MODULE I:

NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

LESSON 1- THE MEANING AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

What is Research: Definition?

A careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem

using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and
control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive
methods.”

Inductive research methods are used to analyze an observed event. Deductive

methods are used to verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are
associated with qualitative research and deductive methods are more
commonly associated with quantitative research.

Research is conducted with a purpose to understand:

 What do organizations or businesses really want to find out?

 What are the processes that need to be followed to chase the idea?
 What are the arguments that need to be built around a concept?
 What is the evidence that will be required for people to believe in the idea
or concept?

Characteristics of research

1. A systematic approach must be followed for accurate data. Rules and

procedures are an integral part of the process that set the objective.
Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
2. Research is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and
deductive methods.
3. The data or knowledge that is derived is in real time from actual
observations in natural settings.

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4. There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no
anomalies associated with it.
5. Research creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data
helps create more opportunities for research.
6. Research is analytical in nature. It makes use of all the available data so
that there is no ambiguity in inference.
7. Accuracy is one of the most important aspects of research. The
information that is obtained should be accurate and true to its nature. For
example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data.
Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of
instruments or tools, and the final result of the experiment.

LESSON 2- THE TYPES, CLASSIFICATION AND COMPONENTS OF

RESEARCH

Types and Classification of Research

Research comes in many shapes and sizes. Before a researcher begins to
conduct a study, he or she must decide on a specific type of research. Good
researchers understand the advantages and disadvantages of each type,
although most end up specializing in one.
For classification of research we shall look from four dimensions:
1. The purpose of doing research;
2. The intended uses of research;
3. How it treats time i.e. the time dimension in research; and
4. The research (data collection) techniques used in it.
The four dimensions reinforce each other; that is, a purpose tends to go with
certain techniques and particular uses. Few studies are pure types, but the
dimensions simplify the complexity of conducting research.

1. Purpose of Doing Research

If we ask someone why he or she is conducting a study, we might get a range
of responses: "My boss told me to do"; "It was a class assignment"; "I was
curious." There are almost as many reasons to do research as there are
researches. Yet the purposes of research may be organized into three groups
based on what the researcher is trying to accomplish explore a new topic,
describe a social phenomenon, or explain why something occurs. Studies

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 may have multiple purposes (e.g. both to explore and to describe) but one
purpose usually dominates.

A. Exploratory/Formulative Research
You may be exploring a new topic or issue in order to learn about it. If the
issue was new or the researcher has written little on it, you began at the
beginning. This is called exploratory research. There searcher’s goal is to
formulate more precise questions that future research can answer.
Exploratory research may be the first stage in a sequence of studies. A
researcher may need to know enough to design and execute a second, more
systematic and extensive study.

Initial research conducted to clarify the nature of the problem.

When a researcher has a limited amount of experience with or knowledge
about a research issue, exploratory research is useful preliminary step that
helps ensure that a more rigorous, more conclusive future study will not begin
within inadequate understanding of the nature of the management problem.
The findings discovered through exploratory research would the researchers to
emphasize learning more about the particulars of the findings in subsequent
conclusive studies.
Exploratory research rarely yields definitive answers. It addresses the "what"
question: "what is this social activity really about?" It is difficult to conduct
because there are few guidelines to follow. Specifically there could be a number
of goals of exploratory research.

Goals of Exploratory Research:

1. Become familiar with the basic facts, setting, and concerns;
2. Develop well-grounded picture of the situation;
3. Develop tentative theories, generate new ideas, conjectures, or hypotheses;
4. Determine the feasibility of conducting the study;
5. Formulate questions and refine issues for more systematic inquiry; and
6. Develop techniques and a sense of direction for future research.

For exploratory research, the researcher may use different sources for getting
information like (1) experience surveys, (2) secondary data analysis, (3) case
studies, and (4) pilot studies.
As part of the experience survey the researcher tries to contact individuals who
are knowledgeable about particular research problem. This constitutes an
informal experience survey. Another economical and quick source of
background information is secondary data analysis. It is preliminary review of

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data collected for another purpose to clarify issues in the early stages of
research effort.
The purpose of case study is to obtain information from one or a few situations
that are similar to the researcher’s problem situation. A researcher interested
in doing a nationwide survey among union workers, may first look at a few
local unions to identify the nature of any problems or topics that should be
investigated. A pilot study implies that some aspect of the research is done on
a small scale. For this purpose focus group discussions could be carried out.

b. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation,
social setting, or relationship. The major purpose of descriptive research, as
the term implies, is to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon.
Descriptive research seeks to determine the answers to who, what, when,
where, and how questions. Labor Force Surveys, Population Census, and
Educational Census are examples of such research.
Descriptive study offers to the researcher a profile or description of relevant
aspects of the phenomena of interest. Look at the class in research methods
and try to give its profile the characteristics of the students. When we start to
look at the relationship of the variables, then it may help in diagnosis analysis.

Goals of Descriptive Research

1. Describe the situation in terms of its characteristics i.e. provide an accurate
profile of a group;
2. Give a verbal or numerical picture (%) of the situation;
3. Present background information;
4. Create a set of categories or classify the information;
5. Clarify sequence, set of stages; and
6. Focus on `who,' `what,' `when,' `where,' and `how' but not why?

A great deal of social research is descriptive. Descriptive researchers use most

data gathering techniques surveys, field research, and content analysis.

c. Explanatory Research
When we encounter an issue that is already known and have a description of
it, we might begin to wonder why things are the way they are. The desire to
know "why," to explain, is the purpose of explanatory research. It builds on
exploratory and descriptive research and goes on to identify the reasons for
something that occurs. Explanatory research looks for causes and reasons. For
example, descriptive research may discover that 10 percent of the parents

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abuse their children, whereas the explanatory researcher is more interested in
learning why parents abuse their children.

Goals of Explanatory Research

1. Explain things not just reporting. Why? Elaborate and enrich a theory's
explanation.
2. Determine which of several explanations is best.
3. Determine the accuracy of the theory; test a theory's predictions or principle.
4. Advance knowledge about underlying process.
5. Build and elaborate a theory; elaborate and enrich a theory's predictions or
principle.
6. Extend a theory or principle to new areas, new issues, and new topics:
7. Provide evidence to support or refute an explanation or prediction.
8. Test a theory's predictions or principles

2. The Uses of Research

Some researchers focus on using research to advance general knowledge,
whereas others use it to solve specific problems. Those who seek an
understanding of the fundamental nature of social reality are engaged in basic
research (also called academic research or pure research or fundamental
research).Applied researchers, by contrast, primarily want to apply and tailor
knowledge to address a specific practical issue. They want to answer a policy
question or solve a pressing social and economic problem.

a. Basic Research
Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about the human world. It
focuses on refuting or supporting theories that explain how this world
operates, what makes things happen, why social relations are a certain way,
and why society changes. Basic research is the source of most new scientific
ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory, descriptive,
or explanatory; however, explanatory research is the most common.
Basic research generates new ideas, principles and theories, which may not be
immediately utilized; though are the foundations of modern progress and
development in different fields. Today's computers could not exist without the
pure research in mathematics conducted over a century ago, for which there
was no known practical application at that time.
Police officers trying to prevent delinquency or counselors of youthful offenders
may see little relevance to basic research on the question, "Why does deviant

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behavior occur?" Basic research rarely helps practitioners directly with their
everyday concerns. Nevertheless, it stimulates new ways of thinking about
deviance that have the potential to revolutionize and dramatically improve how
practitioners deal with a problem.
A new idea or fundamental knowledge is not generated only by basic research.
Applied research, too, can build new knowledge. Nonetheless, basic research is
essential for nourishing the expansion of knowledge. Researchers at the center
of the scientific community conduct most of the basic research.

b. Applied Research
Applied researchers try to solve specific policy problems or help practitioners
accomplish tasks. Theory is less central to them than seeking a solution on a
specific problem for a limited setting. Applied research is frequently a
descriptive research, and its main strength is its immediate practical use.
Applied research is conducted when decision must be made about a specific
real-life problem. Applied research encompasses those studies undertaken to
answer questions about specific problems or to make decisions about a
particular course of action or policy. For example, an organization
contemplating paperless office and a networking system for the company's
personal computers may conduct research to learn the amount of time its
employees spend at personal computers in an average week.

c. Basic and Applied Research Compared

The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied researchers do
not differ substantially. Both employ the scientific method to answer the
questions at hand.
The scientific community is the primary consumer of basic research. The
consumers of applied research findings are practitioners such as teachers,
counselors, and caseworkers, or decision makers such as managers,
committees, and officials. Often, someone other than the researcher who
conducted the study uses the results of applied research. This means that
applied researchers have an obligation to translate findings from scientific
technical language into the language of decision makers or practitioners.
The results of applied research are less likely to enter the public domain in
publications. Results may be available only to a small number of decision
makers or practitioners, who decide whether or how to put the research results
into practice and who may or may not use the results.
Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations toward research
methodology. Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try to conduct
near-perfect research. Applied researchers make more trade-offs. They may

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compromise scientific rigor to get quick, usable results. Compromises no
excuse for sloppy research, however. Applied researchers squeeze research into
the constraints of an applied setting and balance rigor against practical needs.
Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of research and an awareness
of the consequences of compromising standards.

d. Types of Applied Research

Practitioners use several types of applied research. Some of the major ones are:

i) Action research: The applied research that treats knowledge as a form

of power and abolishes the line between research and social action. Those who
are being studied participate in the research process; research incorporates
ordinary or popular knowledge; research focuses on power with a goal of
empowerment; research seeks to raise consciousness or increase awareness;
and research is tied directly to political action.
The researchers try to advance a cause or improve conditions by expanding
public awareness. They are explicitly political, not value neutral. Because the
goal is to improve the conditions of research participants, formal reports,
articles, or books become secondary. Action researchers assume that
knowledge develops from experience, particularly the experience of social-
political action. They also assume that ordinary people can become aware of
conditions and learn to take actions that can bring about improvement.
ii) Impact Assessment Research: Its purpose is to estimate the likely
consequences of a planned change. Such an assessment is used for planning
and making choices among alternative policies to make an impact assessment
of Basha Dam on the environment; to determine changes in housing if a major
new highway is built.
iii) Evaluation Research: It addresses the question, "Did it work?" The
process of establishing value judgment based on evidence about the
achievement of the goals of a program. Evaluation research measures the
effectiveness of a program, policy, or way of doing something. "Did the program
work? “Did it achieve its objectives?" Evaluation researchers use several
research techniques (survey, field research).
Practitioners involved with a policy or program may conduct evaluation
research for their own information or at the request of outside decision makers,
who sometime place limits on researchers by setting boundaries on what can
be studied and determining the outcome of interest. Two types of evaluation
research are formative and summative. Formative evaluation is built-in
monitoring or continuous feedback on a program used for program

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management. Summative evaluation looks at final program outcomes. Both are
usually necessary.

3. The Time Dimension in Research

Another dimension of research is the treatment of time. Some studies give us a
snapshot of a single, fixed time point and allow us to analyze it in detail. Other
studies provide a moving picture that lets us follow events, people, or sale of
products over a period of time. In this way from the angle of time research
could be divided into two broad types:
a. Cross-Sectional Research. In cross-sectional research, researchers observe
at one point in time. Cross-sectional research is usually the simplest and least
costly alternative. Its disadvantage is that it cannot capture the change
processes. Cross-sectional research can be exploratory, descriptive, or
explanatory, but it is most consistent with a descriptive approach to research.
b. Longitudinal Research. Researchers using longitudinal research examine
features of people or other units at more than one time. It is usually more
complex and costly than cross-sectional research but it is also more powerful,
especially when researchers seek answers to questions about change. There
are three types of longitudinal research: time series, panel, and cohort.
i.Time series research is longitudinal study in which the same type of
information is collected on a group of people or other units across
multiple time periods. Researcher can observe stability or change in the
features of the units or can track conditions overtime. One could track
the characteristics of students registering in the course on Research
Methods over a period of four years i.e. the characteristics (Total, age
characteristics, gender distribution, subject distribution, and geographic
distribution). Such an analysis could tell us the trends in the
characteristic over the four years.
ii. The panel study is a powerful type of longitudinal research. In panel
study, the researcher observes exactly the same people, group, or
organization across time periods. It is difficult to carry out such study.
Tracking people over time is often difficult because some people die or
cannot be located. Nevertheless, the results of a well-designed panel
study are very valuable.
iii. A cohort analysis is similar to the panel study, but rather than
observing the exact same people, a category of people who share a
similar life experience in a specified time period is studied. The focus is
on the cohort, or category, not on specific individuals. Commonly used
cohorts include all people born in the same year (called birth cohorts), all

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 people hired at the same time, all people retire on one or two year time
frame, and all people who graduate in a given year. Unlike panel studies,
researchers do not have to locate the exact same people for cohort
studies. The only need to identify those who experienced a common life
event.
4. Research (data collection) Techniques Used
Every researcher collects data using one or more techniques. The techniques
may be grouped into two categories: quantitative, collecting data in the form of
numbers, and qualitative, collecting data in the form of words or pictures.

a. Quantitative
The main quantitative techniques are:
1. Experiments
2. Surveys
3. Content Analysis
4. Using Existing Statistics

b. Qualitative
The major qualitative techniques of research are:
1. Field Research
2. Case Study
3. Focus Group Discussion
Details about the quantitative and qualitative techniques of research shall be
discussed later.

LESSON 3- VARIABLES AND HYPHOTHESES

VARIABLES AND HYPOTHESES

Begin with stating the research question, the purpose of the research, the
resources needed, and a plan for the research, including a model of the
phenomenon under study.
Where do research ideas come from?  Curiosity; experience; need for deciding
or acting; job; school; building on or contesting existing theory; available
funding; etc.
A preliminary research proposal, in one or two pages,
 a. states the research question
 b. states the purpose of the research

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  c. sketched the initial model
 d. discusses (explains) the initial model
 e. identifies pertinent background literature (bibliography)
A model shows how different elements are linked by relationships.  The
elements for a model can be drawn from personal experience, consulting with
key players, published literature, asking experts, existing data sets, and pilot
studies.  Generally a model is fixed at the beginning of the research; it may be
altered as a result of the data analysis.
A model is a visual representation of how something works; it both describes
and explains some phenomenon.  The advantages and drawbacks of models
are:
Advantages Disadvantages
Helps to understand the research May over-simplify the problem
project
Explains the idea to others May not meet the client's needs

Guides the research process May not be well-suited to

application

 Elements of the model are variables. Variables are measurable

characteristics or properties of people or things that can take on different
values. In contrast, characteristics that do not vary are constants.
 A hypothesis states a presumed relationship between two variables in a
way that can be tested with empirical data. It may take the form of a
cause-effect statement, or an "if x,...then y" statement.
 The cause is called the independent variable; and the effect is called the
dependent variable.
 Relationships can be of several forms: linear, or non-linear. Linear
relationships can be either direct (positive) or inverse (negative).
 In a direct or positive relationship, the values of both variables increase
together or decrease together. That is, if one increases in value, so does
the other; if one decreases in value, so does the other.
 In an inverse or negative relationship, the values of the variables change
in opposite directions. That is, if the independent variable increases in
value, the dependent variable decreases; if the independent variable
decreases in value, the dependent variable increases.
 In a non-linear relationship, there is no easy way to describe how the
values of the dependent variable are affected by changes in the values of
the independent variable.

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  If there is no discernable relationship between two variables, they are
said to be unrelated, or to have a null relationship. Changes in the
values of the variables are due to random events, not the influence of one
upon the other.
To establish a causal relationship between two variables, you must establish
that four conditions exist:
1) Time order: the cause must exist before the effect;
2) Co-variation: a change in the cause produces a change in the effect;
3) Rationale: there must be a reasonable explanation of why they are
related;
4) Non-spuriousness: no other (rival) cause for the effect can be found.

To establish that your causal (independent) variable is the sole cause of the
observed effect in the dependent variable, you must introduce rival or control
variables. If the introduction of the control variable does not change the
original relationship between the cause and effect variables, then the claim of
non-spuriousness is strengthened.

Commonly used control variables for research on people include sex, age, race,
education, and income. Commonly used control variables for research on
organizations include agency size (number of employees), stability, mission,
budget, and region of the country where located. For example, consider the
placement rates for three training programs. The independent variable is the
type of training, and the dependent variable is the placement rate.

Vocational education has a placement rate of 30%; on-the-job training has a

rate of 40%; and work-skill training has a rate of 35%. It would appear that
on-the-job training is the best program, followed by work-skill training, with
vocational education last. However, when education is introduced as a control
variable, it can be seen that the effect of the independent variable (type of
training) on the dependent variable (placement rate) is quite different for people
with different levels of education.

Level of Education Vocational On-the-job Work-Skill

Ed training Training
Less than high 30% 20% 50%
school
High School  60% 45% 15%
More than high 20% 60% 10%

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school
Overall rate 30% 40% 35%

(Note that there are different numbers of people in each educational category,
and different numbers of people in each training program, so the overall rate is
not simply the average of the rates for each educational category within each
training program).

LESSON 4- ETHICS OF RESEARCH

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research.

In addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure
a high ethical standard. The following is a general summary of some ethical
principles:
 Honesty:
Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication
status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data.
 Objectivity:
Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data
interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert
testimony, and other aspects of research.
 Integrity:
Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for
consistency of thought and action.
 Carefulness:
Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research
activities.
 Openness:
Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.
 Respect for Intellectual Property:
Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not
use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit
where credit is due. Never plagiarize.
 Confidentiality:
Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted
for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient
records.
 Responsible Publication:

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 Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just
your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
 Responsible Mentoring:
Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and
allow them to make their own decisions.
 Respect for Colleagues:
Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
 Social Responsibility:
Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through
research, public education, and advocacy.
 Non-Discrimination:
Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex,
race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific
competence and integrity.
 Competence:
Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence
in science as a whole.
 Legality:
Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
 Animal Care:
Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do
not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.
 Human Subjects Protection:
When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks
and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy.

MODULE II:

THE RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND OBJECTIVES

LESSON 1- THE RESEARCH PROBLEM AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

A research problem is a statement about an area of concern, a condition to be

improved, a difficulty to be eliminated, or a troubling question that exists in
scholarly literature, in theory, or in practice that points to the need for
meaningful understanding and deliberate investigation. In some social science
disciplines the research problem is typically posed in the form of a question. A

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research problem does not state how to do something, offer a vague or broad
proposition, or present a value question.

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being studied.

The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the research
questions or hypotheses to follow.
2. Places the problem into a particular context that defines the
parameters of what is to be investigated.
3. Provides the framework for reporting the results and indicates what
is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings
will present this information.

Characteristics of a Good Research Problem

1. The Problem Can Be Stated Clearly and Concisely

Unless the problem can be stated clearly and concisely it is probably a
poor problem or a non-problem. The best way to test the problem
statement is to write it into a concise sentence or paragraph and to share
it with others.

2. The Problem Generates Research Questions

The problem should generate a number of more specific research

questions. These turn the problem into a question format and represent
various aspects or components of the problem.

3. It Is Grounded in Theory
Good problems have theoretical and/or conceptual frameworks for their
analysis. They relate the specifics of what is being investigated to a more
general background of theory which helps interpret the results and link
it to the field.

4. It Relates to One or More Academic Fields of Study

Good problems relate to academic fields which have adherents and
boundaries. They typically have journals to which adherents relate.

5. It Has a Base in the Research Literature

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 Related to the former points, a well-stated problem will relate to a
research literature. Tight problems often relate to a well-defined body of
literature, written by a select group of researchers and published in a
small number of journals.

6. It Has Potential Significance/importance
This is the important ‘so what’ question: Who cares once you solve the
problem? Assume that you have solved the problem and answered the
questions and then ask yourself if you are any further ahead.

7. It Is Doable Within the Time Frame, Budget

There are logistic factors in terms of your ability actually to carry out the
research. There is no point pursuing a problem which is not feasible to
research. Do not do a study of education in India unless you have the
means to go there and collect data ̶ which may require years to collect. 

8. Sufficient Data Are Available or Can Be Obtained

In some cases, there are insufficient data to address the problem.
Historical persons may have died, archival materials may be lost, or
there may be restrictions on access to certain environments. As noted, it
is difficult to conduct research on a distant country unless you can go
there and collect local data. 

LESSON 2- SOURCES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS AND CRITERIA OF GOOD

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Definition of Research Problem

 “A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks what

relation exist between two or more variables. The answer to questions
will provide what is having sought in the research.” -Kerlinger.
 “A situation for which we have no ready and successful response by
instinct or by previous acquired habit. We must find out what to do ‘ i.e
the solution can be found out only after an investigation”
-R.S.Woodworth.

A. Sources of Research Problem

1. Person experience

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 Day-to-day personal experience of a researcher may serve as good
source of ideas to formulate a research problem.

For example, a researcher observed domestic violence suffered by wives

of alcoholic husbands. This experience may provide ideas to identify
several research problems related to domestic violence against women.
There may be so many such life experiences of a researcher which could
be used to develop a research problem.

2. Practical experience

Nurses get plenty of ideas to formulate research problems from their

clinical experiences. Every curious nurse has several questions to be
answered that are encountered during clinical experience.

For example, a nurse finds that unrestricted visiting hours in surgical

wards reduced the analgesic demand among postoperative patients. In
another instance, a nurse observed that application of ice at the site of
heparin injection reduced the chances of ecchymosis. Such clinical
experiences could be rich sources of ideas to identify a significant
research problem.

3. Critical appraisal of literature:

When we critically study books and articles relating to the subject of our
interest, including research reports, opinion articles, and summaries of
clinical issues, pertinent questions may arise in our mind. These may
strike reader's mind indirectly by stimulating imagination and directly by
stating what additional research is needed.

For example, a nurse reads an article on the prevalence of the pin site
infection among patients with external fixators

4. Previous research:

A body of knowledge should be developed on a sound foundation of re-

search findings. Usually, at the end of a research, further research
problems are suggested, based on the shortcomings of previous research,
which can be investigated. In nursing profession, not much research has
been yet done; therefore, this profession needs researchers who are
willing to replicate or repeat other studies on different samples and
settings where all the essential elements of the original study are held

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 intact. Further refinements may be made in the experimental treatments,
or more appropriate outcome measures may be identified.

5. Existing theories:

Research is a process of theory development and theory testing. Nurses

use many theories from other disciplines in their practices. If an existing
theory is used in developing a researchable problem, a specific statement
from the theory must be isolated. Generally, a part or parts of the theory
are subjected to testing in the clinical situation. The testing of an existing
theory is definitely needed in nursing; therefore, they serve as good
sources of research problems.

6. Consumer feedback:

Research problems may be generated from the results of activities aimed

to solicit patient feedback.

For example, at the time of discharge of patient after angiography, a

nurse obtained a feedback from the patient. Patient verbalized that it was
a wonderful experience except discomfort during removal of pressure
dressing at the oral puncture site. This feedback provided a concept for
nurse to research on efficacy available alternative means of dressing at
puncture site to minimize the discomfort g patient undergoing
angiography.

7. Performance improvement activities:

The performance improvement activities, also known as quality

improvement activities, are used to improve processes and outcomes to
meet regulatory requirement. In the process of performance activities,
several issues merge that require answers through research. Thus
performance improvement activities also serve as an important source of
research problem.

8. Social issues:

Sometimes, topics are suggested by more global contemporary social or

political issues of relevance to the health care community.

For example, HIV/AIDS, female feticide, sexual harassment, domestic

violence, and gender equality in health care and in research are some of
the current social and political issues of concern for health care

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 professionals. An idea for a study may stem from a familiarity with social
concerns or controversial social issues.

9. Brainstorming:

Brainstorming sessions are good techniques to find new questions, where

an intensified discussion among interested people of the profession is
conducted to find more ideas to formulate a good research problem.

For example, ideas for studies may emerge from reviewing research
priorities by having brainstorming session with other nurses,
researchers, or nursing faculty.

10. Intuition:

Traditionally, intuitions are considered good sources of knowledge as well

as sources to find new research problems. It is believed that the reflective
mind is a good source of ideas, which may be used to formulate a good
research problem

11. Folklores:

Common beliefs could be right or wrong. For example, it is generally

believed that studying just before the test decreases the score. We believe
we should not study just before test to relax our mind. Researchers can
conduct a research study on whether one should study before the test or
not.

12. Exposure to field situations:

During field exposure, researchers get variety of experiences, which may

provide plenty of ideas to formulate research problems. For example,
while working in field, a researcher observed a specific traditional
practice for cure of a disease condition, which can be used as research
problem to investigate its efficacy.

13. Consultations with experts:

Experts are believed to have sound experience of their respective field,

which may suggest a significant problem to be studied. In addition,
experts may help in finding a current problem of discipline to be solved,
which may serve as basis for formulation of research problem.

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B. Criteria of Good Research Problem

 SIGNIFICANCE TO THE DISCIPLINE

A problem which the researcher is selecting should have significance to
the profession or discipline.

 ORIGINALITY
Every research should be new and unique in itself.
Therefore it is the responsibility of the researcher that innovative
knowledge is used for selecting a research problem so as to extend the
growth of existing body of knowledge in a profession.

 FEASIBLE
Feasibility is an essential consideration of any research project. A
research should be feasible in terms of time, availability of subjects,
facilities, equipment & money and ethical considerations.

 ADMINISTRATIVE SUPPORT
Many researches require administrative support. Financial &
psychological support is essential to conduct research.

 PEER SUPPORT
Many research ideas have failed because the researcher did not receive
any peer support.

 AVAILABILITY OF SUBJECTS
Sometimes the potential subjects may not meet the study criteria or may
be unwilling to participate in the study or may be already participating in
another studies.

 RESEARCHER’S COMPETENCE
A research problem can only be feasible if it is in accordance with the
researcher’s competence. A researcher should be capable to handle a
given research problem.

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  ETHICAL SOUNDNESS
The research problem selected should be cleared by the ethical
committee without undue hurdles.

 SOLVABLE/RESEARCHABLE
Only a research problem that is solvable is considered to be good. A
researcher should minimize the chances of insolvability.

 CURRENT
A good research problem must be based on the current problems and
needs of the profession. Thus the result generated will be of more use.

 INTERESTING
A research problem must be as per the motivation of the researcher and
it should be fascinating to the researcher.

 CLEAR & UNABIGUOUS

The research problem selected should be clear in its ability to reflect or
give clues regarding the various aspects of methodology.

 EMPIRICAL & VERIFIABLE

The research problem selected to be researched should amenable to
scientific enquiry. The research should be verifiable by scientific
calculations.

 RELEVANT
The research problem chosen to be researched should be relevant to the
profession, time, need & the competency of the researcher.

 SYSTEMATIC
The research problem should be systematic- in the sense the researcher
should have arrived at the problem statement following relevant selection
parameters or criteria.

LESSON 3- THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SPECIFIC PROBLEMS

What are the research objectives?

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• A research problem (also “issue” or “question”) indicates the need or desire to
know or to understand something.

Problem solving has three steps:

• Obtaining relevant information about the problem and potential

solutions – research component

• Examine alternative approaches and chose among them – decision

component

• Determine how to implement the decision and take action – action

component

This lecture deals mainly with the first of these three components, recognizing
that they are all interconnected.

Model of Problem Solving (Johnson, 1976)

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• This model of problem-solving is not relevant to disciplinary research, which
is less likely to require decisions.

• Problem solving for decision making:

– is initiated with problem definition,

– progresses to analysis,

– then decision making and actions follow to implement the decision.

– Normative and positivistic knowledge are used interdependently,

impacting each step in the process.

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 The dashed line separates research (information generating) from
the problem solving process

RESEARCH
• This separation of research from decision making is not considered useful,
or even valid, by some economists.

• They believe the decision process is part of the research process.

• However, Johnson (and Ethridge) feel that

“to mix the research and decision aspects may fragment the researcher’s
attention, and it may subconsciously influence the outcome of the research.” (ie.
The research is not objective.)

The Problem Statement

23
• Research problems are always linked to a more general set of problems, so it
is useful to separate the problem statement into two parts:

• The general problem (or problematic situation),

• The specific problem (or the researchable problem).

Note that the specific problem is not necessarily “small”, but rather it must be
precisely specified and capable of being addressed with available resources.

• The general problem statement provides the background or setting for

the researchable problem.

• Usually, it helps to introduce the problem with very general

statements, then progressively narrow the focus to more specific,
precise issues.

• However, if the reader of the proposal is already knowledgeable

on the subject, the broad general discussion can be reduced.

ie. The problem definition should be tailored for the expected audience.

Objectives

• Objectives specify what the research project proposes to accomplish (do,

achieve, estimate, determine, measure, evaluate, etc.)

• They are usually best specified in general and specific parts. Often the
shortest part of the proposal, but it is the centerpiece.

• General objective – states the main purpose of the study. It

should derive directly from the research problem statement. One
sentence is best!

• Specific objectives – a set or list of sub-objectives, each of which

contributes to achieving the general objective.

LESSON 4- DISCUSSING THE IMPORTANCE/ SIGNIFICANCE OF THE

STUDY

24
Significance of the Study is written so that the reader know the importance
of study. It is the proof that the study is really beneficial and worth it for the
effort and time. It can be based on the statement of the problem wherein you
can get ideas on how to write a significance of the study section on your thesis
or research. It illustrate the contribution of the study on the society. It provides
information on how the project or research contributed to the present
generation and how to expand its related literature.

Techniques for writing significance of the study

General significance

To write the general significance, consider the importance or contribution your

study will impact or benefit others in part or whole. Discuss what people or
groups of people might benefit from your study. Show how this project is
significant to developing a body of knowledge. An example is how your study
will influence public policy.

Specific significance

Your problem statement can guide you in identifying the specific contribution
of your study. You can do this by observing a one-to-one correspondence
between the purpose of the problem and the objectives of the study. For
example, if your research question reads “Is there any significant relationship
between the usage of WhatsApp and the performance of students in spelling in
English language?” perhaps, you may write one of the contributions of your
study as “The study will identify common errors in spelling and grammar by
users of WhatsApp and recommend its appropriate use in a manner that can
improve better performance in spelling.”

Justify the need for the study by considering the following:

1. The gaps in related literature that demands attention

2. Where there is little or no literature on the identified gaps
3. Where the related literature available recommends a further work vis-à-
vis the identified gaps

Benefits or outcomes

25
You may justify the need for the study by outlining the expected benefits or
outcomes to be derived from conducting the study. You need to explain how
the outcome of the study will be useful in terms of how it will contribute to
extension, refinement or revision of a theory; or influence existing issues in
terms of policy or practice.

Checklists

Use the following checklists to fine tune the significance of the study:

1. Why is this work important?

2. What are the implications of doing it?
3. How does your study link to other knowledge?
4. How does it stand to inform or influence policy making?
5. What new perspective will your study introduce to the subject?
6. What benefits might your study have for others in the subject area or to
the general public?
7. How is your study expected to resolve lingering questions or gaps in
knowledge in your field of study?
8. How is your study expected to develop better theoretical models in your
specialty?
9. How your study will change the way people do their jobs in a particular
field, or may change the way people live.

Example:

26
 F
ig 1: Sample of significance of the study

LESSON 5- SCOPE AND DELIMITATION/ LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Scope of a Study
Scope refers to the depth at which the research area will be explored. Facts and
theories about the subject are included in this area. For instance, one might
decide to carry out a study of the impact of mobile devices on the behavior
patterns of elementary school kids. However, it's infeasible to cover all aspects
of the selected subject. If so, the scope will have to be restricted to a specific
section of the target population over a specified duration. 
In the above-cited study, a group of 25 kids in grades 3 to 5 at one particular
school would be an ideal coverage to study their behavior patterns for five
months. These would form the delimitations of the research.

Delimitation of a Study
Delimitation parameters or characteristics that limit the scope and outline the
boundaries of the study. These parameters include sample size, time, and
geographic area. Additionally, the researcher is free to decide which research
tools and methodologies to use as well as particular theories that apply to the
data. Delimitations like insufficient time and financial resources might be
imposed to allow further analysis or investigations. 
Here, researchers are tasked with the responsibility of explaining why specific
exclusions and choices were made and how they might affect the outcome of
the research. In the example mentioned above, the researcher might explain

27
why a sample group of 25 children was chosen together with children from
grades 3 to 5 and not the rest of the grades.

Limitations
According to research guides from the University of Southern California,
limitations are the constraints on the concept of any data collected,
applications to practice, and utility of findings that weren't accounted for
beforehand. These affect the methods used to set internal and external validity.
In this case, the researcher might discover that several children from grades 3
and 5 couldn't make it to school on the research day due to torrential
downpour. 
In qualitative research, some limitations might mean that the results of the
larger population can't be generalized. This is particularly true when the
definition of the population is broad, for example, middle-aged men. 

MODULE III:

THEORIES, CONCEPTS, LITERATUTE AND STUDIES IN RESEARCH

LESSON 1- THE NEEDS TO HAVE RESEARCH THEORIES

Theory is a model or framework for observation and understanding, which

shapes both what we see and how we see it. Theory allows the researcher to
make links between the abstract and the concrete; the theoretical and the
empirical; thought statements and observational statements etc.

Some Characteristics of ‘Theory’

 Theory guides research and organizes its ideas. The analogy of bricks
lying around haphazardly in the brickyard: ‘facts’ of different shapes and
sizes have no meaning unless they are drawn together in a theoretical or
conceptual framework.
 Theory becomes stronger as more supporting evidence is gathered; and it
provides a context for predictions.
 Theory has the capacity to generate new research.
 Theory is empirically relevant and always tentative.

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 The Dynamic Relationship Between Theory and Research

Theory and research are interrelated in the following ways:

 Theory frames what we look at, how we think and look at it.
 It provides basic concepts and directs us to the important questions.
 It suggests ways for us to make sense of research data.
 Theory enables us to connect a single study to the immense base of
knowledge to which other researchers contribute.
 It helps a researcher see the forest instead of just a single tree.
 Theory increases a researcher’s awareness of interconnections and of the
broader significance of data.

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and understand phenomena

and, in many cases, to challenge and extend existing knowledge within the
limits of critical bounding assumptions. The theoretical framework is the
structure that can hold or support a theory of a research study. The
theoretical framework introduces and describes the theory that explains
why the research problem under study exists.

Importance of Theory

A theoretical framework consists of concepts and, together with their

definitions and reference to relevant scholarly literature, existing
theory that is used for your particular study. The theoretical framework
must demonstrate an understanding of theories and concepts that are
relevant to the topic of your research paper and that relate to the broader
areas of knowledge being considered.

The theoretical framework is most often not something readily found

within the literature. You must review course readings and pertinent
research studies for theories and analytic models that are relevant to the
research problem you are investigating. The selection of a theory should
depend on its appropriateness, ease of application, and explanatory power.

29
The Theoretical framework strengthens the Study in the Following
Ways:

1. An explicit statement of theoretical assumptions permits the reader

to evaluate them critically.
2. The theoretical framework connects the researcher to existing
knowledge. Guided by a relevant theory, you are given a basis for your
hypotheses and choice of research methods.
3. Articulating the theoretical assumptions of a research study forces
you to address questions of why and how. It permits you to intellectually
transition from simply describing a phenomenon you have observed to
generalizing about various aspects of that phenomenon.
4. Having a theory helps you identify the limits to those generalizations.
A theoretical framework specifies which key variables influence a
phenomenon of interest and highlights the need to examine how those
key variables might differ and under what circumstances.

By virtue of its applicative nature, good theory in the social sciences is of

value precisely because it fulfills one primary purpose: to explain the
meaning, nature, and challenges associated with a phenomenon, often
experienced but unexplained in the world in which we live, so that we
may use that knowledge and understanding to act in more informed and
effective ways.

Strategies for Developing the Theoretical Framework

 I. Developing the Framework

Here are some strategies to develop of an effective theoretical framework:

1. Examine your thesis title and research problem. The

research problem anchors your entire study and forms the basis from
which you construct your theoretical framework.
2. Brainstorm about what you consider to be the key
variables in your research. Answer the question, "What factors
contribute to the presumed effect?"
3. Review related literature to find how scholars have
addressed your research problem. Identify the assumptions from which
the author(s) addressed the problem.

30
4. List the constructs and variables that might be relevant
to your study. Group these variables into independent and dependent
categories.
5. Review key social science theories that are introduced to
you in your course readings and choose the theory that can best explain
the relationships between the key variables in your study [note
the Writing Tip on this page].
6. Discuss the assumptions or propositions of this theory
and point out their relevance to your research.

A theoretical framework is used to limit the scope of the relevant

data by focusing on specific variables and defining the specific viewpoint
[framework] that the researcher will take in analyzing and interpreting
the data to be gathered. It also facilitates the understanding of concepts
and variables according to given definitions and builds new knowledge by
validating or challenging theoretical assumptions.

II. Purpose

Think of theories as the conceptual basis for understanding, analyzing,

and designing ways to investigate relationships within social
systems. To that end, the following roles served by a theory can help guide
the development of your framework.

 Means by which new research data can be interpreted and coded for
future use,
 Response to new problems that have no previously identified
solutions strategy,
 Means for identifying and defining research problems,
 Means for prescribing or evaluating solutions to research problems,
 Ways of discerning certain facts among the accumulated knowledge
that are important and which facts are not,
 Means of giving old data new interpretations and new meaning,
 Means by which to identify important new issues and prescribe the
most critical research questions that need to be answered to maximize
understanding of the issue,
 Means of providing members of a professional discipline with a
common language and a frame of reference for defining the boundaries of
their profession, and
31
 Means to guide and inform research so that it can, in turn, guide
research efforts and improve professional practice.

LESSON 2- CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH AND ITS PARADIGM

WHAT IS MEANT BY A PARADIGM?

Meaning of “paradigm” in the English Cambridge Dictionary

“Model of something, or a very clear and typical example of something”

• Paradigm indicate a pattern or model or typical example including cultural

themes, worldviews, Ideologies and mindsets

• ORIGIN: late 15th century.: via late Latin from Greek paradeigma, from
paradeiknunai ‘show side by side,’ from para-‘beside’ deiknunai ‘to show.’

“Paradigms are general framework or view points : literally „points from which
to view‟. They provide ways of looking at life and are grounded in sets of
assumptions about the nature of reality” (Babbie, 1998)

WHAT IS A RESEARCH PARADIGM?

• A research paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared

between scientist about how problems should be understood and addressed”
(Kuhn, 1970)

• “Research paradigms can be characterized by the way Scientists respond to

three basic questions: ontological, epistemological and methodological
questions” (Guba, 1990)

• “Social scientists can ground their inquiries in any number of paradigms.

None is write or wrong, merely more or less useful in particular situation. They
each shape the kind of theory created for general understanding” (Babbie,
1998)

ACCORDING TO KUHN (1970) PARADIGM CONTAINS

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"Universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model
problems and solutions for a community of researchers", i.e.,

• what is to be observed and scrutinized

• the kind of questions that are supposed to be asked and probed for answers
in relation to this subject
• how these questions are to be structured
• how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted
• how is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to
conduct the experiment.

RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY, PARADIGMS AND LOGIC OF RESEARCH

33
LESSON 3- LOCATING AND REVIEWING THE LITERATURES

The Purposes of a Review

 General purpose - to relate previous research to the current problem

being investigated

 Provide contextual understanding

 Contribute to the overall evaluation of the credibility of the

research

 Indicate whether the nature of the research is targeted to the

reader’s needs

 Specific purposes

 Refine the problem

 Identify specific ways in which others have defined the

general problem

 Identify delimitations related to the problem

 Identify operational definitions of the variables in the

problem

 Develop the significance of the research

 Establish the importance of the current study in the context

of what is known at this time

 Integrate the results of the study within the broader context

of what is known at this time

 Specific purposes

 Develop specific research hypotheses

 Prior studies contribute to understanding likely outcomes of

the current investigation

 Prior studies identify relevant theories or the research

related to them which can serve as the basis for specific
hypotheses

34
  Learn new information

 Relevant information to the current study

 New information or ideas unrelated to the current study but

of interest to the researcher

Locating Resources

 Library resources

 Reference materials

 Journal indices

 Computer software

 Stacks

 Internet resources and access

Steps for Conducting a Review

Step 1 – Review secondary sources

 Secondary sources summarize, review, or discuss original research of

others to provide an overview of the topic

 Textbooks, scholarly books, and monographs

 Encyclopedias

 Reviews, handbooks, and yearbooks

 Meta-analyses - quantitative syntheses of a number of studies to arrive

at an overall conclusion related to the topic being studied

 ERIC Meta-Analysis Digests in educational research

 Best Evidence Synthesis - a review of quantitative and qualitative studies

selected according to specified criteria

 General or specific

 Identify key terms

 Utilize the ERIC Thesaurus for searching

35
  Identify other databases for your topic

 Start your search with general terms first

Step 2 – Identify Database and Access Software

 Identify the keyword descriptors using the ERIC Thesaurus

 PsycINFO database

 For psychological research consult the Thesaurus of Psychological Index

Terms available in most libraries or through the American Psychological
Association (APA)

Step 3 – Conduct Search

Educational Resources Information Center (ERIC)

 ERIC – a federally funded information network that is designed to provide

access to education literature (www.eric.gov.ed)

 Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE) - abstracts of articles

compiled from approximately 1000 educational journals and periodicals

 Resources in Education (RIE) - abstracts of research reports not

published in journals (e.g., conference papers; project reports; federal,
state, and local agency documents; etc.)

 Education Index - bibliographic information for articles from 300

educational periodicals

 PsycINFO

 PsycINFO is an online APA database of psychological literature

available in most libraries or on a cost basis

 Abstracts of articles from approximately 1800 journals as well as

books, book chapters, dissertations, reports, and other documents

 Educational emphasis is on human development, learning

motivation, teaching methods, and teacher effects

36
Conduct Search

In ERIC, use Advanced Search

 Use the connector “and”

 Click on “More details”

 In other databases, is the article from a peer-reviewed journal?

Step 4 – Identify the source as Primary or Secondary

 Primary sources are articles that report original research

 Referred journals

 Non-referred journals

 Computerized ERIC searches

Identify the Source as Primary or Secondary

 Secondary sources are those that summarize or discuss original

research

 Books

 Encyclopedias

 Reviews

Step 5 – Summarize and analyze the primary source information

Take notes using index cards

 Identify bibliographic information

 Summarize the research problem

 Identify all variables, subjects, and instruments

 Describe the procedures

 Summarize the results and conclusions

 Record important quotes, weaknesses of the study, relevance

to the current problem, etc.

37
  Code each article with your overall judgment of it

 Note the major focus of each article

Step 6 – Organize the review

Quantitative reviews

 Group studies by topic

 Write the review in three sections

 Provide a brief summary of the major articles

 Analyze the studies

 Integrate in the discussion how the reviewed studies are relevant

to the current research

 Avoid long quotations

 Establish the length of the review depending on the type of study,

the intent to publish the research, and the topic.

Organize the review

Qualitative reviews

 The purpose of a qualitative review is to introduce the purpose and the

very general questions of the study

 Provides direction

 Does not limit, constrain, or predict results of the study (i.e., a discovery
orientation)

 Allows participant’s views to emerge

 Begins with an initial, preliminary review

 Continues with supplemental reviews as the study progresses

 Provides understanding of the results

 Provides meaningful analogies, scholarly language, for synthesizing, or

additional conceptual frameworks within which the results become
meaningful

38
 LESSON 4- RELATED STUDIES AND READINGS

Not all research studies are created equal and that’s on purpose. But the study
type is a key component that should be used when assessing the importance
and potential impact of research.

A study of two people is going to yield less widely applicable insights than a

study of 2,000. So when you read the latest headline about a diet that can
prevent cancer or a dye that can cause it, take a look at the kind of study it
was to help gauge the importance of its findings. 

Here is a rundown of some of the most common types of research studies

behind the health headlines, from observational studies to experimental trials.
Having a better understanding of how a study is conducted can help you
understand its advantages and limitations.

Observational studies

In an observational study, researchers do not intervene; they simply observe

study subjects to determine whether there’s a correlation between an exposure
and disease risk within a given population. Such studies fall into the category
of epidemiological research, which aims to understand the causes, or risk
factors, of disease and how they can be modified or prevented. Results of such
studies can help guide and inform prevention research.

Depending on their study design, observational studies can be prospective

(forward-looking) or retrospective (backward-looking).

 Prospective studies observe a group of people — or compare different

groups, or cohorts, over time — to look for relationships between lifestyle
factors or environmental exposures and the development of conditions or
diseases. Exposure information is collected at baseline, or the beginning of the
study, before disease is diagnosed, and at various points over time to document
changes in exposure that may correlate with the development of disease.
 Retrospective studies rely on study subjects who have already been
diagnosed with a condition or disease, called cases, as well as a comparison
group of subjects who do not have the condition or disease, called controls.
Cases and controls are then asked about past exposures to tease out any
associations between exposure and disease.

39
 Here are several types of observational study designs:

 Cross-sectional studies examine the relationship between an exposure

and a health outcome within a specific population at a single point in time.
Such studies provide a snapshot of activity but often cannot determine which
came first: the exposure or the disease.
 Case-only studies look for interactions between the effects of genetic and
environmental factors on a disease using data collected solely from patients
with the disease, who are known as cases.
 Case-control studies compare two groups: those with a disease or
condition of interest (cases) and those who are similar in age and other
demographic characteristics who do not have the condition or disease
(controls). Researchers then compare the frequency of exposure prior to the
disease diagnosis to one or more risk factors in both groups to help determine
whether there’s a link between the past exposure and the development of the
disease or condition being studied.
 Cohort studies typically look at large groups of people, or cohorts, to
understand the causes of a disease or condition. They can be prospective or
retrospective. Most often, information on exposures is collected at baseline and
then individuals are followed up over time to determine who develops the
disease or condition of interest. A well-known example of a prospective cohort
study is the Framingham Heart Study, which was launched in 1948 with an
aim to identify factors that contribute to cardiovascular disease. The study,
which has involved more than 14,000 participants from three generations,
found that high blood pressure and cholesterol are major risk factors for
cardiovascular disease, among other key results.

Experimental studies

Experimental studies, also called randomized, controlled trials, or RCTs, assign

groups of people at random, like the toss of a coin, to either receive (or not
receive) a preventive or therapeutic intervention or screening test, such as a
drug, device or procedure. Researchers then assess the impact of the
intervention on those who received it as compared to those who did not.

Well-known examples of RCTs include those conducted by the Women’s Health

Initiative, a massive nationwide undertaking coordinated by Fred Hutchinson
Cancer Research Center. Launched in 1991 with a $625 million grant from the
National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, the WHI conducted four randomized,
controlled Phase 3 trials (see below re: trial phases) that were designed to

40
 measure the effects of various interventions, from hormone therapy to dietary
supplements to a low-fat diet, on preventing the most common health issues in
postmenopausal women, including heart disease, breast and colorectal cancer,
and osteoporosis-related fractures. The initiative, which enrolled more than
161,000 older women across the U.S., had — and continues to have — a wide-
ranging impact on medical practice and women’s health.

RCTs are designed to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of experimental

drugs or tests for diseases such as cancer. They are conducted incrementally,
in a series of steps that are called phases. Below are brief descriptions of the
study phases.

 Phase 1 trials are first-in-human studies that are conducted in small

groups of people to evaluate a new drug, test or procedure. This can include
determining the safe dosage of a drug, the most effective way to administer it
and identifying any serious side effects.
 Phase 2 trials involve slightly larger groups of participants to test efficacy
and further test safety.
 Phase 3 trials are conducted in a large study population to provide a
complete picture of safety and efficacy. These trials aim to determine whether
the drug, test or procedure is as good as the current standard of care for a
disease or condition. Such studies are typically designed as randomized,
controlled trials.
 Phase 4 trials are conducted in large populations after a drug, test or
procedure has been introduced on the market to further monitor safety and
potential long-term adverse outcomes. Such post-marketing trials are typically
designed as observational, long-term cohort studies.

Causation vs. correlation

When reading about study results, it is important to not confuse causation

with correlation or association. While prospective, observational studies that
follow large groups of people over time can suggest relationships between
certain exposures and diseases, they cannot on their own prove cause and
effect. Only randomized, controlled trials comparing intervention and control
groups — the research gold standard — can definitively confirm causation.

The bottom line: Always interpret health headlines — particularly nutrition

claims — with a proverbial grain of salt, because if they seem too good to be
true, they probably are.

41
General Reading Strategies

When you first read an article or research paper, focus on asking specific
questions about each section. This strategy can help with overall
comprehension and with understanding how the content relates [or does
not relate] to the problem you want to investigate. As you review more and
more studies, the process of understanding and critically evaluating the
research will become easier because the content of what you review will
begin to coalescence around common themes and patterns of analysis.
Below are recommendations on how to read each section of a research
paper effectively. Note that the sections to read are out of order from how
you will find them organized in a journal article or research paper.

1.  Abstract

The abstract summarizes the background, methods, results, discussion,

and conclusions of a scholarly article or research paper. Use the abstract to
filter out sources that may have appeared useful when you began searching
for information but, in reality, are not relevant. Questions to consider when
reading the abstract are:

 Is this study related to my question or area of research?

 What is this study about and why is it being done?
 What is the working hypothesis or underlying thesis?
 What is the primary finding of the study?
 Are there words or terminology that I can use to either narrow or
broaden the parameters of my search for more information?
2.  Introduction

If, after reading the abstract, you believe the paper may be useful, focus on
examining the research problem and identifying the questions the author is
trying to address. This information is usually located within the first few
paragraphs of the introduction. Look for information about how and in
what way this relates to what you are investigating. In addition to the
research problem, the introduction should provide the main argument and
theoretical framework of the study and, in the last paragraphs of the
introduction, describe what the author(s) intend to accomplish. Questions
to consider when reading the introduction include:

 What is this study trying to prove or disprove?

 What is the author(s) trying to test or demonstrate?

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 What do we already know about this topic and what gaps does this
study try to fill or contribute a new understanding to the research
problem?
 Why should I care about what is being investigated?
 Will this study tell me anything new related to the research problem I
am investigating?
3.  Literature Review

The literature review describes what is already known about a topic. Read
the literature review to obtain a big picture perspective about how the topic
has been studied and to begin the process of seeing where your potential
study fits within this domain of prior research. Questions to consider when
reading the literature review include:

 What other research has been conducted about this topic and what
are the main themes that have emerged?
 What does prior research reveal about what is already known about
the topic and what remains to be discovered?
 What have been the most important past findings about the research
problem?
 How has prior research led the author(s) to conduct this particular
study?
 Is there any prior research that is unique or groundbreaking?
 Are there any studies I could use as a model for designing and
organizing my own study?
4.  Discussion/Conclusion

The discussion and conclusion are usually the last two sections of text in a
scholarly article or research report. They reveal how the author(s)
interpreted the findings of their research and presented recommendations
or courses of action based on those findings. Often in the conclusion, the
author(s) highlight recommendations for further research that can be used
to develop your own study. Questions to consider when reading the
discussion and conclusion sections include:

 What is the overall meaning of the study and why is this important?
[i.e., how have the author(s) addressed the "So What? " question].
 What do you find to be the most important ways that the findings
have been interpreted?
 What are the weaknesses in their argument?

43
 Do you believe conclusions about the significance of the study and its
findings are valid?
 What limitations of the study do the author(s) describe and how
might this help formulate my own research?
 Does the conclusion contain any recommendations for future
research?
5.  Methods/Methodology

The methods section describes the materials, techniques, and procedures

for gathering information used to examine the research problem.  If what
you have read so far closely supports your understanding of the topic, then
move on to examining how the author(s) gathered information during the
research process. Questions to consider when reading the methods section
include:

 Did the study use qualitative [based on interviews, observations,

content analysis], quantitative [based on statistical analysis], or a mixed-
methods approach to examining the research problem?
 What was the type of information or data used?
 Could this method of analysis be repeated and can I adopt the same
approach?
 Is enough information available to repeat the study or should new
data be found to expand or improve understanding of the research
problem?
6.  Results

After reading the above sections, you should have a clear understanding of
the general findings of the study. Therefore, read the results section to
identify how key findings were discussed in relation to the research
problem. If any non-textual elements [e.g., graphs, charts, tables, etc.] are
confusing, focus on the explanations about them in the text.  Questions to
consider when reading the results section include:

 What did the author(s) find and how did they find it?
 Does the author(s) highlight any findings as most significant?
 Are the results presented in a factual and unbiased way?
 Does the analysis of results in the discussion section agree with how
the results are presented?
 Is all the data present and did the author(s) adequately address gaps?

44
 What conclusions do you formulate from this data and does it match
with the author's conclusions?
7.  References

The references list the sources used by the author(s) to document what
prior research and information was used by when designing their study.
After reviewing the article or research paper, use the references to identify
additional sources of information on the topic and to examine critically how
these sources supported the overall research agenda. Questions to consider
when reading the references include:

 Do the sources cited by the author(s) reflect a diversity of disciplinary

viewpoints, i.e., are the sources all from a particular field of study or
multiple areas of study?
 Are there any unique or interesting sources that could be
incorporated into my study?
 What other authors are respected in this field, i.e., who has multiple
works cited or is cited most often by others?
 What other research should I review to clarify any remaining issues
or that I need more information about?

MODULE IV:

THE RESEARCH DESIGNS AND METHODOLOGIES

LESSON 1- HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN

HISTORICAL RESEARCH DESIGN

 Analyzing the past events and develops the present concept and
conclusion.
 Analyzing the previous information or events minutely and testing their
validity.
 The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and
synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute
a hypothesis.
 Describes what occurred in the past.
 Depends upon data observed by other rather than investigator.

45
Characteristics

1. Historical research involves the careful study and analysis of data about
past events.
2. It is a critical investigation of events, their development, experiences of
past.
3. The purpose is to gain a clearer understanding of the impact of past on
present and future events related to life process.
4. Involves the review of written materials but may include oral
documentation as well.

STEPS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

1. FIRST STEP: data collection

2. SECOND STEP: criticism of the data
3. THIRD STEP: presentation of the facts

1. First step: data collection Comprehensive gathering of data is undertaken.

Historical sources of data are usually classified into two main categories:
Primary sources: Primary sources are first hand information that include:
Remains or relic associated with persons, groups, periods or events.
Fossils, skeletons, tools, weapons, utensils, clothing, furniture, pictures,
painting, coins and art objects are examples of remains that were not
deliberately intended for use in transmitting information or to be used as a
record.

Oral or testimony or the records kept and written by actual participants in an

event or actual witnesses of the same.
Documents called as primary sources are constitutions, characters, laws,
official records, deeds, wills, licenses, newspapers, magazine e.t.c.
Secondary sources: These are the reports of people who related the testimony
of an actual witness of an event or actual participants in the same. For
example: most of the history books and encyclopaedia.

2. Second step: criticism of data • The second step necessitates a

comprehensive review of gathered materials. Christy (1975) describes the
analytic process of document review as a two-pronged activity. 1. External
criticism: the establishment of validity by determining the authenticity of the
source.  External criticism is covered basically with the authenticity and
genuineness of data.  It primarily deals with data relating to form and

46
appearance rather than meaning of contents, while internal criticism weighs
the testimony of document in relation to truth.

The nurse ascertained that all the documents were original. First-hand oral
and written accounts were accepted as valid. 2. Internal criticism: the
determination of reliability by Correctly interpreting the contents of the
documents.  The use of original, authentic sources; awareness of one’s biases;
the substantiation of the document in question by another collaborating source
are a few of the safeguards used to ensure that interpretations are
correct.11. To ensure reliability, the nurse examined each document to make
sure that the meaning of facts and statements was clearly understood. After
authenticity of a historical document or relic has been established, the next
question is to establish the validity of its contents or to determine the accuracy
and value of the statement made. In performing internal criticism, historians
must make several determinations, which require historical knowledge beyond
perusal of the materials in question.

Evidence bearing on the accuracy of historical data might include one of the
following: 1) Comparison with other people’s accounts of the same event to
determine degree of agreement. 2) Knowledge of time at which the document
was produced. 3) Knowledge of the points of view or biases of the written and
oral documents. 4) Knowledge of the degree of competence of the writer to
record events authoritatively and accurately.

 3. Third step: presentation of facts After evaluating the authenticity and
accuracy of historical data, the researcher must bring the material together to
analyse it and to test the research hypotheses.

Historical researchers must be extremely careful at this point since the

analysis of historical data involves logical processes rather than statistical ones
and therefore possibility of subjectivity arises. Historical composition is a
synthetic and constructive process that involves the mechanical problem of
documentation, logical problem of arrangement of topics and subtopics and
philosophical problem of interpretation.
 The organization of historical material can also be done in topical, thematic
or functional arrangement.

The writing of history demands careful avoidance of following factors: Over

signifying facts.

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  Overgeneralizations from insufficient evidence.
 Failure to distinguish between significant and trivial facts.
 Tendency to use secondary data.
 Personal bias
 dull and colourless style.
 Failure to interpret words and expressions in light of their usage in
earlier times.

 AREAS OF HISTORICAL STUDY

1. Periods:
Historical studies focus on events and developments that occurred during
particular blocks of time in the past. Historical researcher gives these periods
of time names in order to allow the organization of ideas and classificatory
generalization to be used by these researchers,
2. Geographical location:
Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study. For
example: continents, countries and cities.
3. Military history:
Concentrates on the study of conflicts that have happened in human society.
This includes examining the wars, battles, military strategies, and weaponry.

. Methods and Tools Used in HR

a. Contemporaneous corroboration: it is further support provided by
the existing evidence about the past events. It is powerful method used
to establish facts beyond their limited lifespans.
b. Photography: A methodological tool for collection of all known
information about individuals in a given period.
c. Historical revisionism: traditionally used in completely natural sense
to describe the work or idea of historian who has revised a previously
accepted view of a particular topic.
d. Change log: log or record of changes made to a project such as
website or software project.
e. Human evolution: process of change and development or evolution by
which human beings emerged as distinctively special.
f. Social change: changes in nature, social institutions, social behavior
or the social relations of a society or community of people.

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 LESSON 2- DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research definition: Descriptive research is defined as a research

method that describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon
studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject
than the “why” of the research subject.

The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of

a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon
occurs. In other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without
covering “why” it happens.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion

purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey
of this region, gather population data and then conduct descriptive research on
this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what is the
purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not cover any investigative
information about “why” the patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand
trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is
the study’s objective.

Characteristics of descriptive research

The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, design of the
study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational
research method because none of the research study variables are influenced
in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

1. Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research

method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical

49
 analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that
allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
2. Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables
are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the
research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the
hands of the researcher.
3. Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-
sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are
studied.
4. The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data
collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research
techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research
methods used for the subsequent research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various
reasons. Before getting into any survey, though, the survey goals and survey
design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to know if one
will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To
understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways
organizations currently use descriptive research today:

 Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended

questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could
be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It
could also be to understand from a respondent, their attitude, or opinion
about the phenomenon. For example, understanding from millenials the
hours per week they spend on browsing the internet. All this information
helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.
 Measure data trends: Researchers measure data trends over time with a
descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel
company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and
36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t
take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like
and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers
don’t like.
 Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use a descriptive research
design to understand how different groups respond to a specific product or
service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general

50
 questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks
demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, etc.
This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of
the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps
make product or marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to
high growth potential groups.
 Validate existing conditions: Researchers widely use descriptive
research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and
underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of
quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation,
researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis.
Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be
prevalent in a population.
 Conduct research at different times: The analysis can be conducted at
different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows
any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on
prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

 Observational method
The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this
research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative
observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data, which is primarily

focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in
terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are derived using
statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any entity
associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc.
For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand
using a simple Net Promoter Score question.

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead

just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the
respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable
environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective. In a

51
 descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete
observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full
participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor
and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more
in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

 Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups.
Case studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a
phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause
and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a
bias on the researcher’s part. The other reason why case studies are not a
reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an
atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak
generalizations and moving away from external validity.

 Survey research
In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or
polls. They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from
respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey
questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close
ended-questions. The survey method can be conducted online or offline,
making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is
enormous.

Examples of descriptive research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

1. A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would

like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To
understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research
study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By
also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers
insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor
make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic.
Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business
model and amplify marketing in core markets.

52
2. Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district
wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the
classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using
technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what
they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue.
This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way
with this change.
Some other problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive
research are:

 Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.

 A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
 A school district wants to understand if students will access online
lessons rather than textbooks.
 To understand if its wellness programs enhance the overall health of the
employees.

Gather research insights

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

 Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using

specific methods like observational method, case study method, and survey
method. Between these three, all primary data collection methods are
covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future
research or even developing a hypothesis of your research object.
 Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a
holistic understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse,
and thorough.
 Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be
conducted in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that
high-quality and honest data is collected.
 Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in
descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is
inexpensive.

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LESSON 3- EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental research is the most familiar type of research design for

individuals in the physical sciences and a host of other fields. This is mainly
because experimental research is a classical scientific experiment, similar to
those performed in high school science classes.

Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant and exposing one of them to
sunlight, while the other is kept away from sunlight. Let the plant exposed to
sunlight be called sample A, while the latter is called sample B.

If after the duration of the research, we find out that sample A grows and
sample B dies, even though they are both regularly wetted and given the same
treatment. Therefore, we can conclude that sunlight will aid growth in all
similar plants.

What is Experimental Research?

Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or more

independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or more dependent
variables to measure their effect on the latter. The effect of the independent
variables on the dependent variables is usually observed and recorded over
some time, to aid researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion regarding the
relationship between these 2 variable types.

The experimental research method is widely used in physical and social

sciences, psychology, and education. It is based on the comparison between
two or more groups with a straightforward logic, which may, however, be
difficult to execute.

Mostly related to a laboratory test procedure, experimental research designs

involve collecting quantitative data and performing statistical analysis on them
during research. Therefore, making it an example of quantitative research
method.

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What are The Types of Experimental Research Design?

The types of experimental research design are determined by the way the
researcher assigns subjects to different conditions and groups. They are of 3
types, namely; pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, and true experimental
research.

Pre-experimental Research Design

In pre-experimental research design, either a group or various dependent

groups are observed for the effect of the application of an independent variable
which is presumed to cause change. It is the simplest form of experimental
research design and is treated with no control group.

Although very practical, experimental research is lacking in several areas of the

true-experimental criteria. The pre-experimental research design is further
divided into three types

 One-shot Case Study Research Design

In this type of experimental study, only one dependent group or variable is

considered. The study is carried out after some treatment which was presumed
to cause change, making it a posttest study.

 One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design: 

This research design combines both posttest and pretest study by carrying out
a test on a single group before the treatment is administered and after the
treatment is administered. With the former being administered at the beginning
of treatment and later at the end.

 Static-group Comparison: 

In a static-group comparison study, 2 or more groups are placed under

observation, where only one of the groups is subjected to some treatment while
the other groups are held static. All the groups are post-tested, and the
observed differences between the groups are assumed to be a result of the
treatment.

55
Quasi-experimental Research Design

 The word "quasi" means partial, half, or pseudo. Therefore, the quasi-
experimental research bearing a resemblance to the true experimental
research, but not the same.  In quasi-experiments, the participants are not
randomly assigned, and as such, they are used in settings where
randomization is difficult or impossible.

 This is very common in educational research, where administrators are

unwilling to allow the random selection of students for experimental samples.

Some examples of quasi-experimental research design include; the time series,

no equivalent control group design, and the counterbalanced design.

True Experimental Research Design

The true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to approve

or disprove a hypothesis. It is the most accurate type of experimental design
and may be carried out with or without a pretest on at least 2 randomly
assigned dependent subjects.

The true experimental research design must contain a control group, a variable
that can be manipulated by the researcher, and the distribution must be
random. The classification of true experimental design include:

 The posttest-only Control Group Design: In this design, subjects are

randomly selected and assigned to the 2 groups (control and
experimental), and only the experimental group is treated. After close
observation, both groups are post-tested, and a conclusion is drawn from
the difference between these groups.
 The pretest-posttest Control Group Design: For this control group
design, subjects are randomly assigned to the 2 groups, both are
presented, but only the experimental group is treated. After close
observation, both groups are post-tested to measure the degree of change
in each group.
 Solomon four-group Design: This is the combination of the pretest-only
and the pretest-posttest control groups. In this case, the randomly
selected subjects are placed into 4 groups.

The first two of these groups are tested using the posttest-only method, while
the other two are tested using the pretest-posttest method.

56
Examples of Experimental Research

Experimental research examples are different, depending on the type of

experimental research design that is being considered. The most basic example
of experimental research is laboratory experiments, which may differ in nature
depending on the subject of research.

What are the Characteristics of Experimental Research? 

 Variables

Experimental research contains dependent, independent and extraneous

variables. The dependent variables are the variables being treated or
manipulated and are sometimes called the subject of the research.

The independent variables are the experimental treatment being exerted on the
dependent variables. Extraneous variables, on the other hand, are other factors
affecting the experiment that may also contribute to the change.

 Setting

The setting is where the experiment is carried out. Many experiments are
carried out in the laboratory, where control can be exerted on the extraneous
variables, thereby eliminating them. 

Other experiments are carried out in a less controllable setting. The choice of
setting used in research depends on the nature of the experiment being carried
out.

 Multivariable

Experimental research may include multiple independent variables, e.g. time,

skills, test scores, etc.

Why Use Experimental Research Design? 

Experimental research design can be majorly used in physical sciences, social

sciences, education, and psychology. It is used to make predictions and draw
conclusions on a subject matter. 

Some uses of experimental research design are highlighted below.

57
  Medicine: Experimental research is used to provide the proper treatment
for diseases. In most cases, rather than directly using patients as the
research subject, researchers take a sample of the bacteria from the
patient's body and are treated with the developed antibacterial

The changes observed during this period are recorded and evaluated to
determine its effectiveness. This process can be carried out using different
experimental research methods.

 Education: Asides from science subjects like Chemistry and Physics

which involves teaching students how to perform experimental research,
it can also be used in improving the standard of an academic institution.
This includes testing students' knowledge on different topics, coming up
with better teaching methods, and the implementation of other programs
that will aid student learning.
 Human Behavior: Social scientists are the ones who mostly use
experimental research to test human behaviour. For example, consider 2
people randomly chosen to be the subject of the social interaction
research where one person is placed in a room without human
interaction for 1 year.

The other person is placed in a room with a few other people, enjoying human
interaction. There will be a difference in their behaviour at the end of the
experiment.

 UI/UX: During the product development phase, one of the major aims of

the product team is to create a great user experience with the product.
Therefore, before launching the final product design, potential are
brought in to interact with the product.

For example, when finding it difficult to choose how to position a button or

feature on the app interface, a random sample of product testers are allowed to
test the 2 samples and how the button positioning influences the user
interaction is recorded.

What are the Disadvantages of Experimental Research? 

 It is highly prone to human error due to its dependency on variable

control which may not be properly implemented. These errors could

58
 eliminate the validity of the experiment and the research being
conducted.
 Exerting control of extraneous variables may create unrealistic
situations. Eliminating real-life variables will result in inaccurate
conclusions. This may also result in researchers controlling the variables
to suit his or her personal preferences.
 It is a time-consuming process. So much time is spent on testing
dependent variables and waiting for the effect of the manipulation of
dependent variables to manifest.
 It is expensive. 
 It is very risky and may have ethical complications that cannot be
ignored. This is common in medical research, where failed trials may
lead to a patient's death or a deteriorating health condition.
 Experimental research results are not descriptive.
 Response bias can also be supplied by the subject of the conversation.
 Human responses in experimental research can be difficult to measure. 

59
Conclusion 

Experimental research designs are often considered to be the standard in

research designs. This is partly due to the common misconception that
research is equivalent to scientific experiments—a component of experimental
research design.

In this research design, one or more subjects or dependent variables are

randomly assigned to different treatments (i.e. independent variables
manipulated by the researcher) and the results are observed to conclude. One
of the uniqueness of experimental research is in its ability to control the effect
of extraneous variables.

Experimental research is suitable for research whose goal is to examine cause-

effect relationships, e.g. explanatory research. It can be conducted in the
laboratory or field settings, depending on the aim of the research that is being
carried out. 

LESSON 4- CORRELATIONAL AND CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE RESEARCH

"An important difference between causal-comparative and correlational

research is that causal-comparative studies involve two or more groups and
one independent variable, while correlational studies involve two or more
variables and one group." (Gay & Airasian, 2000, 364).

Causal-comparative educational research attempts to identify a causative

relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable.
However, this relationship is more suggestive than proven as the researcher
does not have complete control over the independent variable. If the researcher

60
had control over the independent variable, then the research would be
classified as true experimental research. -
http://www.mnstate.edu/wasson/ed603/ed603lesson12.htm

Research designs fall into two broad classes: quasi-experimental and

experimental. Experimental studies are characterized by the ability to
randomize subjects into treatment and control groups. This randomization
goes a long way toward controlling for variables which are not included
explicitly in the study. Because comparison groups are not true randomized
control groups in quasi-experimental studies, this type of study has to control
for confounding variables explicitly through statistical techniques. For this
reason, quasi-experimental studies are sometimes labeled correlational designs.
- http://faculty.chass.ncsu.edu/garson/PA765/design.htm

Fraenkel, the first author of the leading selling educational research text
(Fraenkel &Wallen, 1996). answers the question, "Why do educational
researchers ... seem to believe that evidence for cause and effect will be any
stronger in causal-comparative research than in correlational research?":

Causal-comparative research involves comparing (thus the "comparative"

aspect) two groups in order to explain existing differences between them
on some variable or variables of interest. The only difference between
causal-comparative and experimental research is that the groups being
compared in causal-comparative research have already been formed, and
any treatment (if there was a treatment) has already been applied. Of
necessity, the researcher must examine the records of the two groups to
see if he or she can offer a reasonable explanation for (i.e., what "caused")
the existing differences between the two groups...Correlational research,
on the other hand, does not look at differences between groups. Rather, it
looks for relationships within a single group. This is a big difference...one
is only entitled to conclude that a relationship of some sort exists, not
that variable A caused some variation in variable B...In sum, causal-
comparative research does allow one to make reasonable inferences
about causation; correlational research does not.

Based on the above quotations, and the space allocated to these two methods
in popular textbooks, it should not be surprising that almost 80 percent
(n=330) of the participants in an Allyn and Bacon (Fall, 1996) survey of
teachers of educational research said that the distinction between causal-

61
comparative research and correlation research should be retained. Although
the majority supported the distinction, only a minority of those replying to a
follow-up open-ended question (asking why they felt the distinction was
needed) indicated a clearly faulty view of causality in nonexperimental
research. Nonetheless, it is a problem when any teachers of educational
research have a faulty view of causality!

Causal-Comparative designs – Problem:

Degree at which a researcher can determine the causal-effect with any measure
of certainty

A relationship study of X and Y may reveal that changes in X cause changes in

Y, Y causes X, or another variable Z causes both X and Y. [I.e., the "third
variable" problem, which affects all correlational-type designs.]

Causal-comparative versus correlational designs

Neither is experimental

Neither involves manipulation of a treatment variable

Relationships are studied in both

Correlational: focus on magnitude and direction of relationship

Causal-Comparative: focus on difference between two groups

A 'true' experiment includes several key features:

• one or more control groups

• one or more experimental groups

• random allocation to control and experimental groups

In a true experiment the investigator does two things:

a) randomly assigns participants to groups (e.g., experimental and control); and

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b) manipulates at least one independent variable. A quasi experiment is
almost the same, except now there is no random assignment of
participants to groups.

In order to reach "cause and effect" conclusions about the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable, you must use a true
experiment.

Quasi-experiment is a research design having some but not all of the

characteristics of a true experiment. The element most frequently missing is
random assignment of subjects to the control and experimental conditions.
[Note that this is the same as "causal-comparative."]

Quasi-experiments - faculty.ncwc.edu/toconnor/308/308lect06.htm 
The word "quasi" means as if or almost, so a quasi-experiment means almost a
true experiment. There are many varieties of quasi-experimental research
designs, and there is generally little loss of status or prestige in doing a quasi-
experiment instead of a true experiment, although you occasionally run into
someone who is biased against quasi-experiments.

Summary: "Causal-comparative" and "quasi-experimental designs" are

equivalent.

- No random assignment of participants to groups

- Often there is no manipulation of IV [i.e., the diffs between the groups are
pre-existing.]

- "Random assignment" is a requirement for making causal statements.

- "Manipulation of the IV" is a 2nd requirement for making causal statements.

- Thus, both fail as "causal" designs, although they may be very useful &
informative sources of information about differences between groups.

- Causal inferences based on either would be entirely conjectural, and would

require a follow-on true experiment to determine whether the causal conjecture
is correct or not.

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LESSON 5- CASE STUDY RESEARCH DESIGN

Definition and Purpose

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather

than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It
is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a
few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also
useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to
phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known
about an issue or phenomenon.

What do these studies tell you ?

1. Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex

issue through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events
or conditions and their relationships.
2. A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of
methodologies and rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research
problem.
3. Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already
known through previous research.
4. Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design
to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for
the application of concepts and theories and the extension of
methodologies.
5. The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare
cases.

What these studies don't tell you ?

1. A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing

reliability or to generalize the findings to a wider population of people,
places, or things.
2. Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's
interpretation of the findings.
3. Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect
relationships.
4. Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
5. The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem
being investigated.

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6. If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very
unusual or unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your
interpretation of the findings can only apply to that particular case.

LESSON 6- ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH

Ethnography can help investigate very complicated or critical design

challenges. A good researcher is essential when observing and/or interacting
with target audiences in their real-life environment.

What is ethnographic research?

 Ethnographic research is a qualitative method where researchers

observe and/or interact with a study’s participants in their real-life
environment. 
 Ethnography was popularized by anthropology, but is used across a
wide range of social sciences.
 Within the field of usability, user-centred design and service design ,
ethnography is used to support a designer’s deeper understanding of
the design problem – including the relevant domain, audience(s),
processes, goals and context(s) of use.
 The aim of an ethnographic study within a usability project is to get
‘under the skin’ of a design problem (and all its associated issues). It is
hoped that by achieving this, a designer will be able to truly
understand the problem and therefore design a far better solution.

Methods associated with ethnography

Anthropological ethnographers often live amongst a group/society for a year

or more, in order to learn about them. This fully immersive, long-term ‘live
and work’ approach to ethnography has not proven popular within the field
of usability.

65
Part of the reason may involve cost, but it is also the case that
anthropologists and usability practitioners are interested in different things.
Anthropologists use ethnography in an attempt to fully understand as much
as possible about an entire society. Usability practitioners are usually only
interested in learning information that will support their reasoning on a
specific design problem.

We would argue that deep, immersive ‘live and work’ ethnography is rarely
required within the field of user-centred design. However,  short
ethnographic studies can be very useful for user-centred projects. For
example: in order to understand the way in which a Merchant Bank trades
and operates, a usability consultant might conduct an ethnographic study by
working and socialising with its employees for a month.
Individual methods which are available within an ethnographic study
include: participant observation, interviews and surveys. All of these
ethnographic methods can be very valuable in gaining a deeper
understanding of a design problem. Usability practitioners often make use of
these in order to develop their understanding of the relevant domain,
audience(s), processes, goals and context(s) of use.

When to use ethnography

Ethnography is most useful in the early stages of a user-centred design

project. This is because ethnography focuses on developing an understanding
of the design problem. Therefore, it makes more sense to conduct
ethnographic studies at the beginning of a project in order to support future
design decisions (which will happen later in the user-centred design process).
Ethnographic methods (such as participant observation) could also be used
to evaluate an existing design – but their true value comes from developing
an early understanding of the relevant domain, audience(s), processes, goals
and context(s) of use.

We would normally recommend that ethnographic methods are used for very

complex and/or critical design problems. More complex design problems (in
terms of their domain, audience(s), processes, goals and/or context(s) of use)
are likely to need the deeper understanding which ethnographic studies can
bring. Equally, highly critical systems (where failure or error can lead to
disaster) could also justify significant ethnographic research.
For example: An insurance company wanted to re-design their system
dealing with the processing of insurance claims. This system had evolved

66
over many years and actually represented a patchwork of previous systems.
The ‘claim processing’ supported by this ‘system of systems’ is itself a highly
complex process. In this example, ethnographic research should probably be
considered.

Advantages of ethnography

One of the main advantages associated with ethnographic research is

that ethnography can help identify and analyse unexpected issues . When
conducting other types of studies, which are not based on in-situ observation
or interaction, it can very easy to miss unexpected issues. This can happen
either because questions are not asked, or respondents neglect to mention
something. An ethnographic researcher’s in-situ presence helps mitigate this
risk because the issues will (hopefully) become directly apparent to the
researcher.
Ethnography’s other main benefit is generally considered to be its ability to
deliver a detailed and faithful representation of users’ behaviours and
attitudes. Because of its subjective nature, an ethnographic study (with a
skilled researcher) can be very useful in uncovering and analysing relevant
user attitudes and emotions.

Disadvantages of ethnography

One of the main criticisms levelled at ethnographic studies is the amount of

time they take to conduct. As discussed above, ethnographic studies do not
always require a long period of time, but this consideration is nonetheless
valid. Because of its richer output, an ethnographic study will tend to take
longer to generate and analyse its data than many other methods.
During previous ethnographic studies, we have found that it is possible
that subjects may not act naturally during a short study. Longer studies
normally counter-act this because the subjects grow to trust the researcher
and/or get tired of any pretence.
For example: During the first week of an ethnographic study into an
insurance claim processing system, all the subjects were observed to be
following the strictest interpretation of the correct procedures. As time
progressed, however, it became increasingly apparent that almost all
employees had ‘work-arounds’ and ‘short cuts’ which were liberally used in
order to speed things up. These behaviours were very instructive in helping
to re-design the process flow. Had the researcher not stayed in-situ long
enough to observe these, they may have gone unrecorded.

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Risks associated with ethnography

As stated above, ethnographic studies consist of the researcher observing

and/or interacting with subjects within the environment which the (future)
design is intended to support. The two main potential weaknesses with
ethnographic studies are:

Researcher
Ethnographic researchers need to be very highly-skilled to avoid all the
potential pitfalls of an ethnographic study. Some of these include the
detail & completeness of observations, as well as potential bias (and
mistakes) in data collection or analysis.

Subjects
It is essential that any studies’ subjects are as true a representation of
the larger user audience as possible (assuming that the study has been
designed this way). It is also vital that the subjects are open and
honest with the researcher. Of course, both of these issues are related
to the quality of the researcher themselves and their role in the study’s
design.
As we can see from the above, most of the risks associated with
ethnographic studies relate to the researcher, either directly or
indirectly. This, of course, means that the choice of ethnographic
researcher is critical to a study’s success. We recommend choosing a
researcher with a proven background of past involvement in successful
projects across varying domains.

Conclusion

We would generally recommend that an ethnographic approach may be

suitable for the early stages of a user-centered project that deals with a
particularly complicated or critical design challenge. This is because
ethnographic methods allow a particularly deep understanding of a
design problem’s domain, audience(s), processes, goals and context(s)
of use. These ethnographic methods can also be very useful in
discovering and exploring previously unknown issues.

Perhaps the most critical decision within an ethnographic study is the

choice of ethnographic researcher. This individual will design, conduct
and analyses the study’s findings – so it is essential that they have the

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 skill and experience to make sure the study is representative, accurate
and fair.

LESSON 7- PHENOMONOLOGY RESEARCH

I. Types of Research
The method used by researchers is a qualitative research with
phenomenological approach. This approach aims to examine how the
socio-economic marginalization as a result of conversion of land to
farmers. Phenomenological study looked at human behavior, what they say
and what they do, is as a product of how people do their own interpretation of
the world.

Phenomenology as a method has four characteristics, namely descriptive,

reduction, essence and intentionality.
1. Description: The aim of phenomenology is the description of the
phenomenon, and not explain the phenomenon [2]. Including any emerging
phenomena such as emotions, thoughts and actions of human beings and as
such. Phenomenology means describe something to the "thing itself".
Supposition becomes unnecessary, since the objective is to investigate as it
happens.
2. Reduction: Reduction is as a process in which the assumptions and
prejudices about the phenomenon of delayed to ensure that biases do not
pollute the description of the observations and ensure that the form of the
description as the things themselves.
3. Essence: The essence is the core meaning of individual experiences
in certain phenomena as they are [3]. Search essence, the essential themes or
relationships are essential in the phenomenon of what it involves exploration
of the phenomenon of using the free imagination, intuition and reflection to

69
determine whether a particular characteristic is an essential essence. For
example, in the case of the essence of learning, a phenomenologist would
consider whether any changes and progress are essential essence of the
learning process.
4. Intentionality: Phenomenology using two concepts noesis and noema to
express intentionality. Intentionality refers to as the correlation between
noema and noesis that direct interpretation of the experience. Noema is
an objective statement of behavior or experience as a reality [4], while
noesis is a subjective reflection (consciousness) of the objective statement. In
view of this that reality is what it is, we do not any idea of reality (objective
statements). Interrelations between consciousnesses to the reality that he
called intentionality [5].

LESSON 8- MIXED-METHODS RESEARCH

Mixed Methods Studies

The term “mixed methods” refers to an emergent methodology of research that

advances the systematic integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative and qualitative
data within a single investigation or sustained program of inquiry. The basic
premise of this methodology is that such integration permits a more complete
and synergistic utilization of data than do separate quantitative and qualitative
data collection and analysis. The evaluation of PCMHs provide an ideal
opportunity for mixed methods studies to contribute to learning about best
practices in how to implement a PCMH as well as PCMH effectiveness in
achieving the triple aim outcomes of cost, quality, and patient experience of
care.
Mixed methods research originated in the social sciences and has recently
expanded into the health and medical sciences including fields such as
nursing, family medicine, social work, mental health, pharmacy, allied health,
and others. In the last decade, its procedures have been developed and refined
to suit a wide variety of research questions (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011).
These procedures include advancing rigor, offering alternative mixed methods
designs, specifying a shorthand notation system for describing the designs to
increase communication across fields, visualizing procedures through
diagrams, noting research questions that can particularly benefit from
integration, and developing rationales for conducting various forms of mixed
methods studies.

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 The core characteristics of a well-designed mixed methods study in PCMH
research include the following:

1. Collecting and analyzing both quantitative (closed-ended) and qualitative

(open-ended) data.
2. Using rigorous procedures in collecting and analyzing data appropriate to
each method’s tradition, such as ensuring the appropriate sample size for
quantitative and qualitative analysis.
3. Integrating the data during data collection, analysis, or discussion.
4. Using procedures that implement qualitative and quantitative
components either concurrently or sequentially, with the same sample or with
different samples.
5. Framing the procedures within philosophical/theoretical models of
research, such as within a social constructionist model that seeks to
understand multiple perspectives on a single issue—for example, what
patients, caregivers, clinicians, and practice staff would characterize as “high
quality treatment” in a PCMH.

This brief focuses on the potential uses of this methodology for PCMH research
as well as on specific mixed methods designs in primary care research
(Creswell, Fetters, and Ivankova, 2004) that offer feasible, information-rich
data that can enhance traditional quantitative research approaches.

II. Uses of Mixed Methods Research Designs

Mixed methods can be an ideal technique to assess complex interventions such

as PCMHs (Homer, Klatka, Romm, et al., 2008; Nutting, Miller, Crabtree, et al.,
2009). PCMH evaluators can choose from five primary mixed methods designs
depending on the research questions they want to answer and resources
available for the evaluation.
Validate findings using quantitative and qualitative data sources.
Evaluators can use a convergent design to compare findings from qualitative
and quantitative data sources. It involves collecting both types of data at
roughly the same time; assessing information using parallel constructs for both
types of data; separately analyzing both types of data; and comparing results
through procedures such as a side-by-side comparison in a discussion,
transforming the qualitative data set into quantitative scores, or jointly
displaying both forms of data. For example, the investigator can gather
qualitative data to assess the personal experiences of patients while also

71
gathering data from survey instruments measuring the quality of care. The two
types of data can provide validation for each other and also create a solid
foundation for drawing conclusions about the intervention.
Use qualitative data to explore quantitative findings. This explanatory
sequential design typically involves two phases: (1) an initial quantitative
instrument phase, followed by (2) a qualitative data collection phase, in which
the qualitative phase builds directly on the results from the quantitative phase.
In this way, the quantitative results are explained in more detail through the
qualitative data. For example, findings from instrument data about costs can
be explored further with qualitative focus groups to better understand how the
personal experiences of individuals match up to the instrument results. This
kind of study illustrates the use of mixed methods to explain qualitatively how
the quantitative mechanisms might work.
Develop survey instruments. Yet another mixed methods study design could
support the development of appropriate quantitative instruments that provide
accurate measures within a PCMH context. This exploratory sequential
design involves first collecting qualitative exploratory data, analyzing the
information, and using the findings to develop a psychometric instrument well
adapted to the sample under study. This instrument is then, in turn,
administered to a sample of a population. For example, a PCMH study could
begin with a qualitative exploration through interviews with primary care
providers to assess what constructs should be measured to best understand
improved quality of care. From this exploration, an instrument could be
developed using rigorous scale development procedures (DeVellis, 1991) that is
then tested with a sample. In this way, researchers can use a mixed methods
approach to develop and test a psychometric instrument that improves on
existing measures.
Use qualitative data to augment a quantitative outcomes study. An
outcomes study, for example a randomized, controlled trial, with qualitative
data collection and analysis added, is called an embedded design. Within this
type of an outcomes study, the researcher collects and analyzes both
quantitative and qualitative data. The qualitative data can be incorporated into
the study at the outset (for example, to help design the intervention); during
the intervention (for example, to explore how participants experience the PCMH
model); and after the intervention (for example, to help explain the results). In
this way, the qualitative data augment the outcomes study, which is a popular
approach within implementation and dissemination research (Palinkas,
Aarons, Horwitz, et al., 2011).

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Involve community-based stakeholders. A community-based participatory
approach is an example of a multiphase design. This advanced mixed methods
approach involves community participants in many quantitative and qualitative
phases of research to bring about change (Mertens, 2009). The multiple phases
all address a common objective of assessing and refining PCMH models. This
design would involve primary care providers and staff, patients, and other
providers and individuals in the community in the research process. Key
stakeholders participate as co-researchers in a project, providing input about
their needs, ways to address them, and ways to implement changes.
These five research designs apply mixed methods approaches to evaluations of
PCMH models. The literature details their procedures, illustrates the flow of
activities through the use of shorthand notation, and reflects on strengths and
limitations.
III. Advantages

Using a mixed methods study has several advantages, which we discuss below.
Compares quantitative and qualitative data. Mixed methods are especially
useful in understanding contradictions between quantitative results and
qualitative findings.
Reflects participants’ point of view. Mixed methods give a voice to study
participants and ensure that study findings are grounded in participants’
experiences.
Fosters scholarly interaction. Such studies add breadth to multidisciplinary
team research by encouraging the interaction of quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed methods scholars.
Provides methodological flexibility. Mixed methods have great flexibility and
are adaptable to many study designs, such as observational studies and
randomized trials, to elucidate more information than can be obtained in only
quantitative research.
Collects rich, comprehensive data. Mixed methods also mirror the way
individuals naturally collect information—by integrating quantitative and
qualitative data. For example, sports stories frequently integrate quantitative
data (scores or number of errors) with qualitative data (descriptions and images
of highlights) to provide a more complete story than either method would alone.
back to top

IV. Limitations

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Mixed methods studies are challenging to implement, especially when they are
used to evaluate complex interventions such as a PCMH model. Below we
discuss several challenges.
Increases the complexity of evaluations. Mixed methods studies are complex
to plan and conduct.They require careful planning to describe all aspects of
research, including the study sample for qualitative and quantitative portions
(identical, embedded, or parallel); timing (the sequence of qualitative and
quantitative portions); and the plan for integrating data. Integrating qualitative
and quantitative data during analysis is often a challenging phase for many
researchers.
Relies on a multidisciplinary team of researchers. Conducting high-quality
mixed methods studies requires a multidisciplinary team of researchers who,
in the service of the larger study, must be open to methods that may not be
their area of expertise. Finding qualitative experts who are also comfortable
discussing quantitative analyses and vice versa can be challenging in many
environments.Given that each method must adhere to its own standards for
rigor, ensuring appropriate quality of each component of a mixed methods
study can be difficult (Wisdom, Cavaleri, Onwuegbuzie, et al., 2011). For
example, quantitative analyses require much larger sample sizes to obtain
statistical significance than do qualitative analyses, which require meeting
goals of saturation (not uncovering new information from conducting more
interviews) and relevance. Embedded samples, in which a qualitative
subsample is embedded within a larger quantitative sample, can be useful in
cases of inadequate statistical power.
Requires increased resources. Finally, mixed methods studies are labor
intensive and require greater resources and time than those needed to conduct
a single method study.

V. Conclusion

The integration of quantitative and qualitative data in the form of a mixed

methods study has great potential to strengthen the rigor and enrich the
analysis and findings of any PCMH evaluation. By carefully selecting the mixed
method design that best suits the evaluation’s questions and meets its
resource constraints, evaluators can facilitate deeper, more meaningful
learning regarding the effectiveness and implementation of PCMH models.

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 MODULE V:

SAMPLING DESIGN

LESSON 1- ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATION OF SAMPLING DESIGNS

CONCEPT OF SAMPLING

Population: Total of items about which information is desired. It can be

classified into two categories- finite and infinite. The population is said to be
finite if it consists of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to
enumerate in its totality. Examples of finite population are the populations of a
city, the number of workers in a factory, etc. An infinite population is that
population in which it is theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. In
an infinite population the number of items is infinite. Example of infinite
population is the number of stars in sky. From practical consideration, we use
the term infinite population for a population that cannot be enumerated in a
reasonable period of time.

Sample: It is part of the population that represents the characteristics of the

population

Sampling: It is the process of selecting the sample for estimating the

population characteristics. In other words, it is the process of obtaining
information about an entire population by examining only a part of it.

Sampling Unit: Elementary units or group of such units which besides being
clearly defined, identifiable and observable, are convenient for purpose of
sampling are called sampling units. For instance, in a family budget enquiry,
usually a family is considered as the sampling unit since it is found to be
convenient for sampling and for ascertaining the required information. In a
crop survey, a farm or a group of farms owned or operated by a household may
be considered as the sampling unit.

Sampling Frame: A list containing all sampling units is known as sampling

frame. Sampling frame consists of a list of items from which the sample is to be
drawn. Sample Survey: An investigation in which elaborate information is
collected on a sample basis is known as sample survey.

Statistic: Characteristics of the sample. For example, sample Mean, proportion,

etc.

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Parameter: Characteristics of the population. For example, population Mean,
proportion, etc

Target Population: A target population is the entire group about which

information is desired and conclusion is made.

Sampled Population: The population, which we actually sample, is the sampled

population. It is also called survey population.

Sampling With and Without Replacement: Sampling schemes may be without

replacement ('WOR' - no element can be selected more than once in the same
sample) or with replacement ('WR' - an element may appear multiple times in
the one sample). For example, if we catch fish, measure them, and immediately
return them to the water before continuing with the sample, this is a WR
design, because we might end up catching and measuring the same fish more
than once. However, if we do not return the fish to the water (e.g. if we eat the
fish), this becomes a WOR design.

Sample Design: Sample design refers to the plans and methods to be followed
in selecting sample from the target population and the estimation technique
formula for computing the sample statistics. These statistics are the estimates
used to infer the population parameters.

Advantages of Sampling
Sampling have various benefits to us. Some of the advantages are listed  below:

 Sampling saves time to a great extent by reducing the volume of data.

You do not go through each of the individual items.

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 Sampling Avoids monotony in works. You do not have to repeat the query
again and again to all the individual data.
 When you have limited time, survey without using sampling becomes
impossible. It allows us to get near-accurate results in much lesser time
 When you use proper methods, you are likely to achieve higher level of
accuracy by using sampling than without using sampling in some cases due
to reduction in monotony, data handling issues etc.
 By using sampling, you can get detailed information on the data even by
employing small amount of resources.

Disadvantages of Sampling
Every coin has two sides. Sampling also have some demerits. Some of the
disadvantages are:

 Since choice of sampling method is a judgmental task, there exist

chances of biasness as per the mindset of the person who chooses it. 
 Improper selection of sampling techniques may cause the whole process
to defunct.
 Selection of proper size of samples is a difficult job.
 Sampling may exclude some data that might not be homogenous to the
data that are taken. This affects the level of accuracy in the results.

LESSON 2- PLANNING SAMPLING SURVEY

Planning Analysis:
Survey Research: Sampling & Design

Overview of Topics

 Why conduct survey research?

 Types of surveys
 Sampling
 Survey procedures
 Survey implementation and analysis

Why conduct survey research?

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To gather primary data that:

 Assists in planning or policy development

 Evaluates the effectiveness of a particular program
 Gains knowledge about behaviors and attitudes

Survey Procedures

1. Determine objectives
2. Establish accuracy level desired

 Decided in conjunction with client

 Balance of accuracy and cost

Select the most appropriate survey method

 List resources
 Make budget estimate
 Develop timeline

Three general survey approaches:

 Mail
 Telephone
 Personal interview

Table 1. Comparison of survey administration methods

CATEGORY MAIL TELEPHONE PERSONAL

INTERVIEW`
Data Best for statistical Poor for statistical Best for
data data attitudinal data
Sampling Requires list of Requires list of Can use cluster
Methods universe and special populations. sampling for
addresses of all target Can use random or general population
respondents added-digit dialing
for general
population.
Response Rate Usually 35% - 75% About 95% in general Dropping; now

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 population survey. about 65% in
general population
survey.
Sampling Bias Difficult to determine. Usually low. About Single and poor
in General Extreme views over- 96% of U.S. persons and night
Population represented; less households have shift workers
Survey educated telephones; random underrepresented;
underrepresented. dialing can reach women and non-
unlisted numbers. working or retired
persons
overrepresented.
Questionnaire No more than 12 Standard interview Standard
pages. May ask length is 20 minutes. interview length is
moderately difficult Should ask only very 20-30 minutes.
questions, but not simple questions; no May ask complex
good for open-ended visual aids possible. questions.
questions. Respondents answer Respondents
most questions. answer most
survey questions.
Accuracy of Respondents more Respondents Respondents
Data willing to give reluctant to give reluctant to give
embarrassing embarrassing embarrassing
answers, but may answers. Possible answers. Greatest
misinterpret some interviewer bias. possibility of
questions. Allows for interviewer bias.
thought before
response. No
interviewer bias.
Personnel and Some workers Some moderately Many trained
Supervision required after trained interviewers. interviewers.
development. More difficult Difficult
supervision, non- supervision,
routine tasks dispersed
performed at a single personnel
location. performing
complex tasks.
Implementation Takes longest - Fastest - a few days Intermediate
several months

79
Cost per Lowest Intermediate Highest
Interview
Advantages Inexpensive. Small Quick, inexpensive. Reaches unlisted
staff. Polls persons Easy to train populations. Can
beyond reach of other interviewers. ask complex
methods. No questions and
interviewer bias. probe vague
Respondents have answers.
more time for
responses.
Disadvantages Difficult to determine Respondents may High cost,
over- or modify answers complex
underrepresentation. because of organization.
Respondents may antagonism toward or Extensive training,
misinterpret or omit wariness of telephone supervision of
some questions. interviews. Replies personnel.
Awkward format for usually short. Greatest
sensitive questions. difficult to compile possibility that
Difficult to obtain up- demographics. interviewer will
to-date lists. bias results.

Consider mail when:

 Research sample is widely distributed geographically

 You want to give your subjects time to think about their responses
 Questions are written in a close-ended style
 Research sample has a moderate to high investment in the topic
 Want to give your subjects privacy in answering
 Your questions work better in a visual rather than oral form
 You have limited people and resources to help you conduct the survey

Draw a sample

Why sample?

 Cost
 Time
 Staff resources

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Why sampling works:

 Flip 10 coins, and count the number of heads

 Do this 100 times, and plot distribution
 If you do this 1,000 more times, or 1 million more times, will distribution
be different?
 Its the size of the sample, not the size of the population, that matters
 Identify the sampling unit and sampling frames
 Sample unit: the smallest entity that will provide one response (i.e.,
individuals, households, etc)
 Sample frame: a list or set of directions identifying all the sample units in
the population (names, addresses)

For each sampling frame:

What is the availability, cost, and accuracy?

Sampling pitfalls

 Out-of-date lists
 Lack of coverage among various groups
 Do you want individuals or households?

Two types of sample

1. Nonrandom: statistical validity not a concern

surveyors tend to pick someone like themselves

convenience surveys (e.g.., in supermarkets, at tourist sites)

2. Random

Unbiased, since everyone has equal chance of being selected

Sample can only be as good as the list from which it was drawn

Types of random surveys:

 simple random - select random number to start, every nth

thereafter

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  stratified sampling - divide population into subpopulations, then
every nth
 cluster sampling - survey all units in a stratified area

Sampling frame - the list you draw your sample from (who is missed?)

Potential error:

 Sampling error - difference in distribution of characteristics

between sample and population as a whole (this is an estimate,
since we can’t really measure whole population)

sampling error = + sqrt (variance in gen’l population on a topic/sample size)

where variance is computed by (P*Q)/.5*.5

in general terms, sampling error decreases as size of sample increases

+ 10 = (1/100)

+ 5 = (1/400)

+ 2.5 = (1/1600)

Level of confidence - sampling error is only half of our concern for accuracy

 Sampling error indicates how close our sample is to the population

 But how confident are we that the true value really does lie within
that range?
 Accepted confidence level is 95% - nothing sacred about this
number, just most commonly used

Sampling error and confidence level work together

Other sources of error:

 Frame error

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 Researcher should make every effort to minimize before
survey implementation

 Non-response bias

Who are non-responders?

Difficult to measure - can be corrected for after implementation

Table 4. Simple Random Sample Size for Several Degrees of Accuracy

  Confidence levels
Sampling error 95% 99%
1% 9,604 16,587
2% 2,401 4,147
3% 1,067 1,843
4% 600 1,037
5% 384 663
6% 267 461
7% 196 33

Table 3. Sample Size for Specified Confidence Limits and Accuracy

(95% confidence interval)

Population            
Size + 1% +2% +3% +4% +5% +10%

500 b b b b 222 83
1,000 b b b 385 286 91
1,500 b b 638 441 316 94
2,000 b b 714 476 333 95

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 2,500 b 1,250 769 500 345 96

3,000 b 1,364 811 517 353 97

3,500 b 1,458 843 530 359 97
4,000 b 1,538 870 541 364 98
4,500 b 1,607 891 549 367 98
5,000 b 1,667 909 556 370 98

6,000 b 1,765 938 566 375 98

7,000 b 1,842 959 574 378 99
8,000 b 1,905 976 580 381 99
9,000 b 1,957 980 584 383 99
10,000 5,000 2,000 1,000 588 385 99

15,000 6,000 2,143 1,034 600 390 99

20,000 6,667 2,222 1,053 606 392 100
25,000 7,143 2,273 1,064 610 394 100
50,000 8,333 2,381 1,087 617 397 100
100,000 9,091 2,439 1,099 621 398 100

--- 10,000 2,500 1,111 625 400 100

b = Those cases where 50% of the population in the sample will give more than
the required accuracy

Source: Elementary Sampling Theory, Yamane.

LESSON 3- DETERMINING OF SAMPLE SIZE

Determining Sample Size

Factors indicating a large sample size

 The decisions to be based on the survey data have serious or costly

consequences
 The sponsors demand a high level of confidence
 The sample population has a high level of variance
 The sample will be divided into small subsamples

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  Project costs and timing vary only slightly with increases in sample
size
 Time and resources are readily available

Factors indicating a small sample size

 The survey will not be used for major decisions or commitments

 The sponsors only require rough estimates
 The population to be sampled is relatively homogenous (little
variance)
 The analysis will be based on the entire sample (no subsamples)
 Costs increase dramatically with sample size
 Budget and time constraints

LESSON 4- SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING

The sampling process comprises of several stage. The first stage is defining the
target population. A population can be defined as all people or items ( unit of
analysis ) with the characteristics that one wishes to study. The unit of
analysis may be a person, group, organization, country, object, or any other
entity that you wish to draw scientific inferences about. Sometimes the
population is obvious. For example, if a manufacturer wants to determine
whether finished goods manufactured at a production line meets certain
quality requirements or must be scrapped and reworked, then the population
consists of the entire set of finished goods manufactured at that production
facility. At other times, the target population may be a little harder to
understand. If you wish to identify the primary drivers of academic learning
among high school students, then what is your target population: high school
students, their teachers, school principals, or parents? The right answer in this
case is high school students, because you are interested in their performance,
not the performance of their teachers, parents, or schools. Likewise, if you wish
to analyze the behavior of roulette wheels to identify biased wheels, your
population of interest is not different observations from a single roulette wheel,
but different roulette wheels (i.e., their behavior over an infinite set of wheels).

The second step in the sampling process is to choose a sampling frame . This is
an accessible section of the target population (usually a list with contact
information) from where a sample can be drawn. If your target population is

85
professional employees at work, because you cannot access all professional
employees around the world, a more realistic sampling frame will be employee
lists of one or two local companies that are willing to participate in your study.
If your target population is organizations, then the Fortune 500 list of firms or
the Standard & Poor’s (S&P) list of firms registered with the New York Stock
exchange may be acceptable sampling frames.

Note that sampling frames may not entirely be representative of the population
at large, and if so, inferences derived by such a sample may not be
generalizable to the population. For instance, if your target population is
organizational employees at large (e.g., you wish to study employee self-esteem
in this population) and your sampling frame is employees at automotive
companies in the American Midwest, findings from such groups may not even
be generalizable to the American workforce at large, let alone the global
workplace. This is because the American auto industry has been under severe
competitive pressures for the last 50 years and has seen numerous episodes of
reorganization and downsizing, possibly resulting in low employee morale and
self-esteem. Furthermore, the majority of the American workforce is employed
in service industries or in small businesses, and not in automotive industry.
Hence, a sample of American auto industry employees is not particularly
representative of the American workforce. Likewise, the Fortune 500 list
includes the 500 largest American enterprises, which is not representative of
all American firms in general, most of which are medium and small-sized firms
rather than large firms, and is therefore, a biased sampling frame. In contrast,
the S&P list will allow you to select large, medium, and/or small companies,
depending on whether you use the S&P large-cap, mid-cap, or small-cap lists,
but includes publicly traded firms (and not private firms) and hence still
biased. Also note that the population from which a sample is drawn may not
necessarily be the same as the population about which we actually want
information. For example, if a researcher wants to the success rate of a new
“quit smoking” program, then the target population is the universe of smokers
who had access to this program, which may be an unknown population.
Hence, the researcher may sample patients arriving at a local medical facility
for smoking cessation treatment, some of whom may not have had exposure to
this particular “quit smoking” program, in which case, the sampling frame does
not correspond to the population of interest.

The last step in sampling is choosing a sample from the sampling frame using
a well-defined sampling technique. Sampling techniques can be grouped into
two broad categories: probability (random) sampling and non-probability

86
sampling. Probability sampling is ideal if generalizability of results is important
for your study, but there may be unique circumstances where non-probability
sampling can also be justified. These techniques are discussed in the next two
sections.

Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is a technique in which every unit in the population has a

chance (non-zero probability) of being selected in the sample, and this chance
can be accurately determined. Sample statistics thus produced, such as
sample mean or standard deviation, are unbiased estimates of population
parameters, as long as the sampled units are weighted according to their
probability of selection. All probability sampling have two attributes in
common: (1) every unit in the population has a known non-zero probability of
being sampled, and (2) the sampling procedure involves random selection at
some point. The different types of probability sampling techniques include:

Simple random sampling. In this technique, all possible subsets of a

population (more accurately, of a sampling frame) are given an equal
probability of being selected. The probability of selecting any set of n units out
of a total of N units in a sampling frame is N C n . Hence, sample statistics are
unbiased estimates of population parameters, without any weighting. Simple
random sampling involves randomly selecting respondents from a sampling
frame, but with large sampling frames, usually a table of random numbers or a
computerized random number generator is used. For instance, if you wish to
select 200 firms to survey from a list of 1000 firms, if this list is entered into a
spreadsheet like Excel, you can use Excel’s RAND() function to generate
random numbers for each of the 1000 clients on that list. Next, you sort the
list in increasing order of their corresponding random number, and select the
first 200 clients on that sorted list. This is the simplest of all probability
sampling techniques; however, the simplicity is also the strength of this
technique. Because the sampling frame is not subdivided or partitioned, the
sample is unbiased and the inferences are most generalizable amongst all
probability sampling techniques.

Systematic sampling. In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered

according to some criteria and elements are selected at regular intervals
through that ordered list. Systematic sampling involves a random start and
then proceeds with the selection of every k th element from that point onwards,
where k = N / n , where k is the ratio of sampling frame size N and the desired

87
sample size n , and is formally called the sampling ratio . It is important that
the starting point is not automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first k elements on the list. In our previous
example of selecting 200 firms from a list of 1000 firms, you can sort the 1000
firms in increasing (or decreasing) order of their size (i.e., employee count or
annual revenues), randomly select one of the first five firms on the sorted list,
and then select every fifth firm on the list. This process will ensure that there is
no overrepresentation of large or small firms in your sample, but rather that
firms of all sizes are generally uniformly represented, as it is in your sampling
frame. In other words, the sample is representative of the population, at least
on the basis of the sorting criterion.

tratified sampling. In stratified sampling, the sampling frame is divided into

homogeneous and non-overlapping subgroups (called “strata”), and a simple
random sample is drawn within each subgroup. In the previous example of
selecting 200 firms from a list of 1000 firms, you can start by categorizing the
firms based on their size as large (more than 500 employees), medium (between
50 and 500 employees), and small (less than 50 employees). You can then
randomly select 67 firms from each subgroup to make up your sample of 200
firms. However, since there are many more small firms in a sampling frame
than large firms, having an equal number of small, medium, and large firms
will make the sample less representative of the population (i.e., biased in favor
of large firms that are fewer in number in the target population). This is called
non-proportional stratified sampling because the proportion of sample within
each subgroup does not reflect the proportions in the sampling frame (or the
population of interest), and the smaller subgroup (large-sized firms) is over-
sampled . An alternative technique will be to select subgroup samples in
proportion to their size in the population. For instance, if there are 100 large
firms, 300 mid-sized firms, and 600 small firms, you can sample 20 firms from
the “large” group, 60 from the “medium” group and 120 from the “small” group.
In this case, the proportional distribution of firms in the population is retained
in the sample, and hence this technique is called proportional stratified
sampling. Note that the non-proportional approach is particularly effective in
representing small subgroups, such as large-sized firms, and is not necessarily
less representative of the population compared to the proportional approach,
as long as the findings of the non-proportional approach is weighted in
accordance to a subgroup’s proportion in the overall population.

Cluster sampling. If you have a population dispersed over a wide geographic

region, it may not be feasible to conduct a simple random sampling of the

88
entire population. In such case, it may be reasonable to divide the population
into “clusters” (usually along geographic boundaries), randomly sample a few
clusters, and measure all units within that cluster. For instance, if you wish to
sample city governments in the state of New York, rather than travel all over
the state to interview key city officials (as you may have to do with a simple
random sample), you can cluster these governments based on their counties,
randomly select a set of three counties, and then interview officials from every
official in those counties. However, depending on between- cluster differences,
the variability of sample estimates in a cluster sample will generally be higher
than that of a simple random sample, and hence the results are less
generalizable to the population than those obtained from simple random
samples.

Matched-pairs sampling. Sometimes, researchers may want to compare two

subgroups within one population based on a specific criterion. For instance,
why are some firms consistently more profitable than other firms? To conduct
such a study, you would have to categorize a sampling frame of firms into “high
profitable” firms and “low profitable firms” based on gross margins, earnings
per share, or some other measure of profitability. You would then select a
simple random sample of firms in one subgroup, and match each firm in this
group with a firm in the second subgroup, based on its size, industry segment,
and/or other matching criteria. Now, you have two matched samples of high-
profitability and low-profitability firms that you can study in greater detail.
Such matched-pairs sampling technique is often an ideal way of understanding
bipolar differences between different subgroups within a given population.

Multi-stage sampling. The probability sampling techniques described

previously are all examples of single-stage sampling techniques. Depending on
your sampling needs, you may combine these single-stage techniques to
conduct multi-stage sampling. For instance, you can stratify a list of
businesses based on firm size, and then conduct systematic sampling within
each stratum. This is a two-stage combination of stratified and systematic
sampling. Likewise, you can start with a cluster of school districts in the state
of New York, and within each cluster, select a simple random sample of
schools; within each school, select a simple random sample of grade levels; and
within each grade level, select a simple random sample of students for study.
In this case, you have a four-stage sampling process consisting of cluster and
simple random sampling.

Non-Probability Sampling

89
Nonprobability sampling is a sampling technique in which some units of the
population have zero chance of selection or where the probability of selection
cannot be accurately determined. Typically, units are selected based on certain
non-random criteria, such as quota or convenience. Because selection is non-
random, nonprobability sampling does not allow the estimation of sampling
errors, and may be subjected to a sampling bias. Therefore, information from a
sample cannot be generalized back to the population. Types of non-probability
sampling techniques include:

Convenience sampling. Also called accidental or opportunity sampling, this is a

technique in which a sample is drawn from that part of the population that is
close to hand, readily available, or convenient. For instance, if you stand
outside a shopping center and hand out questionnaire surveys to people or
interview them as they walk in, the sample of respondents you will obtain will
be a convenience sample. This is a non-probability sample because you are
systematically excluding all people who shop at other shopping centers. The
opinions that you would get from your chosen sample may reflect the unique
characteristics of this shopping center such as the nature of its stores (e.g.,
high end-stores will attract a more affluent demographic), the demographic
profile of its patrons, or its location (e.g., a shopping center close to a university
will attract primarily university students with unique purchase habits), and
therefore may not be representative of the opinions of the shopper population
at large. Hence, the scientific generalizability of such observations will be very
limited. Other examples of convenience sampling are sampling students
registered in a certain class or sampling patients arriving at a certain medical
clinic. This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing, where the goal is
instrument testing or measurement validation rather than obtaining
generalizable inferences.

Quota sampling. In this technique, the population is segmented into mutually-

exclusive subgroups (just as in stratified sampling), and then a non-random set
of observations is chosen from each subgroup to meet a predefined quota. In
proportional quota sampling , the proportion of respondents in each subgroup
should match that of the population. For instance, if the American population
consists of 70% Caucasians, 15% Hispanic-Americans, and 13% African-
Americans, and you wish to understand their voting preferences in an sample
of 98 people, you can stand outside a shopping center and ask people their
voting preferences. But you will have to stop asking Hispanic-looking people
when you have 15 responses from that subgroup (or African-Americans when
you have 13 responses) even as you continue sampling other ethnic groups, so

90
that the ethnic composition of your sample matches that of the general
American population. Non-proportional quota sampling is less restrictive in
that you don’t have to achieve a proportional representation, but perhaps meet
a minimum size in each subgroup. In this case, you may decide to have 50
respondents from each of the three ethnic subgroups (Caucasians, Hispanic-
Americans, and African- Americans), and stop when your quota for each
subgroup is reached. Neither type of quota sampling will be representative of
the American population, since depending on whether your study was
conducted in a shopping center in New York or Kansas, your results may be
entirely different. The non-proportional technique is even less representative of
the population but may be useful in that it allows capturing the opinions of
small and underrepresented groups through oversampling.

Expert sampling. This is a technique where respondents are chosen in a non-

random manner based on their expertise on the phenomenon being studied.
For instance, in order to understand the impacts of a new governmental policy
such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, you can sample an group of corporate
accountants who are familiar with this act. The advantage of this approach is
that since experts tend to be more familiar with the subject matter than non-
experts, opinions from a sample of experts are more credible than a sample
that includes both experts and non-experts, although the findings are still not
generalizable to the overall population at large.

Snowball sampling. In snowball sampling, you start by identifying a few

respondents that match the criteria for inclusion in your study, and then ask
them to recommend others they know who also meet your selection criteria.
For instance, if you wish to survey computer network administrators and you
know of only one or two such people, you can start with them and ask them to
recommend others who also do network administration. Although this method
hardly leads to representative samples, it may sometimes be the only way to
reach hard-to-reach populations or when no sampling frame is available.

LESSON 5- NON SCIENTIFIC SAMPLING

What is scientific sampling?

Definition: Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in

which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the

91
 researcher rather than random selection. It is a less stringent method. This
sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is
carried out by observation, and researchers use it widely for qualitative
research.

Non-probability sampling is a sampling method in which not all members of

the population have an equal chance of participating in the study, unlike
probability sampling. Each member of the population has a known chance of
being selected. Non-probability sampling is most useful for exploratory studies
like a pilot survey (deploying a survey to a smaller sample compared to pre-
determined sample size). Researchers use this method in studies where it is
impossible to draw random probability sampling due to time or cost
considerations.

Types of non-probability sampling

Here are the types of non-probability sampling methods:

 Convenience sampling:

Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where samples

are selected from the population only because they are conveniently available
to the researcher. Researchers choose these samples just because they are
easy to recruit, and the researcher did not consider selecting a sample that
represents the entire population.
Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the population.
But, in some research, the population is too large to examine and consider the
entire population. It is one of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience
sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling method,
because of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of availability of the sample.

 Consecutive sampling:

This non-probability sampling method is very similar to convenience sampling,

with a slight variation. Here, the researcher picks a single person or a group of
a sample, conducts research over a period, analyzes the results, and then
moves on to another subject or group if needed. Consecutive sampling
technique gives the researcher a chance to work with many topics and fine-
tune his/her research by collecting results that have vital insights.

92
 Quota sampling:

Hypothetically consider, a researcher wants to study the career goals of male

and female employees in an organization. There are 500 employees in the
organization, also known as the population. To understand better about a
population, the researcher will need only a sample, not the entire population.
Further, the researcher is interested in particular strata within the population.
Here is where quota sampling helps in dividing the population into strata or
groups.

 Judgmental or Purposive sampling:

In the judgmental sampling method, researchers select the samples based

purely on the researcher’s knowledge and credibility. In other words,
researchers choose only those people who they deem fit to participate in the
research study. Judgmental or purposive sampling is not a scientific method of
sampling, and the downside to this sampling technique is that the
preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus, this
research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.

 Snowball sampling:

Snowball sampling helps researchers find a sample when they are difficult to
locate. Researchers use this technique when the sample size is small and not
easily available. This sampling system works like the referral program. Once
the researchers find suitable subjects, he asks them for assistance to seek
similar subjects to form a considerably good size sample.

Non-probability sampling examples

Here are three simple examples of non-probability sampling to understand the

subject better.

1. An example of convenience sampling would be using student volunteers

known to the researcher. Researchers can send the survey to students
belonging to a particular school, college, or university, and act as a sample.
2. In an organization, for studying the career goals of 500 employees,
technically, the sample selected should have proportionate numbers of males
and females. Which means there should be 250 males and 250 females.

93
 Since this is unlikely, the researcher selects the groups or strata using quota
sampling.
3. Researchers also use this type of sampling to conduct research involving
a particular illness in patients or a rare disease. Researchers can seek help
from subjects to refer to other subjects suffering from the same ailment to
form a subjective sample to carry out the study.

When to use non-probability sampling?

 Use this type of sampling to indicate if a particular trait or characteristic

exists in a population.
 Researchers widely use the non-probability sampling method when they
aim at conducting qualitative research, pilot studies, or exploratory research.
 Researchers use it when they have limited time to conduct research or
have budget constraints.
 When the researcher needs to observe whether a particular issue needs
in-depth analysis, he applies this method.
 Use it when you do not intend to generate results that will generalize the
entire population.

Advantages of non-probability sampling

Here are the advantages of using the non-probability technique

 Non-probability sampling techniques are a more conducive and practical

method for researchers deploying surveys in the real world. Although
statisticians prefer probability sampling because it yields data in the form of
numbers, however, if done correctly, it can produce similar if not the same
quality of results.
 Getting responses using non-probability sampling is faster and more
cost-effective than probability sampling because the sample is known to the
researcher. The respondents respond quickly as compared to people
randomly selected as they have a high motivation level to participate.

MODULE VI:

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

LESSON 1- QUESTIONNAIRE

94
LESSON 2- INTERVIEW

LESSON 3- OBSERVATION

LESSON 4- TYPES OF TEST AND TEST CONSTRUCTIONS

LESSON 5- VALIDITY, RELIABILITY AND USABILITY OF

RESEARCHINSTRUMENT

MODULE VII:

FORM AND STYLE IN THESIS WRITING

LESSON 1- THE PRELIMINARIES OF RESEARCH

LESSON 2- THE TEXT OF A RESEARCH PAPER, THESIS AND

DISSERTATION

LESSON 3- CHAPTER HEADINGS

LESSON 4- DOCUMENTATION IN RESEARCH PAPER, THESIS AND

DISSERTATION

LESSON 5- DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FOOTNOTES

LESSON 6- STYLE IN WRITING AND TYPING INSTRUCTION

95
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