study
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• consider the advantages of working with others
• develop your communication skills
• build your confidence in participating in discussion groups and seminars
• understand what makes groups work and how to be an effective team member
• develop strategies for particular aspects of collaborative study, such as peer support, offering
constructive feedback, contributing to seminars and group projects, and making presentations.
;^mmm
Studying collaboratively
Contexts
j^^^ffi Working
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Collaborative working: what students say
"*$SS|
: 'n not
leadership sKUis
groupworkdiffere^ _
The thing that used to annoy me about collaborative working
was people not pulling their weight. I have learned that right
atthe start, you need to spell out the ground rules, who is
doing what, and what will happen if someone doesn't do what
is agreed. If you do that, then you can get areally good
group going.
Which of the above skills would it be helpful for you to develop further?
Working with others © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
Making a group work
mimwmm
Making a group work
Record-keeper or secretary
The record-keeper notes who is going
to do what and when, and any other
decisions made.
During After
• Check that everyone can see and hear • Go over your notes and summarise them. Add
everyone else. any new details and thoughts.
• Be open to hearing something new. • Check that you know exactly when you will do
• Jot down useful information. activities arising out of the group. Are they in
your diary?
L
sniffing, snorting or fidgeting
D Some of these techniques may help:
• consider the speakers' feelings
• find ways of encouraging them
• focus on the content - think of some way this
could be of value to you
• listen for key words and jot them down
• think of a question you could ask (when they
have finished speaking)
• link what they are saying to something you
xB
already know
• find one positive comment you could
contribute.
j^^^^9 W
Working with others
Speaking up
When strong emotions are expressed, people may Silences often seem longer than they really are.
feel nervous - yet these emotions are often honest This is because we so rarely experience silence.
expressions of what someone is feeling. Silence can be very productive, however. Sit with
it and value it, especially if the group needs to
Emotions arising from strong opinions discuss something of weight. Don't feel obliged to
A strong attack on somebody's views can be fill silences with questions or jokes.
distressing; people often identify themselves with
their own opinions. If you reject the opinion, the Dead-ends
person may feel rejected. The group may need a If silences suggest stagnation or stalemate, try a
ground rule that opinions can be challenged, but new approach.
not the person who holds them. • Think of several different ways to break the task
into smaller parts.
Emotions arising from group problems • Is there a way of turning the problem on its
If the emotion arises out of the group not working head?
properly, then address how the working of the • Brainstorm ideas - might one work?
group could be improved.
For example, it might be that some people feel Imbalances in group interaction
their views are ignored. What would make them
feel they were being heard? Would that be Group discussions can easily become unbalanced
realistic? Can a compromise be found? if:
WL
Giving and receiving feedback and criticism
h-"#pn mm
Being fair to everyone in the group
When groups don't act fairly towards all members, everyone Reflection: Experience of
loses out. The group isn't working to the best potential of the unfair treatment
whole team. Individuals may experience stress, or ill health,
and be unable to contribute to the best of their abilities. It
Think about an occasion when
can also produce tensions and anger, which affect the study you were treated unfairly, because
of everybody in a group or on a course. of somebody else's attitudes.
For example, can you recall an
Avoiding unintentional unfairness occasion when you were blamed for
Some people set out to hurt others deliberately, but a great something you did not do, or when
deal of unfairness and discrimination is unintentional, caused people tried to embarrass you for no
by thoughtlessness, awkwardness or not being aware of the good reason?
issues. Many people are concerned to find out they have
What were your feelings and attitudes
unintentionally caused distress to somebody else.
then?
^^^^9 Working
w with others
Study groups
Q Comment on each other's blogs. n Share essays once these have all been marked.
[Zl Let others know what they do well. If you What differences do you notice?
appreciated a particular contribution, tell
them!
Action Learning approaches to study
Befriend each other • Give one person, 'person A', 5 minutes to
Simply listening to each other can be very describe a current study problem while the rest
helpful - don't underestimate its value. of the group listen without interrupting.
• As a group, spend ten minutes clarifying the
[U Meet up for coffee, suggest a group goes issues. Brainstorm ideas for dealing with the
out for a meal, or organise a social event
problem, whilst A listens without interrupting.
such as a trip.
• Person A has 5 minutes to use the suggestions
[Zl Befriend each other on social networking to identify action to take, set a timescale for
sites. Send supportive texts or tweets. doing this, and negotiate support from the
Leave comments in group members' social group.
networking accounts. • Repeat the process for each group member. At
C] Set up a support group, chat room, or the next meeting, check that you all carried out
discussion board for students in your your actions, and set new ones.
subject, year, college or club, or for mature • See Beaty and McGill (2001).
students, work-based students, or for those
studying on a particular project.
Some kinds of work can be shared with other group's assignments. If someone copies your
people, whereas sharing other activities would be work and hands it in as their own, you may also
considered cheating. Below are be held responsible.
some guidelines. Ifyou are in M • Always write your own references. Mistakes
any doubt, however, always easily creep into references, and tutors are
check with your tutors. usually good at detecting copied errors.
j^^^^fl Working
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Communicating as a group
Page 250 looked at the roles typical of face-to- • 'Lurking' (reading messages but not
face groups. For online discussion groups, it can contributing)
also be useful for a group member to have the • 'Small talk' and socialising
role of 'moderator' to facilitate interactions, such • Making personal comments
as the following.
• Showing respect towards other
Set up the group participants
• Set up the chat room or discussion board. • Unacceptable behaviours such as
• Let group members know that it is there. aggression, belittling, flaming, trolling
• Invite the group to set ground rules and to and cyber bullying
decide actions to take if these are not followed. • Managing disagreements
Help generate discussion D Spelling, grammar and use of 'text-
• Stimulate debate by asking key questions, speak'
making comments or offering useful prompts. • Other netiquette and security (e.g.
• Summarise the discussion so far.
protecting each others' online identities;
• Respond to comments. agreeing who has access to the group s
• Bring out links between contributions. personal information and project
• Encourage new discussion threads. materials; keeping anti-virus software up
to date if sharing files).
Keep it live Other:
Archive material that is not in use.
Allocate tasks to group members.
Check that ground rules are being followed.
nim
Group projects
^^^^S Working
\A with others
Managing a group project
*wt**smmm%^&^
) Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan Working with others
Managing your group project
^v/
Project name
Project team
Name Phone Email
Tutors
Project communications
Email address Chat room address
Other Other
Project Manager
Project brief
j^^^S vWorking with others © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Project outputs
Project outputs (e.g.
project website,
reports, posters,
leaflets, presentations)
10
Project timetable
Task Details By whom Deadline
© StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Working with others
End of project: date
Group presentation
Order of presenting Material to present
j^^^ffl Working
w with others © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
Making a presentation or giving a talk
:?:i:fe^-^^^
What is the purpose of a presentation?
The postcard technique
Students are often asked to give presentations,
alone or in groups, in order to: • Break your talk into sections.
• start off class discussion • Give each section a heading.
• produce a variety of perspectives • Write one heading, and a few easily-read
prompt words, onto each card.
• give opportunities to those who are stronger
• Number the cards in the order that you want
• develop a skill required in many occupations.
to introduce those points.
How are presentations assessed? • These will give you confidence that you have
structure and content for your talk.
Find out from your tutors which criteria will
be used. In general, the important feature of a
presentation is that you have an audience - and
you need to communicate information to them. Using audiovisual aids
This means that the talk should be very focused on
audience needs. Group presentations should be Slide presentations
well coordinated with everyone contributing. Ifyou use PowerPoint® or similar software:
• Make a few main points. Don't swamp the • Use large text: at least 28-point.
audience with everything you know. • Introduce new slides from the same direction.
• Select a few concrete examples which are easy • Use only one PowerPoint® slide for every 2-3
for the audience to visualise. minutes of the talk.
• Structure the talk very clearly, using just a few • Avoid animations, sound effects and flashy
headings. Know who is presenting points, for graphics, unless these are really essential.
how long, and in which order.
• If you use video clips, keep these very short,
• Repeat main points, and summarise what you typically under 2-3 minutes.
have said. When people take things in by ear
they need to be reminded of the direction Posters
your talk is taking, and how the major points
Ifyou are using posters:
link up. Use a handout or overhead projector,
numbering three or four main areas you are • Make these large, bright and informative.
going to address. • Use blocks of text beneath large, numbered
headings.
Preparing your talk • Avoid overloading the poster.
It always takes longer to say something than it • Use a simple, clear structure so that it is obvious
does to read through it in preparation. Also, you which order to read the information.
need to speak slowly in a presentation so that
people can take in what you say. Practising
• Prepare only what you can deliver at a Practise your talk several times, going slowly and
reasonably slow pace. timing yourself. If it is too long, edit it down. For
• Divide your material into the essential points that group presentations, plan what each person will
you definitely want to make, and extra material say, for how long, the transition from one person
you can use if there is time. to the next, and the agreed cues for each speaker.
• Prepare a strong closing summary.
wmm
Overcoming nerves • Don't apologise for anything you feel could be
better. Act as though you are quietly confident
Many people spend so much time worrying about
that your talk is excellent, and you will be
giving a talk that they leave no time to prepare
halfway to convincing your listeners.
what to say. You can reduce nervousness in the
following ways. • Look up. Make eye contact with at least two
people in your audience.
• Prepare carefully - be confident about what you
• At the beginning, summarise what you are
are going to say, and how you are going to say
going to say - and in which order.
it.
• Go through your cards or overheads in turn.
• Make a conscious effort to relax (see page 381),
Make each point clearly.
especially 2-3 hours before the talk.
• Pause and take a breath after each point. This
• Arrive early so that you do not need to worry
gives your audience time to absorb the point. It
unnecessarily about the journey.
also makes you look more professional.
• Be in the room before everybody else. Instead
of suddenly being confronted by a sea of faces, • At the end, briefly sum up what you have said.
it's your space. Smile at your audience as they • Prepare a good line to end with. If you're not
arrive. sure how to end, simply smile and say Thank
you'.
• Have water to drink.
^^^^9 Working
v with others
How effective am I in giving presentations \>
«5i
and talks? \
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Working with others KjJ
s
WiiWI
Being aware of your audience
The more talks and presentations you Seminars and class-based audiences
give, the more you will gain confidence The most typical audiences that you will face as a student
in adapting the talk to suit the audience. are likely to consist of other students, particularly in
Here are some useful things to remember. seminars, workshops, larger tutorial groups or other class-
• Your audience's attention will tend to based groups.
drift: key points may be missed. State
essential points more than once, using These tend to occur on a frequent basis throughout your
slightly different words.
course, offering you many opportunities to gradually hone
your skills in working with, and communicating with,
• Your audience's attention span may be
others. Whenever you speak in these contexts, you also
short. Break up your talk into a few clear
have an audience.
sections. Make planned brief pauses
between sections. Speaking and contributing in seminars and class gives you
• Focus on the key points. Avoid opportunities to:
unnecessary details, and don't go off • practise speaking to different kinds of audience
at tangents - you may confuse your • make both formal and informal contributions
audience.
• gain valuable feedback from people who may be
• It is harder to follow a complex observing you over several weeks, months or years
argument or a sequence of points when • observe group dynamics, so you can gain insights from
listening rather than looking. A clear how other people interact with an audience and then
chart or handout will help your listeners apply these to your own group contributions.
follow you.
• Ifyou run short of time, don't gabble to
fit in more material or more overheads. Reflection: Speaking informally to an
Instead, edit the talk to fit the available audience
time. (You can plan such reductions
when you practise your talk.) Drawing on the information that you have covered in
• Audiences usually like 'stories'. Use a the chapter so far, complete the evaluation on page
strong structure and relevant examples, 269. Use this to stimulate your thinking about how
images and case studies to engage their strong a contribution you make to seminars and classes.
attention. • When in class, how aware are you that you are
speaking to an 'audience'?
• How well do you bring in other people, or leave space
Reflection: Speaking
for them to speak, during class-based sessions?
formally to an audience
• How much of the classes' time do you take up,
• How aware am I of my audience compared with others in the group?
when I make a presentation or give a • How do you think other members of the group, as
formal talk? your audience, view your contribution to the group?
• Which techniques suggested in this What changes, if any, would you like to make?
chapter would help me to interact
better with my audience? Discuss your performance with a friend or other group
member. Ask this person to tell you three things you do
• Which three things would be most
well, and three things you could improve.
useful to try out first?
j^^^^S Working
W( with others
w.
Unit/module: Seminar:
© Stella Cottrell (2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Working with others
-<*mmmmmmmmm
Review
.'?' "•'-?:-nV.tJ*f *
It is likely that you will be expected to work with As in other areas of study, there are strategies
others during your time as a student, whether in which can both be applied to study and which are
seminars, support groups or project groups, and valuable in life more generally, such as listening
in any case you will find yourself in groups just by skilfully to others, getting your point across clearly
being around other students on campus. This may to an audience, planning out project work in
be on an informal basis although, increasingly, an organised way, and being able to offer and
skills in collaborative groupwork form are assessed receive feedback constructively. Reflection on,
as part of graded assignments. and self-evaluation of, your own contributions are
especially important in developing and fine-tuning
Overall, it is easier to work with others if it is clear your skills in working collaboratively with others.
what the boundaries are, what is expected, who is
doing what, and when, and if everyone acts with Ifthe groups you are in work well, you will gain.
everyday consideration for the feelings of others. You will benefit from different perspectives and
views. Your own thinking will be stretched, your
Nevertheless, it is quite natural for groups to ideas refined, and you will gain good sources of
present challenges. For example, they can bring support. You will also be able to develop skills that
out people's anxieties, some of which may appear you will find essential in the workplace once you
as aggression or failure to contribute. In dealing graduate. Whatever groups you are in, it's in your
with such difficulties you will develop a wider interest to help them function at their best.
range of interpersonal and problem-solving skills.
j^^^Q•1 Working
v\ with others
Part D
For most courses of Higher Education, students conventions. Thinking about academic
are required to complete written assignments assignments as tasks that can be managed
in order to demonstrate their understanding helps you to identify a range of skills that can
of some or all of their course material. These be applied to non-academic contexts, from
assignments tend to consist primarily of essays, interpreting briefs to project management.
reports, case studies or exam answers in the
earlier years, and longer pieces of work such as This section looks at assignments and exams
larger research projects or dissertations in the from all three angles. It looks at ways of:
final year.
• developing academic writing skills
• within the conventions of Higher Education
To complete such assignments, you need to • and as tasks to be managed.
combine basic academic writing skills with
an understanding of the relevant writing
On the chart below, tick the appropriate box and rate how you well you
perform the skill now (9 = excellent, 1 = weak/needs a lot of work).
practice
What are the two main prioritiesfor improvement in your next written assignment? Highlight these
two in colour.
Repeat this self-evaluation when your next piece of writing is returned, using the tutor's feedback.
^^^^9 Writing
v at university level © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
Writing for the fearful
YoujJSB
& YouTube
conversations ^ g videos
with friends reading
Ifyour writing skills are very rusty, try some of Let yourself be inspired by what you see, hear,
the following short exercises. Ifyou are more think, or dream.
confident, skip forward to the next section that
you find useful. Make a life chart
• Include important events in your childhood,
Get the writing habit family, education, interests, work, and so on.
• Write one word ten times, in different • Write a few lines about each item.
handwriting styles. Which is most comfortable? • Choose one item and write about this in more
• Write out a story you enjoyed as a child. detail. Describe what happened, how you felt
• Write to a friend saying what you hope to get about the episode at the time, how it affected
out of being a student. you in the long term, whether what happened
• Jot down ten words you like the sound of. Write was unusual, and so on.
a short piece which includes all those words.
Be as crazy as you like. LIFE CHART
Most experienced writers rewrite their work over and over, refining their thoughts, finding a better way of
saying something, making a long-winded section a bit briefer, or adding more details to develop an idea.
Filling out the writing Playing with your ideas Organising your material
• Take one piece of writing Play around with what you • Select one of your pieces of
you have done. have written. For example, writing.
• Jot down a list of five extra you could: • Read through it, underlining
details you could add to • change the order of the each major idea in a different
give a fuller picture. sentences around colour. For each change of
• Add something you know • change some of the words subject, change the colour. If
about someone else's • add more details a subject comes up again, use
ideas: from television, • change the order of the the colour you used before.
radio, or reading. paragraphs • When you have finished, check
• Add a personal opinion • ask a question and turn how often the colour changes.
about some aspect of what what you have written into • Rewrite the passage so that all
you wrote. the answer the parts underlined in a given
• Rewrite the piece, adding • write from the opposite colour are grouped together.
the new detail. point of view.
|^^^^9 w
Writing at university level
Similarities between academic writing tasks and
other activities
© Stella Cottrell (2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Writing at university level
*****
Overcoming writer's block
-^^^^9 Wr
Writing at university level © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Tricks for getting started
In an ideas notebook
On a set of index cards
Ona sheet of paper
On a lap top or mobile device.
Add questions at
anytime
• at the beginning of
an assignment
when you get
*writer's block'
Questions:
• focus your reading
• help you structure and organise
your writing
• help you develop an idea further
• generate ideas
• stimulate revision
'Start typing
Word-processing allows you to
• type headings and bullet points
• type out ideas as they occur
• choose just one aspect and write
about it
Come back later to rework what
you have written
and phrases ^fi,^ _in anv order
or any »<*eas /fyQ(j Lists
redraft
a. Write ideas as they come. (2"
border section b. Write in questions. (3)
c. You can re-numberthe points later. (5)
ChopUpy°w"otes •enjoy yourself d. This is a useful method if you find spider notes |
and pattern notes messy. (1)
e. Cross out irrelevant points. (4)
Aycesha
I have revolutionised my writ/no r m
headings and points' (1 ? J 9' ma
these out first TfX ' ]^^ T^&
eosily./• Then
nen 7s
its ,?* °r9an,ses
/ike joining everything
up the dntc r
+
• Typically, you may write Write wherever suits You write essays for:
between two and eight y<)u, or as required: • your tutors
essays each term, but
• at home • yourself
this varies from course
• in the library • examiners
to course.
• in the exam room • (sometimes) other
students.
Htm
A seven-point procedure for writing assignments
Until you develop your own method of writing essays and other
assignments, you may find this seven-point procedure helpful.
/
• documentary evidence, artefacts
2 Collect and record information
• television, radio, newspapers, videos,
• Be selective - you can't use everything. podcasts
• Write a set of questions to guide your • experience and opinion (in some subjects).
research - and look for the answers.
Selecting
• Check the word limit to see how much
information you can use for each point. Keep asking yourself:
• Keep a notebook nearby to jot down ideas. • Is this good quality information?
• Is it the most up-to-date and reliable?
Sources • Is it the best example?
Many sources of information are available to • How will I use it?
you. Select from what is considered relevant for • Do I really need it?
academic assignments in your discipline:
Recording
• books, articles,
conference papers, Record information as you go along (see page
academic blogs, 176):
webpages • where you found information/inspiration -
• official records, reports for citations and references (see page 181)
and surveys • notes of themes, theories, dates, names, data,
• lecture notes, data explanations, examples, details, evidence,
from laboratory work page numbers (see page 1 71).
and projects
• case studies, interviews
j^^^^9 Writing
w at university level
4 Engage, reflect, evaluate 6 Work on your first draft
When you have gathered the Develop your first draft. You may need to do this
information, think about where you several times, improving the assignment with each
have got to. version. Leave time between drafts for your ideas
to simmer.
• What have you discovered?
• Has your viewpoint changed? • Rewrite your early draft (see page 297). Adapt
• Have you clarified your argument? the structure (pages 290, 358) and organise the
writing into paragraphs.
• Have you enough evidence/
examples? • Make sure your argument is clear to readers.
• What arguments or evidence oppose • Check that you have included evidence and
your point of view? Are they valid? examples to support your points.
• Is it clearer to you why this task was • Check that you have written in a succinct style
set? such that you make best use of the word limit
• Check you have included citations for every
source you drew upon for information and
inspiration.
• Write out a list of references, covering each
citation in your assignment.
/
7 Final draft
\
5 Write an outline plan
and first draft
Outline plan Edit and check your final
Now structure your writing. Title
draft (see page 303).
• Discuss the title with someone else to check for In your 'Introduction' (the first paragraph of your
alternative interpretations. writing), refer directly to the title in order to focus
your reader. Indicate how you interpret it, such
as by rephrasing it in your own words. (If you
Make notes
misunderstood the question, at least the reader
will be aware of what has happened.)
Write down in your own words exactly what the
question requires. It may form a useful part of your Conclusions
introduction later. To help identify the question do In your conclusion, refer back to the title to
this:
demonstrate to your reader that you are still
• Note obvious questions implicit in the title, such answering the set question. Linkyour final
as 'Why did this happen?' 'How effective ...?' or sentence to the question contained in the title.
'Which was more successful ...?'
^^^^9 Wi
Writing at university level
Academic keywords used in titles
These words indicate the approach or style expected for the piece of writing.
Account for Give reasons for; explain why Examine Put the subject 'under the microscope',
something happens. looking at it in detail. If appropriate, 'Critically
evaluate' it as well.
Analyse Examine in very close detail and in terms
of component parts; identify important points Explain Make clear why something happens, or
and chief features. why something is the way it is.
Comment on Identify and write about the main Illustrate Provide examples or evidence to make a
issues, giving your reactions based upon what point or clarify a position on an issue.
you have read or heard in lectures. Avoid purely
Interpret Give the meaning and relevance of data
personal opinion.
or other material presented.
Compare Draw out the similarities or common
Justify Give reasons, supported by evidence, to
features, indicating the relevance or
support a particular argument, point of view
consequences of these similarities.
or action; address objections that others might
Consider As in 'Consider the implications of...' (or make.
similar) Analyse the key issues, reflecting on the
Narrate Concentrate on saying what happened,
different viewpoints in a balanced way.
telling it as a story or chronology of events.
Contrast Set two or more items or arguments
Outline Give only the main points, showing the
in opposition so as to draw out differences.
main structure.
Indicate whether the differences are significant.
If appropriate, give reasons why one item or Relate Show similarities and connections between
argument may be preferable (see Chapter 7). two or more things.
Critically evaluate Weigh arguments for and State Give the main features, in very clear English
against something, assessing the strength of the (almost like a simple list but written in full
evidence on both sides. Use criteria to guide sentences).
your assessment of which opinions, theories, Summarise Draw out the main points in brief (see
models or items are preferable. 'Outline'), omitting details or examples.
Define Give the exact meaning of. Where relevant, To what extent Consider how far something is
show that you understand why the definition true, or contributes to a final outcome. Consider
may be problematic. also ways in which the proposition is not true.
Describe Give the main characteristics or features (The answer is usually somewhere between
of something, or outline the main events. 'completely' and 'not at all'.)
Discuss Write about the most important aspects of Trace Follow the order of different stages in an
(probably including criticism); give arguments event or process.
for and against; consider the implications of.
Distinguish Bring out the differences between two
(possibly confusable) items.
Evaluate Assess the worth, importance or
usefulness of something, using evidence. There
will probably be cases to be made both for and
against.
m
Devising your own essay title
Choose a title that allows you the opportunity to 3 What were the main changes in the use of
analyse, to compare, to contrast and to evaluate technology within the British home during
different perspectives, research findings and/ the twentieth century? What was the
or theories. This will help you develop a strongly incentive behind innovation? Who promoted
structured argument and make the essay more change? Did these affect women differently
interesting to read. from men? What forces have hindered
change?
Aim for clarity 4 The negative effects of violence on TV.
• Avoid long, complex titles. 5 Describe how placebos work.
• Avoid using several questions within the title.
For a discussion of these titles, see page 41 3.
• Ifyou use a quotation, keep this short and follow
For guidance on devising titles for projects and
it with a typical assignment question.
dissertations, see page 348.
• To check whether your title is clear, ask a non
expert whether she or he understands it.
w^^^^m Writing
\a at university level
Common features of all academic writing
•&*^M\W2m&m&^:
Although the wording of essay or other assignment counterarguments. State clearly why there are
titles may differ, almost all academic writing tasks difficulties in coming to a firm conclusion one way
require you to do certain things. or another.
Demonstrate that you are aware that answers are Link your points so that they feed into sentences
not always clear-cut and that there may be some and paragraphs, and so that each paragraph
weaknesses even with an overall strong case. For follows naturally from the previous one. All should
example, although experts you quote might sound contribute to a central guiding line of reasoning.
convincing, they may: (This is different from presenting a random set of
points, for example, or headings with bullet points
• base their conclusions on a very small number of
under them.)
examples
• refer to a large survey or database, but not Be emotionally neutral
all the data might be directly relevant to the
question. Most academic writing requires you to stand
back and analyse dispassionately, as an objective
Similarly, be prepared to acknowledge weaknesses onlooker.
in your own arguments and strengths in potential
what you know but provide the structure for the required for different kinds of
the way that you whole piece of writing. Your reader assignment, such as essays or
organise it. should be able to follow your line reports - see pages 290 and
of reasoning easily: how it moves 358.
AlDDV0f o o
up your writing plan and follow
it.
d ®••e a^ 00 • Your thinking will be clearer.
C 1 4 t C € • Your readers will be able to
e^oi/^At) follow your argument more
• easily.
V€A^O/\A ODD • You will get in a mess if you
don't.
A A € IfDV • • • See pages 1 76 and 289.
|^^^^OT Wr
Writing at university level
I
Below are four steps you will need to take in organising information
for an assignment. Each step makes the next one easier. (See also
Recording and using information, page 176.)
2 Rearrange your
notes
1 Divide the work into topics
Either spread out hard
When making notes, it may be easiest to use a separate file or copies of notes so that
sheet for each main point or topic. You could use a large sheet you can see them, or
of paper, writing out points so you can see them all clearly. compare on screen.
Group related
information in one
alternative theory evidence statistics
place.
Arrange the material in
the best order.
main theory
notes notes
alternative
about Q. aboutR
theory 2
(red) (yellow)
evidence against
notes notes
Outline plan
3 Write an Title 4 Organise information
outline plan Introduction into paragraphs
When making notes, Main argument - notes Q(red) Colour-code each set of notes.
it may be easiest to
evidence for - notes Q, p. 3-4
evidence against: ft p. 5(orange) Give each topic or paragraph
use a separate file or evaluation of evidence a colour: underline the main
sheet for each main
4 Alternative theory: notes R(yellow) points using this colour. The plan
point or topic. You example ofapplication opposite uses the sequence of
could use a large evidence for colours of the rainbow, to assist
sheet of paper, evidence against (lemon) memory. Be consistent in using
writing out points so
why notconvincing
this colour-coding onto pattern
you can see them all 5 Mter^e^ory2:notesS(green)
evaluation of evidence
notes, outline plans, and rough
clearly. why notconvincing drafts. Divide hard copy files of
notes using coloured dividers.
6 Underlyingissues-notesT(blue)
7 Conclusions Once you start writing, each
a
paragraph should have one main
b
idea - with supporting detail or
evidence, and relate to one set (or
page) of notes. (See page 298.)
Paragraph 1
3 Develop your
argument • This paragraph covers the first issue your introduction said you would
or line of address.
reasoning • The first sentence introduces the main idea of the paragraph.
• Other sentences develop the topic of the paragraph. Include relevant
examples, details, evidence, quotations, references.
• Lead up to the next paragraph.
Paragraph 2 and other paragraphs
• The first sentence, or opening sentences, link the paragraph to the
previous paragraphs, then introduce the main idea of the paragraph.
• Other sentences develop the paragraph's topic.
(For more about paragraphs, see pages 298-300.)
5 References and/
References and bibliography
or bibliography List all the books, articles and other materials you have referred to within
the essay. (See page 181.) If a bibliography is required, list relevant texts,
including those you read but did not refer to in the essay.
The structure given here is a basic outline but it is core to many types of
writing. The structuring of different types of essay is discussed in Chapter
12.
^^^^^m Wr
Writing at university level
Planning your writing assignments spatially
•*R|
It can sometimes be difficult to gain a sense of • It may take a few attempts to get the balance
what the word limit means in terms of how much right. Note how little or how much you can
you will actually write. write for each topic or example.
Before beginning any work on an assignment: • If you wish, continue to plan out your essay,
point by point, on these sheets. Notice how
• Work out roughly how many words you type on much space each item can take.
one page of A4 paper. (This may be about 300
words.) With this spatial plan, can you now see:
• Check the overall word limit for your • how many pages of your writing your
assignment. (This may be 1200 words.) assignment will take?
• How many pages of your writing or typing will • where sections or topics will be on the page?
your essay occupy? (For instance, 1200 words at • how your word limit divides up?
300 words per page will occupy 4 pages.) • how little or how much you need to read and
• Take that many pieces of paper. Draw out in note for each item?
pencil how much space you will give to each
section, item or topic, as in the sample essay
below. How many words can you allocate to
each section? Or to each topic or example?
What is the minimum you can do? What From pattern notes to linear plan
additional research would you like to do, if • Generate: Use the pattern notes to brainstorm
you have time? Depending on how well you what you know and to generate ideas rather
proceed, you can adapt your reading and note- than worrying about organising information at
taking to suit. this stage.
• Find connections: Use colour, numbers and
Rework your plan connecting lines to link related information in
the pattern notes.
If necessary, rework your outline plan as
• Group: Rework the pattern notes, placing
you proceed. You may rework your plan
together all connected information.
several times as your thinking becomes more
• Greate a hierarchy: As a half-way stage between
sophisticated. This is part of the process of
making pattern notes and sequential writing,
understanding the topic.
it helps to organise your ideas hierarchically
so that key points stand out from underlying
Make a clear final outline plan
details. (See page 293.)
Clarify your final plan. Use colour to highlight • Greate headings and points: Give each area of
certain areas, or rewrite untidy parts afresh. your pattern notes a title or heading. Type out
Take note of whether you are using the excuse a list of the headings, then type a list beneath it
of 'neatening' or 'updating' the plan' to put off of all points that relate to that heading. Use the
writing the first draft. colour-code you used in your pattern notes to
guide you in what belongs to each paragraph.
• Relate to plan: Position these lists on your spatial
plan (page 291). (For software that helps with
this, see Appendix 2.)
~^^^^9 Writing
w at university level
Concept pyramids organise ideas
Mill
Concept pyramid for contrasting birds and mammals
Category level
Upper level
(superordinate has life
category) has locomotion
reproduces itself
Intermediate level
(intermediate or
warm-blooded
basic category) Bird
rears own
offspring
Lower
(subordinate
budgie cuckoo human dolphin
- can speak - lays eggs in - has language - lives in sea
category)
- bright colour other birds' - dreams - eats fish
- domesticated nests - lives on land - intelligent
Examples
(exemplars)
-^^^^9 Wi
Writing at university level
Essay plans as pyramids
Essay structures consist of several concept pyramids combined into one piece of
continuous writing. A halfway step between pattern notes and linearwriting, the
concept pyramid incorporates more structure and linear development. Unlike
pattern notes, it enables you to evaluate the weight (or level) of one kind of
information against another - and to see this visually.
Intermediate (e.g. people whose theories are associated with a major schoolof thought)
level 1 \ ^___L_^ / \
theorist A") (theorist B^) (ftheorist O (theorist D^) (^theorist E
Intermediate (each person may have more than one theory, important belief orresearch finding)
level 2
/ \
theory X theory Y
(what it is in brief; date)
[same foreach theorist you use]
Lower
level
Specific
examples
Details
number of
participants
T«
Use pyramids for planning assignments
j^^^^S Writ
Writing at university level
Writing drafts
Draft 1:A quick draft to get ideas down Draft 3: Fine-tuning and style
Use your plan. Don't worry about style or good Read what you have written aloud.
English at this stage - just get started. How does it sound? Ifyou are
Focus on the assignment question. Write out stumbling as you read, this may
your interpretation of the title. indicate poor flow. Look for where you
can improve continuity, links, sentence
Clarify your core points. Write out your central lengths, and overall style. Add
ideas, hypotheses, conclusions or the main sentences or phrases to clarify points.
direction of your line of your reasoning. If you have a screen-reader, you could
Write headings and subheadings. Use your use this to read your text aloud. Listen
plan (or the pyramid you have created) to for meaning, and for punctuation
identify these. You can retain these headings pauses.
and sub-headings in most reports and some
dissertations, but leave these out of the final draft
of an essay. This provides your structure.
Add in supporting details below each heading. Draft 4: Finishing touches
Link it up. Write your headings and points into Aim to leave at least a day between
sentences.
drafts. Your mind will go on working
Stick to your plan. Keep looking back to it on your ideas. After a break, you will
after writing each paragraph. Go back to the find it easier to spot passages that need
assignment title and its central questions: check rephrasing. See Editing your draft,
that you haven't gone off on a tangent. If so, put page 302.
a line through anything irrelevant. Be a harsh
critic of your own work.
Saving your drafts
• Save your first draft as draft 1 and type that
and the date in the footer.
Draft 2: Fine-tune the structure
• Save each new draft as a separate file, draft
Check that information is grouped and ordered 2, draft 3, etc., dating each draft.
- especially into paragraphs (page 298). If not, • Alternatively, use a tool such as Google
rearrange it. Docs that enables you to return to revised
Check that the line of argument is clear from edits (see page 182).
one paragraph to the next. If necessary, add Check using a hard copy
in sentences to link ideas. You may need to do
this more than once. Look for places where you It is easier to identify some errors on hard
could summarise points so that you use fewer copy. Print out final drafts and read carefully
for errors.
words, and consider adding further points.
Rewrite sections.
::\^mm
Paragraphs
^^^^3 Writing
\A at university level
Writing paragraphs
Sum up that topic in about 1-4 words. • cut separated items of the same colour and then
paste them together into one paragraph
• rewrite the paragraph, integrating the bits you
3 Give the topic a name and colour have moved so that the paragraph flows well.
Write the topic in the margin. Give it a colour.
7 Are sentences in the best order?
4 Which is the topic sentence? In each paragraph, are the sentences in the best
Which sentence is your topic sentence - the one order? Is it clear how each sentence leads on to the
that sums up the topic? Highlight it. Is it at the next?
beginning of the paragraph? If not, would it be
more powerful there? 8 Is the line of argument clear?
Is it clear to the reader how the topic sentences
5 Is everything relevant? of each paragraph relate to each other? Is it clear
Check whether everything in each paragraph how the material in each paragraph builds on that
relates to the topic sentence. If you're unsure in previous paragraphs in order to establish an
about something, underline it and check whether argument with a clear direction?
it would be better placed in a different paragraph.
Is anything superfluous? If so, cross it out. 9 Are paragraphs well-linked?
Is it clear how each paragraph leads on to the
next, such as through phrases that link the ideas
in one paragraph to that in the one that either
precedes it or follows on from it? See pages 298
and 301.
Certain words are used to link ideas and to Introducing an alternative viewpoint
signpost to the reader the direction your line of
reasoning is about to take, such as adding more • by contrast; another way of viewing this is;
emphasis, or introducing an alternative viewpoint. alternatively; again; rather; one alternative is;
Below is a selection of words used to link ideas, another possibility is
depending on the direction of your argument. • on the one hand ... on the other hand
• conversely; in comparison; on the contrary; in
fact; though; although
Adding more to a point already made
7 Presentation
1 Meaning
Proof-reading
• Does it make sense? Read it aloud slowly.
Edit your draft until you are happy with it. Then do
some final proof-reading. You may find a different
2 Organisation and structure set of corrections if you do this using hard copy.
• Have you used the appropriate structure? • Read it once again aloud - does it make sense?
• Is connected information grouped together? • Look for mistakes such as typing and spelling
• Is information presented in the best order? errors. Look up doubtful spellings or ask
• Is the work well paragraphed? (See pages 298- someone.
]^^^9 Writing
V\ at university level
Editing final drafts
ro.j>
Tick each box below when you have finished checking that point.
DcTSs;ngn0th/n9thereader-''fi^
DThe'language is clear and
straightforward.
Research material
•The reader will follow the line of
^encetoproveori(,ustratemy reason.ng easily (Chapter 7)
LJ It ,s clear which sentence in m
DiSSB*""d°*ta»«clearto
Structure and grouping
General
DoT^tbinthea^">-««ture QThe introduction is suitable.
DIdeas are suitably llnked LJ The conclusion is suitable
^"P^'aph is well structured
U*asareprese„,edintheright cteS^^^^P-tuationare
--t:;xe,to,pra9raph"sto
Style -rrectly cited within rnyS.
cethatlhavec,tedinrnyvvr(4
DSapt^ropria,e'or^—
DThe,ex,i!no,tooc(la r referenang correctly and in full.
• ^reeolslangand coital,1
UTeChn,Cal«^0'is used correctly eceredoerCr°Unt0ffeedb^l
ece.ved for earder work (page 324).
) Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Writing at university level
Presenting your writing
^^^^Q Writing
Wri at university level
Lecturers' preferences
'/
*r
Your tutors may have preferences about the technical and stylistic aspects of presentation listed below.
Tutor/Subject:
Aspect Requirements
• Electronic submission or hard copy also
required?
• Use sub-headings?
• Number paragraphs?
© Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Writing at university level
Review
Although all students will be familiar with writing The following chapter looks in more detail at what
tasks to some extent, most students struggle is expected for academic writing at undergraduate
at times with getting down to writing their level. It looks at general expectations and provides
assignments and with getting to grips with what annotated examples of essays. Chapter 13 draws
is really required. Even talented students working on the points covered in Chapter 11, and also
at the highest levels can face writer's block, looks at other kinds of written assignment such
procrastinate with starting new sections of their as case studies, project reports and dissertations.
assignments, or find they are grappling to translate The critical analysis that you would need to
good ideas into writing. apply within most kinds of written assignments is
covered in Chapter 7.
This chapter has looked at how to develop your
writing from small beginnings, so as to build your
Check your learning outcomes
confidence and familiarity with writing. Although
academic writing is a distinct kind of writing, you • Look carefully at feedback from your tutor. If it is
will profit from making any kind of writing a daily not clear where you have lost marks, ask for an
activity. You will build up speed, become more appointment to discuss this. If you take with you
able to think and write simultaneously, become a copy of the self-evaluation questionnaires on
more aware of how you can improve your writing, pages 274 and 303, you can use these to help
and grow in confidence. provide structure to the session.
• Using your tutor's feedback and advice,
The chapter also looked at how to approach a
complete the self-evaluation questionnaire on
piece of academic writing as a task with:
page 274 again. Notice which areas you now
• sets of manageable steps that you can follow feel confident about, and which you would still
• sets of given conventions that you can adopt like to improve.
• sets of requirements that you can meet.
Basic English skills
The more you write and the more organised you
It is difficult to get the highest grades at college
are in following these steps, conventions and
if your basic English skills, such as grammar and
requirements, the sooner you start to use them
punctuation, are weak. It is worth investigating any
automatically. With practice, you will find that you
language workshops at your institution or at a local
combine separate stages quite easily and that you
College of Further Education.
find faster ways of doing things.
^^^^9 Writing
w at university level
Chapter 12
Developing academic writing
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• consider further requirements of academic writing including:
- stylistic conventions
- precision
- distinguishing fact and argument from opinion
• be aware of how different approaches to research impact upon academic writing
• understand the influences of the scientific model on most areas of academic writing,
including non-science subjects
• understand better what is meant by terms such as 'subjectivity' and 'objectivity',
'quantitative' and 'qualitative'
• learn to use the four main writing styles used in Higher Education:
- descriptive
- argumentative
- evaluative/analytical
- personal/experiential
• know what gains good marks for an assignment, and how to use tutor feedback constructively
• develop insights into what makes a good essay through evaluating these for yourself.
C=33^>
There is no single style that can be used in all or mannerisms - as well as using up your word
academic writing. Each discipline has developed limit and obscuring your argument, these could be
its own particular styles, and in some subject areas off-putting to your readers.
you may find that even various branches of the
discipline use quite distinct writing styles. Learn how to use specialist vocabulary
The following conventions apply to most academic It is important to learn the specialist styles and
writing. Nevertheless, if your tutors offer specific technical terms used for your subject, and also to
guidance, follow their directions. extend your vocabulary.
• Ifyou are not familiar with specialist terms, look
Use formal English for explanations of these terms in introductory
Academic English is more formal than the textbooks or glossaries.
language used in everyday conversation, emails, • Pay attention to how such terms are introduced
letters, magazines and most newspapers. It in books and articles - note the different forms
shouldn't sound 'chatty'. It also avoids slang and used, such as noun and verb forms, and past
colloquialisms such as these: tenses.
• The writer is out of orderwhen he suggests ...' • Do not litter your writing with terms that you
• The new plans were just the stuff/ yourself do not understand - it is better to write
in your own words than to sound as though you
• These findings need to be taken with a pinch of
do not understand the words you are using.
salt.'
• The argument was a bit over the top.'
Reflection: Writing in the discipline
Aim for clarity
Write so that your reader can easily follow what Browse through several articles for your own
you are trying to say. Do not use long words subject, looking just at the writing style.
and technical jargon simply in order to sound • What features do each of the pieces share?
impressive. Check whether your sentences are so • Are these features of your own writing?
long and complicated that they are hard to follow.
Avoid antiquated language, convoluted sentences
j^^^^S Dev<
Developing academic writing
Avoid abbreviations and contractions Be objective
Write words out in full: Academic writing avoids personal, subjective words
• 'dept.' as 'department' such as 'nice', 'wonderful', 'worthwhile', 'usual' or
'natural', because the reader's understanding of
• 'e.g.' as 'for example'
these words may be very different from your own.
• 'didn't' as 'did not'
• 'they're' as 'they are' Avoid apologies
• 'isn't' as 'is not' Don't apologise to the reader for any weaknesses
you think there may be in your research or writing,
Be impersonal such as that you found the subject difficult or that
you had no time to write a conclusion. Write as if
Most courses prefer you to avoid personal you are confident of what you are saying - even if
pronouns such as T/'we' and 'you'. Instead, you don't feel it!
sentences begin in impersonal ways such as:
• It can be seen that... ( Sorry, sorry, J
• There are a number of...
• It has been found that...
I'm afraid this is a
complicated subject
and I was only able to
—^*
Sorry again!
read ...
Be cautious
Numbers Be concise
Numbers below a hundred are often written out in Edit out unnecessary words:
full, such as:
A man called jay Singh invented ...
• thirty-one per cent In a book called Scottish Pathways, ...
• nineteen members.
Use continuous prose
However, figures are retained in statistical and
scientific work:
Write in full sentences, grouped together into
paragraphs (see page 298). For essays and
• 31 per cent
dissertations, avoid lists of points: incorporate the
• 15°C points into sentences. Lists and headings may be
• 7.3 newtons. acceptable in reports and projects.
j^^^^Q Developing
Deve academic writing
Writing for different subjects
• objectivity
• a testable hypothesis
• replicated results
• controlling for variables
were reliable, and not just a 'one-off' or due to
• quantitative analysis individual opinion or bias. (However, it is still
• accurate description important to think hard about whether bias may
• qualitative analysis. be built into the research method itself.)
|^^^B Developing
Dev academic writing
Alternatives to the scientific model
Most academic disciplines are influenced by the referred to themes of 'childhood innocence' and
scientific model. However, subjects vary in how 'goodness' compared with themes on 'disciplining
far they value the different aspects of the model. bad children'. One approach could then be to
The main differences are in varying attitudes to count how often a popular magazine included
subjectivity and to qualitative data. each theme, and compare data over ten-year
intervals to see whether the number of references
Subjectivity and objectivity changed significantly over time. This would give
quantitative data.
Subjectivity simply means bringing yourself, The researcher here would also have to classify
your own views, opinions, experiences or value her information carefullyto be clear what type
judgements into your research or writing. In of material should be included under her chosen
counselling or fine art, a high value is placed upon themes ('innocence' and 'discipline'). Classification
subjectivity - that is, upon personal emotions, of words and themes involves some subjectivity,
feelings, intuitions and experiences. It is the as people mean different things by the same
opposite of objectivity, the aim of the traditional words. For example, someone quoted in one of
scientific model.
the magazines as saying 'A good child does as his
In many subjects, however, you need to combine mother says' might have meant that he obeyed
the two: to analyse both objective criteria, such as because he was well disciplined, or that he obeyed
the results of independent surveys, market research because he was naturally virtuous - or something
or case studies, and your subjective response - else entirely.
your feelings, tastes, interests or intuitions.
(See also Using personal experience, page 322.) Qualitative analysis
1 Every attempt is made to control the conditions 1 Every attempt is made to keep the
under which the research takes place, so that research true to real life - that is, to give it
the researcher can decide which variables to 'ecological validity'
manipulate and measure
@ 2 Results can be generalised - that is, they would 2 The unique is considered worthy of study-
hold true if the research were repeated results may be impossible to repeat exactly
3 Numbers and standardised measurements make it 3 Creative interpretation is highly valued
easier to generalise results
4 Objective views are formed, based on evidence 4 Subjective responses, feelings, intuition and
and facts ratherthan personal opinion creativity are regarded as valuable resources
5 The role of the scientist in the research is 5 The role of the researcher is made explicit
minimised and rarely discussed - it is considered useful to discuss how the
researcher's presence influenced the results
6 Individual differences are not important- 6 Individual instances, and opportunities for
generalised findings are valued detailed interpretation, are valued
7 Personal experience is regarded as individual and 7 Personal experience is highly valued as
irrelevant: it is not referred to giving insight and a deeper understanding
8 The language is clinical, neutral, impersonal and 8 The language used allows the personality
dispassionate, even if the researcher is passionate and feelings of the writer to shine through
about the subject
Different styles
Compare the following two styles of writing. The Finding the appropriate style
first is conversational:
When writing an assignment, it is important to
Mount Pepe is going up - it's going to take choose the appropriate writing style.
everything with it when it goes. And I mean
Look at the two examples below, of draft
everything - villages, farms, trees, the lot.
introductions to an essay in response to the
It's frightening to think of how powerful a
questions, 'What problems faced Henri IV on his
volcano can be. Think of the damage they
accession to the throne? How successfully did he
cause! Remember Pompeii and Mount Etna!
solve them?' The first follows the guidance for
The second is in a general academic style: introductions given on page 290, and analyses the
problem set. The second uses descriptive writing,
In order to assess whether it is necessary giving background details not relevant to the
to evacuate the villages on Mount Pepe, question.
three main factors need to be taken into
consideration. The first, and most important, The first example is of a good introduction:
of these is the element of safety. According
to seismic experts currently working on the In 1598, Henri IV was anointed king of a war-torn
volcano, there is likely to be a major eruption France, the country having been split by religious
within the next ten years (Achebe 2012). and political wars since the death of Henri II almost
According to Achebe, the eruption is likely half a century earlier. The problems Henri IV faced
to destroy villages over a radius of 120 miles were essentially threefold. He needed to resolve
(Achebe 2013, p. 7). Catholic-Protestant divisions within the country;
to curb the power of the Guise, Montmorenci and
Notice the differences between the two Bourbon factions which threatened to subvert
examples. For each piece, consider questions royal power; and he needed to restore the French
such as these. economy. This essay will look at the three areas in
turn, but will also show how they were interrelated.
• Does it use full sentences?
It will demonstrate how Henri IVtackled each, and
• How formal does it sound? (What is the writer's
argue that ultimately he was extremely successful in
'voice'?)
solving what had seemed intractable problems.
• How is emotion expressed?
• Is personal opinion expressed? If so, how? The second is an example of interesting but
• How are other people's views included? irrelevant description (for a history essay):
• Is the sequence logical? Henri was brought up by his grandfather in the
• Does the piece observe the conventions listed mountains of Navarre. His grandfather was a very
on pages 287 and 307-12? religious man and brought his grandson up as a
Protestant. Because of his religion, he wanted Henri
Styles of academic writing to appreciate the simple things in life - the fields,
Although academic writing is distinct from other the flowers, good wholesome food such as bread
kinds of writing, it isn't all the same. There are and local cheese, and the beauty of the natural
surroundings. Henri was allowed a great deal of
different styles within academic writing, including:
freedom, and was allowed to roam barefoot in the
• descriptive mountains, and to play with animals ...
• argumentative/analytical
• evaluative/analytical Compare each example with the conventions listed
• personal, drawing on the writer's own on page 287.
experience.
Which writer might find it easier to write a good
These are explored in more detail below. observation case study (page 316)1
mm
Descriptive writing
^<M
v.-«f,***» •*'«*** J*.
|^^^^9 Dev<
Developing academic writing
I
Argumentative/analytical writing
•"^sw^-iiwwttfcri***ftw*
Main proposal/hypothesis/argument:
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
Reasons why my arguments are stronger; weaknesses in the reasoning or evidence for the opposing
arguments
Conclusions (including drawing together or synthesising, if appropriate, the best of all perspectives)
j^^^^S
^ De
Developing academic writing © Stella Cottrell(2013) 7776 StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Evaluative/analytical writing
Most academic writing will also include an element Get the balance right
of evaluation, even if this is not obvious from the
title of an assignment. You may be required to In evaluative essays - such as 'compare and
evaluate: contrast' essays - it is important to be balanced
• two or more schools of thought in the kind of information you use to make a
• two or more theories or theorists
comparison. You need to compare like with like.
• which of several items, models or ideas is best
for a purpose
'Compare and contrast' at the same category
level
• how well another writer has analysed a subject.
Suppose you are asked to compare and contrast
two animals in terms of their habitat. First you
Features of evaluative writing need to compare them at the basic category level,
Evaluative writing involves the following: making it clear you are comparing, for example,
birds with mammals (see diagram, page 294).
Comparing You could then compare cuckoos with dolphins,
as these are at the same category level (on this
Find the points of similarity, and show that you
diagram, the lower level). You should not compare
are aware of any minor points of difference within
cuckoos to mammals, as these are not equivalent
areas of overall similarity.
concepts - they are at different levels on the
Contrasting pyramid.
:-;sm
Organising information for 'compare
and contrast' essays
One easy way of organising information for 'compare Three ways of writing out the essay are given
and contrast' essays is by making a grid and writing below. Whichever one you use, be consistent
information in the appropriate columns. with it for that essay. Before you begin
• Use one column for the information about one theory writing from the grid, it is a good idea to
or item.
map out your points spatially (see page 291).
• Group similarities together. Method 7
• Group differences together. This method is straightforward, but tends to
• At the end, jot the main points in the boxes for the use more words than the others.
introduction and conclusion. • Work down the chart.
• Write out all your points for column A.
• Write your points for column B, in the
same order as for column A. Highlight the
point of similarity or contrast.
• Do the same for any other columns.
• Draw together the significance of the
similarities and differences.
Method 2
• Work across the chart.
• Select one item from column A and
'compare and contrast' it with column B
(and any other columns).
• Go on to the next item in column A and
compare that with column B(and any
others). Continue until all points are
covered.
• Draw together the significance of the
similarities and differences.
Method 3
If the similarities are so strong as to make
the items almost identical, state in the
introduction that you will look at similarities
together, and then at points of contrast
separately.
• Describe one way in which A and Bare
similar.
• Continue until all points of similarity are
covered.
• Continue with points of contrast as for
either method 1 or method 2 above
(depending on which is clearest to read).
• Draw together the significance of the
An empty grid for use is printed on page 321. similarities and differences.
Areas to be compared A B
and contrasted
Similarities
Differences
Significance of similarities or differences. (How did I decide whether something was significant?)
© Stella Cottrell (2013) 777e StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan Developing academic writing
Using personal experience
• Compare your experience with other people's. If • How valid is this generalisation?
theirs is different, why is that? • Do other people feel the same way as you?
• Keep your description short. Avoid long lists and • Are there circumstances where stress can
detailed accounts of events. produce betterwork?
• Be careful what you say about anyone you
mention (by name, or if it is obvious to whom
you are referring). Check that they do not mind
Personal writing and academic writing
being included - especially if they are known to There are some general differences between
those who will read your essay. personal writing and academic writing.
'What if I get bad marks for my work ...?' Compare this with lists you completed for any
previous work. Which comments appear more
Although 'marks' such as 'B' or '64%' can be an
than once?
indicator of how well you are doing, the comments
Number the items in order of priority (with '1'
you receive are more important. You may feel
for the most urgent matter to work on), or use
discouraged and feel inclined to throw your work
the Priority organiser (page 135).
in the bin if it is returned covered with your tutor's
handwriting, but do read the comments - they are
likely to be your passport to better marks. Action plan
Major issues Minor errors
Don't give up. Wait a day or two, then start an If there are comments or marks you do not
action plan. understand, ask your tutor.
Ifyou do not know how to improve your
'priority areas', ask your tutor for advice.
Action plan for using tutor feedback
Find out what gets good marks - ask\
Read through your work and the tutor's
comments. Be constructive. Keep asking yourself, Ask your tutor for examples of the kind of work
'How can this help me to improve my work?' she or he would like you to produce.
^^^^9 Developing
De academic writing
What is an essay like?
The essay
Page 1
Parag , A—ttheoryorig^
was that an infant's ability to form emoftona ^*^* *^ about what
t0 its survivai and later development. Th.s ra.ses ™po^«^ on the child of
circumstances
different kinds could affect theThis'^^^'^^^ILby's
of separation. essay looks >n part.o,! a Bo y work on^maternal
^
deprivation, and at how early research nd the^^ ^,J to that evidence,
Su^^
between achild and its carer, there must ^^T^^^ ne argued, chances
carer-the
ofthisbonding
mother
were
orforever,
lost
'P^^r^^v^'^le
and the ^ ^ ^Later
delinquent.
Bowlby
Originally
focuSed more
was formulated as atheory of 'maternal depnvaUon •L y ^
specifically on the first year of life, wh.c he «Jed *e c - P
time, he believed, the child orgamses ,ts behavuw sto bala behaviours, which
predispositions. These predispos.hons are, fr*y poxu.y Po 9 ^ ^^
establish the mother as asecure base, ^^^^^. of its relationship with
Bowlby argued that the infant develop^^^e argued that the mother
Hdt^^^^^
harmful.
Parag3 Bowlby'sideaswerepopu^
shortage of jobs for men return^^^^ There was^^
had enabled many women to work out,cthe ho
also other^qpad
evidence
which appeared to support Bowlby. C^bO^ J^ ^ those reared in
experienced continuous foster care from mne month intellectual, soc.al
institutions. He found that^^^^^ /hospital showed distress and
and emotional difficulties. S.m.larly, .^^^bertson !967-73). Bowlby's own
rsrasrq=r-t:rchi,Lod««--^--•
recurring factor. rP nas since been revised. Bowlby's adolescent
Porag 4 Much of this research ^^Z^, atime ^of unusual
research was based on evacuees mtbe pes war y
trauma and
^ ^ a,though
disruption. With respect to Goldfarb. •****' development, this could be because
children's homes could have anegate effectw dev P ^ four.yea,olds
of unstimulating environments;and the ^^ ^ hospital COnditions of
in children's homes had more than ^^^ *ents were discouraged from
Robertson's research were stark en—^-^^P ^
visiting and the children were very ,11 This ad-fte
with healthy children who go home to their parents
^^^S D
Developing academic writing
Page 4
Essay 2
Now compare Essay 1 with a second essay on the same subject.
^^^S Developing
Dev academic writing
I 25
to form a relationship, so then it was not ahl. t u
relationship which made relationships in In . ** buM^ blocks °f any
by the ideas of Lorenz who found adfcZ / 7^f"^ * "" «*"* •""•***
adopted other objects such as toy to be I: ' ^ ** ""** « **l age
babies a.so had acritical period for bondina ^ ™ T* ^ * that h™
30
oid. Harlow found that monkeys were atd^t^ bid andTT
to look after their babies
"aCtUa"y UP t0 *** ™^
When theV 9™ up were not able
•ha. how babies behaved with .££U, hen a'f fP "* "* """"'• Ste *<«
*- *- w„h the stranger let you ZZ^Z ^ "* '"* m°'her '°r ^
35
*e said her experiments using the StTna stT t >" WOl,'d be °d**«™ "•*
care were more Bkely to grow ^Z^V"T ""' "*" "*" "« h""
psychologist thinks so and it is important , n ^ * rM"y 'he case? N°< ='ery
<*« play, Many wou.d think ~ IZZ^T^ "" *" "» '* ««
make to achad's upbringing and i, is sexis, o„l I °" c°"<"b«™ "at «hey
40
B-etherton says that fathers play am* r* „tn ^fT "* """ •** *> «"»*
•hat children, in fact, have nLtiple a, hm somT"
the immediate family.
" " *""*
amly members """ even those outside of
45
ch»dre„. No. a,, mothers fJ ^L" ^ "* ^ ** '° 9* " »'* <*»
end up developing menta, illnesses keTrLtnh "t ** Ch"d'en """ Wme mi*
be suicidal. Drug treatments and co nsetn Tn h^T "'"' ^ '"" "" ""» ""
very treats condition. I, is surely be, "or ach^tT" """ ""' *•"*" is *
50
staying a, home with amother who is depressed '" 9°°d ^ Care' rathw «™
- veTmrrer; ,rzrcr.r" rment ^ ^—
for good care. His research doe, seem ,„TcC tha
*'"" "" nMd *»*«" h=«
delinquents. On the other hand there ae time h ""* * '° Ch"dren ^"^
children by being ou, of the homesoyou cI ," "?" """"" * b«'« <* the"
'55
«o be with its mother. Looking „soc^cTv ' "**"» *** ** ,he *»"
probiems. The rise o, delinquency 7 ^T™"9.""* >"« ™« ***» „„h
researchers to work out what the causes are ' reqU'rK 9rea'e' consideration by
References
Feedback on the exercise Paragraphing Paragraph 2 is far too long, and its
Introduction This lacks focus. The first sentence, in central point is not clear.
particular, is too general and adds nothing to the Referencing No dates are given for the references
essay. cited, for example for the work of Lorenz (line 26),
Length and conciseness This essay is 862 words Harlow (line 29) or Bretherton (line 34). Few of
the references cited within the text are listed at the
long, which is rather short. It should be 950-1050
words for a 1000-word essay (Essay 1 is 954 end of the essay. The two texts listed at the end
words long). Overall, too many words are used to are not referenced correctly.
say too little. This means that the writer will not Precision Some of the research evidence cited is
cover as much relevant information in the essay as rather vague. Essay 1 makes it clear that there were
someone who writes in a more concise style, and two stages to Bowlby's research, but this is not
will therefore lose marks. (See especially lines 3-4, clear in Essay 2.
22-5 and 45-8.) Vocabulary Words such as 'actually' and 'basically'
Line of argument It is not clear from the are not generally used in this colloquial way in
introduction what the writer's line of reasoning or academic writing (linesl 1, 23, 25, 28 and 42).
main argument will be. This is also the case in the Clarity Some sections (such as lines 29-30 and
conclusion, which does not identify a clear point 32-4) could be written more clearly.
of view.
Addressing the question The first half of the essay
does not address how Bowlby's theories were
modified by research findings. The second half
^^^^9 Developing
De academic writing
Critical comparison of two essays
Two further essays are provided below: the first essay is a final draft, and the second could be considered
an earlier draft of this. These enable you to see how you can work up early drafts to develop a stronger
answer- and to develop your awareness of the difference between stronger and weaker essays. Although
these are on stem cell research, you do not need a science background to be able to compare and analyse
them using the broad criteria provided on page 323 What gets good marks. The word limit is 1500 words.
Analyse essay 3 below, drawing out what you consider to be the strengths and positive features. Compare
these with the comments provided on page 334.
Essay 3
not ethical imperatives for undertaking stem
The ethical implications of stem cell research cell research. Stem cells are the only cells that
outweigh the benefits - discuss. we know of to date with adaptive capacity of
Parag 1 Corrigan et al. (2006) describe this magnitude. This gives them enormous
stem cell research as 'something of apolitical, potential for improving health and well-being, for
ethical, social and legal minefield'. In this essay humans and also for animals. Research on stem
Ishall explore this 'minefield', examining key cells enables scientists to study how orgamsms
arguments for and against stem cell research develop or respond to conditions such as illness
from the perspective of both the perce.ved or different medications. In turn, this can lead
benefits and the ethics of such research. I to stem cell therapy, where stem cells are used
shall argue that whilst the potential benefits, to repair the damage caused by injuries such as
as opposed to the actual benefits, of stem spinal cord injury or illnesses such as Parkinson s
cell research are great enough to justify its Disease. Stem cell therapy can also be used for
continuance, great care must be taken to address therapeutic cloning, where genetic material is
more subtle social ethical implications such as used to stop transplanted tissues being reacted
access to stem cell therapies and unrealistic by the recipient.
expectations of what stem cell research can Parag 4 Leventhal et al. (2012) argue strongly
achieve. for the benefits of stem cell research. There
Parag 2 Stem cells are cells from mammalian have, indeed, been anumber of studies wh.ch
organisms which have the potential to replace have demonstrated successful use of stem cell
themselves and to develop into specialised therapies. Bang et al. (2005) found that stroke
cell types. Stem cells are found in mammalian patients given stem cell transplants made better
embryos around 5-7 days after the egg has recovery and progress over atwelve month
been fertilised. These cells are 'pluripotent - period than those in the control group, who
they have the ability to become any type of cell received conventional treatments. Vidaltamayo
in the organism. This allows them to repair or et al (2010) reviewed studies of the use of stem
replace absent or damaged tissues, potentially cells in the treatment of Parkinson's Disease and
opening up new avenues for medical treatment. concluded that there was encouraging evidence
Less versatile stem cells can also be found m to suggest that some patients could recover
the blood of the umbilical cord and in the adult motor abilities after stem cell transplants. In
organism, where they support the development addition, results sometimes occurred even two
and renewal only of specific tissues such as in the to three years after surgery. Tutter et al. (2006),
nervous system.
reviewing the wide range of potential uses of
stem cells, referred to them as 'a great hope for a
Paraq 3 Contrasting 'ethical considerations' new era of medicine'.
to 'benefits' seems to suggest that there are
old, has generally attracted less controversy. Parag 9 If and when stem cell therapies are
Using pre-embryos would largely overcome this demonstrated to be clinically effective there will
particular ethical consideration. befurther ethical considerations regarding access
totreatments. Stem cell therapies are currently
Parag 7 Whilst there is encouraging research expensive and likely to remain so for many years.
which indicates the potential for the use of stem However, demand for them is already high and
cells, the amount of evidence about the efficacy likely to rise if their efficacy is more effectively
of stem cell therapy, gathered through high demonstrated. For state-funded health care
quality clinical trials, is limited to date. The hope systems like the UK National Health Service,
that stem cells could be used to 'cure' conditions giving access to stem cell therapies for all those
which were previously thought of as incurable in need will have major financial implications.
has attracted a great amount of attention However, failure to fund treatments would result
from scientists, the media and the general in them only being available to those wealthy
population. However, small scale findings have^ enough to afford them.
been heralded by the media as 'breakthroughs'
in treatment, resulting in what Dresser (2001)
^^^9 Dev
Developing academic writing
Parag 0 Although there is awide range of
ethical .triplications to take on board when References
considering stem cell research and therapies Bang,O.Y.,Lee,j.S.,Lee,P.H.,LeeG
here is evidence to suggest that actions can be (2005) 'Autologous mesenchymal stem cell
taken to mitigate against some of these. Overall ^plantation in stroke patients', Annals of
abalance needs to be found between managing Neurology 57(6), pp. 874-882
expectations of treatment and encouraging 9 Shteem CeSr"
Stem C°he?;
Cell Tounsm *l Need
and the (2°10)for'"Effective
^national
more high quanty research to enable treatments Regulation: Part I: Stem Cell Tourism in
to be developed more quickly and deterrinq Russ,a and India: Clinical Research, Innovative
people from seeking treatments that have not Treatment, or Unproven Hype?', Kennedy Institute
yet been proven to be effective. This could be of Ethics Journal 20(1), pp 27-49
the
the Uk
UK, :hn
wherePa£thethrOU9h ,e9iS,ati0n'
world's first * '" C°™T'
suchbank'
'stem cell Wallace,°"S. (2006)
Lidde"' 'Ethical,
K' McMill™<
legal LI Stewart A
so2,Vues
was established in 2004 to regulate and provide f'from
romTCambndge
""STKhGenetics°nd theraPy'' AbriefingTaper
stem cells for use in clinical research. Only cells Knowledge Park
which have been 'deposited' in the bank can be Ava1labeat:http//www.eescn.0rg.uk/Pdfs'/elsi
ed2.pdf (accessed 12th September 2010) ~
that th" C7C reS6arCh- WNSOn (2009>
that the International Society for Stem Cell ind*ated Doerflinger R. M. (1999) 'The Ethics of Funding
Research, formed in 2002, can play asignificant Embryonic Stem Cell Research: ACatholic 9
role ,n managing the hype around stem cell
therapy through issuing guidelines for research °Sf°01> Whe" Mence Offers Salvation:
asnlr
as stem cellT6nt
tourismEWn
maycontrove™'
have ethical areas such
benefits
Patent Advocacy and Research Ethics. Oxford/
NewYork: Oxford University Press
Ijndvall and Hyun (2009) suggest that terminally Great Britain Parliament. House of Lords (2002)
II pa .ents m.ght benefit from being able to Stem Cell Research: report of the Science and
travel to undertake 'innovative' treatments Technology Select Committee. London: The
which have not yet been approved in their own Stationery Office (HL 2001-02 (83))
LeMn;2aoi?A;vCKhenR' c-Negro'
M. (20 2) 'The Benefits A- ™'of Stem
and Risks **"»>,Cell
Parag 77 This essay has examined some of Technology', Oral Diseases 18(3) pp. 217-222
the key ethical issues relevant to the use of
human stem cells in research. In considering the
Tsus?temdcTTn' '-^ '^"^
benefits of stem cell therapy, it indicates that the
evKience for clinical efficacy is still rather limited MCOfaHeunman(F20°h7)
of Human Embryonic 'A SOentiSt'S View
Stem Cell of the, E^ics
Research' Cell
Moreover, the hope that stem cells will lead ' Stem Cell July (Online). Available at: http//
tc.cures.for serious illness and injury has led to www.cell.com/ce||-stem-cell/archive?year=2007
(accessed 8th September 2010)
turn has edreportingpeQp|e
unreanstic of achievements,
tQ ^ which in
Tutter A. V., Baltus, G. A. and Kadam, S. (2006)
treatments with little evidence that they will be Embryonic stem cells: agreat hope for anew era
successful. There is agreement between many of medicine', Current Opinion in Drug Discovery
key figures that stem cell therapy holds great and Development 9(2), pp. 169-175
potent* to benefit human well-being. When this Vidaltamayo, R., Bargas, j., Covarrubias, L
potential is aligned with good regulation that Hernandez, A., Galarraga, E., Gutierrez-Ospina
supports high quality clinical research and helps
G Drucker-Colin, R. (20! 0) 'Stem Cell Therapy
for Parkinson's Disease: ARoad Map for a
to manage expectations, then the benefits of
stem cell research could be said to outweigh the
negat've ethical implications
j^^^ffl De<
Developing academic writing
Essay 4
encouraging evidence to suggest that some
Parag 1 Stem cell research is an emotional issue, patients are better able to move after stem cell
which leaves audiences divided. Is it something that transplants. However, results did not always
might save countless human beings or an immoral become clear quickly and in some cases took up
activity, responsible for the deaths of thousands of to Itwo to three years aftersurgery to appear.
babies? There are strong arguments on both sides, This raises the question of whether the effects
as this essaywill show. were actually to do with the stem cell treatment
Parag 2 Stem cells are pluripotent cells. They have at all or might be down to other factors.
the potential to replace themselves and to develop Parag 5 Stem cells have arange of potential
into specialised cell types. Stem cells can be found uses Research on stem cells allows for the study of
in mammalian embryos around 5-7 days after the how organisms develop or respond to conditions
egg has been fertilised. Stem cells can also be found such as illness or different medications. Stem cell
in the blood of the umbilical cord and in the adult therapy involves the use of stem cells to repair the
organism, where they support the development and damage caused by injuries such as spinal cord .n]ury
renewal of specific tissues such as in the nervous or illnesses such as Parkinson's disease. It can also
system. Tutter et al. refer to stem cells as 'a great involve altering a cell's genetic material tostop
hope for a new era of medicine'. transplanted tissues being rejected by the recipient.
Parag 3 Much of the contention surrounding stem This is known as 'therapeutic cloning'.
cells comes from the fact that the cells have to be Paraq 6 Although there is some quite encouraging
taken from human embryos, which causes great research about the benefits of stem cells, there have
distress to many religious people. They bel.eve not yet been enough clinical trials to prove that stem
that human life begins atthe minute when sperm cell therapy is beneficial. This has proved to be qu.te
meets egg. Therefore, even if stem cell research uses problematic. Every time that atrial is conducted
embryos young enough not to look like bab.es they and hints at a benefit for using stem cells it is blown
believe that alife is being taken. Doerflmger (1999) out of all proportion by the media. Astudy might
believe that at the moment of fertilization a new only show that aperson getting stem cell treatment
human life is created with the same moral rights as makes slightly better progress than aperson getting
an adult human. There is also the issue that some of other treatments but often this is reported in the
the stem cells cultivated for use in research might media as if a cure has been found for the disease.
not be used and could go to waste. Consequently, it This is clearly unhelpful as it makes people with
is wrong to destroy or make use of ahuman embryo incurable diseases believe that they could get better
of any age. Evidence presented to the UK House of if they only had access to stem cell treatments.
Lords Science and Technology Select Committee Cohen and Cohen (2010) warn us that there are
in 2002 suggested that many people viewed life already anumber of stem cell tourists who travel
and personhood as developing over the course of to different countries in the hope of getting access
gestation from conception to birth. In 1985 the term to stem cell treatments. The Cohen's say that there
'pre-embryo' was introduced to refer to embryos less should be laws in place to stop this from happen.ng.
than 14 days old - athreshold where the first cell The media should also be banned from reporting on
specialization can be seen. Research on pre-embryos stem cell research unless acure for afatal disease has
has generally attracted less controversy but is not actually been found.
accepted by everyone.
Parag 7 Therapeutic misconceptions lead to the
Parag 4 Up until now, there have been some creation of 'false hope, for those taking part in
studies which have suggested thatusing stem clinical trials. As Corrigan etal. (2006) point out, it
cells might have atherapeutic benefit.. Bang et can be very difficult to design clinical trials where
al (2005) found that when stroke patients were the effect of stem cell treatment is compared to
given stem cell transplants they tended to make patients who have required no treatment at all. For
more progress over atwelve month period.. example, if the trial was looking at treatments for
Vidaltymayo et al. (2010) reviewed stud.es aneurological condition and required holes being
of the use of stem cells in the treatment of drilled into the skull a person in the control group
Parkison's Disease. They state that there is some
^^^Q Developing
De academic writing
Comments for essay 4 Although paragraph 9 had considered ways of
Overall This draft is less economical in its use of reducing negative ethical implications, it was
language, and sometimes repeats points or goes not made clear how that material influenced the
into too much explanatory detail. Forexample, the writer's argument.
author cites Doerflinger but this material is poorly Use of sources and evidence Given that we know
used as it simply repeats the preceding statement the writer has undertaken the same background
about life beginning at the moment of fertilisation. research, this is not fully utilised. Not all items
Such wordiness means the author then has fewer are referred to either in the text or in the list of
words to allocate to providing breadth and depth references. Some, such as Tutter's study (parag
or addressing more subtle issues. The essay could 2), are not correctly referenced. Evidence and
be better organised in parts, and many minor language are used with less precision in essay4
errors remain so it requires further proof-reading. than essay 3. In paragraph 2, little evidence is
Introduction This is overly brief, makes no direct given for why stem cell use is contentious and
reference to the title, and does not give the the author uses a number of vague terms such
reader a sense of the author's position nor what as 'many people' and 'they'. In paragraph 4, the
the content or line of reasoning will be. The citation of the Bang study does not indicate the
questioning style used is best avoided, not least as comparison group against which progress was
this creates confusion about what the 'two sides' measured in the experimental group. In paragraph
are that the writer says the essay address: this 6, a number of claims are made about the role
might be either 'benefits versus ethics' or 'saving of the media in increasing demand for stem cell
countless lives versus an immoral act'.
therapies but no evidence is given for this. In
paragraph 8, it is stated that demand for treatment
The essay lacks clear definitions and background will be high. As this is not yet known, it would be
explanations. In paragraph 2, the term better to use a phrase such as 'it is likely that ...'or
'pluripotent' is used - this is a technical term 'it may be that...' demand would be high.
that the general reader might not know. Without
a definition, the usefulness of stem cells, and Structure The essay is not well-organised.
therefore their benefits, is less clear. The material in paragraph 5 would be better
placed towards the beginning as background
Critical analysis Rather than maintaining an information. Here, it interrupts the logical order
objective position, the author uses emotive of the argument. Paragraph 6 fits most logically
comments such as 'deaths of thousands of babies'. after paragraph 4 as it continues to outline doubts
In paragraph 6, the author does not come across about the potential benefits of stem cell research.
as dispassionate about the role of the media. The
Conclusion The conclusion is weak. The
essay is further weakened by this leading to an
unhelpful diversion from the topic with the writer argument, mid-paragraph, that 'stem cells show
advocating press censorship. In paragraph 7, the great potential', is rather lost where placed.
argument is conveyed through wordy and emotive Insufficient evidence had been presented earlier in
detail on drilling through skulls rather than use of the essay to support this conclusion. New material
evidence.
is introduced about religious perspectives. Religion
appears to be equated with being Christian.
Argument The author presents a weak line of The author supposes that a high proportion of
argument. By presenting the negative ethical Christians would oppose stem cell research: that
considerations first (parag 3), it is less clear why is an assumption that might be true but is not
anyone would want to use stem cells. From the use a conclusion that can be drawn from the data
made of emotive examples, the author's position presented. Also, the conclusion states that the
appears to be against the use of stem cell research essay has shown that the subject is an ethical
on ethical grounds. However, the final sentences minefield: that may be the case but that is not
of the essay suggest that stem cell research could the task set by the essay title. Similarly, the final
be useful. This is confusing. It is also unclear what sentence does not focus the reader back to the
evidence is being used to support such a position. subject of the essay, as specified in the title.
wmm
Editing The essay hasn't been proof-read so there • removal of some double full stops (typing errors)
are many minor errors that need tidying up: and incorrect use of apostrophe: 'the Cohen's'
rather than 'the Cohens' (parag 6)
• details of percentages still to be added or else
removed
• misspellings, such as 'Parkison's' (parag 4).
• consistency in the formatting of the referencing
• completing the references as several of the
sources cited in the text are not included in the
list of references
Review
Academic writing is not the same as writing used Students are generally keen to know how to gain
for other purposes. It has its own traditions and better marks for assignments. Good marks are
conventions. These have developed over time, allocated for specific reasons - not simply because
partly as ways of bringing the greatest levels of you have tried hard, know a lot or are regarded as
accuracy and clarity to written communication, clever. It is difficult to gain the highest marks simply
especially when read by experts in the field. This for being well-informed in your subject: you also
chapter looked at some of these conventions, and have to be able to communicate your knowledge
how they are applied within a particular kind of to others, using the expected conventions. The
academic assignment, the essay. However, these chapter provided 4 essays, with commentaries, to
also apply within other assignments such as project enable you to develop an awareness of the kinds
reports and dissertations, covered in the next of essays that are handed in and how these would
chapter. be evaluated. Evaluating, or 'marking', essays for
Most academic writing is influenced by the yourself is useful for understanding what it is that
scientific model, which values objectivity and your tutors are looking for.
quantitative data. You will need to know which The strength of an essay is partly related to the
styles to use in your subject and for which formal characteristics covered in this chapter, and
purposes. For example, each academic subject depends partly on how far it meets the marking
varies in how much it values such aspects as use of criteria, including accuracy in the use of subject
qualitative data and/or personal experience, and material. It is important to know how marks are
awareness of subjectivity when evaluating evidence. allocated in your subject. Use your tutor's feedback
There are four main styles of writing used within constructively, and don't be put off by what seems
academic writing. Some pieces of work will require to be criticism. Tutors want as many students to
you to use all of these within a single assignment. succeed as possible - and their comments are
Almost all writing involves some elements of intended to help you improve your marks.
argument, evaluation, and synthesis. Generally, When you complete an essay, go through it
in academic writing at higher levels, descriptive yourself, checking it against the brief, the level
writing needs to be used selectively and in very descriptors, marking criteria provided by your
particular ways. tutors (as well as the checklists provided here). This
Your assignments will be designed to develop, will help you to develop your own independent
amongst other skills, your own competence in judgement about the quality of your work - which
writing in formal, clear, precise ways, using good may prove invaluable in your working life.
evidence and attributing sources in appropriate
ways.
Almost all courses set tasks which require you to Arguably, the most challenging and important
undertake some kind of research yourself. This aspects of such assignments are in:
might consist of many smaller projects for which • understanding what is required in terms of the
you write short reports, or larger-scale assignments brief and the process
such as a final year project, in-depth case study, • choosing a manageable topic
long essay or dissertation. • planning and managing your research or
Students often find such assignments daunting, dissertation as a project.
especially if it is the first time they select a topic This chapter looks at:
for themselves or their first large-scale assignment.
• what is required of you
However, students generally enjoy such tasks
• how to approach the task and manage the
because:
process
• they find the assignments interesting • and how to write up your assignment.
• typically, such assignments are set at a point in
the course where you have already had practice
in the underlying academic skills
• the course provides in-depth
training in the more
specialist skills needed.
^mm
Understanding and defining the task
Chapter 6 looked at the underlying research skills that you would call
upon for such assignments. It highlighted the importance of starting
out by defining the task as closely as you can.
j^^^Q Research
Res projects, case studies and dissertations
Defining the task: what is a project?
mmm
Dissertations and final year research projects
These larger-scale assignments enable you to: Time As this is a major piece of writing, all of
• undertake a substantial piece of independent your time may become dedicated to managing,
work with a great degree of choice in the topic researching and writing it up.
• pursue in depth a topic that interests you Self-management and motivation Independent
• put your personal stamp on a piece of work. study on this scale can leave students feeling
isolated or adrift. You need good strategies to
Differences from earlier assignments remain motivated and on schedule when working
Scale Dissertations and final year projects are alone for extended periods on a topic that only
larger-scale assignments based on broader reading you are researching in that depth.
and research, resulting in an extended piece of Background research You will read specialist
writing with a higher word limit. material and use original documents or data. You
Timing These are usually set towards the end of will also find that you read far more than for other
your programme as the culmination of your study, assignments. This makes it all the more important
and when you will have developed the right skills to maintain accurate, well organised records to
through undertaking earlier assignments. help you to find information when needed.
Independence and personal involvement You have Skills Such large-scale assignments provide
more control over the nature and scope of your opportunities for you to refine and extend a
assignment. They require strong commitment. wide range of skills, from collecting, analysing,
Students tend to become highly engaged in summarising and presenting information, to
investigating their specialist topic and take pride in decision-making, project management and
the end product. It is important to choose a topic problem-solving.
that really interests you.
j^^^Q Research
Res( projects, case studies and dissertations
Projects and dissertations: understanding o4
the process
»««W»iil^fclJ J|
%
Completing project reports and dissertations requires careful management.
The first step is to understand that process, from start to finish.
I
4 Draw up and agree your proposal
i Draw up a specific proposal or Gain Ethics Committee permission, if
outline, as required needed
i Check with your tutor/supervisor that Revise the proposal if/as advised.
the project is suitable
• Read and take notes on key literature • Write the review, demonstrating the
on your chosen topic relevance to your work of each item
• Keep details of all works that you cite you mention. Research
to include in your references
• Select the most relevant items for
your project
Mm
6 Implement your research design
• Fine-tune your methodology, scaling • Collect data or analyse your source
the project to the brief materials, keeping accurate records of
• Identify participants and/or what you find
equipment • Write up your methodology section.
• Design materials (if needed)
• Develop forms or databases to
gather and record data
1
8 Discuss your findings and draw conclusions
• Write the discussion section, bringing • Draw conclusions and/or make
critical analysis to your methods and recommendations based on your
findings and analysis.
Analysis
findings
• Identify the significance of your
research and ways that the topic
could be further researched
Writing up
10 Write the abstract and references
^^^^9 Re!
Research projects, case studies and dissertations
Projects and dissertations: managing the process
• that enables you to be specific about what you • Research and information management skills
are looking for (Chapter 6)
• that enables you to envisage what your results • Maintaining high motivation (Chapter 4)
or conclusions would look like. • Applying number skills (Chapter 9)
• Analysing material critically (Chapter 7)
Manage your time • Writing skills, including citing and referencing
sources (Chapter 11).
• Start early - don't wait to get started.
• Consider your options, but aim to narrow your Maintain contact; use support
focus early, so that you can start to conduct your
more detailed research in good time. Avoid becoming isolated:
• Once you have chosen a topic, stay with it. • Maintain contact with other students to share
Organise and plan your work, scheduling your experiences and gain different perspectives.
time in detail. You need a clear sense of: • Organise a support group (page 257).
• the range of tasks to be undertaken • Iffeasible, attend lectures in related subjects
• the order in which you will do them to gain background information or to fire your
• how much time to put aside for each. interest and imagination.
Find out what kind of proposal you need to Aim to draw on methods that have been covered
submit: the timing and contents of this vary. You as part of your course. Think through the
may have to submit: practicalities. Avoid complex methods that are
• just the title difficult to complete or that allow errors to creep
• and/or a rationale and outline plan in. Think through how your methods will provide
• and/or a full or partial literature review the information or data you need.
• or a pilot of your methods and results. See pages 351-64.
^^^^m Research
Ri projects, case studies and dissertations
Formulating your hypothesis
Most reports, especially in science subjects, include • Discussion section: you analyse why the results
a hypothesis. do or do not support the hypothesis. Might the
hypothesis have been supported under different
What is a hypothesis? conditions?
• Abstract: this focuses on your hypothesis and
The hypothesis is formulated before you start the whether the results support it to any significant
research, and states what you expect will happen extent.
- or what you are likely to find to be the case. For
example:
Writing the research hypothesis
• that there is a link between two factors
• how people will behave in certain circumstances The hypothesis must be worded very clearly and
• what the outcome would be if two substances precisely. It usually states that something will or
combined will not happen.
• that x causes y
Example: Research hypothesis
This is a theoretical assumption and should be a The research hypothesis was that adults
logical assumption based on your knowledge of would show a preference for savoury food
the subject. Your research tests your hypothesis to coloured blue over savoury food coloured with
see whether it can be supported by the evidence. food dyes simulating natural colourings. The
You design your research to ensure that you test second hypothesis was that there would be no
your hypothesis in an objective way. significant difference in the preferences of men
and women.
The nature of a hypothesis
You can't 'prove' a hypothesis. You can: Activity Formulating hypotheses
Disprove it - if your evidence doesn't support
Decide whether the following are well-worded
it. That can be a useful thing to do and adds to
hypotheses.
knowledge of the topic, so don't be discouraged if
your results do not support your hypothesis. Hypothesis 01 The research hypothesis was
Provide evidence to support it - the information that physical activity reduces depression.
or data you collect can provide evidence that Hypothesis 02 The research hypothesis was
supports the hypothesis under the particular to find out whether physical activity reduces
conditions of your own research and on that depression.
occasion. You or others might look to replicate
your research and gain different results that do not Hypothesis 03 The research hypothesis was
support the hypothesis on that occasion. that 20 minutes of brisk walking a day for 8
weeks would reduce sleep disturbance as a
symptom of clinical depression in women aged
Using your hypothesis
30-40.
Your hypothesis provides a clear focus on what Answers are given on page 413.
exactly to read, research, measure and discuss. You
refer back to it in sections of your report.
• Results section: you state clearly whether the
data support or do not support the research
hypotheses.
Once you have chosen your title, you can conduct perspectives on the core issues held by experts
a more in-depth search of the literature, focused in the field: in what ways, and why, do they
on what you now know will be relevant to your agree or disagree?
own project. • Read some specialist material, such as articles
in more specialist journals, or monograms, or
expert texts.
Be selective in what you read
You will be faced with a large amount of relevant Read critically; note selectively
material. You won't be able to read and use it • Make very brief notes of materials that look
all, so you will need to make choices about what relevant.
you will and will not use. You need to do this in • Evaluate what you read for its relevance and
ways that will enable you to demonstrate in your significance to your own selected title, thesis
literature review that you have: statement or hypothesis.
• a breadth of understanding of the field • Look for 'chains': consider how each piece of
• a depth of understanding of your specialist topic research or set of ideas influenced others. Trace
• a good grasp of what is the most significant briefly how the understanding of this topic has
material, and what is less so. developed through successive theories and
research findings.
• Make a list of 5-10 key pieces of research or
Know your field
developments in theory that have had most
• Undertake a preliminary broad survey of the influence on the subject. Chart briefly how each
material, tracing research in your topic back to influenced others in the chain.
r*m
Designing questionnaires
Questionnaires are useful for collecting data for Activity Poor questionnaire technique
a range of projects. You can use them to ask
participants to express preferences and opinions What is wrong with the following questions?
or to give information about their experiences
and background. When compiling these, decide 1 How old are you? Please circle one of the
whether you will ask participants to: following: 0-20 20-40 40-60
• complete a paper version themselves 2 Do you know who is the current Secretary of
State?
• complete electronically or online
• respond to questions verbally whilst you fill out 3 Do you believe in capital punishment?
the questionnaire yourself. Yes/No
4 Do you like coming onto campus and eating
Questions for quantitative research in the cafe?
^^^^J Re<
Research projects, case studies and dissertations
Preparation
Survey monkey (www.surveymonkey.com)
Ifyou wish participants to complete the • An online survey generator that makes it easy
questionnaire themselves, make it easy to use. to set up basic surveys.
• Include a maximum of 5-6 questions. • Free for surveys of 10 questions or fewer.
• Bear in mind that most people will respond only • Easy for participants to access and complete
to 'yes/no' or 'tick the box' questions. (Very few online.
people write comments.) • Records responses automatically and gives
• Bear in mind that online and postal surveys you an overview of these.
attract a very low response rate - and you do
not know for sure who completed the returned
surveys.
• Ifyou include open questions or ask for Questions for qualitative research
comment, leave plenty of space for responses.
In qualitative research, typically only one or two
people or items can be included in a student
Recording responses project. However, a good questioning technique
will usually encourage interviewees to express
• Keep accurate records. themselves in detail.
• Order your findings into tables.
• Devise a simple tool to collect your responses. Prepare prompts that politely encourage the
interviewee to return to the subject, such as:
The following table allows the researcher to record
responses quickly and clearly - in this case, about • I'd like to ask you more about a point you
mentioned earlier...
which font style is preferred, according to status
and gender, for each participant. • That's very helpful. Thank you. I'd also like to
ask you about...
Preferences forsamples of font style A few open-ended questions usually generate a
great deal of material that takes considerable time
Female Male
to analyse. For qualitative research:
Sample 1 • Goodquestions are open-ended. Most encourage
Sample 2 a response other than a simple 'yes' or 'no'.
No preference / • Goodquestions are focused. They encourage the
Staff /(student) interviewee to respond on the issue you are
researching.
(This answer is from a male student with no • Good questions invite respondents to consider an
preference.) issue from different angles. For example, 'What
Ifyou are designing a questionnaire that were the advantages of taking part in the pilot
participants will complete electronically: study?' and 'What were the disadvantages?'
• Use the guidance provided on page 352. • Good questions are free of bias. They do not lead
• Keep the structure of your questions simple. the interviewee to a particular answer (as do 'I
• Include clear instructions on how to make and suppose you think taking part was a bad idea?'
submit answers. or 'I hear you are glad you took part?')
• Ask participants to choose a response from a
limited number of options, rather than asking
them to type their answers.
• If asking participants to choose from a range of
responses (such as between 1 and 5), use the
ranges consistently.
• Ensure questions flow in a logical order.
Use the following checklist to see whether your questionnaire does what you want it to do, and will be
manageable for you to use as a researcher.
|^^^S Re:
Research projects, case studies and dissertations © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Interview techniques
If you are interviewing more than one person, it is • Explain what will happen during and after the
important that you carry out all of your interviews interview, and how long it will take.
in near-identical conditions, to ensure consistency. • Specifyyour requirements for interview space
or privacy. Negotiate acceptable alternatives. If
• Prior to the interview, make a list of questions,
there are any risks to you, do not proceed.
with possible prompts for each.
• Do not make promises.
• If there is more than one interviewer, agree
• Do not get drawn into sharing personal
questions, prompts and any other words in
experiences, as this can lead to unforeseen
advance. Practise so that you phrase questions
consequences. It can also distort the kind of
and record responses in the same way.
information you receive in answer to your
• Conduct the interview just as you practised it.
questions.
Interview each person in the same way.
After long interviews
Conducting the interview
• Write up your notes as soon as possible.
• Know your questions well so that you do not
• Ifyou are required to transcribe the interview,
have to read them. This will engage participants
write down exactly what was said, indicating
better.
pauses, coughs, 'urns' and 'ahs', and so on.
• Sit at right angles to the interviewee.
• Go through your notes with coloured pens or
• Use eye contact, and smile occasionally.
pencils, marking all sections that refer to similar
• Be confident but polite.
themes.
• Keep it short: don't impose on people's time.
• Write a list of the themes, and where you can
• Thank people for participating.
find these in your notes.
••»mmmm
Presenting and analysing the data
2 3 10 15
Analyse the data
Male students
It is easier to look for patterns and to draw
Female students 4 7 4 15
conclusions when you have organised your data
Totals 23 18 19 60 according to categories, as in the charts and
tables above. It is important to organise results in
Bar charts
different ways and to compare the results.
When presenting information in bar charts, • Analyse your data. What do they tell you? Is this
select two things that can be compared against what you expected? Do the data support your
each other. Label the horizontal line (axis) with research hypothesis?
the details of what is being compared. In the • How do your findings compare with those in the
example below, the horizontal axis refers to research literature?
sample preferences. Label the vertical axis with the • What questions are you not able to answer
difference that is being measured. In the example because of the way you designed your research?
here, this is the number of people who indicated a Could the design be improved?
given preference. • What questions are raised by your research?
j^^^^S Research
Re projects, case studies and dissertations
«•
Characteristics of reports
2 present research data and findings that you 2 focus on analysing or evaluating theory,
have collected yourself past research by other people, and ideas;
they seldom present the findings of new
research
9 include a discussion section that identifies how 9 are not usually reflective about the process
the research could have been improved, and of researching and writing the essay itself
areas for further research
Title Write this in the centre of the first page, with Measurement criteria Discuss the kinds of data
the course title, and the date. you gathered. How did you analyse them? How
reliable or accurate were your data?
Acknowledgements List people you wish to thank
for help given. Results Present your main findings briefly, using
headings for clarity. Give results in the order in
Abstract Give a succinct summary of your project which you conducted any experiments, or start
report or dissertation, clarifying why the subject with the most important. Be honest about your
is significant or worthy of study, and your results: do not assume these are 'poor' if they
conclusions. For experimental reports, state your don't prove your hypothesis. The integrity of
research proposal or hypotheses, the methods your results and reporting are more important.
used to test these, the results, whether these
were significant, and whether they supported Discussion This is a longer section. Analyse and
the hypotheses. explain your findings. Were they what you
had expected? Were they consistent with your
Abstracts may be reproduced and read
hypothesis? How are they significant? Did they
separately from the rest of the report, so repeat
support or challenge existing theories?
information included in other sections.
Demonstrate that you understand your results
Contents List the main sections and the page on and findings: what had an impact on them?
which each begins (including appendices). How could your research design, methods or
sources be improved, refined or extended - such
Tables and illustrations List any illustrations,
as by using new variables, sources or data?
charts, maps and so on, giving the page number
for each. Conclusions If a conclusion is required, summarise
your key points and show why your hypothesis
Introduction Briefly discuss what the research
was supported or should be rejected.
is about - why is it important or significant?
State your proposals or hypotheses briefly: what Recommendations In subjects such as social
are you going to show or test through your policy, business or health, you may be asked to
research? give a numbered list of suggestions for action.
Review of the literature Discuss the most References List, in alphabetical order, the sources
important writings on the subject, highlighting you cited in your report or dissertation. Use the
the key contribution of their findings or format required on your course.
perspectives to the development of this line of
enquiry within your field. Focus on how previous Bibliography If required, list relevant further
research leads up to your research. Introduce reading, again in alphabetical order.
your experimental hypothesis, if you have one.
Appendices Include essential items only, such
Method How did you conduct your research? as instructions given to participants, materials
What methods did you use? Did you replicate developed for your research, tables and graphs.
methods used by other researchers? Include only items mentioned (and numbered)
in your report.
Exactly what were the conditions of the
experiment? How many people or items were
included? How did you select them? What
instructions did you give to participants?
M
Writing the report: the body of the report
The main body of a project report details your Normally you would present results both in a brief
research design, your methods, your results, paragraph, and in tables or charts which summarise
and an analysis of these. the data. You may be asked to present your data as
appendices only.
Methodology or 'research design'
Example: Results
This section details how you gained your
data and analysed it, so that readers can
decide whether your results or conclusions are
fid * 13l^icj^s W°) did not select ablue
reliable. It also enables others to replicate your rZ+h u6 fmdln9S d° n°+ SUPP°r+ the *>* research
research to test your findings. The writing select ablue option were women. 44% of women selected
is descriptive, and lists actions in the order ablue option compared with 6.25% of men. This does not
undertaken: 'First this was done, then that was support the second research hypothesis.
done ...'.
Discussion
Example: Methodology
This section makes a critical analysis of the data. It
Participants 32 dult draws out interesting findings such as:
The research
students, part.c.pants
all aged over 25. were
There5we • the significance of your results and whether these
support or differ from previous research
numbers of men and women. • your conclusions, and the evidence for these
• if relevant, your reasons for why the research
hypothesis was not supported
• suggestions of how improvements or variants to the
research could yield different outcomes or further
useful research
• how your results could be applied elsewhere.
For the research above, the discussion might analyse:
• The sample Was it representative? Could the ethnic
to give 16 possible options. mix or age range, or asking students only, have
made a difference?
Meth°d *• • nnt« were
Firstly, part.c.pants were told
to that all of the • The method Could this have been improved? Did
food was coloured us.ngart.f,.a dy ^ the blue food look unpleasant rather than simply
perSon was then alowed tocjo- ^ ^ rf unnatural'? Would there have been a different
response to an unnatural-looking green?
• Future research What research is needed to clarify
these results further? For example, do colour
^ggandpreferences by gender preferences apply to all foods or only to some? How
long does the 'novelty factor' last?
Example: Part of the Discussion section
Results
The results section simply presents the data: it The research indicated that even when participants were
does not discuss them. Keep this section short; told that all food options were artificially coloured, they
include only relevant and representative data.
still chose savoury food that looked 'natural' rather than
food dyed blue. This suggests that adults have a
State whether your results support the research preference for natural colours in savoury food. However,
hypotheses. Often they do not: this is neither the blue dye was streaky; this might have distorted the
'good' nor 'bad'. results.
Conclusions Abstracts
Conclusions sum up your research, setting out its Although the abstract is presented at the start
significance and your findings. No new information of the report, before the contents page, it is
or references are included. The conclusions are also more efficient to write this last. Leave plenty
included in the abstract, the introduction, and the of time for this: it can take a number of drafts
discussion. to rephrase it in order to fit everything in. The
abstract sums up your aims, your research
For the research above, the conclusions might
hypothesis, your methodology, your findings
include:
and your conclusions. You may be set a tight
• a note that your research findings are not word limit, such as 50-100 words. An abstract
consistent with previous research findings needs to be both brief and concise.
• a brief summary of why your results may be
different (for instance, adult participants rather
than children, and savoury food rather than
Example 1: Abstract (50-word limit)
sweet) This report suggests that research into truancy
• notes of any shortcomings of the research (the S ted the critical role of school play-
streakiness of the blue colouring might have time InSpth interviews with 6former truan.
distorted results). rodent's,
dynamics withinhighlight the pi^^f
the playground+ Theinterviews
Example: Conclusions suqgest that 'feeling like an outsider at play
time encourages initial acts of truancy.
Example 2: Abstract (100-word
limit)
ofresearch.
blue pr°ductVXrue
did not hod true for savoury foods.
thoose This report presents an analysis^ofadults
responses to dyed savoury foodstuffs. The m,t
^e research *WfS™ JJ, from sweet Lmotheses based on Jay's research (2008b),
SSadults wou.d show apreference for
food dyed blue over natural-look.ng foods, and
of parlicipa^^^ *"*"~~ E££S2I»«^;cged over 25
savoury . f pomQ
Recommendations
XctTo^ cttl Neither hypothesis was
uported, as 75% did not select ablue opt.on.
The purpose of recommendations is to suggest „Jrf 44% of women selected a blue item
ways forward. They might propose how to improve °c mpar dwith 6.25% of men. However only the
current ways of working, or action that needs to S result was statistically significant.
be taken. They are numbered. For example, if you
were undertaking research for an agency, your
recommendations might be: Summaries
1 Undertake further research using a larger sample. Some subjects require a summary rather than an
2 Avoid use of blue food dyes in the manufacture abstract. This is usually longer than an abstract,
of savoury food products for adults. but still no more than a page. The summary
contains the aims and objectives, a brief outline
Research undertaken from an academic or scientific
of the research problem, the methodology,
perspective rather than, for example, a marketing the key findings, the conclusions and the main
one, does not usually include recommendations. recommendations.
'Si
Writing the report: layout, presentation and style
A Main heading: the title, in large print. • You would probably make a recommendation -
B Section headings: in a slightly larger font than in this case, not to use blue colouring.
the text, and in bold type.
C Sub-headings: may be in italics or bold.
D Other lesser headings: should stand out clearly.
|^^^» Res
Research projects, case studies and dissertations
M
Project or dissertation report: checklist %
'/..*t
Use the checklist before completing your final draft. Mark items with a tick /
once you are satisfied these are completed correctly.
Done / Item
11 The literature review is succinct and demonstrates breadth, depth and the relevance of
previous research
12 The research method is accurately written, with full details written precisely and
succinctly
13 The results or findings are presented clearly and accurately
sr#£^!3
14 It is clearlystated whether the results support the hypothesis and are significant or not
15 The report analyses, critically, the results or findings in the light of previous research,
and critiques the research design
16 Conclusions or recommendations are included, if required
17 All the information is relevant
© StellaCottrell (2013) The StudySkills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Research projects, case studies and dissertations
-$m
Case studies
^%?mm#w*m:ci
A case study is an in-depth study of a single • Case studies may open up new lines of enquiry
example. It offers a chance to analyse one case - for research.
such as a single person, group, company, event, • They are useful in identifying how rules, theory
or geographical area - as an example of a general or work practice should be adapted to meet the
type. It allows you to look at something in much needs of special cases.
more detail than is typical of other research • They can draw out examples of good or bad
methods. practice in the workplace.
^^^9 Research
Res projects, case studies and dissertations
Writing a case study
As a student, you may be asked to undertake constraints and project brief. Working within such
a variety of research-based assignments, from constraints is part of the brief. The objectives may
smaller projects through to larger-scale projects, seem minor compared with published research,
dissertations or in-depth case studies. but this is not a problem as long as the project is
well managed, has clearly written outcomes, and is
Once you have learnt how to do projects and write linked to previous research.
essays and reports, then larger-scale assignments
such as dissertations and other final year projects It can be a good idea to apply previous research
should be much more manageable tasks. They methods to a small sample that has not been
are challenging because you are more in control. researched before. For example, you could use
You have to make the decisions and manage the examples from your own age group, from a
process for yourself. They require more reading, minority ethnic group, from a local area, or your
the collection of a larger set of data or the use of workplace. This could make the project more
primary sources, and take more time to analyse interesting and relevant for you, and it would
and present. They require excellent forward add to the overall body of knowledge about the
planning and attention to detail. subject.
Projects and dissertations provide opportunities to If there are opportunities for independent
cover a subject that really interests you so they can or group projects, consider them seriously.
be extremely rewarding and enjoyable. Through Although they can be demanding, they give
the decisions that you make, you will bring an you practice in applying a range of skills, not
element of originality to the assignment although least in project management and organisation.
it is not usually expected that you will make major They generally require you to work with a high
discoveries. degree of independence and are a good test of
your problem-solving skills, resourcefulness and
The best student projects, whether small scale self-reliance. Because of this, it is likely that you
or a major piece of work, are clear and well- will find that a successful outcome is all the more
defined. They are carefully thought through so satisfying.
as to be manageable within the time limits, word
L^
^J Research projects, case studies and dissertations
Chapter 14
Revision and exams
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• take charge of the exam experience
• consider some advantages of examinations
• become aware of some common pitfalls - and learn how to avoid them
• develop ideas for approaching revision in the long term and in the build-up to exams
• consider other preparation needed apart from revision
• develop strategies and techniques to help during the exam itself
• learn ways of managing stress in order to facilitate your learning
• feel you have some control over the exam experience.
,:h-mm
What does revision involve?
•^mmmm
1 Leaving revision until Revision is a way of pulling your understanding together in preparation
the last minute. for the exam. You can include and plan for revision from the beginning of
the course. Here are some examples.
• When planning and reading for a part of the course, write alternative
essay titles on separate pages, jot brief notes, or page references to
material, under each title.
• Makeyour notes readable, attractive and visually compelling as you go
through the course - this builds the memory.
• Start to over-learn names, dates and key points early in the year, using
notes or 'flash cards' in spare moments (see page 214). Even ifyou
forget them, they will be easier to learn a second time round.
• Begin intense revision about four weeks before the exam.
• Read the sections on 'Exams' (pages 374-8) well before the exam.
2 Reading through • Use creative and interactive strategies (see Chapters 4 and 8). This
notes over and over keeps your mind alert, and helps to integrate information.
again. • Instead of just reading, read in order to find out. The best way to do
this is to look for material related to possible exam answers. Ask in
the libraryfor past exam papers for your course, and invent your own
questions.
• Discussing past exam questions with friends makes this process more
interesting.
• Time yourself writing some essays without looking at your notes. This
not only shows you which areas need more work but helps to increase
your handwriting speed and your ability to think and write under
pressure.
3 Writing notes out • This can be a good strategy ifyou learn through 'motor memory'.
over and over again. Working to different essay plans keeps the information fresh and
develops your thinking about the subject.
• Some people find that rewriting notes interferes with visual recall of
their original set of notes. For them, it is preferable to develop one
good complete set of notes, plus a series of flash cards.
• Reduce information to a series of memory triggers. Reduce a set of
triggers to one key word or image.
4 Writing out essays This is time-consuming and counter-productive - it is unlikely that the
and learning them off identical question will come up in your exam. It is better to spend time
by heart. reflecting on, and practising, a range of answers, so that you over-learn
the material (see page 214). You will then be able to work with it flexibly
during the exam, selecting exactly what you need for the exact title
given.
5 Finding ways of • Make a revision timetable which leaves empty spaces to cater for real
putting off revision emergencies. Do a spell of revision before each 'urgent task'.
(such as 'urgent' • Use watching television or other distractions as a reward - put them in
things that need to your timetable.
be done, watching • See Tricks forgetting started (page 279).
TV, or chatting with • You may be missing company. Have a go at revising with other
friends or family). students, or involve others in your revision. Explain a subject to them:
can they understand your explanation? Ask them to test you on your
memory triggers, or to ask you questions from your notes.
6 '1 can't force myself • Go back over Chapter 4. Check your motivation.
back to study.' • Rather than 'forcing' yourself, encourage and entice yourself to study
through short-term goals, challenges, creativity, and studying with
others.
• Check that your timetable has sufficient breaks for rest.
8 '1 can't cope with • Work in many shorter spells rather than long revision sessions.
the boredom of it. • Boredom suggests that you are not using a variety of interactive
1start to daydream learning techniques, nor using your creativity (Chapters 4 and 8).
or wonder why I'm • Look for ways of introducing variety into your study sessions.
bothering.' • Look for unusual angles on the material you have, or images that sum
up the material. Think of ways in which seemingly unrelated material
could be linked. Invent an essay or a test for yourself.
• To stretch your mind and increase your interest, set yourself greater
challenges. For example, read a more advanced article on the subject
and consider how you could weave any relevant material into your
exam answers.
9 '1 have too many • Make use of short spells of time, on buses, during tea breaks, and the
responsibilities like.
to make revision • Divide your material into short sections. Always carry some with you.
practicable.' • Carry an exam question in your head and jot down ideas as they
occur.
10 Stopping revision • Check back repeatedly over what you have learnt, reducing your
before the process material to shorter, key memory triggers as your recall improves.
of over-learning is • Keep asking yourself: 'How can 1use this material to answer other
complete. questions that might come up?'
• Over-learning takes time - use spare moments well.
© StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Revision and exams
Revision and exam preparation
*WKtf*-.3a-«ir i.:
D3Unow^ct^-the^;r;rereq,ltedforeache»m
n 4 ,am aware how many questrons are req
U „„, module details carefully to checK
whatlamexpe mthat the material* easy to learn
n 7 lean work out how many topics Ineed to revrse
S . ,amawareof,heran9eofquestlons,natcancomeupfo.
• lknowhow,owo,on«amanswe.uslng pas, papers
• ,na«started,o practise^ out answers at spee
U ,ctrateaies Ineed to revise for the
Q 12 Iam aware~ of
^f thp memory strategies i
the meiuu y
n,3 iZwhowthemarksarewe^dforeachouest-
S mawareofhowtousetlmemos,e«ec„ve,ylnthe«am
H 5,am aware o, how to avoid common p«s,n exams
S^lamawareotthed.erences.etween.amanswersand
coursework
Ql7,know how to manage stress and use It etteCvery
In what ways have your past revision strategies and your approach
to exams helped or hindered your exam success? What can you
change or improve for your next set of exams?
Revision and exams © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan
Revision: seven-point action plan
1 Positive state of mind, e.g. checking my motivation; giving myself positive messages; working on
stress; accepting the challenge. Things I will do to stay positive:
2 Time, e.g. going over my workfrom early in the year in different ways; organising a timetable,
Priority organiser (page 135) or Time circle for revision (pages 132-3); dealing with my excuses for
not revising; using spare moments. / will:
3 Variety, e.g. working in many short spells; using varied and interesting ways of going over my
material. / will:
4 Over-learning, e.g. rewriting notes, flash cards, new essay plans, memory triggers. / will:
5 Practice, e.g. doing past questions; working under exam conditions; having a trial run. / will:
7 Selection What topics will I revise? What level of detail can I really use under exam conditions?
/ will:
© StellaCottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Revision and exams
mm
Advance preparation for the exam
j^^^^S Rev
Revision and exams
Exams
O
J>
Time leftfor writing answers (total time minus preparation and final check time):
Total marks available Length of time to spend Time to start each new
for each question on each question answer
Which aids - dictionaries, calculators, etc. - are permissible for this paper?
What must I take to the exam room? Identity card? Pens? Coloured pencils? Any special equipment? A
jumper? Water? Snacks, to be eaten quietly? Glucose tablets?
© StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Revision and exams
In the exam
• Divide your time equally among questions that • you can write less about each point
carry the same marks. |ot down the times you • you can miss out some background detail
will begin each question. • you don't need to give a bibliography or supply
detailed references
j^^^^Q Revi
Revision and exams
Doing well in exams
Common pitfalls in
examinations... ... and how to avoid them
1 Doing silly things Well before the exam, find out what is required. Make sureyou turn
Silly things can fail exam up at the right exam centre on the right day. Check that you have
candidates or lose marks or
been given the right exam paper. Be sure to write your name or
the examiner's goodwill. exam number on the answer paper and on additional sheets. Read
the questions. Check the back of the exam paper. Answer the right
number of questions. Put time aside to check such details carefully.
2 Mystifying the exam Examiners have a large pile of scripts. They want to get through
The examiner won't pore over these as quickly as they can, with justa few minutes for each. They
your script for hours, nor see may checkyour introduction and conclusion for the gist of your
through your answer to what argument, skim the answer to evaluateyour line of reasoning, check
you don't know. There is no
that you are using material from the course to support your answers,
'magical ingredient' you have and evaluate roughly what grade the work is worth. They are unlikely
to deliver.
to mark it as closely as tutors mark coursework. Often a second
markergoes through the same process: ifshe or he disagrees, the
external examiner's opinion will be asked. Only excessively bad
grammar, spelling errors or handwriting are likely to stand out.
Using exam time poorly Give equal time to questions that carry equal marks - and more time
and answering too few to any that carry extra marks. The lawof diminishing returns applies
questions to the amount of time spent on any one question: ifyou spend twice
as long on one question, you are very unlikely to get twice as many
marks. You are more likely to pass ifyou give reasonable answers to
the set number of questions than ifyou spend all your time writing
some brilliant essays but miss out one question completely.
Ifyou run out of the time you have allocated to one answer, leave a
space - there may be time to come back to it at the end.
4 Writing everything you The examiner is not interested in how much you know - indeed, you
know about a topic may get no marks at all for simply listing a lot of information. Just as
There is no value in simply for coursework, marks are given for showing you can make sense of
writing down all you know to the question, relate it to course issues, develop a line of reasoning,
prove you've learnt it.
evaluate opposing viewpoints, and offer supporting evidence.
5 Abandoning structure Because of the speed at which exam markers work, they appreciate
and the usual essay answers with clear, well-organised structures, good introductions
writing techniques and conclusions, correctly numbered questions, and clearly labelled
scripts which are easy to read. You lose goodwill ifyour script is
messy, illegible or confusing to read.
Yes
No Things to do, or
to watch out for
Do I ...
feel^ctenTa^out^^^ do?
f"d questions that are simi.ar to ones, have pract.sed.
find Ihave revised enough top.cs?
know what a'good' answer looks like?
know which writing style is appropriate.
know the cor^ectfoma^oHay^ut?^_
plaTmTa^sweTsWp^^^
develop aclear argument (where appropnate)?
use examples from the course materials.
keep strictly to answering
^irrelevant detail and the question
going set.
off at tangents?
net to the point quickly?
^.lowe^anguage and vague i„.,oduct,o„s7
includeanirur^
keepfooised^hTexam
check my answers for mistakes?
check my answers to see if they make sense.
If you answered 'yes' to most of these questions, then your chance of exam
success is high.
If not, look again through the relevant sections of this Handbook and work out
what you need to practise. If you are still uncertain about any aspects, consult
with your tutor.
^^^^y Rev
Revision and exams © StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Dealing with stress
A milddegree of stress
can be helpful, providing
a challenge with
stimulation, excitement,
and focus. Some people
deliberately search out
stress to make life more
exciting.
mmmm
Managing stress
Take breaks
Give yourself regular breaks in whatever you are Manage your time
doing.
Be organised
Use the STOP! exercise
EH Organise yourself to avoid
CH Let yourself stop stress. Make timetables
everything for a moment. and action plans to avoid
Breathe slowly or count predictable crises and
to 100.
panics. Take control of
• Let yourself smile - your time.
even if this is difficult.
• Spread out your hands Set priorities
and relax your fingers. I IWork out your priorities and when you will do
Let your hands and feet each of the tasks. Work out which things can
be still. wait - and let them (see pages 1 34-5).
• Repeat 'Stop' to yourself until you feel calm.
Take care of your body
Monitor your state of mind Get exercise
^^^^J ReRevision and exams © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Have a healthy diet Use a relaxation exercise
LJ Check what you are D Take time to relax, consciously.
putting into your 1 Lie on the floor or sit in a comfortable chair.
body. Could you fill
2 Close your eyes and breathe out slowly
it with less coffee,
several times. Don't force the breathing.
less smoke, less
alcohol and fewer 3 If your mind is racing, do the 'Stop!' exercise
chemicals? Does
(page 380).
your body need bigger helpings of substances 4 Notice where your body feels tense.
that help it renew itself - such as food and Then do each of the following several times.
water? 5 Clench your toes tightly, count to three, then
'let go'. Repeat this several times.
Relax 6 Repeat this with all the muscles you can,
working from your toes up to your neck.
Treat yourself 7 Pull your shoulders right up to your ears -
LJ Take a relaxing and let them drop. Repeat several times.
bath. Don't 8 Screw up all the face muscles. Then relax.
rush it. Light Open your mouth into a big yawn.
a candle, or
9 Imagine yourself in a peaceful, beautiful,
treat yourself to
safe place. Listen for sounds and look at the
aromatherapy oils.
colours there. It can be any place, real or
LJ Put some time aside every day just to enjoy
imaginary. This can be a safe 'retreat' in the
yourself or to do nothing. Try to get at least 20 mind for you to go when stressed.
minutes on your own in quiet.
Breathe calmly
Celebrate success
D After relaxation, sit or lie comfortably. Close
Lj Reflect on your achievements over the day or your eyes. Put on relaxing music if you wish.
week - and reward yourself.
1 Imagine that you are breathing in calm and
tranquillity with each in-breath, and letting
go of stress with each out-breath.
Daydream 2 Think of one word you find soothing, and
D Imagine that thefloor is a cloud or a repeat this in your mind.
big ball of cotton wool, and that you 3 Do this for about ten minutes - or longer if
are lying down on this, sinking down you like.
into it and floating away. D If you find that difficult, just stay still and be
D Imagine that you are on a magic quiet. Listen to the sounds around you.
carpet. Look down at the landscape Q Meditation classes may also be helpful.
moving beneath you.
Where would you like Further reading
to visit? • NHS Website http://www.nhs.uk/
CH Imagine thatyou are livewell/stressmanagement/Pages/
on a mountain top, Stressmanagementhome.aspx
enjoying the view. • Wilkinson, G. (1997). Understanding Stress.
London: British Medical Association ('Family
Doctor' series).
• Wilson, P. (1997). Calm at Work. London:
Penguin.
) StellaCottrell (2013) The StudySkills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Revision and exams
Review
Examinations are a culmination of your term's Regard heightened nervous energy and some
or your year's learning - not just of the course stress as a useful friend. However, take care to relax
content but also of strategies you have developed and keep stress to a manageable level. Remember
over the year. Many of the strategies that help you that the examiners - often your tutors - generally
to do well at exams are similar to those needed wantyou to do well. They will be looking for ways
for any assignment: organisation, selection, to give you marks and help you pass.
developing your point of view and line of
reasoning, and structured writing skills. Ifyou wish to hone your revision and exam skills,
you may find it helpful to read further: Stella
This means that revision and exam preparation Cottrell, The Exam Skills Handbook: Achieving Peak
are not separate events, completely divorced from Performance, second edition (Palgrave Macmillan,
the other learning activities you undertake in the 2012). Exams can be an exciting time. By the time
year. If you have worked steadily all year, the exam the exam is over you will probably feel that you
period will be more manageable. really know your subject!
Don't build the exam out of proportion. If you Immediately after the exam, you may feel a little
don't pass, you are usually offered a second deflated - be prepared for that possibility. Arrange
chance. Ifyou still don't pass it, it's not the end of something enjoyable and relaxing as a reward.
the world - there's life beyond exams, and success
without a degree. Your health, family and friends Celebrate your achievements.
are not worth sacrificing for the sake of a degree.
However, if you revise well and stay calm, it is
highly probable that you will pass your exams.
Drawing it together
Once you have been a student for a while, into more detail about particular skills, such
worked on a number of assignments and had as critical analysis, preparation for exams, or
occasion to develop your study skills, it is likely writing up a larger-scale assignment such as a
that your academic performance will have dissertation, depending on what is most live for
developed substantially. Students often do not you at the moment.
appreciate just how far they have improved
For most students, the relationship between
until they look back at their earlier work and
reconsider the issues that had been more
the skills that they are developing as a student
and those that they can apply in the workplace
problematic earlier. Many small, incremental
becomes increasingly important as they
changes can add up to large gains in confidence
move through their course. It is usually best
and achievement. It can be a real boost to your
to consider your broader skills set within the
confidence to see how far you have travelled.
context of career planning from as early as
It is also true that progress can be uneven, possible in your course.
with great advances in some areas and less in
For all of these reasons, it is useful to stand back
others. The increasing demands made of you
and to take stock of where you are now, what
throughout your course can mean that you find
you will do with the skills that you have gained,
that some skills need continual development or
and what further advances you would like to
fine-tuning.
make.
It is useful, at this point, to consider where to
fine-tune some skills beyond the generic level
of this book. You may find it helpful to go
Drawing it together
•*mmm
Chapter 15
Planning your next move
Learning outcomes
This chapter offers you opportunities to:
• identify your study achievements so far
• evaluate your achievements
• understand what is meant by 'personal development planning'
• identify your personal planning to date
• identify the next set of targets for your own progress.
This chapter is an opportunity to take stock of Study skills are part of a developmental process.
what you have achieved so far. Ifyou have worked This book has suggested study strategies and
through one or more chapters of the book already, concepts that can be applied to most aspects of
then the Evaluating achievementchart on page study. They have been used effectively by students
386 is one place where you can record your at all levels, including postgraduates.
evaluation of what you have learnt.
However, successful study also benefits from a
To make an accurate judgement about what range of ancillary skills more commonly associated
you have achieved - neither understating it nor with the concepts of 'personal development'
overstating it - you will need to consider a number or 'continuous professional development' than
of points: traditionally linked with the term 'study skills'.
• What do you believeyou have achieved? What Developing your skills and experience on a broad
can you do now that you could not do before? front can have a positive impact on academic
• What is the evidence of your achievement - how work, on career outcomes, and on personal well-
do you know that you succeeded? being.
• What is the significance of your achievement - This chapter introduces the concept of personal
what does it mean, and how does it help? planning. It maps out personal development
• What is still left to do? There is always room already addressed through this book, and begins
to fine-tune skills so that you can work more the process of setting targets towards a wider set
creatively, more effectively, with less stress, and of personal goals.
so forth. In addition, you may lose skills if you
do not make use of them. Plan opportunities to
practise your skills.
• What new challenges do you wish to set
yourself? How can you broaden your range of
skills or your perspectives on life, and open up
new opportunities?
Prompt Evaluation
Taking it further
What can 1do to build upon
this success? (How can 1fine-
tune my skillsfurther? Could
1apply these skills to a new
situation? What is my next
step?)
^^^^9 Plai
Planning your next move © Stella Cottrell(2013) TheStudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan
Planning your future
Identify 0 which types of personal planning you n Planning a study project or work project.
have already undertaken. CI Thinking through how to give someone bad
news.
n Researching and planning in order to
complete a qualification or programme at n Balancing a busy schedule.
school or college. CH Planning how you will develop a skill over
CD Researching and planning a major life event time (such as driving, technical skills, or in
(such as the birth of a child, or moving sports or arts).
home). CD Thinking long-term when making choices.
El Researching and planning an event (such as a CH Taking specific courses to develop personal
party, festival or degree show). awareness (such as in management, coaching
n Researching and planning to inform your or counselling).
choice of college or university. [H Taking courses to develop your personal
d Research and planning to inform your choice interests.
^^^^J Rlar
Planning your next move
m*c
Below are suggestions of steps you can take now What the Careers Service can offer
to develop your readiness for later when you apply
for graduate jobs. The Careers Service can advise you on how to
make the best use of your time while you are a
student, so that you:
• develop your ideas about the kinds of jobs you
really want
• choose the right subject options for careers that
interest you or suit you best
• are aware of the skills and qualities employers
want in the fields of work that interest you
• make the best use of opportunities open to you
as a student
• prepare well in advance for the kinds of jobs that
interest you
• are aware of the range of opportunities available
to you, through university and beyond.
University Careers Services often have a jobshop
or similar facility to help you gain student jobs or
work placements while you are studying.
Decide what is important to you It pays to consider the full range of subject options
open to you. Consider whether you could:
Many students find it useful to talk with a Careers • take a complementary subject that would
Adviser about what is involved in pursuing a give you an unusual but marketable range of
certain career. Before you commit yourself to a expertise
particular route, make sure that you know what • develop new skills or languages
the job would entail.
• develop an international perspective
Beware of the apparent glamour of some jobs: • develop business skills
search below the surface for details of what day- • develop relevant professional skills
to-day work would be like, and think whether this
• create an opportunity for work experience.
would suit you. For example:
• Are long hours expected of employees in these However, bear in mind that there will be many
kinds of jobs? Ifso, would you be prepared to learning opportunities throughout your life when
work those hours? you could catch up in areas that you have missed.
• Would you be willing to work for many years on
a training wage until you were fully qualified? Stand out from the crowd
• Would you be prepared to take more
qualifications in order to pursue your chosen Consider what opportunities you can make use of
career? now so that later, when competing with others
for jobs or academic places, you stand out as
• Can you afford the further training?
'distinctive'.
• Would you like the kind of people who are
usually attracted to this kind of work?
• Would a lot of travel be required? If so, would
this be acceptable to you?
• Would you be likely to be moved to
different parts of the country, or to other
countries? Would you mind?
• How stressful is the job? How much stress
would you be prepared to put up with?
• Are there any health and safety risks associated
with this kind of work?
• What would be the effects of this kind of job on
family life? Would you be prepared to accept
these?
• Would you be expected to socialise regularly 00 r^
with colleagues? Is that something
that would appeal to you?
When you apply for a job, you will probably be Gain work experience
asked to send in a curriculum vitae (CV). On this,
you listyour educational and work history, your There is no substitute for work experience - it
interests, and other activities you have undertaken. builds a range of skills and attitudes that are hard
Your academic qualifications form only one part to learn through study. Work experience need not
of a CV. If you do nothing but study whilst at necessarily be in a relevant area. Ifyou want to
university, you may have very little to write on your enter a career quickly after graduating, it can pay
CV or to discuss at interview. to have any kind of work experience during your
time as a student - especially if you have not been
You can expect employers to ask for examples of: in paid employment before.
• where you have demonstrated certain skills
There is a wide range of choices:
• how you dealt with certain kinds of situation
typically encountered in the workplace (such as • paid employment
dealing with the public) • voluntary work schemes
• voluntary work or public service. • sandwich programmes, work-based learning
modules or work placements
It is worth planning ahead to ensure that you build
• work placements abroad
up at least some experience upon which you can
draw for application forms and interviews. This • internships
may be through work experience, performing, • mentoring-in-schools projects
putting on an exhibition, or some other activity. • artists in residency (for arts students)
• Student Union work.
Write a CV
Broaden your life experience
Write a CV and keep it up to date. Maintain good
records and keep track of experience, jobs, dates Identify ways of broadening your outlook, your
and addresses of employers. You may need to send range of skills, and your ability to deal with a wider
out a CV at short notice, so update it regularly. range of people. Build your confidence in coping
with a wider set of circumstances and situations.
Update your personal records Give serious attention to undertaking a range
of activities apart from study. Take on positions
Keep a good portfolio of your personal records.
of responsibility so that you can develop and
Every six months, write a thumbnail sketch about demonstrate your ability to cope with difficulties
yourself. Include the following. and show leadership skills.
• What inspires you most at present? Ifyou work, see whether you can take a work-
• How have you used existing skills in new related study option to make the most of the
contexts? experience - many universities and colleges now
• What personal qualities have you developed out offer these. Consider undertaking community
of recent experience? work, Student Union work, drama, music, or
• What are your long-term goals now? political activity - there is usually a wide range of
activities on offer.
• What are your immediate goals and targets?
^^^^9 Pla
Planning your next move
Lifelong learning?
j^^^^S Pla
Planning your next move © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,Palgrave Macmillan
w
Knowledge, skills, qualities and experience Already Want to Want jto Order
good know develop of
more furthdr importance
4 The art of reflection
• Understanding 'reflective practitioner' models
and approaches
• Understanding different stages in the
reflective process
• Applying reflection in useful ways
• Presenting reflection within assignment
5 Successful job applications
• Choosing a graduate job
• Understanding more about what employers
are looking for
• Making good job applications
• Being more effective at job interviews
• Starting a new job
6 Critical and analytical thinking
• Developing skills in clear thinking
• Improving the use of critical analysis in
written assignments
• Understanding how to build well-structured,
consistent arguments
• Evaluating evidence
• Identifying flaws in other people's arguments
7 Improving performance at exams and
assignments
• Understanding more about what examiners
are looking for
• Improving revision and exam techniques
• Developing strategies for various kinds of
exam, such as multiple choice, essay-based
and viva exams
• Using technology to support my studies
• Undertaking larger-scale assignments such as
dissertations and research projects
8 Improving underlying academic skills
• Improving my use of grammar
• Improving punctuation
• Improving my writing style
• Knowing more about referencing
© StellaCottrell (2013) The Study Skills Handbook, 4th edition, Palgrave Macmillan Planning your next move
Clarifying personal targets
/
tv
• Look at the previous activity (pages 394-5), and note the skills you wished to pursue further.
• Of those you identified, which three are your top priorities?
• To focus yourthinking on these, complete the boxes below for your three chosen targets.
4 What support or
guidance will you
need? Where will
you go for this, and
when?
5 What would
demonstrate that
you had achieved
your aim?
Planning your next move © Stella Cottrell (2013) The StudySkillsHandbook, 4th edition,PalgraveMacmillan
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What now?
Although this is the end of the book, it is not the Looking backwards, looking forwards ...
end of your development as a student.
In this chapter you have returned, in some ways,
to the starting point of the book. The book began
Using The Study Skills Handbook after a by inviting you to review your skills and to identify
first reading your own priorities. In this chapter you have
reviewed your achievements and evaluated some
The Study Skills Handbook is not designed to be
that are most important to you. You have also
worked through a single time. As you develop as
begun to identify next steps forward in your own
a student, you will find things of benefit that you
personal development.
missed the first time around. Browse through the
text from time to time - you may be surprised at Having been through different levels of study
what catches your eye. at school and now at university or college, you
will have become aware that where one stage of
learning ends, another begins. Increasingly this
Monitoring your progress
process of personal development is a feature of
As the Handbook has emphasised, as an adult professional life. Many jobs you may enter as a
student you are ultimately responsible for graduate will expect you to take responsibility for
monitoring your own progress. If you keep a study this process of:
journal, read back over it and note changes in your • evaluating your own performance
ideas. Return to the self-evaluation questionnaires • identifying areas to improve
and complete these again. Compare your current • identifying your training needs
answers with your earlier responses. What changes
• developing a strategy and an action plan to
do you note? How have you changed as a person?
address these
What did you identify for improvement, which
you then forgot all about? Does this still need • monitoring your own progress
attention? • evaluating successful achievement.
Whereas the book has focused mainly on study
Need help? skills, this chapter has encouraged you to consider
your skills development in the wider context of
If you feel you are not making the progress you your life and career ambitions. The final activities,
would like, make an appointment to see a study on pages 393-7, encouraged you to think about
adviser or counsellor, your personal tutor, or your different, often more advanced, aspects of skills
year tutor. When you meet, take evidence of your you have already developed. It is up to you
difficulties as well as your attempts to resolve whether you take this further.
them. Tutors can help you best if they see how
far you can manage on your own, what you have
already tried, and where they need to focus the
support. If you turn up empty-handed, there may
be very little they can do to help.
^^^^9 PiPlanning
c your next move
Appendix 1
Quick multiplier
Use the grid below to see what number results Spend time seeing whether you can detect any
when you multiply a number from the top row patterns in the numbers. For example, look at the
with a number from the left-hand column. final digits in the 4 column, the 5 column, the 9
The diagonal shaded row shows each number column and the 7 7 column.
multiplied by itself.
H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
9 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36
9 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 39 42 45 48 51 54
m 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 64 68 72
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
m 5
1 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 102 108
m 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 96 108 120 132 144 156 168 180 192 204 216
J 13 26 39 52 65 78 91 104 117 130 143 156 169 182 195 208 221 234
M 14 28 42 56 70 84 98 112 126 140 154 168 182 196 210 224 238 252
30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270
m 15
9 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 192 208 224 240 256 272 288
9 17 34 51 68 85 102 119 136 153 170 187 204 221 238 255 272 289 306
J 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324
J 19 38 57 76 95 114 133 152 171 190 209 228 247 266 285 304 323 342
« 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
Quick multiplier
Appendix 2
Online research tools
OneLook
JSTOR
Will quickly check through over 150 online
Has over 1000 academic journals, and a wide
dictionaries for you:
range of primary source materials such as
• www.onelook.com documents, data and images relevant to those
undertaking academic study and research:
• www.jstor.org
|^^^Q Onli
Online research tools
The Universal Digital Library Law
Has digitised versions of many printed sources, and • http://www.infolaw.co.uk/
is aiming to offer at least 10 million books online:
Mathematics
• www.ulib.org
• http://mathworld.wolfram.com/
Wikipedia
Medical, biomedical and pharmaceutical
See page 163 for more information.
Pubmed: medicine and biomedicine:
• http://en.wikipedia.org/
• www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed
Subject sites • http://www.embase.com/
Nursing and health
Arts and humanities
• http://www.nursing-portal.com/
• http://www.jurn.org/
Psychology
Biology
• http://www.apa.org/psycinfo/
• http://www.biologybrowser.com
Science:
Chemistry
• http://www.scirus.com
• http://www.chemistryguide.org/
Social science resource databases:
Computing
• http://infomine.ucr.edu
• http://arxiv.org/corr/home • http://www.ssrn.com/
Education • http://www.eldis.org/
ERIC and the British Education Index:
Subject directories
• http://www.eric.ed.gov/
Websites for finding lists of subject directories:
Engineering • http://www.ipl.org
• http://www.techxtra.ac.uk/ • http://www.sweetsearch.com
• http://searchenginewatch.com
Geography
• http://www.geointeractive.co.uk
History
• http://www.connectedhistories.org/
'pmm
Appendix 3
Further resources on managing and
studying as a student
1 Resilience, self-management and www.cipd.co.uk/hr-resources/survey-reports/
managing as a student graduate-jobs-focus.aspx
Cottrell, S. M. (201 3 and annually). The Palgrave Connor, H. and Brown, R. (2009) Value of
Student Planner. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. graduates: employers' perspectives (2009) Council
Resources to help you plan and organise life as a for Industry and Higher Education (CIHE)
student. It includes diary pages, a term/semester
www.cihe.co.uk/wp-content/themes/cihe/
planner, revision timetables, financial planners,
document.php?file=0911VoGsummary.pdf 2009
checklists, travel planners, sheets to record
birthdays and events, tutor tips, library books Office for National Statistics (2011). www.ons.gov.
you have on reserve, and lots of websites and uk/ons/dcpl 71 776_233872.pdf
information relevant to managing day-to-day life Provides information about graduate earnings over
as a student. the last decade.
Goleman, D. (2011). The Brain and Emotional www.prospects.ac.uk Information about graduate
Intelligence: New Insights. Northampton, MA: More employment.
than Sound.
www.jobs.ac.uk Guidance and jobs for school
Lucien, L. (201 3). Student Brain Food: Eat Well, leavers and graduates.
Study Better. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
www.insidecareers.co.uk Career guidance and
http://www.mhhe.heacademy.ac.uk Enhancing jobs for students.
learning and teaching about mental health in
www.milkround.com Career guidance for
Higher Education: free resources and information
students.
to support the mental health and resilience of
students, including subject-specific materials. www.companieshouse.gov.uk Lists all UK public
companies.
http://mind.org.uk/help/diagnoses_and_
conditions/stress_of_student_life How to cope http://vault.com What it is like to work for named
with the stress of student life: website from mental companies.
health charity Mind with downloadable resources.
3 Thinking skills: critical thinking,
http://www.nhs.uk/livewell/stressmanagement/
problem solving, reflection
Pages/Stressmanagementhome.aspx: Free
National Health Service website with lots of Cottrell, S. M. (2010). Skills for Success: Personal
information about managing stress. Development and Employability, 2nd edn.
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
2 Employment and personal Cottrell, S. M. (2011). Critical Thinking Skills:
development Developing Effective Analysis and Argument, 2nd
Cottrell, S. M. (2010). Skills for Success: Personal edn. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Development and Employability, 2nd edn.
de Bono, E. (2007). How to Have Creative Ideas: 62
Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Exercises to Develop the Mind. London: Vermilion;
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development Random House.
(CIPD) (March 2010). Focus on graduate jobs.
^^^^9 Glossary
Enrolment Once you have registered for a to undertake a workplace project or placement
programme, you may also have to enrol on so that the student gains experience of that
particular modules or units. kind of work. Sometimes employers pay for the
Essay A typical assignment in Higher Education. work undertaken but this is not always the case.
These have a particular structure and are used There is usually a lot of competition to gain each
to check students' ability to present reasoned, internship, even if not paid, as students want
written argument and demonstrate their work experience that can help them to find a
understanding of the subject. job later.
Formative assessment An assignment, mock Labs. Short for 'laboratory'. Laboratory work is a
exam, test, quiz or trial run that is used to typical feature of science programmes.
develop your skills and understanding and does Lecture A method of teaching typical in Higher
not count towards your marks or grades. Education. These usually consist primarily of a
Foundation Degrees A two-year qualification lecturer talking to the class about the subject,
in its own right and an alternative route to often providing an overview of a topic, and
gaining a degree. These are the equivalent students listening and making notes. Often,
of the first two years of full-time study for an these are followed up by smallergroup teaching
honours degree, usuallywith a strong workplace such as seminars or workshops, where the issues
element. Students can then opt to take a 'top raised can be discussed.
up' year to complete an honours degree. Lecturer The name given to teaching staff at
Foundation level These programmes prepare Uni. Teaching staff may also be referred to as
students for higher study and are pitched at the 'lecturers' and, at some Unis, as 'dons'.
same level as 'A' level study. Foundation level Masters A post-graduate qualification, normally
programmes are common for some subjects taken only once you have received a degree in
such as Art. They are also helpful if you decide Higher Education already.
late on at school that you want to study a Matriculation Formal admittance to the HEI.
science or medical programme. There are usually minimum requirements for
Freshers' Week A week used to welcome new previous qualifications in order to matriculate.
students, typically the week before formal The grades that you are required to achieve to
teaching begins. gain a place on your programme would usually
Gap year A year taken out either between school be higher than that minimum. For example, the
and Uni, or between Uni and employment or HEI may require a minimum of a grade C maths
further study. at GCSE whereas the entry requirement for your
Graduate Once students have been awarded their programme might be an A or B.
qualification, they are referred to as 'graduates'. Module At some HEIs, the year's study is divided
Graduation The ceremony at which students who up into sections; these may have different names
have successfully completed a qualification are depending on the HEI; typically they are referred
awarded their degree. to as 'modules' or 'units'.
Hall; Halls; Halls of Residence Many HEIs refer Netiquette Netiquette is an abbreviation of
to student accommodation as 'Halls' or 'Hall'. 'internet etiquette'. This refers to a set of
Some also refer to their formal dining space as developing conventions and courtesies to guide
'Hall'. online behaviour, especially for commenting
on blogs and taking part in chat rooms, and for
Honours degree Most full-time three-year
safeguarding others' information.
undergraduate degrees (or part-time
equivalents) lead to Honours, provided you earn Option As part of your degree programme, as well
360 credits at the appropriate levels. There may as compulsory units, you may be able to choose
also be Ordinary degrees awarded if you gain some optional units/modules.
fewer than 360 credits. Peer In the context of Higher Education, this
Internships HEIs often have arrangements with refers to other students, especially those at the
employers for their students or recent graduates same level of study. The term is used in phrases
such as 'peer support' or 'peer feedback'.
Glossary
Personal tutor Many HEIs provide each student study over two longer semesters rather than
with a named personal tutor who is their main three terms.
point of contact for the programme. Generally, Seminar A taught session typical at many HEIs.
these offer academic advice and may also be These can vary in size from small groups
required to offer pastoral support. through to 60 students or more. They tend to
Ph.D (or D.Phil) Doctor of Philosophy. A post involve more discussion and student input than
graduate qualification, typically involving traditional lectures.
original research, normally taken only once you STEM subjects Subjects in Science, Technology,
have a degree in Higher Education and after Engineering and Maths.
starting on a Masters-level programme. Term Some universities and many colleges
Placement year A year structured into your organise study in three terms, similar to the
programme of study during which you spend all school system. At Oxford and Cambridge, the
or most of your time in a placement at work or terms are named Michaelmas, Hilary and Trinity.
overseas.
Top up year The final level of an honours
Programme Your programme of study may be degree, taken by students who have previously
referred to as either your 'programme' or your successfully completed a Foundation Degree.
'course' for short. Tutorial Teaching or support offered in a
Podcast One or more audio files which are relatively small group. In some HEIs, these are
published on the Internet in a file format, and short sessions on an individual basis, with your
sometimes used by lecturers to record lectures. personal tutor or year tutor.
You can subscribe to these using podcasting Undergraduate Students are known as
software or tools. You can also produce your 'undergraduates' or 'post-graduates'. When
own.
you first go to Uni or college, you are usually
Reference At the end of your assignments, an undergraduate. Post-graduate study is at a
you are usually expected to provide the full higher level, such as masters degrees.
details of the source materials you cited in Unit At some HEIs, the year's study is divided up
your assignment (see 'citation' above). These into sections; these may have different names
are known as 'references'. (See page 179 for depending on the HEI; typically they are referred
examples.) to as 'modules' or 'units'.
Registration Ifyou have been accepted as a Vice Chancellor Usually, the chief executive
student at the HEI, you usually have to register officer, or equivalent, of a university. Names
for the programme in order to be recognised vary, so at some HEIs, these may be referred to
as a student for that year. You would normally as the Provost, Rector, Principal, etc.
register each year. You may need to enrol
VLE Virtual Learning Environment. Online learning
separately onto individual modules or units of
space provided for organising learning resources
study.
for the university or college, typically with
Scholarships 'Scholarships' are usually awarded to dedicated space for each programme of study.
recognise academic achievement or excellence;
Wiki An online document that can be edited by
depending on the HEI, scholars may be awarded
many users, following given conventions for the
money, accommodation rights or other
site. Wikipedia is one example.
privileges. At some HEIs, the term is also used
to refer to bursaries offered to support those on Year tutor At some HEIs, there is a designated
tutor to provide oversight of the programmes
low incomes.
and support for all students in a given year of
Sandwich course A course that includes a set
each programme.
period of time out of study where you undertake
a period of employment. This might be for a
whole year on placement, or for shorter work
placements.
Semester Many universities and colleges organise
^^^^9 Glossary
Answers to activities
Chapter 4 Effective and efficient study setting yourselfa challenge such as those listed
(page 101) under 'Active learning', page 108-10.
1 Linking new information to what you already 9 Asking for help as soon as you find something
know or have studied. Effective. This helps you to difficult. Neither. This is not, normally, either
understand and remember yoursubject. virtuous or effective. It is good to tacklea difficult
study challenge from several different angles,
2 Learning difficult information 'off by heart'.
and to gain the satisfaction of finding yourown
Virtuous. Whether or not it is effective depends on
solution. Ask forhelp when you really need it,
what you are learning and why. You may need
leaving time to take on board the advice you may
to learn formulas, equations, names and dates
receive.
by heart. For written text, however, this is an
ineffective method. (See Chapter 8.) 10 Relating your studies to real life. Effective. This
can help to make yourstudies more relevant,
3 Copying chunks from textbooks - because the
interesting and meaningful, making it easier to
writer says it better than you could. Neither. You
understand the material and to remain motivated.
are expected to show that you understandyour
materialand can write it in your own words. Even
Chapter 6 Detecting plagiarism and
your notes should be in your own words: this also
copying (page 178)
helps you to avoidplagiarism (see page 177).
4 Questioning whether what you have heard is Text 1 This is plagiarism (page 66). Although a
really true or representative. Effective. You need few words have been changed, this is copied out
to develop yourknowledge and understanding by almost entirely word for word, and there are no
asking questions. (See Chapter7.) references. It is not acceptable.
5 Writing fast so that you can take down almost Text 2 This is not an example of plagiarism
everything the lecturer says. Neither. This is an because it summarises the original text (pages
ineffective strategy. You need to note the main 60-86) in the writer's own words. The quality of
points in your own words. You willalso end up the text could be strengthened by including some
with more notes than you need and have to
references. However, the summary is sufficiently
spend time editing them. (See Chapter6.) general to mean that references are not essential in
order to avoid plagiarism. It is acceptable.
6 Reading your essays and other writing slowly
and out loud before you hand it in. Effective. Text 3 This plagiarises the original text (pages 61-
Reading out loud helps you spot mistakes which 4). It copies, almost word for word, a sentence or
you need to correct. bullet point from each of these pages. Tutors refer
to this as 'cut and paste' or 'scissors and paste'
7 Studying when you are too tired to writing. It is not acceptable.
concentrate. Virtuous, as you are keeping going.
Text 4 Text 4 is almost identical to text 3, but is
This may not be as effective as taking a break and
properly referenced. However, tutors would not be
returning to study when you feel refreshed and
pleased to see so little in the student's own words.
better able to focus your attention.
If this continued throughout the essay, it would
8 Changing to a new topic or type of study receive a very low mark. It would simply be well-
activity if you find that your mind is wandering referenced copying - which is not acceptable.
to other matters. Effective. This adds interest to
Text 5 This text is in the student's own words.
the study session. Ifyou are bored reading, for
The student has made his or her own connections
example, you can bring more focus to this by
Answers to activities
•'iH mm
between different parts of the original text in a Chapter 7 Critical thinking when
meaningful way, rather than simply 'cutting and reading (pages 189-95)
pasting'. The student has read other material on
Passage 1: Rochborough Health
the subject and included this. There is proper
referencing both of the source of ideas and of Activity 1: Line of reasoning
individual pieces of research. This is acceptable 'Outdoor play is good for children's health, so
work. Rochborough needs better facilities for it.'
Text 6 This student simply paraphrases the
source text (page 61). This might be acceptable Activity 2: Vested interests
for writing a summary or a journalistic type of The article was published by the Playcouncil, who
article. However, there are no references and little are likely to have a vested interest in arguing for
evidence of any independent thinking or 'working' more supervised play spaces.
with the material. This may not be deemed to be
Activity 3: Types of evidence used
plagiarism or copying, but for an essay or report it
would receive a low mark. The main evidence is of two kinds: surveys and
anecdotes. The detail about the Arkash family is
Chapter 6 Advanced online searches anecdotal (it is just one person's experience). There
(page 161) is also a statistic about garden ownership.
1 False. AND it excludes references that do not Activity 4: Evaluating the evidence
contain both words, so there are likely to be The evidence about health and parental attitudes
fewer references. (Page 160.) comes from official sources which could be
2 True. (Page 160.) considered relatively good 'authorities' and thus
reliable. This evidence is relevant and contributes
3 A (Page 160.)
to the argument.
4 C- the search will find only matches of the
On the other hand, the writer generalises from
exact phrase. (Page 160.)
only one set of health factors (those related to
5 design* would find design, designers and the lungs). It is possible that children who play
designs, but would also find irrelevant entries outdoors have different health problems - such as
such as designate. skin complaints or broken ankles. Alternatively, it
6 A A suitable search string would be: nurs* AND is possible that the children who played indoors
method*. This would find additional references did so because they were more prone to sickness
such as pages that mention nursing, nurses, already (such as asthma and pollen allergies).
method, methodology or methodologies. Sickness may have been the cause of their playing
BA suitable search string would be: monopoly? indoors, rather than the effect.
as a trend? in world? trade? You might We don't know how representative the children
then retrieve an item such as Monopolies as a in the survey were of all Rochborough children.
developing pattern in the global market. The anecdotal details about the Arkash child and
7 B- this focuses on relevant items but looks for the fox are emotive, and not really relevant to the
relevant alternatives such as world, designers main argument. The anecdote provides human
and designs. A might narrow your search too interest for journalistic writing, but would be
far, and C might include many irrelevant items unacceptable in most academic writing.
such as global warming, globalisation, or No source is given for the figure of 18% garden
local design, yet omit reference to designers. ownership: we can't judge whether it is reliable.
The writer twice mentions the effects of outdoor
play on social interaction, but gives no evidence
or details. She or he could link this in more to the
main argument.
Activity 5: Conclusions
The conclusion is that Rochborough should
provide more supervised outdoor play areas.
Answers to activities
MOTH
The evidence Activity 9: Descriptiveor critical? (page 199)
The evidence is weak, with insufficient detail. The
Passage 1
places marked (2) all require further evaluation
of the evidence: 'How many children? How This is mainly descriptive writing. The writer
many parents? How representative are they of describes the way that the living world was divided
Rochborough parents as a whole? What other between animals and plants, and gives information
views were expressed? How many exactly have about recent research. The passage consists mostly
gardens? How do we know this?' of statements. The statements are not linked and
A tutor might also comment that the writer has ordered in such a way that they build up clearly
not analysed the sources. At (2b), although the towards the conclusion. There is little weighing
writer uses statistics, these are not recent. She or of the evidence in the build-up to the conclusion.
he offers no possible explanations for why Smith's The significance of the conclusion itself is not very
and Jones' research had different findings - such as clear.
1 a 1/5 f 1/z=10:
7 x 10 = 70
b % (2%3) is bigger than 7/n (21/33)
c 4/7 (^/es) is bigger than % (3%3) g 2/r = 10:
1/7=10/2 = 5
d 4/s (24/3o) is smaller than % (2%o) 5 x 7 = 35
2 a Vs and 1/2 - % + % - %
h 4/s = 20
b Vfe and Vs = 4/24 + %4 Vs = 20/4 = 5
= %4 5 x 5 = 25
c 1/2 and % - % + % - % = 1% = 1 Vs 5 a 1/2X1/2 = 1/4
d 1/4 and % = 3/i2 + 8/i2 b 1/2X1/4=1/8
- 11/12
C V4X1/4 = 1/16
e 2/7 and %
d 1/3X1/3=1/9
= 1%5 + 21/35 - 31/35
e 1/3 x V2 = Vfe
f 1/g and % - 4/36 + 2%6
f % x y2 = % = 1/3
= 31/36
3 a % of £750: Calculating percentages from fractions: 1
750/3 = 250 (page 229)
250 x 2 = 500
a 4/s = 50%
b % of 160:
b ^/ss = 50%
160/4 = 40
c 1%6 = 33%
40x3 = 120
d 76/l45 = 52%
c % of 72:
72/6 = 12 e 9/n =81%
12 x 5 = 60 f 19%67 = 34%
d % of 81: g 11/91 = 12%
81/9 = 9
h 128/256 = 50%
9x2=18
11%27=35%
e % of 620:
620/5 = 124 i 67/34 _ 790/0
124x3 = 372 k 87/i8i = 48%
f 2/7of91: 1 12/96 = 1 2%
91/7 = 13 m m7M3 = 93%
13x2 = 26
n 1%8 = 50%
4 a 1/2 = 100:
o 76%99 = 76%
100 x 2 = 200
P 65/230 = 28%
b 1/4=100:
100 x 4 = 400 Calculating percentages from fractions: 2
c Vs = 50: (page 229)
50x3 = 150 a 6 of the 11 plants are deciduous: 54.5% are
d % = 50: deciduous; 45.5% are not. (54.5 + 45.5 =
1/3 = 50/2 = 25 100%.)
25 x 3 = 75 b 41 out of 230 children in the school have
reading difficulties: 17.8% have reading
Answers to activities
difficulties; 82.1% do not have reading b 234, 19, 1, 66, 2002, 7
difficulties. (1 7.8% + 82.1% = 99.9%: the 19 + 66 = 85
numbers are rounded down slightly.) Median = 85/2 = 42.5
c 23,456 of the town population went to see the c 7, 7,6,8,9,8,11, 7,6,11,2, 14,5
film out of a population of 234,560: 10% of Median = 7
the town saw the film; 90% did not. (10% + d 11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66, 77, 88, 99, 111
90% = 100%.) 55 + 66 = 121
d 873 of 9,786 participants took part in the Median = 121/2 = 60.5
competition online, 2,314 by texting, the rest e 7, 14, 19,8,6, 11,21,32,8, 19,21,5
by phone-in: 8.9% took part online; 23.6% 11 +14 = 25
by texting. 8.9% + 23.6% = 32.5%. The Median = 25/2 = 12.5
percentage who took part by phone-in is 100%
f 23, 36, 42, 56, 57, 58, 59, 59, 59, 69, 69
- 32.5% = 67.5%.
Median = 58
Rounding up and down (page 230) Comparing means, medians and modes (page
a 41.34675-> 41.3 234)
b 912.172-^912.2 a 1, 1, 1, 3, 3,4, 7, 7, 10
c 22.222-^22.2 Mean = 37/9 =4.1
d 99.88 -> 99.9
Median = 3 (mid-point)
Mode =1
e 1.714 -> 1.7
Note the impact of a small minority of scores of
f 10.08-> 10.1 1 on the mode and on the mean.
g 66.55-^66.6 b 28, 14,21,28,26,62
h 6.10987-> 6.1 Mean = 179/6 = 29.8
Median = 27
Calculating averages: the mean (page 232) Mode = 28
a 1+2+3+5+6+7+8+9+11+15+17= The extreme value (62) makes little noticeable
84 difference.
Mean = 84/11 =7.6 c 19, 1 70, 1 7, 19, 19, 16, 20
b 234 + 19 + 1 + 66 + 2002 + 7 = 2329 Mean = 280/7 = 40
Mean = 2329/6 = 388.2 Median = 19
Mode =19
c 7 + 7 + 6 + 8 + 9 + 8 + 11+7 + 6 + 11+2 +
The extreme value (1 70) makes no difference
14 + 5 = 101
to the mode or median, but distorts the mean.
Mean = 101/13 = 7.8
d 11 + 22 + 33 + 44 + 55 + 66 + 77 + 88 + 99 + Using five-number summaries (page 236)
111 = 606
a Set of class scores: 10, 31, 39, 45, 46, 47, 48,
Mean = 606/10 = 60.6
55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68,
e 7 + 14 + 19 + 8 + 6 + 11+21+32 + 8 + 19 + 69, 71
21+5 = 171 Five-number summary:
Mean = 171/12 = 14.3 10; 46.5; 58; 64.5; 71.
f 23 + 36 + 42 + 56 + 57 + 58 + 59 + 59 + 59 + b Number of pets per household: 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
69 + 69 = 587 0,0,1,1,1,1,1,1,1,2,2,2,2,2,2,2,3,3,
Mean = 587/11 =53.4 4,4,5,17
Calculating averages: the median (page 233) Five-number summary:
0;0;1;2;17.
a 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,11,15,17
Median = 7
^^^^J AnsvN
Answers to activities
c Life expectancy for males in sample families (in same cultural background and assumptions? Or
years): 32, 39, 41, 56, 58, 64, 65, 67, 69, 70, is able to get about easily?
71, 71, 73, 73, 73, 73, 74, 77, 77, 78, 81, 84, • When people make comments or ask questions,
89,92 are they sensitive to the feelings of others - or
Five-number summary: aware of issues that might cause distress?
32; 64; 71; 77; 92. • Where does the group meet? Can everybodyget
there, even in a wheelchair or using a stick?
Interpreting graphs (page 238)
• Do you know when somebody is trying to lip-
a What was the average salary for Aremian men read? What could group members do to make
in October? this easier? Examples include keeping their
Answer: $40,000. hands and writing materials away from their
b In which quarter did Aremian women's faces, and not sitting in silhouette against the
earnings rise source of light.
above $20,000? • What might cause interference or pain for
Answer: July-October. someone using a hearing-aid?
• What words or behaviour might other people
Interpreting charts: 1 (page 240) find offensive?
Group A's scores are closer to those of the • Are there people who look left out, or
university as a whole, so are more representative uncomfortable, or angry? Why is this
than those for group B. The pattern of scores is happening?
also more similarfor group A and the university
overall. In group B, men's scores are relatively
higher than the women's. This is not typical of the Chapter 11 Devising your own essay
university overall. title (page 286)
Interpreting charts: 2 (page 240) 1 The title is far too general. Compare this with
a stronger title such as: 'To what extent have
The 24 students in the two groups are not
reptiles been more successful than amphibians
representative of the whole university in that the
in adapting to environmental challenges?'
pattern of subject choices is very different. For
2 The title is too general. You could give more
example, none of the students in these groups
focus by adding: 'Discuss with reference to ...'
study nursing and medicine, whereas these are
and add a specific region, timescale and field of
the main subjects studied overall. On the other
enquiry. For example: 'Discuss with reference
hand, geology is the main subject studied in the
to the control of nuclear waste in Europe and
two groups (25%), but a small proportion in the
the Pacific rim' or 'Discuss with reference to the
university overall. Of students in Groups A and B,
impact of mobile phones on personal safety'.
12.5% studied Film compared to only 5% for the 3 This title is too long and contains too many
university overall.
questions. An alternative question for this topic
could be: 'Domestic technology since 1970:
labour-saving or labour-creating?'
Chapter 10 Being fair to everyone in
4 The title is biased towards one (negative) point
the group (page 256) of view, and contains no obvious question.
• Does everybody get a chance to contribute, or 5 Descriptive essays are unlikely to give
do some people (or groups) dominate? opportunities for the critical, analytical
• If people have accents, or dialects, or stutters, reasoning that gains good marks. Contrast this
are they treated with the same respect when with: 'How effective have placebos been in
they speak? testing medical interventions for children?'
• Is everybody's experience and background
included in the way subjects are discussed? Are
there assumptions that everybody is married,
in a relationship, or wants to be? Or shares the
Answers to activities
-mmm
Chapter 13 Designing questionnaires Chapter 13 Formulating your
(page 352) hypothesis (page 349)
It is not clear which box should be completed Hypothesis 01: This hypothesis is worded clearly
by a person who is 20 or 40. The text should but is not precise. It states that physical activity
read'0-19 20-39 40-60'or'0-20 21-40 would reduce depression but it does not give any
41-60'. Also, no provision has been made for details about what kind of activity and how much
people older than 60. of it would have what kind of impact upon whom.
The question does not capture accurate Hypothesis 02: This is not worded as a hypothesis
information. Secretary of State? Ifthey say 'yes', because it does not state what the research is
how do you know whether they really do?
expected to reveal.
It should read: 'Who is the current Secretary
of State for... [named Department, such as Hypothesis 03: This is clear, precise and states
Education]?' exactly what amount and kind of exercise over
This question does not capture the variety of what timescales would have what sort of impact
positions people might hold on the issue. It for which population.
could read: 'Which of the following positions
is nearest to your own?' and then list several
numbered options.
This contains two questions. The person might
like coming onto campus but not eating in the
cafe, or vice versa. These two issues should be
separated out. If the question is about whether
people like eating at the cafe on campus, it
could be worded: 'Do you like eating at the
cafe on campus?'
Answers to activities
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Index
skills 36, 37, 39; see APT-S study bibliographies 181 critical thinking 14, 187-202, 319-20
skills model blended learning see technology- bias 192, 193, 319
writing styles 287, 315-22 enhanced learning evaluating evidence 191-4
academic skills 151, 281; see APT-S see also personalised learning false premises 189, 190
study skills model; study skills blogs 21,43, 81 questioning 188, 191, 296
academic sources online 154, 158, Bower, G. H. 215 analysis of statistics 192-3
159, 162-4 Bowlby, j. 325-30 when listening 188, 201
Access to Higher Education Diploma 3 brain 203 when reading 164, 168, 188
achievement 55; see study skills; hemispheres 85, 207-8 when writing 188, 197-200
monitoring and learning 203, 207-9 criticism, giving and receiving 255
action learning groups 257 plasticity 65 CV 52, 392
action plans 118-19, 135, 292, 324, triune 85, 208-9
373, 397 brainstorming 143, 173, 279 data 223-4
for managing anxieties 26 Butterworth, G. 65 analysing 192-3, 356
study skills 50 Buzan, T. 1 73, 201 collecting 351-5
active learning 5, 87, 108-10, 205-6 interpreting raw data 223, 356
active reading 166, 167, 168 career planning 6, 10, 13, 32, 33, presenting 356
analysis, qualitative and 52-5, 57, 387, 389-92, 392 see also number skills; statistics
quantitative 312, 313, 314 see personal development planning deadlines, meeting deadlines 121, 139
analytical thinking 187-202 case studies 364-5 denominator 226, 241
analytical writing 194, 197-200, 317, causality 190-1 descriptive writing 198-9, 315, 316
319 categorising 293, 294, 295 diary-keeping 136-8
anxieties 9, 25-6, 27-8, 60, 113, 276 charts 237, 240 digital repositories 158
and exams 370, 376 bar charts 240, 356 discussion groups 251-4, 259
and memory 209 pie charts 240, 356 dissertation 340, 342
see stress management cheating 258 checklist 363
apps 21, 80, 81, 181 see also plagiarism drafts 302-3
APT-S study skills model 35, 36-40, 58 choices supervisors 346
argument 310 wise choices as a student 10, 18, see research project
see also reasoning, line of 19, 57 distance learning 1 7
assessment 3, 12, 31, 80, 274 citations see referencing Donaldson, M. 65
assignments see writing collaborative learning 16, 20, 40, 78, dyslexia 3
assignment brief 340 82, 182, 245, 246-8, 256, 257 developing writing 275
assistive technologies 21 without cheating 258 jumping and glaring texts 170
Athens 158 using Delicious 182 reading strategies 164-6, 168
attention 68, 108, 167 colour-coding starting a piece of writing 278-9
attitude 43, 114-15 diaries 1 36 see also concept pyramids; memory
audience 39, 253, 265, 266, 267, 268, memory 205, 208, 21 3
269 notes 110, 143, 166, 168, 172 editing 300, 302, 303, 304
auditory learning strategies 90, 167, to organise writing 300 effective learning 87, 100-7
1 70, 204, 205, 209, 21 3, 279, planning paragraphs 300 Einstein, A. 66, 89
371 when reading 166, 167 employers see work-based learning
averages 231-4, 235 communications what employers want 52-4, 57, 245,
calculating averages 231-4 e-communications for study 20 340, 389
comparing mean, median and group projects 259, 260, 261 employment see careers planning;
mode 234 computer-assisted assessment 20 work experience
^^^^9 Index
e-portfolios 12, 55, 56 see working with others, see also active learning; brain;
e-projects see projects collaborative learning, CREAM strategy; independent
essays 108-9, 281-306 presentations, study groups study; journals; multi-sensory
examples of 325-37 learning; personalised approaches
in exams 369, 376 Harris, j. E. and Sunderland, A. 203 to learning
'going blank' 376 Higher Education 3, 9, 10 lectures 16-17, 101
procedure for writing 282-3 higher level study 151; see using effectively 183
structure 288-90, 295, 297 university level study lecture notes 183, 184
titles 284-6 see expectations; university level lecturers 14, 15, 17, 305
what is an essay? 281, 342, 350 study levels of study 30, 31, 35
see also writing hypothesis, for research projects 311, libraries 31, 79, 157
ethical considerations 346, 347 349 life balance 147
evaluation of achievement 51, 52-4, lifelong learning 393
94, 97 improper fractions 225 listening 53, 183, 188, 201
evaluation of study skills 386 independent learning 11,17 critically 206
see also monitoring progress independent study 18-19 skills 252
evidence see critical thinking; research benefits, challenges, risks 19 literature review 343, 347, 350, 358,
projects managing independent study 19, 359
exams 367, 371, 372, 374-8 10, 12 literature search 343
exam checklists 372
responsibility for own learning 5, 7,
105 M-learning 20
pitfalls 377
indexes, book 164 Mackintosh, N. J. and Mascie-Taylor,
strategy 378
use of exam time 375, 376, 377 published indices 158 C. G. N. 62
information and communications managing yourself see self-
see memory; revision; dealing with
stress
technology 104, 154-5 management
expectations 12 management of 79, 80, 176, 182 marks, getting good marks 156, 316,
what is expected of you 11, 102 storage 155, 182 323-4, 327-8, 330, 334, 337
what to expect 10, 16-21, 30-1 see technology enhanced learning; mature students 3, 4, 6, 9, 18, 19, 26,
search strategies 29, 44, 45, 46
see university level study;
independent study intellectual curiosity 10, 13, 14-15, memory 39, 203-18, 371
32, 71,89 and age 203
experience, learning from 36, 44,
45-7, 68-9, 322
intelligence 5, 13, 43, 59-66 and concept pyramids 215-16
IQ 61, 62, 65 encoding information 210-15
feedback, using tutor feedback 31, interview techniques 355 individual styles 204, 205, 210
324 intranets 21 organisation 215-17
five-number summaries 235-6 introductions see writing over-learning 214
Flanagan, K. 218 IT see information and process 210-11
fractions 225-7 communications technology stages 210-11
adding, subtracting and multiplying strategies 108-10, 204, 205, 203-
fractions 226, 227 journals 2, 159 18
calculating percentages from learning journals 99 mentors (for work-based learning) 106
fractions 229 metacognitive skills 38, 39, 91-3
Karmiloff-Smith, A. 62
comparing fractions 226 mnemonics 206
improper fractions 225 Keane, M., Kahney, H. and Brayshaw, money 24
M. 66
monitoring progress 51, 97, 386, 388
Gardner, H. 61, 62, 63, 64 kinaesthetic learning strategies 166, motivation 1, 3, 4, 6, 11, 1 3, 18, 87,
204,205,212
Glaser, E. 187 108, 111-18, 144, 370, 371
goal-setting 11, 47, 49, 114, 115-18 knowledge 14-15, 39, 71 multiplication 222, 399
goals for university study 114 effractions 227
laboratory work 17, 185
Google Docs 182 quick multiplier (table) 399
learning 3, 59, 67-71, 205
Google Scholar 158 understanding multiplication 222
approaches 4
graduates 9, 52, 57, 58, 245 multi-sensory learning 2, 4, 68, 75,
community 14, 20, 245
graphs 237, 238 78, 205, 208
deep processing 1, 70, 153, 168
groupwork 11, 16, 46, 53, 182, 249-
environment 37, 38, 64, 144, 167 netiquette 21
59
from experience 69, 74 neuro-linguistic programming
blog 20
optimal learning 84 (NLP) 115
communications 259, 261, 262
process 67-71 notes, using provided notes 184
group projects 258, 259, 260
savvy 13 note-making 100, 101, 171-6, 184,
group roles 250, 259, 260, 261
styles and preferences 72-83, 207-8 185, 284
groundrules 249, 256, 261
unconscious 76 abbreviating 174, 184
making groups work effectively
249-53, 254, 256, 260 how to make notes 1 71, 172
wikis 260 organising 143, 171, 174, 176
pattern notes 166, 1 73
and plagiarism 177
Index
~-*m
as posters and charts 166 plagiarism 177-9 reflective learning journal 97, 99, 110
when reading 171, 172, 175 planning 136-7, 138 report-writing 342, 357, 359-62, 363
for revision 1 72, 368, 369 podcasts 20, 81, 163, 183, 201 characteristics of 342, 357
strategy 172, 175 portal 20 layout 350, 362
number skills 219-42 portfolios 55, 56, 97, 389 structure of 357, 358
building your confidence 219, posters 265 research projects 14-15, 153-86
221-2 practicals 17, 185 checklist 363
critically questioning numbers and presentations 40, 264, 265-8 choosing a topic 347-8
statistics 192-3, 224 group 265 defining the research task 154, 156,
extreme values 235 priority-setting 26, 48-9, 125, 134-5 286, 340-1, 342
five-number summaries 235-6 problem-solving 64, 65, 66, 91-6, 101 design 344, 351
required for academic study 219, profiling 45-6, 52, 78 information management 154-5
220 progress files 55-6 hypothesis 349
technical terms for number projects 258, 260-4, 341 methods 351, 352-5, 358, 360
work 241 checklist 262-4 pilots 351
trusting numbers and statistics 220, management of 40, 106 process 342-3, 345
222, 223 managing a project 261-4 proposal 343, 346, 347
understanding numbers 221-2 see also collaborative learning; projects 339, 341-2
see also averages; charts; graphs; dissertations; groupwork; recommendations 31
percentages; rounding; statistics; presentations; report-writing; research strategy 343, 346, 351
tables; quartiles research projects results, analysing data 356, 360,
numerator 226, 241 proof-reading 301, 302, 303 362
proper fractions 225 thesis 348
objectivity 311, 313 pyramids see concept pyramids tools 154, 400-1
online searches 159; see searches see case studies; dissertations;
opinion 310, 315 qualitative and quantitative literature review; reports; writing
organisation 43, 100, 101, 103, 141 analysis 241, 311-12, 352, 353, resilience 13, 22-3
of ideas in concept pyramids 215- 364 mind-set 10
16 quartiles 235, 236 taking charge 10
of information 31, 154-5, 156, 182, questionnaires, designing 352-4 see managing stress; motivation
214,217 quotations, using 177-81 Resnick, L., Levine, J. and Teasley,
of study space 103 S. D. 63
using information technology Raven's Progressive Matrices 61-2 resources, personal 25, 26, 29
79-80, 104, 142 reading revision 80, 367, 369-73
see writing critically 164, 168, 188, 189-96, action plan 373
over-learning 214, 373 350 choosing what to revise 368, 373
difficulty 170 notes and charts 166, 172
paragraphing see writing to improve comprehension 166, past papers 368, 371, 374
part-time study 127 167, 168, 170 pitfalls 369-70
pattern notes 173, 216, 292 and note-taking 166, 171, 175, strategies 371
PDP see personal development 1 76, 1 77 timetables 368
planning using questions 164, 168, 169 rounding numbers 230
peer review 162, 163 reading lists 21, 158, 164, 165
people skills 40, 46, 243-70 selectively 164, 165, 350 sabotage of own study 116
self-evaluation of 248 speed 165, 166, 168-9, 170 sabotaging groups 250
see working with others strategies 110, 165-7, 168, 169 samples 193,223,224
percentages 228, 230 reasoning, line of 187, 189-91, 197 scientific model 311-12, 314
calculating from fractions 229 flawed reasoning 187, 189, 190-1 search methods 154, 158
personal development planning recording achievement 55-7, 117, search tools 154-5, 158
(PDP) 33, 57, 114, 386, 394-7 386 searching online 154-5, 154-63
action plan for PDP 397 recording information 176 (see notes), advanced searches 160, 161
already undertaken 388 182, 185 automated 159
opportunities, making use of 10, Reed, S. K., Dempster, A. and Ettinger, narrowing a search 159, 160
13,24, 32, 33,57,63, 79, 388, M. 64
for good quality materials 162, 163,
389, 393 referencing 143, 177, 179-81, 344, 164
planning your future 387, 389-91 358
search tools 154, 158
qualities 38, 45 citing sources 179, 180 strategies 155
targets for PDP 46, 396-7 Harvard system 180 widening a search 160, 161
personal profiles 52 introducing quotations 180-1
wildcards 160
personal statements 55 reference management tools 181 self-awareness 3, 12-13, 43, 59, 387
personalised approaches to learning 3, storing 182 self-evaluation 2, 43, 44, 97-9, 267,
5,59, 74-83,84-5, 102, 110, what to include 179
269
245 writing out 179 self-management 7, 9, 13, 22-3, 24,
see multi-sensory approaches reflection 1, 2, 26, 55, 56, 58, 87, 37, 38
pie charts 240, 356 97-9, 307
___• Index
seminars 16, 53, 245-54, 268-9 teaching methods 16-17, 19, 20 benefits of work-based learning 105
SHAPE 74 see independent study combining work and study 105,
Simon, H. 307, 21 7 technology enhanced learning 17, 21, 106, 107
skills 35-58 79-81 managing study-release time 107
audit 35, 44, 45 ,46 terminology 241, 404-6 managing work-based projects 106
brought to university 44-6 Terman, L. M. 43, 61 workplace mentors 106
clouds 41-2 thinking skills 14-15, 39, 351; see work placements 16, 107, 389, 392
components 43 critical thinking working with others 10, 11, 23, 82
developed at university 36-41, Thurstone, L L. 43, 61 see collaborative learning;
53-4, 55, 57, 388, 393 time 100, 123 groupwork; people skills; study
identifying your skills 44-9 blocks and breaks 140 groups
priorities 48-9 deadlines 139, 141 writing 273
'soft' skills 52-4 and independent study 19 academic writing 273, 307, 338
transferable skills 44-7, 53-4 organising 10, 11 analysis 187, 188, 197-8, 284, 285,
sleep 24, 25-6 managing distractions and 287, 312-13, 317, 319
social networking 81 procrastination 142, 144, 145 anxieties 275, 276
speaking skills 251, 252, 253, 265-9 management of time 18, 121-52, argument 317-18; see reasoning,
Spearman, C. 61 345, 380 line of
spider diagrams 110 monitoring use of time 131-3, 129- assignments 282-3
statistics 191-3, 222, 223, 224 30, 149 blocks 275, 276, 278, 280
samples 223, 224 requirements 31, 125-8 checklists 363
Sternberg, R. 64 student experiences of 27, 124 compare and contrast 319-21
stress 22, 147, 379-81 time circles 131-3 critical thinking and writing 188,
strategies time-saving techniques and 197-200
see active learning; CREAM strategy; strategies 140-3, 148 conclusions 197, 290, 361
exams titles drafts 276, 278, 283, 297, 344
study strategies 6, 43, 59 analysing assignment titles 284, 285 editing 300, 302, 303, 304
student experiences 16, 19, 27-8, 32, devising your own for evaluation of writing skills 268, 274
33,63, 124, 126, 170, 174 assignments 286, 343 evaluative 319
student life 22-3, 24, 32 'To do' lists 1 37 focus 284
study groups 78, 256, 257, 258, 259 transcripts 55, 56, 57 from experience 275, 322
study support groups 23, 25, 26, 31, truncated symbols 160 generating ideas 275, 276, 278,
345 tutorials 16, 99, 345, 346 279
study options 8, 15 getting started 275, 276, 278-80,
study skills 1, 3, 6, 13, 36, 37 understanding and learning 69-71 290
achievement 326-31, 385-6 university see expectations; Higher introductions 290, 315, 359
evaluating 332, 386 Education linking ideas 301
priorities 48-9 culture of 14, 15 managing writing tasks 273, 274
recording 38, 326-31 research 14, 15 organising 276, 277, 282-3, 304
see also APT-S study skills model; university level study 10, 12, 14-15, paragraphs 288, 289, 290, 291,
71
monitoring progress 298-301
subject knowledge 12, 14, 15, 39, 340 plans 282,283,289,291,292
variables 312 precision 310
subjectivity 313
success as a student 9-34
virtual learning environments 20, 21 presenting 304, 362
making Higher Education work for visual perceptual difficulties with procedure for writing
text 179 assignments 282-3
you 10, 12-13,27-8, 32
marks 156, 316, 323-4, 327-8, visual learning strategies 2, 4, 5, 115, proof-reading 302
330, 334, 337 166, 168, 173, 204, 205, 213-14, sentences 298, 300
216; see multi-sensory learning speed 368
personal vision of success 33
vulgar fractions 241 structure 283, 284, 288-90, 296,
see also resilience; career planning
see also fractions 297, 303
supervisors 345, 346
Vygotsky, L. 63 style 1 75, 287, 290, 302, 308-9,
Suzuki Violin Talent Education
Programme 63 315-22, 360, 362, 365
web addresses, saving 182 skills 39, 274
synthesis 14, 94, 155, 197, 287, 319,
websites, Palgrave 2 see also case studies; description;
323
wheel diagrams 279 critical analysis; dissertations;
tables 237, 239 wikis 21,81, 163 essays; reasoning, line of;
presenting data in tables 239, 356 group wiki 260, 261 referencing; report-writing; word
raw data in tables 356
Wikipedia 163 limits
understanding tables 237 Wiktionary 163
talks, giving talks 265-7, 268 wildcard symbols 160
target-setting see goals; personal word limits (in study tasks) 143, 290,
development planning 291,296
task management skills 36, 40, 43, using efficiently 164
271; see APT-S study skills model work-based learning 16, 19
Index
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THE ORIGINAL AND BEST-
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