Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101447

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Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/seta

Original article
Comparative study of atmospheric pressure DC, RF, and microwave thermal
plasma torches for waste to energy applications
Hossam A. Gabbar a, b,*, Sharif Abu Darda a, Vahid Damideh a, Isaac Hassen a,
Mohamed Aboughaly a, Davide Lisi c
a
Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science, UOIT, Oshawa ON L1G 0C5, Canada
b
Faculty of Engineering, UOIT University, Oshawa ON L1G 0C5, Canada
c
Energy Department, Polytechnic University of Turin, 10129 Turin, Italy

A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Plasma torch Enhancement in living standards leads the world towards exponentially increasing population in urban areas,
Waste to energy which causes a massive increase in municipal solid waste (MSW) production. It is proven that plasma technol-
Waste treatment ogies are beneficial for recycling materials and generating energy from various kinds of solid wastes. So, there is
DC/RF/microwave plasma torch a high demand for potentially sustainable, environment and user-friendly, cost-effective, and highly efficient
Municipal solid waste thermal plasma-based waste-to-energy facilities. Three different types of advanced thermal plasma technologies,
such as atmospheric DC, RF, and Microwave plasma torches, are considered for waste treatment application at
small and industrial scales. A comparative study was carried out for all three plasma torches for waste to energy
and waste treatment applications.
Furthermore, simulation modeling and experimental results of a lab-scale DC non-transferred and RF thermal
plasma torch were presented. The results show that DC and RF plasma torches are economical and advantageous
for large-scale waste treatment and energy output. At the same time, small-scale waste treatment could incor-
porate MW plasma torch. Therefore, technological advancement, minimization of environmental effects, and
process economics are the most critical parameters for improving plasma-based waste treatment plant’s feasi-
bility and sustainability.

262 megatons of MSW in the same year [2]. It is imperative to note

Introduction
In the last century, most people have seen a significant increase in the
standard of life regarding material and service access. Pursuing a better
quality of life has led people to move from rural areas to urban cities; this
fact, coupled with the increase in population, has meant growth in en-
ergy demand and municipal solid waste (MSW) production. A potential
solution to these two existential problems can be the production of en-
ergy. Significant researches are currently being devoted to achieving
this goal. These researchers are trying to develop a technological solu-
tion that is economically attractive enough to involve many local, fed-
eral, government, and private investors. In addition to the economic
aspect, the waste-to-energy solutions also need to be environmentally
and socially responsible for a wide range of public acceptance. Around
the world, the MSW generation is doubled in the last 40 years, and it is
also increasing constantly. For example, European Union generated 272
megatons of waste in 2016 [1], and United States has generated almost
that the world generates nearly 2100 megatons of municipal solid
waste yearly. Because of rapid population formation and increasing
living standards accompanied by more industrialization, solid waste
produc- tion is predicted to increase by 3.4 billion tons by 2050 [3].
Most countries worldwide use underground waste disposal methods,
which leads to massive pollution in nature, soil, water and increases
harmful gas emissions such as greenhouse gases that lead to climate
change and make a significant loss on recyclable materials [4,5]. The
most efficient and applicable method for solid waste treatment and
waste to energy application is the thermal waste processing method. The
thermal waste processing method includes plasma, pyrolysis,
gasification, and incin- eration [7–11]. Of all the thermal waste
processing methods, thermal plasma is the only thermal technology
applicable in treating all types of waste, specially MSW. Using thermal
plasma in MSW waste processing generates high-value syngases of a
substantial amount, which can be used to generate electricity.
Additionally, due to the high-temperature profile of thermal plasma,

* Corresponding author at: Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science, UOIT, Oshawa ON L1G 0C5, Canada.
E-mail address: hossam.gabbar@uoit.ca (H.A. Gabbar).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2021.101447
Received 30 November 2020; Received in revised form 29 June 2021; Accepted 30 June 2021
Available online 7 July 2021
2213-1388/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 H.A. Gabbar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101447

Notations R Heat loss due to radiation

r, z Te, Ta TP Two-axis, radial and axial(mm)
Cp h J
Specific heat at constant pressure (kgK Ts The temperature of electron and heavy particle(eV)
)
hT je k Plasma temperature(K)
J)
Enthalpy( kg
Ke, Ka Solid waste temperature(K)
W
Heat transfer coefficient()
pP m2 K u, v Radial and axial velocity components m s
Current density( mA2) ( /)
qA qp QRad xi The ionization energy of plasma gas(eV)
Boltzmann’s constant(JK) ρ Density (mkg3 )
Thermal conductivity of electron and heavy particle( W ) λ W
mK Thermal Conductivity(mK)
Pressure(Pa) Work function(eV)
∅w Φ
Heating power(W) σ Thermal diffusion coefficient( m2
s
)
Heat flux( W ) μ
m2 Electrical conductivity(S m)
Heat transfer(W) /
Viscosity(Pa•s)
Radiation transfer(W)

depending on the type of waste and the treatment environment, thermal

plasma induces pyrolysis of biomass waste, can generate biochar,
vitrification of metal waste, and plastic waste [7,12]. Thermal plasmas
are partially ionized gases characterized by their Local Thermodynamic
Equilibrium (LTE) condition where electrons, ions, heavy particles, or
molecules all have the same temperature [13,14]. The number of ther-
mal plasma-based waste to energy and waste treatment facilities is
growing very fast. Table 1 shows the currently worldwide operational
DC plasma torch facilities for waste treatment [6]
Beyond the applicability of thermal plasma technology to all types of
waste, it also has other advantages due to its unique characteristics
[11,15–17]: 1. Thermal plasma can produce the required high temper-
ature with an electric power supply [18] for waste treatment with high
energy densities. 2. Temperature profiles of plasma torches are inde-
pendent of waste types, as the plasma generated temperature is well
above the melting point of any metals present in the waste[19]. 3.
Plasma-based waste treatment can produce more commercial co-
products. 4. Thermal plasma has high destruction efficiency for haz-
ardous chemical compounds. 5. Controlling the processing environment
is accessible for thermal plasmas. 6. Thermal plasma’s environmental
compatibility and energy recovery are considerable. While general
incineration is an oXidizing process where the end products, in the
presence of oXygen, results in increased CO2 and the generation of NOX
SOX. Plasma incineration inhibits NOX SOX generation because it is a
reduction process [7,20–22]. The plasma gasification process of waste in
an oXygen-starved environment will produce CO and H2 as syngas,
which can undergo further oXidation as fuel in addition to passing them
through turbines for electricity generation. Plasma treatment of radio-
active waste will also reduce the risk of toXic ash contaminating the
environment because, after high-temperature treatment, the end prod-
uct is mostly vitrified solid. This form of vitrified solid radioactive waste
is also suitable for long-term storage and disposal methods available
[23]. Besides, plasma treatment of municipal solid waste can convert the
inorganic waste into architectural tiles and construction bricks and the
organic waste into synthesis gas (a miX of H2 and CO) [24,25]. Instead of
direct waste contamination to the environment and material loss, ther- mal
plasma treatment of wastes generate energy from waste and recycles the
waste product into practical applications. Therefore, potentially
sustainable, environmental and user-friendly, cost-effective, and highly
efficient thermal plasma-based waste to energy facilities are highly
demanded today. Thermal plasma treatment of waste needs a concen-
trated plasma beam of a torch for efficient processing because, the
maximum temperature available for processing is inside and close to the
plasma beam itself. Although there are other thermal plasmas like
dielectric barrier discharge or corona discharge [26], the only ways of
generating thermal plasma as torches are direct current (DC), radio
frequency inductively coupled plasma (RF-ICP), and microwave sources
[27]. DC and RF plasmas are well-established methods for generating both
laboratory and industrial-scale thermal plasma torches. Addition- ally, MW
plasma torch can be designed on a laboratory scale using a household
standard microwave generator. This paper presents a comparative study of
three different types of advanced thermal plasma technologies:
atmospheric DC arc, Radiofrequency (RF), and Microwave (MW) plasma
torches for waste treatment application. Furthermore, to predict an
optimum operation mode of non-transferred DC and RF plasma torches,
mathematical modeling and simulations are conducted
through COMSOL Multi-physics commercial software. Table 2 below
provides a summary of applications of three different plasma torches.
A global acceptance of using thermal plasma torches for waste to
energy application, the system should consider the following issues like
limiting toXic exhaustion to air and water and ensuring quality, distur-
bance of terrestrial habitat, human health, greenhouse gas emission,
impacts on the local community, land contamination and visual irrita-
tion [28]. This study shows the applicability of thermal plasma
torches for waste to energy applications. Father study of limiting the
toXic exhaustion, fuel extraction, and purification, system
optimization was considered part of future analysis, currently in
progress.

Table 1 DC arc plasma torches

Currently operational DC plasma torch-based waste treatment facilities.
# Company Production power MW Country In a direct current (DC) plasma torch, two electrodes, generally made
1 Advance plasma power 100 Belgium
from materials with high electric conductivity, e.g., copper, tungsten,
2 CHO-Power 37.5 UK graphite, molybdenum, and silver, form an electric arc between them
3 Green power system 35 USA when a potential difference is applied. Also, a continual input of high
4 Sunbay energy Corp. 26 Canada flow rates carrier gas such as oXygen, nitrogen, argon, helium, air, or
5 EnviroParks Limited 20 UK
hydrogen is supplied between the electrodes. Due to the potential dif-
6 Advanced plasma power 17 UK
7 Advanced plasma power 16.3 UK ference in the electrodes, a gas breakdown occurs in the electrodes
8 Maharashtra Enviro Power 1.6 India gap that just formed an electric arc leads to a thermal plasma formation
9 Maharashtra Enviro Power 1.6 India and plasma jet output. The continuous flow of current from cathode to
10 Plasco Energy Group 1 (per ton) Canada anode helps the continual building of electric arc, which then, with the
flow of gas between the cathode and anode, forms a plasma arc in

2
H.A. Gabbar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101447
DC

Table 2 for waste treatment, the waste material acts as one of the electrodes, and
a summary of DC/RF/MW plasma torches applications, advantages, and it is exposed to the arc plasma directly [18]. The maximum plasma
disadvantages. temperature of the transferred arc plasma torches is usually in the range
of 12,000–20,000 K, which depends on the power of the arc between the
electrodes, properties of the gas, and cooling methods. Transferred
DC Plasma Torch RF Plasma Torch MW Plasma
Torch arc

Applications Medical waste, raw wood, tire Spirulina algae, configuration has two unique features, which are [16]:
Wood, MSW, Carpet powder, rice Polyethylene,
waste, Solid waste, straw, Glycerol • A relatively lower gas flow rate is required to achieve sustainable
Used old tires, polypropylene,
Polypropylene (PP), plasma flame, leading to a considerable reduction in working gas
heavy oils
Agricultural consumption.
residue, Granulated • The ability to use multi-rod electrodes leads to:
metal powder, C
(a) The arc formed between cathodes and anodes indirectly heats the
coating from CH 4,
waste material
Best use power Vanadium ore (b) Series of arcs are formed between the electrodes and the waste
Up to Megawatts Up to 100 kW Up to 10 kW
range material
Advantages High temperature, Electrodeless, No Electrodeless, No
High efficiency, and Impurity, Impurity, near to However, in non-transferred arc thermal plasma torches, a plasma jet
they are insensitive 100% power
to the variations in is used to treat and process waste [19,20]. In water-cooled non-trans-
matching
processing ferred arc thermal plasma torches, maximum plasma jet temperature
conditions ranges between 10,000–14,000 K. It depends on the type of gas and
Disadvantages Impurity because of Low efficiency, Low efficiency electric power and geometry of the torch [16]. In this kind of plasma
electrodes erosion difficulty in torches, the plasma decays outside the torch, resulting in a significant
impedance temperature gradient. Therefore, waste materials during treatment are

EXpected LCC matching

unit cost (1 3000 USD 15,000 USD 3000 USD subjected to a temperature significantly lower than the maximum
kW) temperature.
In the transferred arc plasma torch, the electric current is responsible
EXpected One year One year One year
for a significant heat fluX fraction, and therefore, these torches are
timeline for
lab-scale suitable where high heat fluX and high total heat flow are needed. The
development heat fluX to the anode is given by Eq. (1).
EXpected Three years Three years Three years k Φ dTa dTe
timeline for qA = je∅w + (2 + )jeTe — Ka — Ke + ji(xi — ∅w) + QRad (1)
industrial e σ dz dz
scale-up
development where je is the current density, ∅w the work function of the anode ma-
terial, σ the electrical conductivity, Φ the thermal diffusion coefficient, k
is Boltzmann’s constant, e the electronic charge, Te and Ta are the
transferred plasma or plasma jet in case of DC non-transferred plasma.
21 electron and heavy particle temperatures, respectively, Ke and Ka the
The electron density of the DC arc plasma is ranging between 10 and electron and heavy particle thermal conductivities, respectively, xi the
24 —3
10 m . The two types of DC arc plasma torches: Transferred and non- ionization energy of the plasma gas and QRad is the radiation transfer.
transferred arc, are shown in Fig. 1. In an arc transferred In
configuration

3
H.A. Gabbar et al.
Fig. 1. Schematic of DC transferred arc (left) and non-transferred arc (right) plasma torches.
Eq. (1), the four heat contributing terms are conduction, convection,
electron transmission to the anode, and radiation. Around 50% to 85%
of the heat transfer comes from the first two terms [16,21,22,29,30].
On the other hand, in the non-transferred DC plasma torch, the
amount of heat dissipated into the waste material can be obtained by
using the convective heat transfer equation as mentioned below:
qp = hT (TP — TS) + QRad
The heat transfer coefficient is strongly affected by plasma fluid
dynamics properties such as thermal conductivity, Reynolds number,
and Prandtl number [31,32]. It needs to be mentioned that in the
thermal boundaries, gas properties vary enormously. Then, for a more
accurate estimation of the thermal conductivity as mentioned in Eq. (3),
an average integral quantity must be considered:
∫TP
K(T)d(T)
K= TS
TP — Ts
Rod cathodes with thermionic emission characteristics or water-
cooled cathodes can be applied for both transferred and non-
transferred arc configurations. Electrode erosion is the most critical
disadvantage of the DC Arc plasma torches. Research on materials with
advanced engineering design to develop specific electrodes that utilize
the magnetic field between them to make moveable arcs led to mini-
mizing electrode erosion and increased its lifetime to more than a
thousand hours for air used plasma gas thermal plasma torches. Elec-
trode’s lifetime can even increase by using argon as a carrier gas
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101447
applicable for gasification and pyrolysis. Since argon’s specific heat and
thermal conductivity is low compared to air and other plasma working
gases, torches that use argon have lower output power. Consequently,
torches that utilize argon have low energy transfer rates [16]. Hence,
pure argon gas is not commonly used for waste-to-energy applications
on an industrial scale.
(2)
RF inductive coupled plasma torches (RFICPT)
An RF inductive coupled plasma torch (ICPT) is a thermal plasma
torch where the energy is directed to a suitable gas. The energy is pro-
vided in the form of an electric current (eddy current) created by elec-
tromagnetic induction (a time-varying magnetic field) with a
radiofrequency of an alternating electric current or voltage. RF- ICP can
be explained similarly as in induction heating of metal. Where in in-
(3) duction heating, an oscillating electromagnetic field from a solenoid coil
provides energy through joule heating. In RF-ICP, the main difference to
induction heating is that the load is a conducting plasma gas. Typical RF
signal used for plasma ranges between 27 and 40 MHz [33–36]. The gas
used here is usually argon gas, and sometimes helium and nitrogen are
used. The purity of the gas must be ensured because any impurity in the
gas will quench the torch. Argon gas is commonly used to start plasma
because of its low heat capacity at an ionizing temperature [37]. How-
ever, argon, due to its relatively high density, is also a cheap thermal
conductive gas.
For this reason, less dense gas like hydrogen, helium, or nitrogen is
often used in plasma torches to push the plasma jet in the axial direction
4
H.A. Gabbar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101447

Fig. 2. Schematic of a typical RF inductively coupled plasma torch.

[38]. The ICP torch consists of two to three concentric quartz glass tubes The inner tube is used for carrier gas flow, introducing particles to be
[39]. The induction coil is placed at the end of the quartz tubes, as treated with plasma. ICPTs are used in applications where purity is
shown in Fig. 2. essential, hence their popularity in mass spectroscopy. ICPTs treat waste
As presented in Fig. 2, argon is supplied outside the central quartz such as tire powder, rice straw, polypropylene, heavy oils, and MSW with
tube and inside the middle quartz tube. The torch is turned on by raw wood. Furthermore, RF plasma torch has unique industrial
providing a high-power RF wave through the induction coil, which applications such as powder spheroidization, nano-sized powder syn-
creates an intense, rapidly oscillating electromagnetic field inside the thesis, and induction plasma spraying. Their purity is due to the absence of
coil. The RF signal is generated using an RF power supply with a suitable electrodes, which in the case of DC plasma torches are present, and their
matching network like an efficient high-power radio transmitter [40]. A erosion results in metallic vapor contaminants. One advantage of ICPTs for
spark is produced using a tesla coil, graphite insertion, or two electrodes waste treatment application is introducing waste to be treated
placed inside the gas distributor’s head to introduce the plasma. The
spark created by the tesla coil or the other methods initiates argon’s
ionization process, resulting in a gas discharge. Fluctuating electro-
magnetic waves created from inductive RF coil can dissipate enough
energy to the ionized gas, resulting in further ionization of argon atoms
in inelastic collisions excitation. Due to the high-frequency signal
through the induction coil, a current (eddy current) is generated be-
tween the coil perpendicular to the argon flow and the torch. The eddy
current’s positive ions and electrons collide with excited argon atoms to
produce more ionization in the argon atoms and create a significant
temperature rise inside the tube. Within 2 ms, a steady state is created
16
with a high electron density typically in the range between 4 × 10 – 11
16 3
× 10 / m in atmospheric pressure [41], leading to a well-defined
plasma flame in the gas outlet (tube exit). The plasma temperature
ranges between 6000 K and 10000 K [42–44].
A typical RF plasma torch has three dielectric (usual quartz in
laboratory-scale), inner tubes, central and outer tubes. Sheath gas flows
between the outer and central tubes; its primary role is cooling the outer
tube. Central gas, also called plasma forming gas, is introduced in the
central tube with a swirl flow for plasma stabilization.

5
H.A. Gabbar et al.
through the inner tube (carrier gas line), exposing the waste directly to
the plasma’s core. However, the strict relation between power and gas
flow rate makes it difficult to use ICPTs for applications where contin-
uous gas flow rate changes are required. Additionally, ICPTs have lower
power efficiency than DC plasma torches [45,46].
Microwave plasma torches
High-frequency electromagnetic waves commonly produce micro-
wave plasmas. In this kind of plasma torches, the microwave
frequency is between ~ 300 MHz to ~ 10 GHz. There are different types
of Mi- crowave inductively coupled plasmas that can be categorized into
sur- face wave discharges (SWD), cavity induced plasmas (CIP), electron
cyclotron resonance (ECR), and free expanding atmospheric plasmas
(FEAP).
Microwave plasma torches can operate from a few Watts to a few
hundred kilowatts. Furthermore, they can operate in a wide range of gas
pressure, from 1 mTorr atmospheric pressure [47]. A simplified design
feature of a microwave inductively coupled plasma torch suitable for
atmospheric pressure is presented in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3. Schematic of an atmospheric pressure microwave inductively coupled plasma torch.
working gas in microwave plasma is highly dissociated and chemically
very reactive. The microwave plasma discharge will be induced without
any need for electrodes, reducing contaminants and ion sputtering of the
electrode, ensuring a long service interval. A 1000 W MICAP device has
been successfully used for Hydrogen production × [49]. A 2 kW 2.45 GHz
MICAP torch was applied for plasma gasification to produce Hydrogen
and syngas [50]. Furthermore, polyethylene gasification has been
studied using steam plasma generated by a 600 W, 2.45 GHz microwave
plasma jet.
= =
Plasma torch simulation using COMSOL multiphysics
Non-transferred DC plasma torch
To carry out the non-transferred DC plasma torch simulation,
“combined inductive/DC discharge” under the plasma module is used in
the COMSOL Multiphysics simulation tool. This module contains all the
necessary physics such as electric field, magnetic field, heat transfer in
fluid, laminar flow required for the simulation. The cathode, gas inlet,
and anode regions have a 10, 6, and 10 mm radius. Also, the cathode tip
has an arc radius of 2 mm. Plasma working gas is argon at mass flow
6
Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101447
In the RF ICP torches, RF power must be coupled with plasma to
dissipate its RF energy into the plasma, while coupling efficiency for RF
plasma torches is lower than 40%. Also, RF coupling efficiency can be
dramatically decreased, whereas RF power is higher than 100 kW. In
MW plasma, the power coupling efficiency can achieve up to 85% with
various quartz tube thickness [48]. Furthermore, almost all high-power
radiofrequency electromagnetic waves need radiation shielding. Hence,
the radiated RF power from the induction coil must be shielded for
personal safety. Whereas in MW plasma, the generator already comes
with shielding, and no additional shielding is required. Also, because of
the high-power electromagnetic waves radiated from the RF plasma
torches, technical challenges and difficulties in combining RF plasma
torches make torch arrays and increase the total RF power for industrial
scale. Microwave plasma torches, specifically in low power ranges, can
be used in an array assembly.
As shown in Fig. 3, a Microwave Inductively Coupled Atmospheric
Plasma (MICAP) torch has some components such as power supply,
magnetron, directional coupler, 3-stub tuner, waveguide, and a swirl
plasma gas. Microwave plasma has a much higher electron density
compared to DC or RF plasmas. Due to their high electron densities,
rates 45, 60, 75, and 90 Standard Liters Per Minute (SLPM). Copper is used
as both anode and cathode material; the physical properties of argon and
copper are obtained from the COMSOL material library.
Boundary conditions in the physics are applied as the following:
electric field where the current density of 3.3 10—5 A/m2 is applied at the
cathode, the external anode wall is grounded, and the bottom and top
part of the anode, inlet, and outlet boundaries are electrically
insulated. In the magnetic field, on all external boundaries, magnetic
insulation is applied. In heat transfer in fluid, the cathode and anode
boundaries at z 0 and the anode boundary at z 70 (bottom part of cathode
and anode, and top part of anode) are thermally insulated. The outer part
of the anode and inflow (inlet) temperature is set at 500 K [51].
In DC plasma torch simulation, four different physics models have to
be fully coupled, and their solutions must reach an acceptable degree of
convergence to obtain an acceptable result. To achieve such results, a
mathematical model that closely describes physics has to be solved.
H.A. Gabbar et al. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments 47 (2021) 101447
and velocity of the DC plasma torch are shown in Fig. 4; it can be Mathematical modeling and simulation of ICPT
observed that in the boundary layers, close to the cathode tip, plasma
temperature is at its maximum. As the plasma jet moves far from the Ever since Babat and Reed reported the operation of ICPT, many
cathode tip in both axial and radial directions, its temperature decreases mathematical models to understand and predict various characteristics
because of irradiative loss and, to a lesser degree, convective of the plasma have been developed [42,43]. Among the various
thermal loss. On the other hand, the jet’s velocity increases away from models, one of the earliest was adapting the channel model to ICPTs by
the cathode tip, reaching its maximum magnitude at the center of the Freeman and Chase [44]. As shown in Fig. 5 in this model, a cylindrical
outlet. This is due to the expansion of the gas by joule heating [14]. load with a radiusrn represents the plasma; the cylinder’s temperature
Plasma jet maximum temperature and velocity were calculated and electric conductivity are considered to be uniform. Outside of the
for the four mass flow rates. The results in table 3 show a decrease in cylindrical boundary, the gas is considered non-conductive. Its
maximum temperature and an increase in maximum velocity of the temperature spans between the plasma region and the inner surface of
plasma jet with an increase in flow rate. It must be mentioned that, the wall of the dielectric barrier. This model’s adaptation was
although the maximum temperature was decreased with increasing gas essential because it provided a simplified model that uses the
flow rate, the thermal gradient in both axial and radial direction thermodynamic principle to find a solution for equations that have
decrease as well. An increase in maximum temperature does not mean indeterminate solutions.
that the torch with the lower mass flow rate has a higher temperature at Consequently, significant researches have been dedicated to
the nozzle exit. It is reported that with increasing mass flow rate, plasma
temperature at the nozzle’s end is also increased [27]. Table 3
Maximum plasma jet temperature and velocity for different plasma gas flow
rates simulated by COMSOL.
Navier-Stokes equation such as heat transfer and laminar flow (equation Mass flow rate Maximum plasma jet Maximum jet velocity
of motion and continuity) equations are coupled with electric and
(SLPM) temperature( × 104 K) (m/s)
magnetic field equations from Maxwell’s equations, Ohm’s law differ-
ential, and heat balance anode and cathode [52]. 45 1.64 485
The numerical simulation for the DC plasma torch was computed 60 1.57 562
with a constant current density of — 3.3 × 105 A/m2 for four different 75 1.53 600
90 1.5 664
mass flow rates of argon at 45, 60, 75, and 90 SLPM. The temperature

Fig. 4. Temperature (left) and velocity (right) of plasma jet simulated by COMSOL for a DC non-transferred arc plasma torch.

7
 Fig. 5. Channel Model for Inductive Heating.

improving ICPT modeling. Most of these models assume optically thin

plasma at LTE, and they were employed in two dimensions, asymmetric
with a steady-state laminar flow [53]. ICPT with a low flow rate (2.8–14
l/min) operated at coil excitation power and frequency respectively
3.77 W and 3 MHz were studied for the flow effect on temperature [54].
ProulX, Mostaghimi, and Boulos, in the 80 s, obtained solutions to ICPT
working in different conditions (such as flow rate, type of gas, fre-
quency, and input power). However, the electromagnetic fields’ equa-
tions were simplified and assumed as one-dimensional [55,56]. In this Fig. 6. Schematics of computational domains, plasma region, dielectric tube
study, a two-dimensional electromagnetic field reported by Siwen Xue (fused quartz), and coils (copper coils) for RF plasma torch from left to right.
et al. [57] is adapted to simulate starting an ICPT at atmospheric pres-
sure using COMSOL Multiphysics software. An inductive plasma equi- • The torch length (LT) of 150 mm, the bottom (first) coil’s midpoint is
librium discharge module coupled with AC/DC (for the coil), laminar at 75 mm (LC)
flow, and heat transfer in solid and fluid modules are necessary to • The coils have a diameter (CD) of 4 mm, and a 1 mm gap between
perform this simulation. Some assumptions were made to obtain them separates them
acceptable and converging solutions without substantial computational • Mhz coil excitation frequency
power and more extended time. These assumptions include optically • Argon gas flow rate of 2 and 4 SLPM
thin plasma at LTE in a 2D asymmetric configuration, with pure argon
laminar flow at steady-state and parallel ring shape coils. Current In ICPT simulation, starting the plasma has been computed for two
displacement, viscous dissipation, and pressure work are neglected. flow rates (2 and 4 SLPM) and seven different coil excitation power
Three main equations of continuity, momentum, and energy, solved for (from 440 W to 1100 W with 110 W increments). While coil excitation
this simulation, are presented in Eqs. (4), 5, and 6, respectively [57,58]. frequency was maintained at 13.56 MHz, the same operating conditions
∂(ρu) 1 ∂(ρrv) were used to conduct experiments. Figs. 7 and 8 show the
+ =0 (4) temperature profile of ICPT at 2 and 4 SLPM, respectively, at t = 0.05 s.
From Fig. 7, it
∂z r ∂r is shown that maximum temperature rises with increasing coil excitation
( ) [( ) ] power from 440 to 770 W, followed by a massive spike in temperature at
∂u ∂p ∂ ∂u 1 ∂ ∂u ∂v z
ρ∂u + ρv 2 μ + μr + +F (5) 880 W. The spike in temperature also appears in [58], which results in
= — + argon gas’s modified electric conductivity. Once a maximum tempera-
∂z ∂r ∂z ∂z ∂zr ∂r ∂r ∂z ture of around 10000 K is reached, the plasma temperature does not
( ) [( ) ]
∂h ∂h ∂ λ ∂h 1 ∂ λ ∂u increase significantly any further [59]. This temperature is achieved at
ρu + ρv = + r +P—R (6)
∂z ∂r ∂z C p ∂z r ∂z Cp ∂r coil excitation power P = 880 W for two SLPM and P = 990 W for four
Where u and v are the axial and radial velocity. ρ, μ, λ, Cp Are density, respectively
viscosity, thermal conductivity, and specific heat at constant pressure.
Additionally, h, p, P, R are enthalpy, pressure, ohmic heating power, and
volumetric radiation heat loss, respectively.
The ICPT in this simulation has the following characteristics, as
shown in Fig. 6:

• The inner and outer radius of the torch is 10 mm and 12.5 mm,
SLPM. AXial temperature gradient away from coil region can also be
seen from the figure; the temperature gradient is even higher for high
powers. However, the temperature gradient is lower in the radial di-
rection. These effects are due to the low flow rate; not enough cold gas is
flowing to sweep away the plasma to reduce the wall’s temperature.
That is why ICPTs, operating for long hours, need a sheath gas with a
high flow rate to keep the dielectric tube wall cool [57].
 Fig. 7. Temperature profile of ignited ICPT at t = 0.05, 2 SLPM for coil excitation power from 440 to 1100 W with 110 W increments.

Fig. 8. Temperature profile of ignited ICPT at t = 0.05, 4 SLPM for coil excitation power from 440 to 1100 W with 110 W increments.

Results and discussion

other hand, microwave ovens, which use low-power microwave gener-
ators in the range of 1–5 kW, are widely used in households worldwide.
The use of thermal plasma torches for waste treatment applications is
Then for a 1–5 kW MICAP reactor, microwave components can be pro-
gaining momentum worldwide because of its essential characteristics.
vided from Microwave ovens, leading to a considerable reduction in
The ability to treat any waste type (especially hazardous waste), the
their construction costs. Hence, for small-scale waste to energy reactor,
capability to reach high temperature and high destruction efficiency,
gasification, and pyrolysis, a 1–5 kW MICAP can be strongly suggested.
and the great potential they possess in recovering energy and other
ICPTs are the most sensitive in process conditions; hence, they
product of value from waste. Additionally, the thermal plasma system’s
require great attention in waste injection location and gas flow rate
compactness allows it to be implemented in a relatively smaller space.
optimization while waste is being fed to them [35].
For these reasons, they can be implemented on waste trucks, trains,
For the reasons explained above, DC thermal plasmas produced by an
cruise ships, apartments, hospitals, and camping facilities. A small-scale
electronic arc are widely applied for waste treatment and waste to en-
plasma torch with an output power of 3–9 kW can process up to 50 kg of
3 ergy applications. Radiofrequency inductively coupled Microwave and
waste per day can be housed in a 1–1.5 m space suitable for a trans- DC-RF hybrid thermal plasmas are also used for waste treatment ap-
portation system. As the thermal plasma torch’s popularity in waste
plications. All the plasma treatment of solid waste has the advantage of
treatment applications rises, companies and researchers devote signifi-
reducing toXic ash from miXing to the environment, the metal slug from
cant effort to further understanding all phenomena related to thermal
treated waste can be repurposed. The inert plastic and other solid waste
plasma to improve the designs and manufacturing of torches for an in-
miXture can be used as bitumen for road construction material [8,61].
dustrial scale.
Summary of comparison between DC, RF, and microwave plasma
From simulation results and literature reviews, it can be stated that
torches, including an 1100 W RF plasma torch set up at advanced plasma
DC plasma torches are preferred in waste-to-energy applications
engineering lab (APEL), are presented in T a b l e 4 [45,46,62–64].
compared to ICPTs and MICAP torches due to process condition insen-
sitivity. MW circuit requirement in MW plasma torches limits their
Conclusion
discharge parameters (plasma volume size and configuration) flexibility
[60]. A microwave generator that includes a power supply, magnetron,
In the transferred arc plasma torch, the electric current is responsible
and waveguides is the most expensive MICAP torch component. On the
for a significant heat fluX fraction. Therefore, these thermal plasma
Table 4 Comparative
evaluation of DC, RF, and Microwave plasma torches for waste treatment processing.
Parameter DC arc plasma torch RF plasma torch Reduced pressure RF
plasma torch
Microwave plasma APEL RF plasma torch
torch [64]

Temperature 5,000–20,000 K 3,000–10,000 K 1,200–1,700 K 1,200–6,000 K 3,000–8,000 K

Electrode erosion Yes No No No No
plasma system cooling Required Required Not required Not required Required
Plasma ignition Easy Difficult Easy Difficult Difficult
Plasma volume Small Medium Large Large Medium
Plasma velocity High High Low Low High
PS equipment efficiency 60–90% 40–70% 40–70% 40–70% 40–70%
1 kW PS unit cost ~500 USD ~10,000 USD ~10,000 USD ~2,000 USD ~10,000 USD
Lifetime 1000–3000 h (inert condition);200–500 Long Long 2000 h for Long
h (oXidative condition) magnetron
Sensitivity to process No High Medium High High
conditions
Dimensions Small Large Large Medium Large
Plasma array capability Yes No No Yes No
Movability inside the Easy difficult difficult difficult difficult
chamber
Weight Light Heavy Heavy Light Heavy
Safety shielding Not Required Required Required Not Required Required
Thermal efficiency 70–95% [65] 40–50% 40–50% 95–100% [60] 40–50%
[66–68]

torches are suitable, whereas high heat flu X and high total heat flow are
needed, such as conductive waste treatment, carbon, metals, etc. How-
ever, in non-transferred arc thermal plasma torches, a plasma jet is used
to treat and process the waste. In water-cooled non-transferred arc
thermal plasma torches, maximum plasma jet temperature ranges be-
tween 10,000–14,000 K. It depends on the torch’s type of gas and
electric power and geometry. On an industrial scale (power plant), DC
thermal plasmas produced by an electronic arc are widely applied for
waste treatment and waste to energy applications since they are not
sensitive to the variations in processing conditions and higher efficiency.
Radiofrequency inductively coupled thermal plasmas can be used for
waste treatment applications, especially for hazardous and high-risk
materials, whereas purity is essential. Also, RF plasma torches are
used to treat wastes such as tire powder, rice straw, polypropylene,
heavy oils, and MSW with raw wood.
Furthermore, RF plasma torch has unique industrial applications
such as powder spheroidization, nano-sized powder synthesis, and in-
duction plasma spraying. A high-power microwave generator, including
power supply, magnetron, and waveguides, is the most expensive
component of a microwave inductively coupled plasma (MICP) torch.
On the other hand, microwave ovens use low-power microwave gener-
ators in the range of 1–5 kW, which can be used for the microwave
generators in the MICP reactor, leading to a considerable reduction in
construction costs. Hence, for small-scale waste to energy reactor,
gasification, and pyrolysis, a 1–5 kW MICP can be strongly suggested.
This study demonstrates the applicability of thermal plasma torches
for waste-to-energy applications. It was observed that all kinds of ther-
mal plasma torches (RF/DC/MW) could be applied for radioactive waste
treatment on a lab scale. However, a DC plasma torch is suggested for
industrial-scale waste treatment because of its insensitivity, higher ef-
ficiency, and movability inside the reaction chamber. Currently, further
analysis on waste treatment using RF/DC/MW torches are being carried
out in addition to limiting the toXic exhaustion, fuel extraction, purifi-
cation, system optimization as part of the future works.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank ProFlange Inc. and Mitacs for their
support of this research work.
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