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ISSN: 0963-7486 (print), 1465-3478 (electronic)

Int J Food Sci Nutr, 2014; 65(3): 380–385

! 2014 Informa UK Ltd. DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.866637

STUDIES IN HUMANS

Metabolic parameters of postmenopausal women after quinoa or corn

flakes intake – a prospective and double-blind study
Flávia Giolo De Carvalho1, Paula Payão Ovı́dio2, Gilberto João Padovan2, Alceu Afonso Jordão Junior2,
Julio Sérgio Marchini2, and Anderson Marliere Navarro2
1
Department of Food and Nutrition, State University of Sao Paulo, Araraquara, Brazil and 2Department of Internal Medicine, University of Sao
Int J Food Sci Nutr Downloaded from informahealthcare.com by Nyu Medical Center on 05/27/15

Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil

Abstract Keywords
A prospective and double-blind study was conducted on 35 women with weight excess who Cholesterolemia, corn flakes, oxidative stress,
consumed 25 grams of quinoa flakes (QF) or corn flakes (CF) daily during a period of four postmenopause, quinoa
consecutive weeks. At the beginning (T1) and at the end (T2) of the intervention, total calorie
intake was evaluated, anthropometric assessment was performed, blood was collected for the History
determination of glucose, total cholesterol and fractions, oxidative stress markers, vitamin E and
enterolignans. Significant reductions were detected in serum triglyceride (CF group ¼ 133.9 Received 15 May 2013
 89.4 to 113.7  57 mg/dl and QF group ¼ 112.3  35 to 107.9  33.1 mg/dl), TBARS Revised 29 October 2013
(CF group ¼ 3.2  0.8 to 2.9  0.5 mmol/l and QF group ¼ 3.06  0.6 to 2.89  0.5 mmol/l) and Accepted 6 November 2013
vitamin E concentrations (CF group ¼ 19.5  5 to 17.9  4 mM and QF group ¼ 17.9  4 to Published online 17 December 2013
16.9  3 mM) and an increase in urinary excretion of enterolignans (CF group ¼ 2.05  1.3
For personal use only.

to 2.24  1.4 nm/ml and QF group ¼ 2.9  1.6 to 3.2  2.7 nm/l), in both study groups.
The reduction of total cholesterol (191  35 to 181  28 mg/dl) and LDL-cholesterol (LDL-c)
(129  35 to 121  26 mg/dl), and the increase in GSH (1.78  0.4 to 1.91  0.4 mmol/l) occurred
only in the QF group, showing a possible beneficial effect of QF intake.

Introduction sesame seeds gives to diet bioactive components with antioxidants

and anti-inflammatory agents that may have the ability to
Postmenopausal women are more susceptible to health problems
favorably modify blood lipids and lipoproteins (Davy et al.,
related to declining estrogen concentrations, which favor the
2002; Karmally et al., 2005). Among these cereals, we chose to
stress process and the development of chronic diseases. The
investigate quinoa, an Andean famous grain, and corn flakes (CF),
condition of hypoestrogenism can influence an increased con-
a world widely consumed grain, that are not explored much by
centration of cholesterol and triglycerides (TG) and impair the
scientific research.
metabolism of carbohydrates, eventually resulting in glucose
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) is a grain originating from the
intolerance and hyperinsulinemia (Heidari et al., 2010).
Andes, extensively cultivated in Peru, Chile and Bolivia. It is
Estrogen deficiency may cause weight gain and favor the
found in grains or flakes form, whereby the grains need to be
accumulation of abdominal fat due to deregulation of body fat
cooked. Quinoa is considered as a significant source of phyto-
distribution (Steptoe & Wardle, 2005), but also by modulating the
chemicals with an antioxidant action such as flavonoids, phenolic
14
action of leptin in the brain, reducing the activity of its receptors
20
acids, liposoluble vitamins, fatty acids and other compounds
and consequently reducing satiety, and resulting in greater
(Vega-Galvez et al., 2010) that may modulate the organic
food intake and greater body mass gain (Kimura et al., 2002).
oxidative response and prevent the increase in oxidative stress
In addition, fat accumulation in the central region is related to the
(Abugoch, 2009; Pasko et al., 2010). Quinoa has about 15% of
development of insulin resistance and of metabolic syndrome
protein and it is a source of the following amino acids: lysine,
(hyperinsulinemia, dyslipidemia, glucose intolerance and hyper-
isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, valine and
tension) (Kimura et al., 2002), which, in association with the
leucine. Due to the high content of amino acids, it is considered
natural aging process, induces an increase in metabolic oxidative
to be the only plant food that provides all the essential amino
stress (Sanches et al., 2006).
acids (Abugoch, 2009; Letelier et al., 2011). Although it has
Researchers have reported that daily consumption of whole
interesting nutritional composition, we did not find any studies
grains, bran and cereal fiber like wheat, oat, flaxseed, quinoa and
assessing the influence of quinoa intake on the antioxidant status
of postmenopausal women.
Parte inferior do formulário Corn is a world widely consumed
grain. In Brazil, only 10% of its production is destined to food
Correspondence: Flávia Giolo De Carvalho, Department of Food and
industry, which processes the grain to make breakfast cereals like
Nutrition, State University of São Paulo, FCFAR-Unesp. Araraquara-Jaú CF. The CF are commonly eaten at breakfast and it is a good
Rote, km 1. 14801-902, Araraquara Brazil. Tel: 55 16 3301-6901. E-mail: source of carbohydrates and proteins, B vitamins, as minerals like
flaviagiolo@gmail.com iron, phosphorus, potassium and zinc. In addition, CF are a good
 DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.866637
source of carotenoids, especially lutein and zeaxantin; tocopherols
and lignans, which are compounds with antioxidant properties,
promoting disease prevention (Kimura et al., 2002; Sanches et al.,
2006).
As daily consumption of grains involves bioactive components
with antioxidant and hypolipidemic effects (Davy et al., 2002;
Vega-Galvez et al., 2010) and no scientific research was
found that evaluates nutritional benefits of quinoa or CF diary
intake for human health and oxidative stress markers, the aim
of this study was to investigate the effect of quinoa consumption
on the concentrations of glucose, total cholesterol and fractions
and on oxidative stress markers in a group of postmenopausal
women.
Materials and methods
The study was conducted on 35 women in menopause for at least
2 years without hormone therapy, with serum estradiol concen-
trations of 10 to 20 pg/ml and follicle-stimulating hormone of
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35 mIU/ml or more (Sites et al., 2000). The exclusion criteria
were the use of hormone replacement therapy or isoflavone,
vitamins or minerals supplements in the last six months, lipid-
lowering drugs in the last two weeks, the presence of infectious or
hypermetabolic (neoplastic liver) disease and smoking (Hallund
et al., 2008).
The volunteers were attended at the Multidisciplinary
Climacteric Outpatient Clinic of the University Hospital,
Faculty of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo
(HCFMRP-USP). The study was approved by the Ethics
Committee of HCFMRP-USP, protocol no 7896/2009, and all
For personal use only.
women gave written informed consent to participate.
This was a prospective, double-blind study in which the
participants consumed 25 g QF or CF over a period of four
consecutive weeks.
Anthropometric assessment was performed and blood and
24-hour urine samples were collected at two different times: T1,
beginning of the intervention, and T2, at the end of the 4 weeks of
intervention. The volunteers received a plastic bottle to collect the
24-hour urine on the day before the blood collection. Samples
were collected by the nursing staff at the Clinical Research Unit of
HCFMRP-USP. At T1, the volunteers received the test grain and
were instructed to consume daily the full content of each package
(25 g), and the cereals should be added to fruits, juices, fruit
milkshakes and/or to the food consumed for lunch or dinner.
The grains were placed in metallized Trad PouchÕ packages to
avoid the interference of the researcher. Each participant received,
free of charge, a kit of 28 packages, each containing 25 g grain at
T1. The entire manipulation of the grains occurred in the
Laboratory of Nutrition and Diet of FMRP-USP. The volunteers
were contacted weekly by telephone by another investigator not
involved in the random assignment of the test grain, to monitor
the intake, to clarify possible doubts and to provide guidelines
about grain consumption. The participants were oriented not to
ingest foods that were high sources of lignans, such as flaxseed
and soy.
Anthropometric evaluation
Weight and height were measured and body mass index (BMI)
was calculated by the formula (weight/height)2 at T1 and T2. BMI
values of 18.5 and 24.9 kg/m2 were considered to indicate
eutrophy, BMI between 25 and 30 kg/m2 was considered to
indicate excess weight and BMI of more than 35 kg/m2 was
considered to indicate severe obesity (WHO, 2008a). Waist
circumference was also measured with an inextensible 200-cm
tape with 0.1 cm markings in the smallest trunk circumference,
with values being obtained in cm (WHO, 2008b).
Metabolic parameters of postmenopausal women 381
Dietetic evaluation
To track total calories intake, total calorie intake was evaluated
with a 24-hour dietary record registered in the baseline (T1).
Other three food records were registered in non-consecutive days
during the intervention period and the mean values were
considered for analyses at T2. The volunteers were instructed
about portion size, cooking techniques, nutritional content and
food description (light, diet or whole grains). DietProÕ version 4.0
software (Viçosa, Brazil) was used to calculate total calories
intake (Monteiro et al., 2002).
Biochemical analyses
Blood was collected into 5 ml tubes containing separator and clot
activating gel at T1 and T2 after a 12-hour fast. Twenty-four hour
urine samples were collected for the determination of urinary
excretion of lignans and monitoring of grain intake. The samples
were then stored in a freezer at –80  C until the time for analysis.
Glucose concentrations and lipid profile were determined with
kit LabtestÕ . The LDL-cholesterol (LDL-c) fraction was calcu-
lated by the formula of Friedewald et al. (1972).
The following oxidative stress markers indicative of lipid
peroxidation were determined: thiobarbituric acid reactive sub-
stances (TBARSs) by the method of Buege & Aust (1978) and
reduced glutathione (GSH) by the method of Sedlak & Lindsay
(1968). Blood vitamin E was determined by the method of Arnaud
et al. (1991).
Serum and urine enterodiol and enterolactone were determined
by HPLC according to the method of Sicilia et al. (2003).
Statistical analysis
The results were reported as mean  SD for the QF group and CF
group. A regression model was used for pre-test and post-test
analysis to compare the results for the QF and CF groups, to
compare the results between times (T1 and T2) within each group
and to examine the differences in delta (T2-T1) values of
oxidative stress markers, considering the behavior of each
individual in the group. This model takes into account the
magnitude of the pre-test measurements, and the post-test is
modeled by a function passing through the origin of a diagram of
pre-test and post-test dispersal (Singer & Andrade, 1997), with
the level of significance set at p50.05. Data were analyzed with
the aid of the PROC NLMIXED feature of the SASÕ 9.0 software
(Cary, NC) (SAS/STAT, 2002).
Results
Thirty-five women (mean age: 61  7 years) were recruited, 18 of
them assigned to the QF group and 17 to the CF group. Pre-test
and post-test analysis was performed to compare the results for
the QF and CF groups, but no statistical differences were found.
Significant changes were found only between times (T1 and T2)
within each group as described below.
The effect of the intake of 25 g quinoa or CF for 4 weeks on the
anthropometric variables is shown in Table 1. Significant changes
in body weight and BMI were observed only in the CF group.
According to the BMI classification of the World Health
Organization (2008), on average, the volunteers were in the
excess weight range throughout the period of intervention.
Regarding nutritional intake, a significant decrease in total
calories intake in the CF group was observed (1336  481 kcal/
day in T1, to 1240  425 kcal/day in T2). In relation to nutrients
intake (Table 2), we emphasize significant increase of fiber and
protein intake that occurred only in QF group. Fiber consumption
was about 10  5 g/day in T1 and there was an increase of about
16  7 g/day in T2; and protein intake rose from 64  23 to
 382 F. G. De Carvalho et al. Int J Food Sci Nutr, 2014; 65(3): 380–385

Table 1. Comparison of anthropometric characteristics between the different times for each group.

Corn Flakes group Quinoa Flakes group

T1 T2 T1 T2
a b
Weight (kg) 67.13  12.95 67.40  12.61 71.68  11.32 71.78  4.32
BMI (kg/m2) 28.10  5.22a 28.22  5.07b 29.57  4.32 29.51  4.27
Waist circumference (cm) 85.25  11.02 84.57  10.53 87.77  7.71 87.62  7.65

Values are reported as mean  SD. T1 (before) and T2 (after) 4 weeks of intervention. Different letters: p50.05.

Table 2. Comparison of dietary intake between different times for each group and between groups.

Corn Flakes group Quinoa Flakes group

T1 T2 T1 T2
a b
Energy (kcal/day) 1336.20  481.65 1240.05  425.79 1362.55  384.77 1553.79  357.83
Protein (g) 57.80  22.73a 58.50  20.25b 64.29  23.65a 73.27  20.86b
Lipid (g) 39.03  32.29a 35.66  27.64b 38.58  20.21 40.46  23.21
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Carbohydrate (g) 172.94  56.73a 171.67  48.04b 169.86  57.41a 191.72  52.21b
Fiber (g) 10.29  5.71a 8.48  4.10b 10.02  4.61a 15.57  7.04b

Values are reported as mean  SD. T1 (before) and T2 (after) 4 weeks of intervention. Different letters: p50.05.

Table 3. Comparison of the mean enterolignan values between the different times for each group.

Corn Flakes group Quinoa Flakes group

T1 T2 T1 T2
a b
Serum END (nm/ml) 1.07  0.52 1.02  0.78 0.75  0.46 0.73  0.40
For personal use only.

Serum ENL (nm/ml) 0.43  0.35a 0.45  0.55b 0.32  0.32a 0.27  0.20b
Urinary END (nm/ml) 4.68  2.66a 3.79  3.25b 2.14  2.08 2.62  2.15
Urinary ENL (nm/ml) 2.05  1.30a 2.24  1.40b 2.92  1.56a 3.21  2.73b

Values are reported as mean  SD. T1 (before) and T2 (after) 4 weeks of intervention. Different letters: p50.05.

Table 4. Comparison of serum glucose and lipid concentrations between the different times for each group.

Corn Flakes group Quinoa Flakes group

T1 T2 T1 T2
Glucose (mg/l) 97.51  18.19 97.18  25.44 96.67  17.81 95.03  16.94
Total cholesterol (mg/dl) 188.10  36.29 178.50  46.01 191.00  35.86a 181.30  28.71b
HDL-c (mg/dl) 42.59  12.08 42.36  8.24 39.08  8.40 37.85  6.88
LDL-c (mg/dl) 118.70  37.89 113.40  45.02 129.50  35.41a 121.90  26.88b
Triglycerides (mg/dl) 133.90  89.49a 113.70  57.17b 112.30  35.86a 107.90  33.07b

Values are reported as mean  SD. T1 (before) and T2 (after) 4 weeks of intervention. Different letters: p50.05.

73  20 g/day in QF group. also In addition, there was an observed
increase in carbohydrate consumption in both groups (CF
group ¼ 170  57 to 192  52 g/day and QF group ¼ 173  56 to
172  48 g/day), and a decrease in lipid intake in CF group,
39  32.3 g/day in T1 and 36  3 g/day in T2.
Regarding the enterolignans (Table 3), when T1 and T2 were
compared, the CF group showed a significant reduction in serum
(p ¼ 0.045) and urinary (p ¼ 0.001) enterodiol (END) and an
increase in serum (p ¼ 0.021) and urinary (p ¼ 0.010) enterolac-
tone (ENL).
In contrast, in the QF group there were significant changes
only in ENL concentrations, with a reduction of serum ENL
(p ¼ 0.029) and an increase in urinary ENL (p ¼ 0.0018) between
T1 and T2.
Table 4 lists the glycemia and lipid concentration of the QF
and CF groups. Significant reductions of mean TC (p ¼ 0.012),
TG (p ¼ 0.017) and LDL-c (p ¼ 0.001) were detected in the
QF group when comparing T1 and T2. A significant reduction
in TG concentration (p ¼ 0.0004) was also detected in the
CF group when comparing T1 and T2. There were no sig-
nificant changes in HDL-c concentration or glycemia in both
groups.
Results obtained from the oxidative stress markers (GSH,
TBARS and vitamin E) showed increase in GSH concentration
(1.78  0.4 to 1.91  0.4 mmol/l) in the QF group when comparing
T1 and T2. A reduction in TBARS concentration occurred both in
the QF group (3.06  0.6 to 2.89  0.5 mmol/l) and the CF group
(3.22  0.8 to 2.95  0.5 mmol/l), and a reduction in vitamin E
concentration also occurred in both groups when comparing T1
and T2 (QF ¼ 17.9  4 to 16.9  3 mM and CF ¼ 19.5  5 to
17.9  4 mM). Figure 1 shows the delta calculated by subtracting
the results of T2 (end of the 4 weeks of intervention) of T1
(beginning of the intervention), but no significant differences
were found.
 DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2013.866637
Figure 1. Delta value of oxidative stress markers measured before and
after 4 weeks of intervention in both groups.
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Discussion
The present results show that daily intake of the quinoa grain did
not change the anthropometric parameters of the volunteers such
as weight, BMI and waist circumference. The participants started
and ended the experiment with the same classification of
nutritional status (WHO, 2008b).
The mean values of waist circumference were above the
recommended values (80 cm) in the two study groups, indicating
the presence of an increased risk of metabolic complications
associated with obesity according to the WHO classification
(2008b). This fact confirms the influence of hypoestrogenism on
For personal use only.
abdominal obesity reported by several authors (Kimura et al.,
2002; Sanches et al., 2006; Steptoe & Wardle, 2005).
Despite the weight gain observed in CF group probably related
to the increase in carbohydrate consumption, there was a
significant reduction of total calories, and lipids intake was
found throughout the intervention. By this way, we suppose that
food intake was under-reported regarding CF group because the
volunteers made the food record, as mentioned in other studies
with overweight women (Carvalho et al., 2012; Santos et al.,
2008). In relation to fiber and protein intake increase, we discuss
that this fact probably occurred due to quinoa higher protein and
fiber content in QF compared to CF (USDA, 2010).
The daily inclusion of 25 g QF resulted in a possible
improvement of the lipid profile. In contrast, the CF group did
not show a similar behavior, possibly suggesting that this change
was related to the fact that quinoa contains a greater quantity of
food fibers, about 7 g/100 g, compared to cornflakes (1.1 g/100 g
of food) (USDA, 2010). Regarding the serum triglyceride
concentration detected in the CF group, we suggest the hypothesis
that the inclusion of this grain in the diet may have caused
changes in habitual intake and consequently a reduced consump-
tion of other foods that are lipid sources.
Quinoa is a source of soluble and insoluble fiber, which helps
to regulate lipid metabolism (Heidari et al., 2010). According to
Anderson et al. (2009) due to its ability to gel formation, dietary
fibers interact with other nutrients contained in a meal, and
consequently reduce nutrient rate diffusion through the small
intestine intraluminal contents to the enterocytes, promoting
satiety and increasing its elimination through the feces and favor
the reduction of cholesterol and lipids intestinal absorption.
Dietary Eber can modulate the postprandial insulin response
by decreasing gastric emptying and slowing energy and nutrient
absorption, leading to lower postprandial glucose and lipid levels,
and also promote satiety (Slavin & Green, 2007). Dietary fibers
have the ability to chelate biliary acids, resulting in increased
disposal thereof. This effect causes an increase in endogenous
Metabolic parameters of postmenopausal women 383
cholesterol conversion into bile acids, thereby reducing blood and
hepatic cholesterol. Dietary fiber can interfere on colonic
metabolism because some bacteria can convert the fibers in
‘‘short chain fatty acids’’ by fermentation, which can stimulate
epithelial cell proliferation, improve blood flow and lower the
colon pH, enhancing immune defense (Lopes, 2009).
Jenkins et al. (2002) assessed the effect of foods (breakfast
cereals, bread, frozen pasta, cakes and cookies) supplemented
with Psylium (7.2 g) and oats (0.75 g beta-glucans) over a period
of one month in 37 men and 31 postmenopausal women and
observed significant reductions in serum lipid concentrations,
confirming the beneficial effect of dietary fiber intake.
Balcázar-Muñoz et al. (2003) conducted a double-blind study
evaluating the effect of daily oral administration of 7 g of inulin or
placebo on the lipid profile and insulin sensitivity parameters in
12 obese and dyslipidemic individuals, aged 19 to 32 years. The
authors found that the inulin supplementation resulted in reduc-
tions on total cholesterol, VLDL and TG levels, but did no
changes in insulin sensitivity.
Regarding enterolignans, it was used as serum and urine
biomarkers of exposure to phytoestrogens and as indicators of
consumption of the grains under study. In addition, the use of
biomarkers reflected the variation among the present subjects in
terms of intestinal microflora because the metabolism of
enterolignans depends on intestinal integrity, but is also
influenced by factors such as stress, eating habits, intestinal
diseases, genetics and the use of antibiotics, among other factors
(Ward et al., 2008).
In this study, the concentrations of enterolignans confirmed the
intake of the test foods because there was a significant increase in
urinary ENL excretion in both study groups. Kuijsten et al. (2005)
obtained similar results when they evaluated the effect of
supplementation with secoisolariciresinol diglucoside, an enter-
olignan precursor substance, on enterolignan excretion and
observed that the dose–response effect was better reflected in
urinary excretion. According to Lampe et al. (2006), although the
quantitative methods are extremely sensitive, the serum concen-
trations of enterolignans reported in the literature are relatively
low, at times even below the quantitation limit.
Concerning the antioxidant defense, a significant reduction in
serum vitamin E concentration was observed here in both groups.
Because during the postmenopausal period hypoestrogenism
favors abdominal fat accumulation and increased oxidative
stress (Sites et al., 2000; Steptoe & Wardle, 2005), this change
in serum vitamin E concentration indicates a possible increase in
the organic utilization of this vitamin for the elimination of stress-
induced free radicals (Jordão Jr et al., 1998; Vannucchi et al.,
1998). However, the reduction in vitamin E concentration was
lower in the QF group than the CF group, possibly due to the fact
that QF contains a higher level of vitamin E (2.44 mg/100 g food)
(USDA, 2010). Another point that needs attention is the
interaction between vitamin E metabolism and lipids. Vitamin E
circulates in blood predominantly associated with low-density
lipoproteins, thus changes in concentrations of serum lipids may
alter vitamin E serum concentration (Barron, 2001; Ford et al.,
2006). By this way, the reduction in vitamin E concentration may
also be related to the decrease in lipid concentrations found in
both groups.
Oxidative stress markers showed a different behavior between
the QF and CF groups. After 4 weeks of intervention, there was a
reduction in serum TBARS concentration and an increase in GSH
concentration in the QF group, whereas only a significant TBARS
reduction occurred in the CF group. TBARS are substances
produced in a situation of oxidative stress due to lipid
peroxidation. In contrast, GSH is related to the antioxidant
defense and its deficiency contributes to the pathogenesis of
 384 F. G. De Carvalho et al.
oxidative stress related to various chronic diseases (Wu et al.,
2004). On this basis, the changes detected in this study indicated a
possible protection against the effects of oxidative stress, espe-
cially in the QF group, being associated with the results regarding
stress markers, vitamin E concentration and the presence of
enterolignans.
Pasko et al. (2010) assessed the effect of supplementation with
quinoa seeds on the oxidative status of rats fed with a diet
supplemented with fructose for the induction of stress, and they
observed a reduction in plasma malondialdehyde levels and
activity of antioxidant enzymes (erythrocyte superoxide dismu-
tase, catalase, plasma glutathione peroxidase), in agreement with
the results of this study. Several researchers have suggested
that the antioxidant protection provided by the consumption of
quinoa may be related to the presence of phenolic, flavonoids
and carotenoids compounds in this grain, which is also a source
of vitamin E (Dini et al., 2010; Laus et al., 2012; Vega-Galvez
et al., 2010).
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Regarding polyphenols, Alvarez-Jubete et al. (2010) evaluated
polyphenol composition and in vitro antioxidant activity of quinoa
seeds and found that Favonols quercetin and kaempferol glyco-
sides were the most abundant polyphenols, but also contain
protocatechuic acid and a vanillic acid glucoside, and these
components are related to the antioxidant activity of quinoa. Laus
et al. (2012) compared antioxidant activity of quinoa and durum
wheat seed and noticed that the antioxidants of quinoa seeds may
be more readily accessible and may represent a better source of
natural antioxidant compounds than wheat.
It is important to highlight that the effects of polyphenols
greatly depend on their transformation by specific components of
For personal use only.
the gut microbiota via esterase, glucosidase, demethylation,
dehydroxylation and decarboxylation activities. The gut micro-
biota is essential for the production of active phenolic metabolites
by converting glycosides into aglycones, with oestrogen-like
activity that can exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory
properties (Park et al., 2007).
Conclusion
Significant reductions were detected in serum triglyceride,
TBARS and vitamin E concentrations and an increase in urinary
excretion of enterolignans in both the study groups. The reduction
of total cholesterol and LDL-c and the increase in GSH occurred
only in the QF group, showing a possible beneficial effect of QF
intake.
Declaration of interest
The authors declare no competing financial interests exist.
We thank the ‘‘Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São
Paulo’’ – FAPESP (Process: 2009/11463-6) for funding of the study.
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