The USA 1776-1985 “The USA remains the most powerful, and influential, nation in the world. I has the largest economy, the strongest military force and the most popular ceultural product (films, music and books). As such, whatever the USA does, or does not doalects many ‘other countries. As the Caribbean is geographically close tothe USA, the islands have always been a consideration in the policies ofthe US government. Inthe 18th and 19th centuries, this consideration ‘was mostly economic, having to do with trade ‘because during those times the Caribbean was one of the most valuable regions inthe world. After independence in 1776, the USA had two ‘main objectives in respect to other countries. First, itwanted to prevent European countries from | Tre USA beet timeline 1607 — Ens colonists form a settlement in Jamestown 1776 ~ Congress amounees the Decaration of Independence, enovng the USA from British thority. 3700- of Pais in the Caribbean interfering in the Americas: second, it wanted 10 ‘expand across the North American continent. The first aim was stated in the Monroe Doctrine (Gee page 166). "The second aim started with the ppurelase of Louisiana in 1803, then the acceptanice of Texas as asta ofthe union when that area declared its independence from Mexico in 1836.’The USA then went to war with Mexico] from 1846 to 1848 in order to acquire more territory I return for a payment of USS15 nillion, the Americans obtained the land which + how makes up the states of Arizona, California, Golorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah. Haws was annexed to the USA as a territory in 1898, 1787 ~The US Constitution i pase and the Bil of Rois rates, 1789 ~The firs elections are hel with Georae Washington electes St presiert of the USA 11860-1865 — The American Ci Wars fought between northern and eouther states over the sue of slavery.A new consciousness seems to have come "upon us ~the consciousness of strength, and with ita new appetite, the yearning to show our strength, ‘of the people asthe taste of blood in the jungle Temeans an imperial policy.? The Mashing Pt, 1898 sath ‘The taste of Empire isin the {twas after this year that the USA hecame the ‘main power in the Caribbean, replacing Britain and France, and Spain, which the USA had declared war on in 1898 over the Spanish {government's failure to control rebellio in Cuba. ‘The quote from the Washington Post newspaper refleets the new perspective on conquest in the USA. Britain had its own problems, fighting war in South Africa (the Boer War) and being worried about the increasing power of Germany, and so was amenable to another nation managing, lean matters. Germany, in fact, was the only other powerful nation which briefly challenged the USA in the region. Although Germany did not have any Caribbean and South American eolonies, i ia lave significant business interests in Venezucla, When, in 1901, Venezuela fled to pay back loans to German businesses, Germany sent warships to the region to block Venezuelan harbours until the debts were paid. Germany's leader, Kaiser Wilhelm I, held that Germany should have control of Latin America and Cuba should be made into a European state. Talia and French warships also became active i Caribbean for similar reasons, and this coused the USA to warn the European countries about nterfering with US interests in the region. It also ed to US President Theodore Roosevelt declaring hat the USA would police the Caribbean to safeguard the region, 1S involvement in Haiti was caused not only by istorical trade ties, but hecause the US did not vant the Germans to take conteol ofthe strategically portant deep-water harbour at Male St Nicolas IS military forces became even more activ in the ‘aribbean after Roosevelt's declaration, ‘They waded Guba and the Dominican Republ 72 The USA in the Carbbenn 1776-2985 centering Guba twice more in 1906 and 1917. The US scored a ‘tiple-20°: dating the fist 20 years of the 20th century, the USA launched 20 military invasions of counties in the Caribhean andl Central America, During the Second World War (1939-1945), US dominance in the region was sealed. German submarines were a threat to Caribbean shipping which Britain, occupied by bate in Europe we Arica, could not properly defend, The USA ‘stepped into this breach, ‘No picture of our future is complete which does not contemplate and compreiend the United States asthe dominant power in the Caribbean Sea Satemencby US Assistant Secretary of State Francis ‘Laois, 1904 ere ees) In the 20¢h century, especially after 1950, US considerations were political rather than ‘economic, having. to do with opposing the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (the USSR or Soviet Union) and communism, This was because the position ofthe Caribbean islands, in ‘America’s backyard’, made these countries, along with Central America, strategically important tothe USA, in case a war broke out between the USA. and the USSR. In the 1970s, the USA, led by President Jimmy Garter, took a more diplomatie approach te Caribbean and Latin American issues. The Carter ‘administration transferred control ofthe Panama Canal from the USA to the government of Panama, and prevented military rule in the Dominican Republic aller the 1978 election Carter was replaced by Ronald Reagan in 1981, however, and this new president sought to increase the USA's military power and its presence in the region and in Latin Americaee eee During Reagan's frst term as US president, newly lected Caribbean leaders sought closer ties with the USA. These leaders included Edward Seaga” in Jamaica, Tom Adams in Barbados, Eugenia, Charles in Dominica (not to be confused with the Dominican Republic) and Herbert Blaize in Grenada. These leaders’ platforms were based on the need for foreign investment and aid from the USA. A plan from the USA, called the Caribbean Basin Initiative, was supposed (o strengthen economic ties between the USA and the region. ‘However, this plan did not compensate for the recession ofthe 1980s, which saw rising inflation, less employment and growing debt in most Caribbean territories. Find out are about the Caribbean asin native Hae benefited the reson? In the 21st century, following the break-up of the USSR and with globalization, the Caribbean is no longer ae economically or politically significant to the USA. However; the tral in ilegal narcotis, as well as concerns about terrorism taki Caribbean security an ongoing concern for the US government, hold in the region, makes “Tee Montoe Doctrine 11 Mie Moeoe Done, 1825: Bro te Morse Doctrine! tt top dan ny Ae Wa Hares rod ian Wr, Peles Ms, Jn aou, De Tompkins an Jon Melon © The Monrae Doctrine, proclainedon 2 December 1623, outlined how the USA woul deat with ater ours nthe Americas (South and Cntr mera and the Caribbean) © It was named alter Presider James Monroe (2756-1850, he fifth president f te USA, who ‘cccupied office fam 181710 1825, © the Monroe Doctrine ha four base pons ©. The USA would nt intertee inthe inter fais of or the mars betwee, European powers. 19 The USA recoonzes and woul nt interfee wit existing colonies and dependences in the Wester nemischere. fo The Wester emiphere was dosd to =a ny ater bya European peer to | ° es ear an renin he te ‘Between 1898 and 1934, there were about 30 separate rita interventions by te USA inne Carbbean eountles. By understanding the role of the USA, therefore, you can better understand the bi region. Fitst, we will look at some of the events in the 19th century involving US-Caribbean trade, “Then we will look atthe 20th century and US actions in specific countries such as Haiti, Cuba, Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic, Grenada and Panama, Finally, we will examine the impact of the USA on Caribbean politics, its economy and culture tory of our emshere woud be viewed i hostile act agaist te USA. | © 102904, Presiden Theodore Rone aid the Roosevelt Corolay't the Meare Doce, tic stated that in cases of fagant and chronic ‘ironing by a Lain American ation, the USA. ‘ous imervene in he intel afi ofthat ration. Roosevelt sl “chronic wrong ig, Fan impose which rests Insgeeral sein of te eso eiaed sce na in vere as ewhore ultmaty require Interertion by ome eile rato, ad athe ‘ister hemephere th aderens ofthe Unites States to Ue Monroe Doctrine may foes the United States, however reluctantly in Rayan cases of ‘rong ding or ingoteee, to the exercise of an[te union ot soviet Sociaust Republics (USSR) © The USSR had its vig in 1927, en the October Revolution was cari at bythe Bolshevik Serial, wo took over the governement of Rusia. © The core ofthe party wae small industry workers, who were represented by graups called “savits (workers an salaes' council © The USSR started in 2922 with four republics and by the time it brake up in 1993 there were 35 repuiies,ll controlled by Russia, © The USSR was y area the world’ largest county, averng some 224 milion square llores, which | was two and a half times the size of the USA. The USA and the British Caribbean in the 18th century In the 18th century, America was major market for sugar and rum from the Caribbean. In return the ‘Americans supplied the islands withthe lumber needed to make barrels for shipping the sugar, as wells food supplies such as flour, corn, herrings, pork, beef and other supplies. These supplies were used mostly to feed the enslaved Africans on the plantations. So when the War of American, Independence started in 1775, it caused many problems for the British Caribbean colonies. These problems continued even after the war ended in 1783, because the British government, stang at its defeat by the Americans, imposed trade restrictions between its Caribbean colonies and the USA. On 2 July 1785, the British authorities issued an Order- in-Council, based on the Navigation Act principle, which excluded the USA from colonial markets, Supplies forthe Caribbean colonies were now to ‘come from Canada and Ireland, The Caribbean governors, as well asthe planters, argued that supplies from these two sources would not be sufficient This turned out tobe the cas, A major effet ofthe British policies was an increase in the prices of essential supplies. Generally, prices {for planation supplies tripled and quadrupled after 1776, Herrings, for example, were a principle source of protein forthe enslaved Africans and their price rose from 45 shillings per barrel in 1791 to The USA Inthe Caribbean 1776-1985 65 shillings in 1703. Com, another staple forthe slaves, went up from 7 shillings per bushel in 1790 to between 10 nd 14 shillings in 1792, while four ‘went up from 37 shillings co £6. On top ofthis the supplies coming from Canada and Ireland were no: enough to feed the population orto sustain the agricultural industry. Asa esl the colonists used various means to yet around the legal restrictions placed on them by the ‘Mother County’ Some islands registered US ships as Brgsh, but most justallowed the Americans o enter their port, Another method was to buy US supplies from French islands. This practice was so common that ports in Martinique and St Domingue became transit points for US supplies o the British Caribbean colonies, As this was undermining the British monopoly of {heir colonies” commereial activity the British Parliament passed a law in April 1787 banning the imports of flour bread, wheat, ice and kumber from all foreign Caritbean colonies, except in cases of dire need. However, deciding what was ‘dire need? was left up to the governors, who exploited this loophole tothe fllest and, from 1782 to 1807, often used this power tallow US imports. ‘The Americans ok sugaein exchange for lumber and provisions. This was one factor which let sugar prices remain higher than the British government wanted. As longas the colonies were selling to markets outside he ‘Mother Country’ imports to Britain were reduced, causing prices o stay the same or rise. Remember the aw of economies: the iron Jaw of supply and demand? goods which are scarce butin demand go up in price, However, because of complaints from Irish, British and Canadian merchants in the early 19¢h century, the British government took even more drastic action to cut trade between the USA and its colonies. Lord Camden's directive on 5 Sept 1804 removed governors’ authority to open ports ‘The Assembly of Jamaica objected to Governor ‘Nugent's proclamation ofthe order on 21 November, which sparked off similar defiance in other islands. At this point, the British _government did not want to offend the USA, 167mainly because the nation was already a major market for British manufactured products. So the British diplomats assured the USA that governors still had the authority to open the ports in cases of dire need. 1161790. tmagine that you are the President of the USA. vou have to write a speech to Corres dealing vith the following questions © winy ar you interested in developing trading lations inthe Caniboean? {© What two things wil ou 6 to mataln good tems vith ue clonal paves who contro the Caribbean? [Nonetheless the British governments restrictive policy harmed its own colonies, which experienced significant hardship aller 1776 and forthe first decade ofthe 19th century. By the 20th century, specifically after the First World War, Britain had given in to US policy, promising not to acquire any ‘more territory in the Americas, with British Prime Minister Arthur Balfour (1848-1930) agreeing with the Monroe Doctrine. The USA also warned other European powers against interfering in dhe Caribbean. Apart from the Roosevelt Corollary, luring the 20th century the USA tried diflere strategies to maintain stability in Caribbean countries These included ‘dollar diplomacy" the ‘good neighbour policy’. err ere In the next section, we will ook at US involvement in five Caribbean countries and one South ‘American one. You will earn about the secuity issues, politcal instability in the various countries, interference by other foreign powers and ideological conflicts. Us intervention pticy Curing the 18th century he two main pris vere to: @ prevent European invlvement in the Arereas expand territory aeross North America. Curing te 19th and 2otn centuries he piety vas to cotrl the Caribbean bas, icudha (areal America, Cuba, x ~~ {© bas ofl cated the Republe of Cuba (In Spanish, Replica de Cuba. © The country consists fone large and and numerous sialier isa islets and cays © Iie 145 km south ofthe tip ofthe US state of Florida {© aba hae a land area of 210,861 square ke, which mas th argest country inthe Cariean The capital is Havana rom the ear 19h century some Americans wanted to aque the island of Cubs, In 1823, the US Secretary of State,Joln Quiney Adams said that i Cua was taken from Spain it would naturally join the North American union, since Cuba could not support itself By he late 19th century the USA hal beeomea ‘major ding parte wih Cuba. The Americans Ipcame involved in the second war of Cuban independence (1895-98), which ou ead about in ‘Chapter 6 Spain had nt only reise to let the ‘Cabans gover themselves, bu hid also increased taxes othe idand, This sparked of the war between the Cubans andthe Spanish. The Americans were drawn in when there was an explosion aboard one of theirships the USS Maine, which was anchored in Havana arbourand hey decide o ight against Spain. Thatthe explosion was pubably an acident, cts by a ite in the coal bunker, was ieeevant ‘The Spanish army was driven cut of Cuba and Cuban independence was granted by the Treaty of Paris on 10 December 1898. Avit turned out, however, the Cubans had only exchanged one colonial master for another. The USA continueddin toe ie | aoa ect cob es | vem oo 7. The USA in the Caribbean 1776-1605, * LONG LAND (RooKED LAND Foi. Nats purr ade “hse 720 to occupy Cuba,b the basis that their presence was needed to maintain order and to restore the ‘country’s infrastructure which had been damaged in the warynd, infact he Americans did build a ‘number of schools, roads and bridges. They transformed Havana into a more modern city and deepened its harbour: They also provided food for the Cubans and took action to eradicate yellow fever All this was done with the intention to incorporate Cuba into the US economic, cultural and educational systems, but in a way that would ‘exclude Afto-Cubans from government, The US government passed a law in 1901, called the Platt Amendment, that allowed the USA to establish a naval base at Guantnamo Bay at an annual rent ‘of US$5,000, and gave the USA the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve ‘a stable government adequately protecting life, property, and individual liberty’ (One year later, Cuba was declared a republic and held its first presidential election. The ad began on 20 May 1902 under ‘Cuba's frst elected president, Tomas Estrada P mediately opposed by many Cubans Decause he was seen as a US puppet. There were clections again in 1905 andl 1906, but the process was. shambles. The Cubans rebelled, and the USA once agsin oveupied the iland on 29 September 1906. President Estrada Palma resigned after negotiations between the rebels and nistration th the US government failed. The USA installed a provisional government of Cuban civilians urder the Guban flag and constitution, but it was run byan American. A law commission was set up torevise the procedures for elections and on, 28 January 1909 the USA handed over the government tothe leader ofthe Liberal party, José Miguel Gémer, who had run against Pala “Meanwhile, Cuba's economy grew steadily, as snigar prices kept rising until ehe 1920s, ‘The Gomer administration, which stayed in office forjust four years, was a failure. Its officials were incompetent and corrupt, spent too much money and did not atend to the needs and concerns of citizens - especially Afro-Cubans. One consequence ofthis was that a group of Alto Cubans set up an association to lobby for beter jobs and more political patronage and to oppose a ban of politial associations based on colour and race, In 1912, there were mass d Oriente, which were quelled by government twoops, with hundreds of Afro-Cubans killed. Neatly all the Cuban adm ‘were run by corrupt leaders, Phe most significant fone was Fulgencio Batista, who controlled the ‘government through figureheads from 1934.0 1939 and then was himself elected from 1940 0 1944 and again from 1952 to 1959. Batista, who ‘overthtew the elected governor in 1983 with US istrations afterwards 169,support kept himselfin power by subverting the political process, using the country's military to get support through threats and even by assassinacing his opponents. kind of polities was facilitated by the US involvement in Cuba, For the fist hal of the 200 ‘century, the island’s reverses continued to be based mainly on sugar, but a tourist industry based on gambling and prostitution also flourished. When {he US government outlawed alcohol between: 1919 and 1933, through a policy called Prohibition, “Havana beeame an even mote popular destination for Americans. This was the stat of the tourist industry in Guba, This situation contributed to anti-US sentiments among Cubans. Social conditions in Cuba were relatively good, ‘compared with those in ather Latin American ‘countries. The literacy rate was 76%, Cuba ranked first in Lain America in television sets per person, life expectancy in the 1950s was about the same as that in the USA, and Cuba actually had more doctors per person than developed countries such as Britainand France. However, the flourishing. ‘economy 2f the period from the 1920s to the 1950s was also a very lopsided one, with most of the weal going to only a few individuals. Only four out of every 100 Cubans could afford to eat ‘meat regularly. In the rural areas 75% of the dwellings were huts made from palm trees, with ‘only 50% having toilets, 15% having inside running water and less than 10% having electricity. ‘One third of the workforce was poor, and depended on seasonal employment on the sugar ‘estates to carn money. Most ofthe businesses and industries were controlled by foreigners, who ‘owned abpat three-quarters of the island’ arable land, nearly all the essential services and just ‘under hal of the sugar production. Even though ‘Cubs hada per capita income of US8353, which ‘was among the highest in Latin America inthe 1950s, there was sill widespread unemployment in the island, In the ate 1950s, the USA withdrew its support of Batista, because his epression had become ‘embarrassing to the administration. This facilitated the overthrown ofthe Batistaregime in a coup that Dogan in late 1958, led by a young lawyer naraed Fidel Casto, with Bait lecng from the sland on December 3, 1958, Castro had been exiled for subversive activities and had been leading guerilla ‘war agains the Cuban government fo several years Aft the USA backed Castro. Castro, along with ‘Che Guevera, was een asa romantic rebel especialy among university student, FIDEL CASTRO 1926- 173 Fel Cao Ras 13 us 1°26 ea ie, Cabo. Ganan evautirary leader an head! ate pataped Castro wae apolitical leader o Cuba from 2959) who transormed his county into th rst communis state Inthe Wester hemisphere. He became a syibl of Carus revelution in Latin Ameria, He he the te of Premier unt 1976, when he came President of the {Coun af State andthe Counc of Minister. Casto attended Reman Cathal boarding schools in Santiago de Cuba, Oriente province, and then the Catholic igh school Benin Havana where be proved in outstanding athlete He entered the School of Law Othe Unversity of Havana in 1985 an aradate in five years, Aer his graduation n 1950, Castro besan te practise law and became a rember ofthe reformist, Cuban People's Party, the menters of which were called Ortodous. Ne came ther cardi for aseat inthe Hout of Representatives (rom a Havana titi the eletons ‘chee for June 1952, In Mach af that ya however ‘he fone Cuban Preset, Gena Fulgenco ati, certo the goverment of Presidert Cares Pio Soca and once the elects+ ‘iter lea means fled to slog Batsa'snew Alctaership, Castro began to organige a rebel force forthe tisk n 1953. 0926 lly 1953, he ledaout 160 men nan attack onthe Moncada military barracks ln Santiago de Cuba in hops of sparking a popular uprising, Most ofthe men wore iled and Castro hist was arrestee ‘Mee a ial in wich be conducted an impassioned efence, as sentenced bythe goverment 1025 yar? Imprisanet He ac his brother Ral wee reed io a poiial amnesty in 1955 an they want fo Mee to Continue te campaign aginst the Oaista rei. There Castro arganzed Cuan exes ito a revolutionary group called the 260 of July Moment. (0n2 December 1956, Castro and an arnt erpediton of 81 men land onthe cast of Oriente prin, Guba, from the yacht Granma. Al of them were Kies or captured exept Cast, Radl, Emesto (Cho Guevara and rie chers, who treated ints the Serra Maestra ‘of southwest Oren provne to wage guerilla ‘warfare agaast the Balsa fore ‘With theelp of rowing numbers of revlutiarary solinters throughout the stand Casto’ fre won 2 sting vetoes over te Batista governs ‘eroralied ad pool arm forces. Casts propagarca efforts proved particulary eet, ars ‘ulti, Batista ed the county eary on 1 sanvary 1989, Cato force of 800 guerillas has defeated the {Cuban goverment’ 30,000-trong proesiond ary. 70's original goals in overthrowing Batista are 3 clear. He had networked with many different ups in exeating the revolution, from middle-class fessionals tothe churches to abour unions to hunts to capitalists, which is why the USA at did not see him asa threat but asa ikely ally. ever, Casto soon began interfering with US ness interests on the island, as wel scrtieizing se Cubans who had supported the USA during Batista regime. This thetoric found favour g ordinary Cubans, who united behind of guerilla warfare, racial social justice, and the struggle for nationhood. 7/5 The USA inthe Caritbean 1776-1985 Anti-US sentiments were an important key for arousing Cuban natonslist sentiments, since itis ‘part of human psychology that group loyalty is strongest when ther: isan enemy to fight or hate ‘Castro's communism, therefore, was only secondary instrument for his primary goals of ‘nationalism, of making his revolution last, and of establishing personal control of Cuban society. Imagine that yoo are Fidel Castro Prepare a seechto be read to «aru of stents planing why Cubans eed to get rid of US intrest ans work with he USSR instead Although he did aot at frst declare himselfa ‘communist, Casto soon established diplomatic and trade links with tke USSR, abolishing capitalism, and nationalizing al th foreign-owned enterprises. This was when US public opinion (excluding the views of lef-wing radicals in US universities) turned against him, Iewas thus Cuba which brought the Gold War to the Caribbean, making the region the stage where the 30-year rivalry between the USA and the USSR. ‘was played out inthe Western hemisphere, rere Socialism a poitcl and economic theory which ne Casio built on Ciba's soil instruct, investing inhealth care, edwation and biotechnology He also ‘made Cuban sociay more iltarized than iti been before. He saw ‘esporting the revolution? as a way to keep himself secure within Cuba. Cuba tained and financed thousands of evolutonares in other Latin ‘American counts. This did not endear him tothe leaders ofthese n:tons, although they often voiced anti-US sentiments, tooThe photographs ofa contevrsal etvica gure gan be use by opponents ad propanents o promote ter message. Finda selection of contemporary photogranhs (of Casra fom th years 1959-70. Stuy the mage he Cultates and write up a series of captions to describe the manana hs pois, TA cao ctingcae 1960, ‘Cua was the first communist nation in the Western hemisphere. This disturbed the US government, which had approved of Castro’s ‘humanistic’ revolution, as he called it, until he instituted the Agrarian Reform Law and established official ties with the USSR. US sugar ‘companies stood to lose over a million and a half acres of land because of the Agrarian Ref Law. The purpose ofthis law was to undermine US and other foreign ownership, eliminate renting and tenancy of_and, and ereate a cadre of small and medium-sized farmers who cultivated 2 variety of crops. =i ‘Te Agrarian Reform Law, which was past on 17 May 1955 gave land in Guba tothe people who cultivated ‘and banned ounersni of any pare! of and or 995, ‘acres by ether an inidal or & company. ‘The Americans were concerned that the USSR now had a possible military launching pad right in the USA's backyard. They were also worried that the Cuban Revolution might spread communism to ‘other Caribbean countries.’The US government smacle many attempts to undermine, overthrow and ‘even assassinate Castro, Within two months of Castro taking power, the US National Security ‘Council began ploting ways ‘to bring another ‘government to power in Cuba’. Casto used anti sentiments to consolidate his support among the ‘Cuban people In January 1961, the US government broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba, The response of the USSR had not reassured the US government about Cuba, since the Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, a coal-miner's son who became the head of the Communist Party in 1953, issued a public warning to the USA that any military action against Cuba would result in retaliation feom the USSR. Khrushehev claimed that the USSR. wanted only to defend Cuba’s experiment with ‘communism, Naturally, these espor worried the world in general, and the C particulary, since the USA and USSR were the two ‘major nuclear powers. The USA responded fist by placing trade embargo on Cuba, meaning that no US companies or citizens were allowed to sell goods to Cuba or buy products from there. As a result, Cuban cigars, considered among the world’s best by smokers, became the main item illegally Drought into the USA. In that yea, the US spy department named the Central Intelligence Agency (GIA) supported an operation by 1,500 exiled ‘Cubans, known as the Bay of Pigs invasion, This was repelled by the Cuban arm. The US government at first denied any involvement in this ‘operation, but was widely dishelieved, with even its allies in Europe criticizing the USA. On Cubs'sside, Castro now strengthened his country’s ies with the USSR, and by the end of 1961 had declared himself flly fledged communist. In October 1962 the world almost came to nuclear war afer the Americans discovered, through satelite photographs, that the Soviet government nuclear missiles could have reached any chosen. target in the USA and thus doubled the number of US cites and military bases which could be destroyed by the Soviets. This strategic increase ‘was tempting tothe Soviets, because the US military arsenal was far superior to that ofthe USSR - the USA had six intercontinental balliste missiles (ICBMs) to every one Soviet ICBM. These US missiles could carry a nuclear bomb from the USA to the USSR. The USA also had three times as many long-range bomber airraft than the USSR. Each nuclear missile was so powerful that just one could have destroyed a city o, for chat matte,an entire Caribbean island, US President John F. Kennedy, who was elected in 1961 and who would be assassinated in 1963 while ‘on an official motorcade, by a Castro sympathizer, announced that the US navy would stop any ship delivering missiles to Cuba. US nuclear submarines and ships gathered in Florida, prepared to attack Guba. Kennedy dlso went on television and issued an ultimatum to the USSR to withdraw all missiles and ships already in Cuba. A war was narrowly averted through negotiations between President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchey. Both men were aware ofthe price of ‘war: Kennedy had spoke of 200 million people dead, Khrushchev of 500 million. Castro, for his part had written letter to Khrushchev on 27 September 1962, calling onthe Soviet leader to launch a nuclear attack if the USA invaded Cuba “however harsh and terrible the solution would be’. Khrushchev and Kennedy’s agreement, after weeks ‘of tension, led to the removal of the missile sites by Khrushchev and a guarantee from Kennedy thatthe USA would not invade Cuba. Castro played no part inthis agreement and was reportedly angry at the ‘outcome, cursing and smashing a mirror when he heard about it 1703 The USA Inthe Canibbeas 1776-1985 Alchough at firs it was not known whether Cuba ‘mac the offer forthe missile site, documents released within the pas two decades suggest that it was the USSR which initiated the plan, However, the Soviets did not think that a nuclear war was worth the price of getting dominance in the Caribbean. ‘They were also able to persuade Kennedy to agree to the removal of 15 Jupiter missiles in Turkey, which hnad the range o reach Rusia. ‘The Cuban Missle Crisis helped prevent the Cold ‘War between the world’s two super-powers fom becoming a nuclear conflict, with a‘hotline between US and USSR leaders, as well as other measures, being installed after the incident. The hodine was a direct telephone communication between the US president and che Soviet premier, a suggestion made by economist Thomas Schelling who was an adviser othe US government. ‘The USA also continued to aid the Caribbean ‘economically, in order to prevent the Cuban revolution spreading. Find out more about the Col War ‘Who were the ales of the USA and af te USSR? What ware ie main sues nd when the Cold Waren? ‘Cuba's economy continued tobe subsidized by the USSR, tothe tune of bout USS4 billion a yea, until ‘that union disintegrated into its satelite states in the carly 1990s, With the islands economy contracted by 33% Castro allowed some ezonomic reforms, eich as foreign investment inthe tourist industryfallowingthe US dollar tobe used as leglteer so th abroad could send money tc tei elatvsin inland and leting tate enterprises contr rade and finances. These reform didnot last, and Cuba remained a communis regime, with an inefcient economy and denial ofTuuman rights sucha freedom 3‘of speech and clections benween contesting political ‘partes, Repression also occurted, with people ‘opposed to the Castro regime, or calling fora capitalist system, being tortared and jailed. After 1959, however, Cuban communisin was a key factor in US policy towards another Caribbean. island: Puerto Rico, Growpwork "Be tresclvedthat the USAsinvlyement inthe Caribbean ‘was tenefial only tothe USA ‘ia group debate the above toie with reference to either Cuba oF Puerto Reo. Puerto Rico kz © officialy the Commonwealth of Puerto co (in Spanish, Estado Libre Ascocado de Puerto Rico) the uniy is ae surring sland coramenweath in the Caribbean, asocated withthe USA. © tteovers an area of 9,104 square km and ocupies carl position amang the sland inthe northern Caribbean, © The capital is San Juan Two islands off he east coast, ‘Vieques and Culebra, are aso part ofthe nation. © Puerto Rico located about 1,600 km South est or rlonaa. Puerto Rico was a colony of Spain from 1500 to 1898 and then the island effectively became a US colony: In 1898, the US military occupied the island during the war between Cuba and Spain and the USA. Puerto Rico was still an agricultural economy, its main exports being coffee, sugar and tobacco. The island was ‘occupied by the Americans in the same year as ra, bust it was turned over to US forces two ‘months earlier, on 18 October, and a US military governor was installed to run the country. Iewas ceded to the USA by the Treaty of Paris, which ‘was signed on 10 December 1898. As with Cuba, the Americans set about maintaining order and modernizing the country’s infrastructure, constructing highways, drainage, improving the water supply and sanitation, and setting up a public education system. The military ‘government ended its rule on 1 May 1900, In that year, the US Congress passed the Foraker ‘Act, which legalized the occupation of Puerto Rico by appointing US officials asthe island's government, The US dollar became the oficial currency in Puerto Rieo and all US laws applied to the island, One advantage Puerto Ricans got from the arrangement was that their income was not taxed by the USA."To this day, Puerto Rico is not an independent country. Although, since 1917 ithas had a local legislature, and since 1948 its governors have been elected by the populace, the country is really governed by the USA. Puerto Rico has a delegate in the US House of Representatives, but Puerto Ricans cannot vote in US elections. ‘As a result ofthe Foraker Act, Puerto Rico's ‘economy became geared to the USA, with the ms ‘exports being sugar and other agricultural products, with some light manufactures. However, all the main industries in Puerto Rico were owned and run by US corporations. Inthe earlier part of the 20th century, the US government opposed attempts by Puerto Rico 10 become an independent country In 1922, for example, the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party which opposed the country’s continued subjection to the USA, was repressed by both the US and the colonial government, Another political onganization, che Liberal Paty, also favoured independence, but pushed for gradual reform Ie should be noted that several referendums have been conducted asking Puerto Ricans ifthey favour independence and the majority of citizens, have voted against the motion, ‘This was demonstrated in 1938, when a breakaway faction of the Liberal Party called the Popular Democratic Party (PDP) abandoned pro-independence and won the 1940 election. ‘The PDP sought to maintain the islands ‘association’ status as a commonwealth or as an improved commonwealth, or to set up a free sovereign-association status or Free Associated Republic. With this platform, the PDP won a plurality vote in referendums on the island’s status and remained in power until 1968.7.0) The USA inthe Caribbean 1776-1985 ; PusrTo RICO During the Second World War (1939-45) Puerto Rico tried to industrialize by creating state-owned corporations that used local materials and sold to Puerto Ricans. This lexperiment ended after the war, with the {government's five companies being sold to private wners. Based on its relationship with the USA, the Puerto Rican government tried a new strategy, called Operation Bootstrap (in Spanish, Operacién Manos ala Obra), which was intended to attract US companies to manufacture goods for export to the USA. This is known as industrialization by invitation’ and was the rainchild of Caribbean economist Sie W. Arthur swis, as you read in Chapter 6. his policy had three phases. Inthe first phase, tories were built and operated by the ernment. In the secondl phase, which started in 1946, a government agency called the Industrial evelopment Corporation constructed factory uldings and leased them to private nnufactarers In the third stage, the government tout of any involvement in building factories \d concentrated on aid and incentives to attract, ivate sector investors to set up manufacturing las in Puerto Rico. The policy was largely ssi in industrializing the island. In 1947, N% of the country's GDP came from agriculture 22% from manufacturing. In 1980, just 3% of sDP was from the agricultural sector and 37% an manufacta ‘nan Bapige EM TAD mouNos } baer |, Oia, (escent Cree een ere After the Cuban Revolution, Puerto Rico became ‘more important to the USA, because the US govern Capitalist alternative to the communist system s0 the Caribbean would not have a ‘second Cubs’ ‘This aso resulted in communists and socialists being repressed in Puerto Rico, as well as pro- independence groups. One measure ofthe economie success of Puerto Rico is the gross national product (GNP) which in 1950 was [US$342 and whieh, just 30 years later, had increased ten-fold to USS3,475.. sit wanted to showcase the island asa ‘Two important measures instituted in 1976 by the US government were the revamping of section 936 of the US tax code and the extension to Puerto Ricans ofthe US food stamp programme. The first measure redluced taxes on profits which remained in Puerto Rico. This helped develop the manuficturing sector, especially in pharmaceuticals and machinery. "The US food stamp programme added tothe personal income of Puerto Ricans by reducing the amount of money they spent on food. Halfof Puerto Rican families took advantage of the food stamp programme, although 69% qualified. Inthe 1980s, eap was put on the value of food stamps given out, and now just 40% of families use it, 5Study the cartoon on he ote side ofthis page and answer the flioning questions, © Who does"Unce Sam refer to? © What ae your fist impresionsat the cartoon? © Imagine that you are Uncle San. Write to things that you might say tothe four eee © What do you think the ehidren’are thinking? (© What does he carton tl you about Uncle Sam's relationship wt the ehiliren'? Preis Hana Puta Rc ad Canam rot of ele th boas ake wit US sates In backgroud 2 Nate nea dr bok sie dow, Chins boy Stara in he ory ar an Alcan Aen washes De widen. "Brain dain’ has been common in rary Caribbean countries, Find out your county has ‘ver experienced a brain dain. When oi ths hapeen| ad wat impact id it have on your country? although 48% of Puerto Rican families are below the poverty line by US standards. However, you should bear in mind that the US standard of poverty is higher than that of developing countries, as shown by the fat that three out of four poor nericans own a car and over 80% have air-conditioned homes. ‘Most Puerto Ricans see their country as benefiting from the privileged relationship with the USA. “Migration to the USA is easy but itis mostly Puerto Ricans with higher education and professional {qualifications who go there. Inthe 1930s, 48,000 Puerto Ricans migrated to the USA (3% ofthe total ‘population; in the 1950s, it was 151,000 (9% of the population}; and inthe 1960s the total number of migrants was 430,000 (18% of the population) ‘This brain drain’ may have negative effects on Puerto Rico’s development. (DP you brew? In201 are were apprennaly 2rilan Pur ica ing nie Ush ate alin Cars ad 22 ries Darina The Dominican Republic hn = © The Dominican Republc (Replica Donineana) ‘ccupies the easter two thirds of Hispaniola, while Hatt occupies the western thir ofthe isand. (© Hispaniola les between the islands of Cuba ta the west and Puerto Rico te the ast and situated about 2,080 km southeast of Florida and 515 kn ‘north of Colombia and Venezuela, ‘© The northem shores ofthe Dominican Republic face the Atlantic Ocean while the southern shore is owceed bythe Caribbean Sea, {© Between the easter tp ofthe island and Puerto Rico rine a chan! called the Mona Passage {© The Dominican Republic hasan ara of 49,443 square x,S involvement inthe Dominican Republic started in 365, when the country’s clictator leader, Preside venaventura Baez, asked Ulysses S. Grant then ymmander ofthe Union armies during the American vil War, to make the country protectorate. In 1861, 3 previous president had restored the country tits onal status under Spain, in oder to have Spanish otection against attacks fom Haiti, Spain widrew troops in 1865. Grant agreed to Béea’s request, rly because ofthe Dominican Republic's strategie sition on major sea routes leading from both Europe the USA tothe Panama Canal, but the US Senate 1 not approve the testy. ve fora period of prosperity and political stability om 1882 to 1899 under the presidency ofthe lises Heureaux, the Dominican Republic was momically unstable and ruled by dictators. Jeureaux was assassinated in 1899 and the USA, ‘concerned ev it had occupied Cuba and Puerto Rico, also sme involved in Dominican affairs. The USA already the major market forthe republic's ducts as well as the main supplier ofits imports. firms had also started to invest more in the intry In 1905, when European ereditors began ing threats over unpaid Dominican debts, the 3A cook over the administration of the Dor ‘more with Caribbean USA took over governance ofthe entire country 7.8 The USA in the Caritbean 1776-2905 ‘As with Cuba and Puerto Rico, the Americans ult roads, schools, communications and sanitation facilities and other projects during the time they ‘oecupied the Dominican Republic (1916-24), Another legacy; however, was a modern military constabulary, trained by the US Marine Corps, which future Dominican dictators would use to hold on to power. In 1924, in elections overseen by US officals, Horacio Visquee was elected President, He was \competent and corrupt, and the Great Depression of 1929 to 1930 undermined the Dominican economy. In 1930, there was an uprising against Vasquez, He was ousted from ‘power, and Rafael Trujillo, who controlled the military, took over the country. Trjillo ruled 1930 to 1961 by holding rigged election Although a ruthless dictator, he maintained I stability, liquidated the national debt and modernized the country. Under his rule, the amount spent by government on the Dominican people rose from US$5.44 per person in 1990 10 USS47 per person in 1960, while exports rose from USS10 per head to US$57 per head However, he also stole and wasted publie funds, and in 1937 murdered thousand of Haitians who had fled their country. Despite being a corrupt dictator, Trujillo had the support of the US. ‘government, because the USA viewed the Dominican Republic as the country most likely to become a second Cuba, for inter When Trujillo was asasinated in 1961, the US government was worried tha his uccesor, juan Bosch, was backed by communists, Bosch was‘overthrown by a military coup and fighting broke ‘out between the rebels and Bosch’s supporters. In response, US President Lyndon Johnson sent about 23,000 marines to the Dominican Republic, supposedly to protect US civilians. Bosch’s faction was defeated because of US help for the rebels, and an anti-commanist lawyer named Joaquin Balaguer ‘was installed as president in an election in which only selected persons were allowed to vote. Balaguer stayed in power with five more rigged elections, was succeeded by other dictators, and the Dominican Republie did not become a democracy until the 1990s, Haiti xx — © Mal oft the Republic of Hat tatan Creole: Reibik Das; French: Republiqoe D'Ma. © Its the only independent Frenehspeak na republic in ‘the Armercas, occupying the wester tied of the island ‘of Hispaniola and several nearby email sands. © Itsstuated about 970 km south ease Florida Inthe antic Ocean and has a oa and area of 27,400 sare ko. © The country comprises two peninsulas separated bythe Gul of Gonaives Haiti is bordered on te north bythe ‘Atlantic Ocean onthe east by the Domscan Repu, And on the south and wes bythe Cartbean Sea © The capitals Port-au-Prince From the time Haiti became the Western hhemisphere's fist country ruled by Afticans, the USA established trading links. This relationship continued to varying degrees throughout the 19th ‘century and, by the 1890s, the Americans increased ther effort to get commercial and military footholds in Haiti. In 1905, the USA took Haiti's ‘custom departinent into receivership, as they had with the Dominican Republi. Before the Fist World War (1914-18), US business interests were firmly established in Haiti. By 1915, the US had taken military control of Haitian occupation that ‘was to last until 1934. The US government justified this action on the grounds of human intervention and under the Montoe Doctrine (Gee page 166). eats NORTH a ‘ALAN OCEAN mam 2 le deta eaive _Siande Coyne “eG : canacan sea 7a Haid ‘This may have been the ease, but protecting US Dusiness interests lishing base to protect the Panama Canal were also key US eoncems. Haiti signed a treaty with the USA establishing US financial and political domination, In 1918, in an lection supervised by the US Marine Corpsya new constitution was introduced that permitted foreigners to own land in Hai ‘The US officials running Haiti favoured the rmixed-race group. This made many black Haitians resent the US occupation, since they believed they were being deliberately excluded from public office. There were also daily conflicts between the US marines and Haitians, When the Marine Corps invoked a law from as far back 8 the regime of Henri Christophe to force Haitians into road gangs, there was a revolt. This wassoon suppressed. Although the Americans also built up the country’s infrastructure, as they had in the ‘other Caribbean countries they occupied, the Hritians felt that not enough was done, especially given the treatment they received at the hands of | the marines. A 1921 report from the US Senate found: ‘a failure of the Departments in Washington to appreciate the importance of selecting for service in Haiti, whether in civil or military capacities, men who were sympathetic tothe Hhatians and able to maintain cordial personal and official relations with them’,In October 1930 2 national assembly was elected and in August 1934 the US president, Franklin D. Roosevelt, withdrew the Marines. However, the US government continued to direet ec policies in Haiti uot 1947. Ten years later, Francs ‘Papa Doc’ Duvalier was elected President. It took him just seven years to set upa personal military force, called the Tontons Macoutes, and declate himself president for lif’. He followed in the worst tradition of oppression and corruption until he died in 1971, and was sueceeded by his son, Jean-Claude ‘Baby Doc’ Duvalier. In 1986, street riots forced the junior Duvalir to flee the country, which was then taken over by the army. In 1987, new constitution was introduced and, in December 1990, Haiti first free presidential elections were held I would dedicate this nation to the policy ofthe good neighbour \who resolutely respects himself and, because he does so, respects the rights of others.” the neighbour US President Franklin D, Roosevelt in is naga adress on the yo eign py 4 Mate 1033 Grenada ks © Sometimes referred tna the Ile of Spice, Grenada is ‘the mest southerly ofthe Windward Islands suated bout 360 km north ofthe coast of Venezu inthe faster Caribbean Sea © Grenada covers a ol and area of 345 square km, Inclaing the dependency ofthe southern Grenadines to te north-northeast. © The capita is St. Gearge’s On 25 October 1983, the USA invaded Grenada, The aim was supposedly to rescue Americans on the island after a military coup overtheew the government. Infact, the US government had been keeping a close eye on Grenada since 1979, when a socialist group led by Maurice Bishop had take over the government in a bloodless coup. Inthe 1.62 Tae USA inthe Caribbean 1776-1985 1983 coup, however, Bishop himself was killed by his former comrades, Before the 1979 coup Grenacla had been ruled for 16 years by Eric Gairy, with a briefinterude between 1962 and 1967 when he was out of office. airy was a trade unionist who headed the Grenada United Labour Party, Grenada became independent y ny became premier. In that time, Gairy had become controversial and ost popularity bevasine fli vilent tactics ‘opponents and poor economic management, as well as his unconventional ideas. He once petitioned the United Nations to set up an observatory in Grenada to search for spacecraf fram other planets. He set ‘upa paramilitary group called the Green Beasts and a secret police force, The Mongoose Gang, which intimidated, beat up and even murdered his opponents int hin By the 1970s, nearly halfof the adult population was out of work. org, srt oer Bich cose Seren Belmont ‘rane +s. oan, L 79 renaeee eee ee Oe eee eee [A coalition of political partes called the New Jewel Movement (NJM), headed by Bishop, contested the 1976 clecion and, while they did not win, they got nough support to become the opposition in parliament The 1979 coup was executed when Gainy wae out ofthe conntry It was the first rime an tected leader in the British Caribbean had been removed by 8 coup. Bishop and the NJM, which now formed the People’s Revolutionary Government (PRG), had ‘many prob ems to tackle. Apart fom the widespread ‘unemployment, infrastructure (roads, water and clectrcty supply) had! become run down, while the tutions ofthe state, rom the civil service to the Jjdiciary, had become corrupt or weak. The PRG ‘blamed this conditions not only on Gairy’s misrule, Dutalso on colonialism and the continued ownership “of eey sectors of the economy by foreign companies. Politically, Bishop and his colleagues were also ‘opposed te the British model of parliament, while economically they rejeted capitalism. The PRG thus followed a communist model to some extent, ‘which inevitably aroused the suspicions ofthe US governmert. The PRG did not reassure onlookers {Gave those who also believed in their lfist politics) ‘when they shut down all te private media in the ‘county, saying the owners were trying to undermine the government. The PRG replaced the British model with what they called a participatory democracy. which ordinary citizens were regulary consulted on policy issues, However, these consultations did not actualy inluence government policy [As with the usual communist model, the state became the driver ofthe economy in Grenada. Projects were implemented to estore the country’s infrastructure and improve agricultural production. Tourism was chosen asthe best means to generate economic growth inhe short term, and to this end the NJM. started building » new airport. The PRG policies seemed tobe success between 1979 and 1982, ‘when GDP per head grew from US$1,710 t0 USS1,826, while inflation was reduced from 20% t0 8%, However, most of this growth came from government-funded construction, rather than the productive and foreign-exchange earning sectors “The tourist plan never took off since, as you read in (Chapter 6, most tourists in the Caribbean come from the USA, and Americans would hardly have been attracted to an islanl where the overament favoured hist policies, Investors both foreign and local, ‘were eautions about investingin activities like ‘manufacturing, or much the same reason. In August 1983, the Bishop administration signed an agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) for financial assistance -an ironicnecessity, since the IMF was typically seen by lefts asthe symbol of ll. that was wrong with the capitalist and Western world. "There had always been interal rifis in the party and the IMP agreement exacerbated them. Two months later Bishop was arrested and executed by the army, which set up a Revolutionary Military Council. The heads of CARICOM met in Fort-of Spain in "Thinidad to discus the crisis, Four years before, when the NJM had taken over the country this regional body had issued astitement saying, ‘the affairs of Grenada are for the people ofthat territory to decide’. This was intended asa message to Britain and the USA not to interfere in Grenada. At he 1983 ‘meeting, it tured out that some Caribbean heads of government ~ those of Jamaica, Dominica and. Barbaclos~ had already told the Americans tht they \would support any action to rem government which had execued Bishop. vethe new |A week afer Bishop was killed, the US invaded. The Governor-General, Sir Paul Soon, was putin office by the Americans. A governing council was set up to run the country until an election could be held. The election, held in December 1984, was won by the [New National Paty headed by Herbert A. Bhize, who had led the governmentin the 1960s.’ The US niltary remained in the country until 1985. ‘The US invasion of Grenadaserved asa warning to other Caribbean leaders thatthe USA would not tolerate communism inthe Caribbean, even on a smal island, Only two Caribbean countries, Trinidad andl Tobago, and Guyana, opposed the US invasion. Fina out mere about the USA's Invasion of Grenada How ong it ast? What impact td ithave onthe Grenadin economy and society?Panama a... “© Panama is offclaly the Republi of Panama Cn Spans the Repbliea de Panama) © Iisa Central American court which occupies the ‘souttermast extension ofthe fethnus connecting with the northwestern corer of South Americ, covering 75,517 square km. tsa narom, curved sip of an, bordered on the ‘orth (along 1,160 kilometre caste) by the Cartbean Sea, the ear by Colombia onthe south (along a 1,690 klometee coasting) by te Pai ‘Ocean an onthe west by Costa Rea. © Thecaptal is Panama Cis, Panama became independent from Spain in 1821 after Simén Bolivar cleared New Granada (present ‘day Ecuador, Colombia, Panama and Venezuela) of ‘Spanish and loyalist forces, and voluntarily joined the Colombian union. Three attempss to secede from ‘Colombian the 1830s filed. This union was to affect US involvement in Panama in dhe 20¢h centry, US involvement in Panama realy started in 1849, however, with the California gold rush, Gold had lbeen discovered in that state, and thousands of people aff cna 7.2 The USA inthe Cartbean 1776-1985 headed west, hoping to strike it rich by becoming prospectors Since an overland route through the USA was very ficult, many ofthe prospectors ‘hose to go through Panama, which sparked offa ‘wave of prosperity in that country. The building of transcontinental rairoad was negotiated in 1845 with Colombia. The Bidlack-Mallarino Treaty of 1846, ‘whieh came outof this deal, granted the USA the vightto protect the line and re transit across the continent.'The Panama riba, built by US investors, ‘opened in 1855, anditalone was so profitable that an entve city, Colén, was bult because oft To ease transport further, construction ofthe Panam Canal was started Fin out more about the California slush, How long dit as? How i tact the ‘evelopment ofthe USA? ould the Panama Canal about 00,000 Baraadians wen to Pana to work on the Canal and about 20,000 af hem died uring its constuction.182 However the sulden prosperity ast usually does, brought socal unrest. Between 1850 and 1900, Panama hal 40 different administrations, 50 riots and 13 US interventions. The Americans wanted to Keep conteol ofthe toutes ftom Panama to California. In 1903, after the Colombian Senate put offratifyinga canal weay,the US government led by President Theodore Roosevelt organized and financed a aeparatint movement, recognising tho Panamanian insurrection on 6 November. n other words the USA effectively engineered a revolution onder to protect its strategic interests. This was main cause for distrust by Latin Americans of US foreign policy. Th Pr al rn a mcs In November, the USA signed the Hay-Bunau- ‘Varilla Treaty which gave the US government control over the Panama Canal Zone in perpetuity ‘Work on the canal began in 1907 andthe ‘completed canal was opened in 1914. This new ‘waterway changed US naval strategy, since US ‘warships could now move quickly between the Allanic and Pacific oceans, and this made it even ‘more important tothe USA that the Caribkean ‘remain politically stable so the USA would have no problems defending the canal ‘The new constitution gave the LISA the sight to send its army into Panama to quell disturbances. Political and economic untest brought military interventions by the USA in 1908, 1912, 1918 and 1935, Alier the Second World Was, riots became frequent and there were increasing cals forthe Americans toget out of Panama, Stuclene protests against the regime of Emesto de la Guardia (elected in 1956) and the USA led to the imposition ofa state of siege in 1958. More disorders oocurred ducing the firs four months of 1959, and a march om Independence Day into the Canal Zone to rise the Panamanian flag was stopped by the police. In 1968, the Panama National Guaed staged a successful coup under Colonel Omar Torrjos Herrera. In 1977, new treaty was signed, called the Panama Canal Treaty, which put the canal ‘under Panama's jurisdiction, while the US government retained responsibility forthe ‘operation of the canal until 1999, 1 1989, the USA invaded Panama and overthrew the country’s de facto ruler, General Mantel Antonio ‘Noriega, commander ofthe Panama Defence Forces Nonsga, who had headed Panama's secret paice, had once been a CIA operative. When the aray’s head resigned in September 1983 to pursueshe presidency, control of the guard and the country went to Noreiga, who quickly inreased the size of the army, closed every media organization that did not support him and created paramilitary regiments to attack or assassinate his opponents, Custer houses, post offices, the Colin Free Zone and ‘other statesrun enterprises were taken over by the guard. Noreiga was also linked to the Colomoian ‘deug-ralficking cartel. In early 1987, charges of drug-related activities, murdering of ponentsand rigging of eletons were made public aginst Noriega by the second-in-command of the National ‘Guard, Roberto Dia Herrera. In February 1988 in the US courts, Noriey was indicted on counts of drug wallcking and nekeeering. (On 11 March, US President Ronald Reagan ordered sanctions against Panama, including the elimination of preferential wade and the withholding of canal fees. On 15 December 1989, the Noriega-led assembly of the Panamanian government declarec war against the USA. The next day Panamanian soldiers killed an unarmed US marine officer dressed in civilian clothes. ‘The US government responded quickly. On 19 December, US President George Bush sent troops to Panama with orders to capture Noriega to face drug charges in the USA and to protect Americans in Panama, All resistance was quickly ‘overcome by the US troops. Noriega was given fuge in the Vatican embassy in Panama, where hhe remained for 10 days, finally surrendering to the US army om 3 January 1990, He was then transported to Miami, tried and jailed. rau up alist fsa and siferences between the varies intervention iste Impact of the USA on the Anglophone Caribbean Real this extract and answer the ‘questions that flow Extract from Selon, 8. A Briaher Sun. 1952 The nearest ida ever got to actual warare was one dar righ in 1942. An eremy submarine seakes into the harbour and baste ve ship t anchor. The expason shock the city. Mo one knew what it was about, Bu ero remained for 2 fw days, A compulsory Serge ill was never proclaimed because there were Sufiient volunteers Later that year the west coast ofthe istand was raed and entrances to the harbour closed to shiping 7 The USA in the Caribbean 1776-1985 + and salings by coastal steams shopped By this time 15,000 people formalyensaged in fod production had eter jie the forces or were working wth the Yanks. Foodstts were subsidized by the government to kep down prices [oa qutue fr read at «baker's In Geore Strata fit broke ut betsen two men And one ran fr the eas which a coconut vende had stuck nhs donkey cart. at lest tree marriages were hastenee because the als were pregnant. Tentative proaranmes of essential works were drawn Up in nipaton of unemployment when work an the bases eased, Amerean authorities agreed toa methodical release cf labour S035 not oct the econore, ‘system. The sugar crap dropped to alow lev! because ro one wated to wore in the fs agan, but shiping itfcultis prevented the export ofthe reduces quantity andthe yoputation was urged to consune more sua Stes were beng taken to introduce rationing. tiny island cles Patos midway bet the captl and ‘he maland of Venezuela was handed overt the Venezuelan Foreign Minster Hock garism increased? 8 Statetwo ways a which the war impacted Trina 1b Wy o you think thre was a queue for bread? Why was unemployment antiipated? Political effects Itmray not be coincidental then that the countries the USA intervened the most with, such as ait Cuba and the Dominican Republic, were the least democratic the Caribbean, Puerto Rico isn ‘exception t this rule, perhaps hecause the there was based mainly on economic ‘cooperation. Generally, the USA interfered the irmer Spanish and French colonies than the British ones. Whereas civic and political organizations had begun to emerge inthe British, French and Dutch colenies, the US engagements catalyzed the creation of authoritarian and militaristic leaders and groups. In the Dominican Republi, all senior officals were removed and replaced by US ilisary officers. In respect tothe Anglophone Caribbean, the US presence was most fly felt during the Second World War, when the USA got 99-year leases for umiliary bases in Trinidad, Guyana, Antigua,‘StLucia, Jamaica and the Bahamas. In Trinidad, the bases became a politica issue in the 1950s, reachinga stage where Prime Minister Erie Wiliams led a protest march in 1960 for the USA to ret the land to Trinidad and Tobago, Generally, US political interference in the Anglophone territories was confined tothe invasion of Grenada, though the USA takes the lead in helping the British government remove the leftist leader CChedai Jagan in Guyana between 1961 and 1964 By the 1980s, the US opposition to communism and its demonstrated willingness to use force or aid to koep the Caribbean out of the hands ofthe USSR seemed to bear fruit. Prime ministers in Jamaica, Barbados, t Lucia and Dominica al aligned. themselves with the USA, promising their citizens that sich a relationship would have economic Denefit forthe islands, However the 1980s was period of economic recession and Caribbean ‘countries had rising unemployment and inflation ‘istorcally emigration from the region to the ‘metropolitan countries has been one method through which Caribbean people have dealt with economic hardship, ‘The USA has long been 3 preferred destination, with New York city being especially popular for Afto-Caribbeans. However, US government policy ha always tried to restrict such immigrants, The Inumigration Act of 1924 was based on race, trying to exclude Asians and Caribbeans by imposing a quota system based on the numberof national alteady living in the USA. Only ‘when the USA entered the Second World War were restrictions temporarily ited since the country needed cheap labour at home as ts troops went to fight. The US Manpower Act allowed Caribbean people short-term contracts to work in the USA, but this was repealed in 1952. In this same year, the USA passed the Immigration and Nationality Act, which retained the same quota system asthe 1924 act. The 152 act was changed in 1965, replacing quotas with seven nev categorie fr allowing immigrants tothe ‘country, with family unification being dhe main criterion. In 1976, the US government added a preference for immigrants coming from countries in the Western hemisphere and also increased the ‘nuraber ofimmigrans allowed, By the 1980s, there ‘were entire Caribbean communities in major cites such as New York, Miami and Washington, as well as in New Jersey and Connecticut. Now that the Gold War has ended, the USA is ess ‘concemed about security in the Caribbean, but helping maintain plitial stability is stil standard USA policy. This shown by the US maintaining ‘embassies in five Anglophone islands the Bs Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, and Tinidad and ‘Tobago. Cuba is no longer considered a serious threat, Caribbean leaders, now that they are unable to.use the USSR as leverage for US aid are now paying more attention to increasing trade within the region and attracting foreign investment from other cconntries, especially China US concerns in the region now centre around drug tralicking, particularly involving coca made Caribbean governments pay more attention to clrug fighting initiatives than they otherwise might hhave. Since the 9/11 attacks in 2001, terrorism has become an additional security issue, wth US attention being particularly focused on Guyana, and “Trinidad and Tobago, because of the Muslim population: is has Such issues, as wellas others, have caused the USA, to attach poliey measures to loan, investment and trade agreements. Asa result, several Caribbean ‘countries have had w pass legislation to protect the environment and reduce official corruption. The USA has not abandoned the Monroe Doctrine, but the super-power now largely tries to pursue its “objectives through economic and politcal methods, rather than through military farce. LB the countries to whieh people rom the Caribbean have migrated. How di emigaton ‘rom the region alee these countries? Economic effects ‘The economy ofthe USA has long had a strong influence onthe fortunes ofthe Caribbean [nthe financial depreasion of the 1880s, sie filure of banks» New York andl Boston caused the collapse ofmany Jantations in the region.The wealthy elite ofthe xribbean, especially those from Jamaica, Barbados nd Trinidad, abandoned their homes and went co few York and Boston via the new steamships that led the seas between the USA and the sland Phe USA remains the main trading partner forall inglophone Caribhean countries. More than half Fall exports from the region go tothe USA and carly one dhied ofall ISA. Also, US companies are the main investors in he Anglophone region, although Trinidad and fobago, because of soil and gas reserves, gets the urgestamount of investment. Various Caribbean lands refine about 16% of the oil used by the USA nd nearly half of the oil imported by the USA asses throvgh the region. This brings extra evenui tothe island sna ane supe fn he Phe US market aso influences the underground conomy in the Caribbean, mostly in respect tile arcotics such as cocaine and marijuana. Since these rigs are growen al processed in South Ameria, nd there isa high demand inthe USA, the Caribbean Jands serve a ranshipment points. This trade fects the economy in several ways: hidden income, noney laundering and socal costs (through more xpenitare on security, through official corruption nd violent crime). However because of the money pent in the ‘war on terror and the occupation of raq,the USA has also reduced expenditure on nug-trallicking initiatives in the region. The Anglophone Caribbean has generally seen a ronwth in GDP over the past cecades, but the region mains vulnerable to shifts on the world market, ticularly in the prices of commodities (raw goods uch a il, bauxite, sugar and coffee). As te region so dependent on its trading links with the USA, lownturn in the US economy has negative effects on Il dhe Caribbean islands. Tourism is also very tuitive toa downturn in international economies. ultural effects hat are your fwvourite movies? What are your vourite songs? Chances are that, no matter what 7.02 The USA inthe Carbtean 176-1985 you answer, sone ofthe films or music originate inthe USA. Aswe mentioned atthe srt of this chapter, the USA isthe most eultrally dominant country in che Western world Ikis therefore a common complaint in the Anglophone Caribbean that people, especially young people, pay more atention to US cultare than their own, They watch US movies andlisten to US sic. Inthe Dominican Republic, the US sport of baseball hecame popular with top players from the Dominican Republic getting valuable places on US baseball teams, This dominance of, for example, films, music and sport from another culture is sometimes referred to as ‘cultural imperialism’ Even our diet has changed because of American influence. US fastfood franchises nowhave outlets in most Caribbean countries. Asa result, many Caribbean people now regularly eat burgers, pizza, hotdogs, submarine sandwiches and other dishes which were iregular fare just 30 years ago. One ‘consequence of this is that just asin the USA where two out of every three people are overweight, obesi is becoming a health problem in the Caribbean, "© List wo US fastfood etl in your county “© Wit the names of two US artists you are faniiar with, © ‘toe two ways a which you tatioveyou ar your fran are infeed by US culture However, even if this sso, it has not affected the ‘cultural output from the Caribbean, whieh ‘continues to produce reggae, calypso, soca, chutney and other indigenous musical forms. Jamaica produces 2 furl steady output of movies. Many of the region's artistes depend on the diaspora Caribbean communities in the USA and in other ‘parts ofthe world. This s not only because ofthe small economies within the region, hut also because some arts products, such as film, can only be profitable f there is an audience ofa certain size to patronize. In respect tofood, the existence of US 185fastfood outlets has not eradicated traditional dishes. On the contrary entrepreneurs in some Caribbean territories have used “creole and ethnic dishes (Indian and Arabian in particular) to compete with the US fist food franchises Additionally, you should note that culture, however, does not refer only to ereative products. I also encompasses values, attitudes and behaviour, Some Caribbean commentators have argued that Caribbean people have adopted the consumer lifestyle of Americans. The upper and middle classes, as well as higher-paid workers in the mineral industries, buy goods such as, televisions and vehicles, as do Americans. Apart fom this, most people from the Anglophone Caribbean do not have the same values as Americans. Caribbean people have more traditional values, whete religion is important, the family is viewed as the most important social REVISION QUESTIONS 1 Examine te impact ofthe USA on any one named (25 marks) 2 a State two aspects of Fulgncio Batista’s ‘instraton which te Cuban people di not ike. 4 marks) ‘List tree reasons why there was a evoluton in Cube inasss, omar) Relerence and recommended reading institution andl the average person obeys those in Authority. These are also the values of many ‘Americans in the southern parts of the USA, but generally US attitudes towards fail, religion and authority ate very different from those of Caribbean people (see more on this in Chapter 9). Americans often move out of the family hon as soon as they reach the age of 18, their constitution separates religion from sate ‘and their politcal system gives the president less power than prime ministers. List neways in which te USA influence vise in your euntyin © food © musle © fashion Discuss two ways in whieh Fidel Case attempted to Improve the ives of Cubans. marks) 4 Explain tree reasons forthe cant bxtween Cuba andthe USA up to 1962, (omarks) (otal = 25 marks) Doon. Th US the Carita, Londan: Colin Carbean, 1988. MaingA.R. The United Statrand th Crean, ern: Maca rea 1904 SchonS. Brigter Sa, Hoe: Longman, 1982 Shephod, Van Becls H. Fado Wn: Caidbeanemancisations, timc end mationhod, Cvige: Cab Univraty re, 206