Lev Vygotsky

Sociocultural theory was created by Lev Vygotsky as a response to Behaviorism. The main idea of
the theory is that the ways people interact with others and the culture they live in shape their
mental abilities. Vygotsky believed that parents, relatives, peers and society all have an important
role in forming higher levels of functioning. Sociocultural theory, as stated by Cole, John-Steiner,
Scribner, and Souberman, is the belief that "every function in the child's cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level." This means that the skills
children learn first are related to interactions with others and they then take that information and
use it within themselves.

Lev Vygotsky

Lev Vygotsky was born in 1896 in Russia. He graduated from Moscow University in 1917 and
started his career as a psychologist during the Russian Revolution. He
taught literature and psychology for seven years. Vygotsky went against the leading scientists of
his time by suggesting that scientific psychology should not ignore the role of consciousness. Most
scientists at the time disagreed with his ideas, however, he was still offered a job at the Institute of
Psychology in Moscow. There he worked on his new ideas of psychology.

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On June 11, 1934, Vygotsky died from an illness. Although his work did get some attention during
his lifetime, it was not until the 1960s when Joseph Stalin died and politics did not have a large
role in academics, that his views were widely known in Russia. Vygotsky's ideas did not gain fame
in the United States until around twenty years later.

Sociocultural theory

The main desire of Vygotsky was to design a new way to look at and come up with a solution to
educational and social problems of the time. He believed other factors, besides biological instincts,
caused humans to act the way they do. He was the first modern psychologist to suggest a way in
which culture plays a part in each person's nature. Vygotsky believed the inclusion of sign systems
from a child's culture changes behavior and connects early and later forms of individual
development. Vygotsky was a strong supporter of the idea that what children learned from other
people in their own culture helped them develop. He considers human thought processes to be
based on social interactions and language. Three key areas of sociocultural theory are the zone of
proximal development, private speech and make-believe play.

Psychological Tools

Vygotsky (1981) stated that humans “master themselves from the outside through psychological
tools” (pg. 141).Psychological tools are language, writing styles, counting system and conventional
signs (Miller, 2016). Psychological tools are also inclusive of learning strategies and modes of
attending and memorization that is taught in an individual’s school. Such tools are utilized to guide
individual’s thoughts and behaviors. The culture of which a person is embedded dictates which
tools, social interactions and skills are needed. What one culture values may differ from another,
thus the tools provided reflect specific cultural values and needs. For example, western society
places importance on education and technology, as these are needed to be self-sufficient in that
part of the world. Other societies, such as more indigenous types, may emphasis the importance
of hunting/gathering type behaviors. As one can see, psychological tools indigenous societies
utilizes versus the ones in which western societies utilize would differ. Children use their
psychological tools to cognitively transform their social experiences.

Zone of proximal development

Vygotsky felt learning in children should be related to their developmental level. This caused him
to argue that learning takes place within a zone of proximal development (ZPD), which is made up
of functions that are not yet fully formed, but are on the way to being established.

The ZPD draws attention to three important issues. First, it focuses attention on children's mental
functions that are currently going on, but are not yet complete. Second, it recognized help from
peers or adults as a method of learning. Third, it helped to separate between actual and potential
learning ability. The actual ability of a child is what they can do without any help from others,
while potential learning ability is when a child needs help in order to complete a task. Three
assumptions are often discussed in relation to the ZPD. They include generality assumption,
assistance assumption and potential assumption.

 Generality assumption is the idea that a child can finish some tasks alone, but is able to do
more with the help of someone else.

 Assistance assumption shows how someone helping a child should interact with them.

 Potential assumption centers around the ability and readiness of a child to learn.

The ZPD is mainly used for two types of cognitive development analysis. One reason ZPD is used is
to pick out the functions needed for learning as a child ages. The second test done by ZPD is to
figure out where the child is at the moment, mentally, in relation to where they are supposed to
be or where they will be as they grow.

Scaffolding

In the 1970s, Bruner, Wood, and Ross created the term "scaffolding" to add to sociocultural
theory. Scaffolding describes the interaction between a child and an adult who helps them finish a
task that they could not do alone. Scaffolding relates to Vygotsky's sociocultural theory because it
recognizes the role of social interaction on learning and how other people affect the development
of children. It involves changing the way a more skilled person helps a child in doing a task based
on their available learning ability. Just like physical scaffolding is used to support buildings as they
are being made, scaffolding in sociocultural theory helps support a child as their mental processes
develop.
Private speech

Private speech takes place when children talk to themselves. Vygotsky saw this as the starting
point for all mental developments. According to Lantolf, Vygotsky believed "it is the process of
privatizing speech that higher forms of consciousness arise on the inner plane and in this way our
biological capacities are organized into a culturally mediated mind."

In simpler terms, Vygotsky thought that it was by using private speech that a child's biological
instincts were made into culturally acceptable ways of acting. He suggested that children spoke to
themselves as a way of guiding themselves through an action. Vygotsky suggested that private
speech changes as children age, beginning as external (out loud) speech when they are younger
but then becoming more internal (within themselves) as they age. Through relationships with
more capable people, children get information and use that understanding in their private speech.
Vygotsky thought private speech showed how children use the support given to them by others to
assist their own way of thinking and how they act.

Make-believe play

Vygotsky saw make-believe play as an important part of child development. It is one of the main
ways of developing during the preschool years. Children use make-believe play to test multiple
skills and achieve important cultural abilities. Vygotsky suggested that as children take part in
made up situations they learn how to act in agreement with their internal ideas, not just external
ideas.

During play children put themselves into the adult roles of their culture and practice how they will
act in the future. Play takes place before development so children can start to gain the motivation,
abilities and attitudes needed for social participation, which can be done only with the help of
peers and adults. Make-believe play allows children to practice how they would act in the real
world. It provides them with a way to gain the basic skills needed to function in their society
before they become adults. However, learning these roles and skills is only done with help from
others in their culture.

Vygotsky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Teaching can be one of the most rewarding careers in the world because teachers have the
important role of investing in the development of the next generation who will be impacting the
world in the future. It’s a significant responsibility that involves many different skills to be
successful. Yet it can also be one of the most challenging careers that anyone can pursue. The
reason is that child development is a complicated process, and there are many theories about how
it occurs best.

Cognitive development is one of the most important components of cognitive development. One
of the primary psychologists in the area of cognitive development was a man named Lev Vygotsky.
Understanding Vygotsky’s theories on cognitive development can help educators to understand
how children’s brains develop and develop strategies for aiding in a child’s cognitive development.
Lev Vygostky

Lev Vygotsky made some of the most significant contributions to theories of child development,
especially in the area of cognitive development. Vygotsky was a Russian psychologist who was
born on November 17, 1896 in Orsha, a part of what was once known as the Russian Empire.

Vygostky’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development centered on the ideas that social interaction and
imaginative play are large contributors to the process of cognitive development in children. He
believed that the social interactions that children engaged in helped them to both discover and
create meaning from the things that they discover. Specifically, he believed that some of the most
important learning a child could experience was in the social interactions they had with a skilled
tutor that is often an adult, such as a parent or teacher. The child will observe the behaviors of the
tutor as well as follow the verbal instructions the tutor provides. The child will then emulate what
they observe in their tutor.

The child tries to understand what they observe and the instructions they receive by copying and
internalizing, while learning to apply them to their own lives. Vygotsky called this collaborative or
cooperative dialogue. He called the teacher or tutor in this role the “more knowledgeable other.”
While this role typically involves adults, as pointed out above, such as teachers, parents, or
coaches, it can also involve social interactions with other children. The important part of the role is
that it is fulfilled by someone from which the child can learn, a more knowledgeable other.

Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding

Vygotsky also proposed something called the “zone of proximal development” and the idea of
“scaffolding” in a child’s development. The way this works is by recognizing that there are some
things a child cannot do independently, but they would be able to do with the assistance of
someone else. For example, a child may be developing the ability to make different sounds, but
cannot yet talk. With assistance, or scaffolding, from an adult who begins showing them pictures
and repeating the names of the pictures, the child will soon begin to develop words and start
communicating independently without help. The scaffolding helped them to develop the skills
necessary to communicate on their own.

Language Development

Vygotsky was particularly interested in the role of language in cognitive development. Given that
language is vital to human interactions, he believed that language was the most important tool
that human could utilize. Language, especially in the realm of collaborative dialogue, is the way
the more knowledgeable other communications important information to a child. Vygotsky
believed that there are three forms of language, as outlined below. .
Social Development Theory (Lev Vygotsky)

Overview

The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978) states: “Every function in the
child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual
level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological). This
applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts. All the
higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals.” (p57).

A second aspect of Vygotsky’s theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development
depends upon the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD): a level of development attained when
children engage in social behavior. Full development of the ZPD depends upon full social
interaction. The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration
exceeds what can be attained alone.

Vygotsky’s theory was an attempt to explain consciousness as the end product of socialization. For
example, in the learning of language, our first utterances with peers or adults are for the purpose
of communication but once mastered they become internalized and allow “inner speech”.

Vygotsky’s theory is complementary to Bandura’s work on social learning and a key component

of situated learning theory as well. Because Vygotsky’s focus was on cognitive development, it is
interesting to compare his views with those a constructivist (Bruner) and a genetic
epistemologist(Piaget).
Vygotsky's Career and Theories

Vygotsky was a prolific writer, publishing six books on psychology topics over a ten-year period.
His interests were diverse but often centered on issues of child development and education. He
also explored the psychology of art and language development.

The Zone of Proximal Development

According to Vygotsky, the zone of proximal development is "[The] distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration
with more capable peers." (Lev Vygotsky, Mind in Society, 1978).

The "zone" is the gap between what a child knows and what they do not yet know.

Acquiring the missing information requires skills that a child does not yet possess or cannot do
independently, but which they can do with the help of a more knowledgeable other.

Parents and teachers can foster learning by providing educational opportunities that lie within a
child's zone of proximal development. Kids can also learn a great deal from their peers. Teachers
can foster this process by pairing less skilled children with more knowledgeable classmates.

 How Vygotsky Defined the Zone of Proximal Development

The More Knowledgeable Other

Vygotsky conceived the more knowledgeable other as a person who has greater knowledge and
skills than the learner. In many cases, this individual is an adult such as a parent or teacher.

Kids also learn a great deal from their interactions with their peers. Children often pay more
attention to what friends and classmates know and are doing then they do to the adults in their
life.

No matter who serves as the more knowledgeable other, the key is that they provide the needed
social instruction within the zone of proximal development (when the learner is sensitive to
guidance).

Children can observe and imitate (or even receive) guided instruction to acquire new knowledge
and skills.

Sociocultural Theory

Lev Vygotsky also suggested that human development results from a dynamic interaction between
individuals and society. Through this interaction, children learn gradually and continuously from
parents and teachers.

However, this learning varies from one culture to the next. It's important to note that Vygotsky's
theory emphasizes the dynamic nature of this interaction. Society does not just impact people;
people also affect their society.

Contributions to Psychology
Vygotsky's life was tragically cut short on June 11, 1934, when he died of tuberculosis at the age of
37. Still, Vygotsky is considered a formative thinker in psychology and much of his work is still
being discovered and explored today.

While he was a contemporary of Skinner, Pavlov, Freud, and Piaget, Vygotsky's work never

attained their level of eminence during his lifetime.

Part of this was because the Communist Party often criticized Vygotsky's work in Russia, making
his writings were largely inaccessible to the Western world. His premature death at age 37 also
contributed to his obscurity.

Despite this, Vygotsky's work has continued to grow in influence since his death— particularly in
the fields of developmental and educational psychology.

It wasn't until the 1970s that Vygotsky's theories became known in the West as new concepts and
ideas were introduced in the fields of educational and developmental psychology.

Since then, Vygotsky's works have been translated and have become very influential, particularly
in the area of education.

In a ranking of eminent psychologists, Vygotsky was identified as the 83rd most influential
psychologist during the 20th century.1