Conversion Factors" LENGTH 1m = 3.281 ft 1m = 3.937 X 10 in. AREA 1m? = 1.550 x 10° in? 1m = 1.076 x 10 ft” VOLUME 1m = 6.102 x 10* in? 532 x 10 ft° 642 x 10? U.S. gallons 1 kg = 2.205 Ibm Lkg = 1.544 x 10* grains FORCE LN = 2.248 x 10°! Ibt ENERGY 14 = 9.478 x 10-* Btu 7.376 x10"! ft- bf 1 kW-hr = 3.412 x 10° Btu = 2.655 x 10° ft -Ibf ENERGY FLUX 1 Wim? = 3.171 x 107! Btu/hr = ft? POWER 1W = 3.412 Brw/hr 1 W = 1.341 x 10% hp. 1 W = 2844 x 10° tons of refrigeration 1 ton of refrigeration = 12,000 Btwhr PRESSURE 1 Pa = 1.450 x 10~*Ibflin? 1 Pa = 2.961 x 10*in, mercury 1 Pa = 4.019 x 107% in, water TEMPERATURE 1 deg R difference = 1 deg F difference = 5/9 deg C difference = 5/9 deg K difference deg C = § (deg F = 32) vetociry 1.969 x 10° ft/min 281 ft/sec 2.237 mph ACCELERATION 1 mis? = 3.281 ft/sec” MASS DENSITY 1 kg/m? = 6.243 x 10°? Ibmift® MASS FLOW RATE 1 kg/s = 2.205 Ibmi 1 kg/s = 7.937 10° Ibm/hr VOLUME FLOW RATE 119 x 10° ft/min 585 X 10! gal/min THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY = 5.778 x 10 Bu-in 34 OTOP HEAT-TRANSFER COEFFICIENT w Bu 1 = 1761 x 107! msc NETO ee SPECIFIC HEAT Btu J. 4 1 5 = 2389. x 10 = 10° centipoise = 1 Pa-s = 6.720 x 1971 PE ft-see ~All factors have been rounded off to four significant figures.Constants UNIVERSAL GAS CONSTANT 8.314 kJ/kmol -K R = } 1545 ft -Ibf/Ibmol -°R 1.986 Btu/Ibmol -°R STANDARD ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY 9.80665 m/s? 32.174 ft/s? atm = STANDARD ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE 101.325 kPa 14.696 Ibf/in? ‘TEMPERATURE RELATIONS TER) = 18T(K) T(°C) = T(K) ~ 273.15 T(E) = TR) ~ 459.67 Ww m-K* STEFAN-BOLTZMANN CONSTANT o = 5.670 x 10% Bu = 0.1714 x 10-8 — 0.171 0 eRThermal Environmental Engineering Thomas H. Kuehn Dept. of Mechanical Engineering University of Minnesota James W. Ramsey Dept. of Mechanical Engineering University of Minnesota James |. Threikeid Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458Library of Congress Catloging-n-Publication Data Kuch, TH, (Thomas 1.) “Thermal environmental eagincering/‘Thomas H, Kuehn, James W. Ramey, mes L Threlkeld. 3rd ed Royo of Thermal environmeatal engineering / James L. ‘Tela. 2nd od 197. Taclodes bitiographiclreferencs and index. ISBNOASSI7I03, {E'Heating 2. Retieration and rtigrating machinery. 3, Heat Transmission. Solar radiation. 5. Buildings Environmental eagnesring. Ramsey, JW. Games W>) Te Threlkeld, Jomes 1M, Threlkeld, James L, Thermal ronmental engineering. TV. Tie. THN2L Ts. 1998 51-dc21 srs Acquisition Editor: Bill Stenquist Eéitorial/Production: Bookworks/Karen Fortgang Editor-in-Chief: Marcia Horton ‘Assistant Vice President of Production and Manufacturing: David W. Riccardi ‘Managing Editor: Bayani Mendoza de Leon Fall Service/Manufacturing Coordinator: Donna Sullivan ‘Manufacturing Manager: Trudy Pisciotti Creative Director: Jayne Conte Cover Designer: Rosemarie Votta Editorial Assistant: Meg Weist ‘Compositor: Preparé Inc. / Emileomp s.r. © 1998 by Prentice-Hall, nc. ‘A Pearson Education Company Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, ‘without permission in writing from the publisher. ‘The author and publisher of this book have used their best efforts in preparing this book. These efforts include the development, research, and testing of the theories and programs to determine their effectiveness. The author and publisher make no warranty of any kind, expressed or implied, with regard to these programs or the documentation contained in this book. The author and publisher shall not be liable in any event for incedental or ‘consequential damages in connection with, or arising out of, the furnishing, performance, or use of these programs. Printed in the United States of America ISBN O-13-917220-3 Prentice-Hall International (UK) Limited,London Prentice-Hall of Australia Pty. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall Canada Inc., Toronto Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana, $.A,, Mexico Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., Tokyo Pearson Education Asia Pte. Ltd., Singapore Editora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Ltda., Rio de JaneiroContents Preface xi Part! INTRODUCTION 1 1 Introduction to Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning, and Refrigeration 1 1.1 Historical Overview 1 12 — Overview of HVAC System Design 4 13 Summary 8 Endnotes 8 2 Review of Thermodynamics, Fluid Mechanics, and Heat Transfer 9 21 Introduction 9 22 Thermodynamic Properties 9 23 Systems of Units 10 24 Specific Volume, Density, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity 10 25 Pressure 11 2.6 Temperature 11 27 Heat and Power Units 12 28 First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics 13 2.9 Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Entropy 13wv 2.10 241 242 2.13 214 215 2.16 247 2.18 2.19 2.20 221 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 The Perfect Gas 14 Mixtures of Perfect Gases 14 Dry Air 15 Properties of Water and Steam 16 ‘Low-Pressure Water Vapor 19 ‘Thermodynamic Properties of Refrigerants 21 The Steady-Flow Energy Equation 22 ‘The Steady-Flow Entropy Equation 23 Heat Conduction 24 Forced Convection for Internal Flows 25 Forced Convection for External Flows 26 Natural Convection for External Flows 27 Natural Convection for Cavity Flows 28 Pool Boiling 28 Forced-Convection Boiling 29 Condensation on External Surfaces 31 Condensation in Internal Flows 32 ‘Thermal Radiation 32 Combined Modes of Heat Transfer 38 Overall Transfer of Heat 39 Fluid Flow in Ducts and Pipes 43 Endnotes 44 Problems 45 Symbols 46 Part Il REFRIGERATION 49 3° Mechanical Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycles 49 31 32 33 34 35 3.6 37 38 39 Introduction 49 ‘The Carnot Refrigeration Cycle 50 ‘The Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle 52 Comparison of the Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle with the Carnot Cycle 55 Subcooling and Superheating Refrigerant in the Single-Stage Cycle 58 Performance of Single-Stage Cycle at Low Evaporating Temperatures 59 Theoretical Multistage Vapor-Compression Cycles 61 ‘Theoretical Cascade Vapor-Compression Cycles 68 Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using a Refrigerant Mixture 68 Endnotes 69 Problems 69 Symbols 72 ContentsContents 4 Mechanical Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Components and Systems 73 41 42 43 44 4s 46 47 48 49 4.10 AML Refrigerants 73 The Inorganic Refrigerants 78 ‘The Halocarbon Refrigerants 78 Reaction of Refrigerants with Moisture and Oil 80 Reciprocating Compressors 82 Rotary Compressors 90 Scroll Compressors 92 Screw Compressors 96 Centrifugal Compressors 99 Expansion Devices 101 ‘Actual Refrigeration Systems 104 Endnotes 110 Problems 110 Symbols 112 5 Absorption Retrigeration 114 S.A 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 Introduction 114 Simple Theoretical Absorption Refrigeration System 115 Elementary Properties of Binary Mixtures 117 Elementary Steady-Flow Processes with Binary Mixtures 121 Rectification of a Binary Mixture 128 ‘The Aqua-Ammonia Absorption Refrigeration System 134 ‘The Lithium Bromide-Water Absorption System 139 Comparison of Absorption Systems with Mechanical ‘Vapor-Compression Systems 147 Endnotes 148 Problems 149 Symbols 150 6 Ultralow-Temperature Refrigeration: Cryogenics 157 61 6.2 63 64 65 6.6 67 68 Introduction 151 Minimum Work Required to Liquefy a Gas 152 Cooling of a Gas by Expansion 153 Linde Air-Liquefaction Cycle 156 Claude Air-Liquefaction Cycle 159 Separation of Air 162 Liquefaction of Hydrogen and Helium 171 ‘Approach to Absolute Zero by the Adiabatic Demagnetization ofa Paramagnetic Salt 174 Endnotes 175vi Part Problems 175 Symbols 177 PSYCHROMETRICS 178 7 Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Air 178 TA 12 73 14 15 16 1d Atmospheric Air 178 Fundamental Discussion of Moist Air 179 ‘Thermodynamic Wet-Bulb Temperature 182 The Tables for Moist Air 183 Perfect-Gas Relationships for Approximate Calculations 185 Construction of the Psychrometric Chart 192 ‘The ASHRAE Psychrometric Charts 196 Endnotes 197 Problems 197 Symbols 199 8 Psychrometric Processes and Applications 201 81 82 83 84 Introduction 201 Elementary Psychrometric Processes 201 Psychrometric Systems—Single Zone 217 Psychrometric Systems—Multiple Zone 225 Endnotes 235 Problems 236 Symbols 241 9 The Psychrometer and Humidity Measurement 243 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 Introduction 243 Mass Transfer and Evaporation of Water into Moist Air 243 Theory of the Psychrometer 246 Practical Use of a Psychrometer 252 relation of Psychrometer Wet-Bulb Temperature with Thermodynamic Wet-Bulb Temperature 252 Other Methods for Measuring Air Humidity 257 Humidity Standards 258 Endnotes 260 Problems 260 Symbols 261 ContentsPart IV HEAT- AND MASS-TRANSFER PROCESSES AND APPLICATIONS 263 10 Direct-Contact Transfer Processes between Moist Air and Water 263 10.1 Introduction 263 10.2 Directly Recirculated Isothermal Spray Water: the Air Washer 263 10.3 Counterflow Contact of Moist Air by Heated Spray Water: the Cooling Tower 268 10.4 Counterflow Contact of Moist Air by Chilled Spray Water: the Spray Dehumidifier 281 10.5 Mass-Transfer Coefficients for Water-Air Direct-Contact Devices 282 Endnotes 284 Problems 285 Symbols 286 11 Heating and Cooling of Moist Air by Extended-Surface Coils 288 11.1 General Remarks 288 11.2 ‘True Mean Temperature Difference for Heat Exchangers of the Cross-Flow, Finned-Tube Type 289 11.3 Evaluating Heat-Exchanger Performance Using the Number-of-Transfer-Units Method 295 11.4 The Efficiency of Various Extended Surfaces 297 11.5, Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient for a Dry Finned-Tube Heat Exchanger 301 11.6 Overall Heat-Transfer Problems Involving Dry Finned Surfaces 303 11.7 Introduction to Heat Transfer in Wet-Surface Cooling Coils 309 118 The Efficiency of Various Extended Surfaces When Both Cooling and Dehumidifying Occur 312 119 Overall Heat-Transfer Coefficient for a Wet Finned-Tube Heat Exchanger 314 11.10 Mean Air Enthalpy Difference for Wet Finned-Tube Heat Exchangers 317 11.11 Overall Heat-Transfer Problems Involving Wet Finned Surfaces 318 11.12 Calculation of Cooling-Coil Performance at Other than Design Conditions 323 11.13 Practical Considerations Involving Finned-Tube Heating and Cooling Coils 325 . Endnotes 326 Problems 326 Symbols 328 Contents vilvill 12 Human Thermal Comfort and Indoor Air Quality 332 14 122 12.3 12.4 125 12.6 12.7 12.8 12.9 12.10 Introduction 332 Energy Balance on the Human Body 332 Environmental Parameters 341 Environmental Comfort Indices 346 Body Regulatory Processes against Heat or Cold 351 Prediction of Human Thermal Comfort 353 Airborne Contaminants 356 ‘Acceptable Indoor Levels of Airborne Contaminants 357 Control of Indoor Airborne Contaminants 362 Modeling of Indoor Contaminant Concentration 373 Endnotes 376 Problems 377 Symbols 379 13 SolarRadiation 381 13.1 132. 133 13.4 13.5 136 137 138 13.9 13.10 13.11 Introduction 381 The Earth 381 Basic Earth-Sun Angles 383 Relationship between Clock Time and Solar Time 385 Derived Solar Angles 387 Shading of Surfaces from Direct Solar Radiation 392 Solar-Radiation Intensity at Outer Limit of Atmosphere 396 Depletion of Direct Solar Radiation by Earth’s Atmosphere 397 Estimation of Intensity of Solar Radiation during Average Clear Days 400 Solar Radiation Striking a Surface 401 Solar-Radiation Measurement 407 Endnotes 409 Problems 410 Symbols 413 Part V_ HEATING- AND GOOLING-LOAD CALCULATIONS IN BUILDINGS 415 14 Winter Design Heat Loss 415 141 142 143 144 145 146 Introduction 415 Above-Grade Heat Transfer in Buildings 416 Below-Grade Heat Transfer in Buildings 435 Infiltration 443 Unheated-Space Temperatures and Heat Losses 455 Winter Design Conditions 456 Contents147 14.8 Winter Design Heat-Loss Summary 457 Moisture Transport in Building Structures 459 Endnotes 465 Problems 466 Symbols 469 15 Instantaneous Heat Gain 472 15.4 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 Introduction 472 Summer Design Conditions 473 Sol-Air Temperature 474 Periodic Heat Gain through Walls and Roofs 481 Instantaneous Heat Gain through Fenestrations 503 Heat Gain from Internal Sources 522 Endnotes 526 Problems 526 Symbols 528 16 Instantaneous Cooling Load = 532 16.1 16.2 163 16.4 Introduction 532 Instantaneous Cooling Load for Forced-Air Systems 532 Transfer-Function Method 534 Hand-Calculation (CLTD) Method 40 Endnotes $55 Problems 556 Symbols 557 17 Energy-Estimation Methods 559 Wd 1712 173 174 Part VI Degree-Day Method 559 Bin Method 563 Modified Bin Method 578 Detailed Energy-Estimation Methods 579 Endnotes 580 Problems 581 Symbols 582 AIR- AND WATER-DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM DESIGN 584 18 AirDistribution Systems and Duct Design 584 18.1 18.2 Contents Introduction 584 Room Air Distribution and Diffuser Selection 585183 18.4 Basic Air-Distribution System Principles 603 Duct Layout and Sizing Procedures 630 Endnotes 638 Problems 638 Symbols 643 19 Hydronic System Operation and Design 645 19.1 192 193 19.4 Introduction 645 Basic Principles of Hydronic Systems 645 Pipe Layout and Sizing Procedures 659 ‘Additional Components and Considerations 668 Endnotes 670 Problems 670 Symbols 672 Appendix A Thermodynamic and Thermophysical Property Tables 674 Appendix B WeatherData 707 Appendix C Refrigerant, Cryogenic, and Psychrometric Index Charts 732 733 ContentsPreface ‘This book is intended for use by advanced undergraduate or graduate students in mechan- ical engineering and as a basic reference for practicing mechanical engineers. Principally, the book covers refrigeration, psychrometrics, solar radiation, heating and cooling loads in buildings, and design of duct and piping systems. Theory and analysis are emphasized throughout. tis intended that this book may serve as a text for a course of about two semesters in length; for shorter courses, certain chapters may be deleted without loss of continuity. ‘The reader is expected to have a background in basic engineering thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer. The authors have retained the emphasis on basic principles that was the philosophy used by Professor Threlkeld in earlier editions of this book. Current design guidelines Practiced in the United States are introduced where appropriate, The reader is often given a choice of methods to apply to a particular problem. Changes to the previous editions include the use of SI units in addition to English units in tables, figures, worked examples, and homework problems. A substantial num- ber of new worked examples and problems have been added. The heat-transfer review has been expanded, and updated correlations have been included in Chapter 2. In Chap- ters 3 and 4, refrigerant HCFC-22 has replaced CFC-12 as the fluorocarbon refrigerant. Ammonia has been retained as the second refrigerant, Newer replacement refrigerants have been added and environmental issues are discussed, The section on refrigeration compressors covers all of the types commonly used in addition to the traditional recipro- cating designs. In the psychrometric section, additional emphasis has been placed on psy- chrometric processes and applications. More recent humidity-measurement techniques have been added to the discussion of wet-bulb psychrometers, and updated calibration and standard measurement methods are covered. Tn Chapter 11, the number-of-transfer-units (NTU) method has been added to the og-mean-temperature-difference (LMTD) method for heat-exchanger design. Updated cooling-tower design information and an approximate sizing method have been included xixi in Chapter 10. Chapter 12 contains mostly new material on human thermal comfort and indoor air quality. The ASHRAE clear sky solar-radiation model has been included in Chapter 13. The discussion of winter design heat loss has been significantly enhanced to include framing correction methods, below-grade heat transfer, and infiltration estima- tion methods. Moisture transport through structures has been added. Chapters 15 and 16 expand upon the previous analytical approach to heat-gain and cooling-load estimation by including total-equivalent-temperature-difference (TETD) and cooling-load-temper- ature-difference (CLTD) methods and computer calculations of heat gain and cooling Joads in buildings. Most of the material in Chapter 17 is new, with degree day, bin, and computerized energy-calculation methods covered. Chapters 18 and 19 have been added to provide the reader with background on hydronic system design, air motion in rooms, duct design, and pump and fan selection. It is our intent that this text provide the fundamental background necessary to understand the operation of HVAC&R systems. With a good understanding of the prin- ciples, the reader, with some experience, should become a proficient engineer in this field. Acknowledgments rhe authors wish to acknowledge Dr. Hongmei Liang for generating most of the ther- modynamic property tables and charts used in the appendix. We also wish to thank many colleagues and friends who have stimulated discussion on various points over the years and who have encouraged us to complete this revision. Finally, and most importantly, we thank Professor Threlkeld, whose classic earlier editions provided the framework and phi- losophy for this text. Thomas H. Kuehn James W. Ramsey Preface