AN EXPERIMENT TO DISCOVER THE RELATIVE EFFECTS ON COMPOSITION OF WATERCOLOR, TEMPERA AND OIL PAINTING MEDIA A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of the College of Architecture and Fine Arts The University of Southern California In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Fine arts by Mary Jean Lloyd June 1942UMI Number: EPS7843 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, ‘note will indicate the deletion. _UMT Dissertation Pubihing UML EP57843 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. Alll rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346Fo4r~ 43 This thesis, written by MARY JEAN LLOYD under the direction of h.&®. Faculty Committee, and approved by all its members, has been presented to and accepted by the Council on Graduate Study and Research in partial fulfill- ment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF FINE ARTS "Secretary | Date... [URS ».. Faculty CommitteeTABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE he PROBLEM 0 at Statement of the problem .. 1.2... e+e ee 1 Importance of the study. -..---- +--+ + a Organization of the remainder of the thesis . . . 2 II REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATERCOLOR, OIL AND TEMPERA TECHNIQUES .. 1. ee ee eee eee 4 ences 6 Oil Painting «66 6 1 eee we ee ee ee pe) Bo gS ee 19 III REVIEW OF LITERATURE «1 6 ee ee eee ee eee 2k IV THE DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF THE PAINTINGS ...... 27 Factors of influence on the design of the compo- Sito 27 Subject matter 2. 1 ee te ee 27 Dimensions of the paintings... ....-..- 28 Color schome - 2 2... - 1s... ts 28 Style used in rendering... 1... eee eee 29 Preliminary compositions and experiments ..... By Materials chosen for the execution of the paintings 36 Tempera . 2 6 6 ee te he ee ee es 36 eee 36 Watercolor 2. esse ee ce ee eee tee 37 V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS... 1. +--+ ee ee eee 38 BIBULOGRAPHY © AhILLUSTRATIONS PLATES PAGE 1, ‘The Final Composition in Watercolor. ......+... 46 2. The Final Composition in Oil 2.1... ee ee eee AT 3. The Final Composition in Tempera .. 1... 56. 2+. 48 4. A Preliminary Composition... 6... ee ee ee ee 49 5. A Preliminary Composition. . 2... eee eee eee 50 6. The Selected Preliminary Composition ......... 52CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. It was the purpose of this experiment to discover the relative effects of tempera, oil and watercolor on a selected composition. This was accom- plished by the following method: First a series of landscape compositions were created, and from these the composition most suited to expression in ll three mediums was chosen. The three paintings were executed so as to give full freedom to each medium but at the same time to keep them as identical @s possible in composition, color and mood. An analysis of the finished pictures was made to discover the subtle differences induced by the various mediums. Importance of the study. The problem involved is the execution of a landscape composition in the contemporary style using mediums which have been used in ancient times as well as during the present dey. The three mediums, ol], watercolor and tempera each had definite periods of popularity. The tempera technique was used to its greatest extent from the Early to the Post Renaissance. O11 painting has endured from the time of the Renaissance to the present with undiminished popularity. Watercolor is just beginning to become a popular medium, though it has been used in earlier times. These three techniques regardless of their ancient or modern uses will beused to execute the chosen composition in the contemporary taste. The same basic colors are used in all three composi- tions in the same areas, but in the case of the tempera tech- nique thetpigment will be mixed with egg, oil and water, in the oil technique with oii and turpentine, and in the water- color method, with water. The pictures are identical in composition and mood, and as alike as the mediums will permit in color. The tex- tures of represented objects will vary greatly as will the surface textures. The styles of execution will depend en- tirely on the dictates of the greatly contrasted mediums. II. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE THESIS The remainder of the thesis is organized in the follow- ing chapters: and Watercolor Painting. A brief review of the development of tempera, oil and watercolor techniques is given to show the ancient uses and the more simple modern methods of preparing the medium and executing the paintings. Chapter III Review of Literature, A discussion of those books which differentiate between the ancient and contemporary technical methods.3 Chepter IV. The Design and Execution of the Paintings. Records are presented to show the steps in choosing a suitable composition for execution in the three mediums, and the steps - in the actual painting process. Chapter V Summary and Conclusions. The problem of paint- ing the same composition in three different mediums is summarized with comments on the limitations and characteristics of each medium compared with the dhers,CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATERCOLOR OIL AND TEMPERA TECHNIQUES The elementary method of mixing ground pigments with oils or some sticky substance dates back to the prehistoric cave paintings and is still in popular use today though con- siderably improved. Techniques of painting were, as far as we know, fairly dormant until the time of the Egyptians. Here a people saw the value of color to express themselves, and to add life to their surroundings. The Egyptians were the first to use a true palette on which was placed fifteen different colors mixed with oil, varnish and wax. This combination proved to be excellent in the painting of tombs and mummy cases. Discovery of the ruins of the ancient Mycenean civili- zation shows that they worked in fresco and tempera, while the Greeks worked like the Egyptians in thet they used a gum and water solution mixed with pigments, The Greeks also used egg as a binding medium, Painting in egg tempera became as popular in the Roman Empire as did true fresco. The earliest painters had four colors; white, yellow~ ochre, sinople and soot black. In heroic times, melted wexes came into use and resins were apparently added to them. These were used hot with the aid of a heated bronze spatula. ‘Thepointed end was used to draw in e coat of color, and the flattened end for scraping the édges and blending. This method was called "boat painting" because of its connection in the painting of boats. With the wax-resin or wex-varnish medium, painting in the ancient world reached its technical climax, and it would be difficult to say whether, from the standpoint of durability, these methods have ever been improved upon. From the seventh to the twelfth centuries, painting re- mained e mystery to the layman, but leter with the formation of guilds, art took on a more popular appeal. Pictures were painted to advertise the different guilds, an early form of commercialism, The accumulated knowledge from centuries past opened the field for several new styles of painting. Although there were brief evidences of oil psinting prior to its adop- tion in the fifteenth century, egg tempera and fresco were the more approved techniques. In the thirteenth century, at the time of the Early Renaissance in Italy, painting in Europe had reached its height. Many new techniques were used, and fresco and tempera painting had reached the peak of their technical development. From then until todey various movements in painting have introduced new methods of expression, and in every country of the world artists are working in tempera, oil, watercolor, fresco, pastel and still trying to find new developments in techniques. Such menas Giotto, Bellini, DaVinci, Rubens, Titian, Cezanne and others of importance gave to the world great experiments in painting, and the brillience of these n have made it possible to study their experiments and learn from them in order to apply that knowledge to the development of new methods. Three of the most popular techniques of painting used today are the three chosen for this experiment. Their main differences and suggestions for their use are incorporated in the review which follows. I, TEMPERA Tempera, the mixing of dry pigment with egg as a binder and water as the diluting materiel, is an Italian word refer- ing to colors tempered with yolks or whites of egg. The term “tempera” as accepted by artists of today means, “containing oils in emulsion.” An oil emulsion is produced by mixing some arying oils with water and blending gum, yolk of egg or some type of alkali. Tempera colors in the present day market are usually made from linseed of] and lime water. There are several kinds, some of which are durable and some of which are not, so the artist must be able to discriminate. It is no longer necessary for the artist to take the trouble to grind his own pigments as manufacturers have been able to put so many good ones on the market.In earlier days the masters had to grind their own pigments from natural minerals. The method used was first to obtain pigments in free form, then to grind them down to a fine sandy materiel. After this was done, the now dry pigment was ready for use. The next step was the preparation of the egg emulsion, the same today as then and the recipe might read as follows: Separate the white from the yolk in @ manner so as to get rid of as much of the white as possible. Then put the yolk in e cup and break it, stirring in with it one or two table spoonfuls of cold water. Pour it into a four ounce, glass-stoppered, wide-mouthed bottle. Add to this egg mixture two or three drops of vinegar, or three per cent acetic acid, This has the effect of making the mixture less greasy and a little easier to use. The acid hes @ slight pre- servative action on the yolk of egg. No other preservative should be used. This mixture of egg-yolk and water is tempera, the bind- ing medium which holds the colors in place on the panel. It is added to the colors which have been ground with water, and the process is called “tempering.” The composition of the tempera may be varied in many ways, and some very valuable properties may be given to it which egg yolk alone does not possess. There is no better, single, all-purpose tempera than plain egg, and it is advisable of any tempera painter to master8 the discipline of this basic medium before experimenting with others. ‘Tempering the colors is often the hardest part of this technique to learn at first. There is no formula for it because every pigment and pigment mixture needs 4 different amount of tempera, With care and practice a skillful painter can produce a beautifully even surface, but there is the ever present danger that the work may be insufficiently tempered. But this fine surface beauty is lost when the work is varnished and it is therefore hardly worth the trouble and risk thet it means to a beginner to achieve it. The safest rule in tempering colors is to add enough egg to every mixture to make it a little shiny when it is first painted out and dried. In this way the artist can be sure that there is enough tempera in the colors. It is better not to have any great excess, but if there is not enough tempera the colors will dry out unevenly, usually lighter then desired, Furthermore, when the picture is varnished, any parts which have been insufficiently tempered will turn dark and spotty. If care is taken that each mixture dries with a slight gloss, the values do not change in drying and the paint goes on smoothly and easily. The gloss will disappear in a day or two and when the painting is varnished there will not be any unpleasant results. The process of tempering is extremely simple. A little of the paste of ground color is placed in a color cup, and an equel amount of the egg yolk medium added to it. It is thoroughlystirred with a brush and the tempering is then tested by making a stroke or two on a gessoed panel. The trial strokes should dry for a moment or two and if they are dull and chalky a little more egg could be added to the mixture and the tempering tested again. If the tests dry very slowly and come out too shiny, try adding a little more of the ground color to the mixture as the proportion of egg is probably unnecesserily high. ‘The perfection of tempering is to produce a mixture which does not shine when dry, but to achieve this, there is the risk of insufficient tempering and it is not worth while. Too much tempera will make the painting look greasy. It is a good plan to mix the colors first without tempera and to keep a reserve of the untempered color in case too much egg is added. It is better not to temper too much color at 6 time, and to keep the untempered mixture and add the egg to portions of it only for immediate use. Mixing the tempered color with the brush every time the brush is filled helps to keep the color smooth. Only by experimente- tion with the medium can the best method be discovered and the best results achieved, The preparation of the ground for the tempera painting was very important to the old masters because it was then necessary for each artist to prepare his own, and many ar- tists of today follow their example though a prepared ground can be bought which is quite setisfectory. However, it is10 still valuable to know the method of ground preparation. A suggested recipe for the preparation of the gesso ground is as follows: Gilder's whiting 12 oz. Gilder's parchment 9 o2. Cold drawn linseed oil 3 drops 1. Melt size in warm water in @ clean basin. 2, Sift finely ground whiting into the mixture. 3. Add ofl slowly. 4, To thin the size, add water. 5. To thin the gesso, add size, Work quickly and stir constantly so as to keep the mix- ture from thickening. Stir the gesso with a brush. Strain the mixture through a cheesecloth stretched over a double boiler. : Another type of ground is that called Gesso-Duro, so- called because of the slower absorption of tempera and the re-- sulting durability. The recipe is as follows: 1 Notes on the Technigue of Painting, Hilaire Hiler (New York: Oxford University Press, -, 1935), PD. 57.1 Raw linseed oil 1 part Best Scotch glue 1 part Powdered resin 1/4 part Whiting 3 parts Parchment size combined 1. Strain oil through muslin. 2, Soak glue over night in water and measure swollen pieces without liquid. 3. Melt in glue pot. 4, Powder resin in morter and strain through muslin, 5. Soak whiting to paste with size. Heat oil in double boiler, add resin slowly, sift into oil, stirring constantly, Pour in glue, stir thoroughly until whole is stiff. Mix ingredients together and whip into a smooth cream.® After the gesso has been prepared it is applied to a sized panel or canvas. This canvas or panel is the background for the gesso coating. There are various ways of preparing a canvas panel, The simplest method is to stretch a linen or cotton fabric firmly over a wooden frame, Then apply @ sizing to prepare the fabric for absorbing the gesso. 2 Papers of the Society of British Tempere Painters, Vol. II, (Museumof San Francisco, 1928).12 The most important point in applying gesso to a wood panel is toget on a considerable thicknessnof it as smoothly as possible. ‘The most satisfactory method is to lay the gesso in even strokes starting at one end and applying coats one on top of the other. Each coat of gesso must be allowed to dry thoroughly before adding another. Te “alternate method" is a way of applying gesso in which the coats are tapped on the panel evenly while the panel is pushed slowly away from the worker thus allowing even appli- cation. With this method there is no necessity for allowing each coat to dry. A second coat may be put immediately over the first, When five or six coats have been applied, allow the panel to dry thoroughly and then scrape with a scraping tool. After the scraping process has been completed, the ground is smoothed down with a stone and highly polished. ‘The gesso is then ready to receive the tempera. The drawing can be done in charcoal, pencil, or lines of gesso. Great care must be taken to apply the design correctly Every line must be definite and concise. There must be no care- lessness in drawing, such as smudging, because it will show through the transparent tempera. Good and bad design is easily seen in tempera painting. A clean-cut design is much more appreciated than a complicated one.b The completed tempera painting should give a jewel-like transparent effect in contrast to the opaque solid feeling of the next technique to be discussed, namely o11, O11 painting is a more populer medium today because it allows gréater free- dom of expression than the tempera, Oil painting, however, is not without its technical aspects and they are definitely worthy of consideration, II, OIL PAINTING Oil painting, the art of painting with pigment made from grinding a color substance in oil. The following is a list of general rules for a permanent oil technique: 1, Employ reliable end tested materials 2. Build the painting upon a white ground 3. Underpaint in a much lighter key as compared with the final painting 4, Underpaint with a leaner; overpaint with a fatter painting medium, Use the oil medium sparingly 6. Observe the chemical and physical properties of pigments and their compatibility 7. Do not coat the canvas in many layers 8. Paint on a dry ground. Leave sufficient time for the underpainting to dryuy g. Varnish the painting and do it after the painting is thoroughly dried and before it has collected dust. 10. Do not rely too much on your own findings or clever innovations. Employ the time honored recipes.3 The choice and preparation of the canvas is the first concern of the oil-color artist. The commercial canvas is of fine quality but it is considered by the more experienced artists to have a monotonous grain detrimantal to the texture of the finished painting. The best material to use is unbleached linen and it must be used to size the canvas, Gelatine is suggested in Leonard Richmond's book, The Technique of Oil Painting, while Frederic Taubes advises glue dissolved in water in the propor- tion of two ounces of glue to one quart of water. The priming is the next step and consists of applying a mixture of whiting and titanium dioxide. The exact propor- tions are: 2 oz, titanium dioxide and 1 1b, whiting to 1 at. water glue solution. This acts as a filler. The priming solu- tion must be applied sparringly to prevent cracking of the ground. 3 The Bechnique of O12 Painting Frederic Taubes, (New York? Doi lead and Company, 19 3, Summary xvii.15 After the ground is thoroughly dried, the surface must be smoothed with sandpaper. This ends the priming process, but the canvas is still unsuitable for oil painting because it is too absorbent. The addition of an ofl priming makes the canves finally ready to receive and retain oil paint. The oilpriming recommended is white lead because of its quick drying and covering capacity. Color pigment is the next consideration, and as oil is the binding medium, it will be discussed first. Cold pressed linseed oil is generally conceded to be the best product. Linseed oil dries well and forms a tough elastic film, A complete palette is necessary to produce @ peinting of satisfactory color variety. The following is a palette suggested by Frederic Taubes: White 1 white lead Blue 2 Prussian 3 Ultramarine Green 4 Chrome oxide green transparent Yellow 5 Yellow ochre 6 Neples yellow 7 Cadmium yellow 1t. 8. Cadmium yellow med. 9. Cadmium yellow orange16 Red 10 Cadmium red 11 Venetian red 12 Indian red or (mars violet) 13 Alizarin crimson Brown 1) Burnt sienna 15 Raw umber 16 Burnt umber Black 17 Ivory bleck+ As to arranging the colors on the palette, there are no set rules; however, it is best to acquire a habit of placement. The painting tools used in addition to the palette are brushes of many types, palette knife, scraper and turpentine. The brushes vary from bristle to sable and from small pointed ones to wide flat ones. The size shape and material of the brushes depends upon the artist's own particuler needs of the moment. The palette knife is an indispensible object. The ideal shape is the long straight knife in preference to the spatule type. The palette knife is used to mix the pigment, to clean the palette, and even to apply paint to the canvas, The scraper has a short pear formed blede, and is used to remove dried paint from the canvas, and to draw into the wet pigment. 4 Ibid., Chapter III, p. 25.17 The. turpentine is used as a diluting and cleaning medium; however, when using turpentine to clean a brush, soap and water should follow to keep the brushes from getting brittle. After the tools of the peinter's craft have been assembled comes the actual business of painting. ‘The method varies with the different artists but there are certain ele- mentary rules which most painters follow. The underpainting is a very important part of the pro-~ cedure because it is the basis for the final result. The in- fluence of the underpsinting is felt clear through to the lest and finel leyer of paint. There are several kinds of founde- tions, the first of which is “Imprimatura.” This method con- sists of one tone glezed over the whole canvas. The tone should equal the middle value of the canvas and the whole work is built up to light and down to dark from this middle value. The colored or toned ground consists of an opaque layer composed of white lead tinted with green grey, pink or any other subtle tone, This ground gives a luminour quality, and the final method of underpainting consists of painting the subject exactly as the finished execution would appear, except that it is done in a wash technique. This acts as a guide in applying the final layer. In the execution of the last leyers of the painting certain rules should be followed. If the underpainting has become dry it should be moistened with retouching varnish18 before proceeding with the painting. The pigment to be added must also be moistened to facilitate spreading. The surface of the painting should vary as to thickness of paint to give an interesting texture. The highlights should be thick and the shadows thin end transparent. Occasionally, however, light can come from within if the underpainting is of the luminous type. It is best to apply the highest lights lest, and in order to prevent smearing, the cenvas should be allowed to dry a little first. The finished painting should be kept in the light for at least a year to keep the white from turn- ing dull. Sometimes a glaze is used on the finished painting to give a tonal quality, to intensify its brilliance, or modify its hues. A varnish should be applied to the finished picture. The time to apply the varnish depends on the nature of the varnish and the execution of the minting. But in all cases the picture must be dry and dust free. ‘The varnishing brings out the full intensity of the color and mekes the texture of the surface more prominent.ag III. WATERCOLOR Watercolor is a technique of painting which is finally coming into its own, For too many years this method has lan- guished in the company of the less important. The true power of this technique is being recognized and its possibilities as @ comparatively permanent art are being realized. The technique of watercolor is of great antiquity. The far East used this medium during the period which corresponded to the European Middle Ages. The Japanese followed the Chinese in developing the art. The high degree of excellence displayed in silk painting is due to the Japanese and Chinese. The European artist used watercolor before oil came into favor, and watercolor became a distinct medium in England in the lete eighteenth century with the work of Cotman. In spite of its actual antiquity watercolor has never been fully explored. The directness of expression characteris- tic of this medium makes it important to the present method of art expression. Brilliant and powerful color effects can be obtained by its means and if given a reasoneble amount of care, it is a permanent medium. Watercolor is well ground pigment using a small amount of gum as the binding material and made soluable for use with water. The use of the watercolor medium demands a swift simple20 approach. It is a mistake to try to copy nature too closely. The best method to avoid confusion is to make pencil notes and then to render the picture in the studio, thereby elimina- ting much of the confusing detail which is not essential.5 Out of door work is necessary of course, to get a true feeling of nature's colors, but out of door painting can be successfully done only when the instinct for detailed representation has been controlled. An outline for the materials needed for watercolor painting might be as follows: Watercolor Box It is best to use one with @ place for paint either in the tubes or pans, and several sinks for mixing colors. Brushes Red sable is best. The brush should be kept clean and dry when not in use. It is not advisable to use several different sizes of brushes on the same work, 5 This procedure was declared to be the best by Eliot O'Hare in his book Making Watercolor Behave, (New York: Minton Balch and Company, ‘and ff fs the opinion of most Watercolor authorities as well as that of the writer.al Water container Sponge Fine fibered Brush container A holder made of leather or metal to protect the ends of the brushes Tube and Pan color Paper Separate sheets for mounting on a stretcher or board, and paper in pad form for small sketches. There are several methods of stretching watercolor paper. One way is to stretch the paper over a wooden frame. First crease the paper at the top, then push a long shanked pin in place in the center of the frame. Tack the paper from the center toward both edges, and repeat the process on the other three sides. This method can be used with either wet or dry paper. A smooth drum like surface is the result, but in the case of the wetmper, some of the natural texture is lost in stretching. The other method is to stretch the paper on a board by laying it out flat and securing it to the board with "sticky tape.” After the paper has been successfully stretched, the next problem is the actual painting. There are several steps in this process, the first of which is the sketching. When22 starting a composition the selection of subject matter and its placement onthe paper must be carefully considered. The design must be developed in three planes and no parts must be left carelessly drawn, because when the paint is applied confusion will result. The picture should not be shaded with the drawing implement unless it is a combination watercolor and drawing technique in which the drawing medium is used for the shading. The laying-in process is the next step, and there ere several methods of approach to this problem. George Pearse Ennis in his book Making a Watercolor advocates leying in the dark colors first with e full brush. Dark masses when applied first give the design of the picture. The middle tone can be put in next and the white paper is reserved for the highlights. This method prevents dullness and muddy lights. Another method is to start in a light key and work through the middle tones to the extreme darks. This method enables the artist to make certain value changes if the original conception lacked power. The other method is to start with the middle tones and work to the darks, leaving white paper for the highlights. The approach is @ personal matter and it is the result, not the method, which is important, The dark masses can be made more vibrant by mixing red into blue or blue into green. This can be done on the paper23 by putting down one color and flooding the other into it. An importent part of painting a watercolor is the sponging. This tool can be used to soften hard edges or to take out unsuccessful portions of the painting in order to repaint them, and to bring out highlights. Scraping with a knife is also a good way to bring out lights that have been smudged over. Some very important points on technique are made by Eliot O'Here in his book, Meking Water-Color Behave. Don't choose a complicated subject with too many things in it. Simpler ones are better and easier. Don't use small brushes. Don't mix more then two colors together in the box, Mix them on the paper by applying successive alternate brushfulls. Don't, more than is absolutely necessary, super- impose one color upon another elready dry. "They love brilliancy. Don't look too frequently at the subject because you will become obsessed with unimportant things. Don't spend more than an hour on one watercolor. Don't forget to clean your brush between colors. Don't walk past a subject that appeals to you looking for a better one. You may walk miles without finding it and get into a frame of mind wen nothing seems good enough. Don't be discouraged.© © Eliot O'Hara, Making Water-Color Behave (New York: Balch and Company, i932). Che lap. V, pp.o1-82.CHAPTER III REVIEW OF LITERATURE Christine Herringham,+ was chosen as a basis for the tempera report in this thesis because it is considered to be an accurate account of the tempera technique, written during the period in which tempera enjoyed its greatest populerity. This book is used as part of the bibliography of most of the recent books written on the subject. It describes each step of the art of tempera in the most minute detail, and tells of many of the preparatory tasks which are unnecessary today because of manufactured art products. Such books as Maxwell Armfield's? Menual of Tempere Painting, Dorner's’ Materials of the Artist, Hiler's Notes on the Technique of Painting and Mayer's? artists! modern manufactured products and current methods of use. 1 Christine J. Herringham, The Book of the Art of Cennino Cennini (London: George Allen and Unwin Lta., 1922) 288 pp. 2 Maxwell Armfield, A Manuel of Tempera Painting (London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.> 1930) 82 pp. 3 Max Dorner, The Materials of the Artist (New York: Harcourt Brace and Company, 1937) 432 pp. 6 plates 4 Hilaire Hiler, Notes on the Technigue of Painting (New York: Oxford University Press Ltd, PP. 5 Ralph Mayer, The Artists' Handbook of Materials and Techniques (New York: The Viking Press, 1940) 561 pp. Illus.25 Many of the previously mentioned books were also useful in the oil painting report from the standpoint of materials and their preparetion for use. In addition, the book by Bertram Nichol1s® entitled Painting in Oil and Leonard Richmond's! book Technique of Oil Painting were valuable for suggestions as to the best technique in apply- ing the paint for the desired results. The most valuable book studied for the report on the technique of watercolor painting was Eliot O'Hara's® book Making Watercolor Behave, because the problem in this painting method is not the complexity of the materials used, but in- stead the control of the medium, Adrian Bury's? book Water- color Painting of Today and British Water-Colour Painting of Today edited by Geoffry Holme,?° both of which are profusely illustrated, were studied for possible new approaches to © Bertram Nicholls, Painting in Oil. How to Do It Series. (London: The studio Lede ae “i Lelester ‘square. New York: The Studio Publications Inc., 361 Fourth Avenue) 78 pp. Illus. 7 ' Leonard Richmond, The Technique of Oil Painting. (New York: Isaac Pitman and Bros sy Tas 3 pp. 11lus. 8 Eliot o'Here, Making Watercolor Behave (New York: Minton, Balch and Company, 2) 90 pp. “TiTus. 9 adrian Bury, Water-Color Paint: of Today, (London: The Studio Ltd. New York: The Sti ato Fath rabtigations ‘Ine., 1937) Illus. 10 Geoffry Holme, editor, British Water-Colour Painti “tary = of Today (London, Paris, New York: The Studio, Ltd., Trius;26 rendering techniques, but as styles of watercolor expression have progressed so rapidly most books are a record of past techniques rather than a field for study of new ones.CHAPTER IV THE DESIGN AND EXECUTION OF THE PAINTINGS I. FACTORS OF INFLUENCE ON THE DESIGN OF THE COMPOSITION Subject matter. The painting problem of this thesis was the representation of different textures and the subsequent influence of the various mediums on them; thus it was of paramount importance to design @ composition which contained a variety of objects calling for different texture effects. The composition chosen contained: a cloudy sky, soft filmy trees, leafless trees composed entirely of twisted branches, @ barn, plowed ground free of grass, fence posts and tangled weeds surrounding the plowed field. The choice of a cloudy sky Instead of a pure blue one celled for a definite rendering problem since both opaque and transparent mediums are being used in the experiment. The placing of soft trees with no apparent edges against a wel-looking sky demanded considerable care in making @ subtle but definite distinction in texture as well as in color. This assortment of natural and man-made objects gave a far wider range of contrasting textures than a composition composed entirely of natural elements would have afforded.28 Dimensions of the paintings. The dimensions chosen for ell three of the paintings were twenty inches by twenty- four inches, This size was a convenient one since it was large enough to allow the smaller and less important parts of the composition to be done with as much care as the larger portions; thus none of the detail appears uncertain. These particular dimensions are the average choice for an easel picture, All three paintings were done in the same size and shape so that an accurate comparison could be made. Color scheme. An important factor to be considered was the matter of color. A full palette was decided to be the most satisfactory because the problem of matching colors in both the opague and transparent mediums calls for con- siderable experimentation. The question of color brings up quite logically the influence which time of day and weather condition plays on the composition, Early afternoon was chosen as the most ideal time of day to portray because the glare of the sun- light, present at mid-day, has faded and the dull light of late afternoon has not yet set in; thus at this particular time of day the colors of the scene are purest and the contour of objects clearest. ‘The weather conditions were favorable in that the sun was pure and bright and shining directly on the subject,29 and the sky was cloudy but not dark, The sun brought out the smoky grey green and yellow green trees, so typical in the California landscape, and the white of the barn in contrast to its dark roof. The white edges of the clouds formed a contrast to the grey purple within them and the blue sky surrounding them, The sunlight playing upon the uneven ground gave many color variations to the red brown earth. ‘The tangled weeds repeated the colors of the trees. The whole effect was fresh and cool as after a light rain, Style used in rendering. Watercolor (plate 1) It is the belief of the author, and this belief is supported by many authorities, that the background of a watercolor should be painted in before attempting the foreground; thus the sky was the first consideration in rendering the watercolor com- position. The area to be filled by the cloudy sky was first flooded with water. Then the blue portion was laid in. The write edges of the clouds were preserved by the use of the sponge to blot and stop the running of the blue color. The grey purple of the clouds was then placed in the desired area and allowed to run in order to give the wet effect of rain- filled clouds. Then without allowing the sky to dry, the soft yellow green and grey green of the trees was flooded in and30 the resulting blending gave the desired edgeless effect to the tree row. The trunks and branches were also put in while the area was wet to avoid making them too obvious. The barn was left white and reserved until the area surrounding it had dried because a sharp clear outline was desired to make this object the center of interest. The green portion in front of the barn which joins the line of trees was layed in freely and followed immediately by the application of the red brown earth color of the plowed field, thus making the transition slightly indefinite because of the desired effect of distance. The soft but definite edges of the weeds in the foreground were preserved against the earth area by the use of the sponge being stroked upward into the earth color. The weeds were then given a wash of several colors of green, The painting was then allowed to dry completely before proceeding with the finishing touches. After the paper had dried, the sponge was employed to clean off the area where the leafless trees belonged. This part had previously been covered by the sky color, The fence posts were elso located in the same manner, ‘he trunks and branches of the trees were left white and given touches of dark on the shadow side. The fence posts were painted in with a sharp outline because they are in the immediate foreground.31 The barn was left white with the exception of shadows cast by the overhanging roof which was painted dark ved to give a strong dark and light pattern. The weeds in the foreground were given a final touch- ing up with a dry brush to give them texture. Oil (plete 2) A wash painting was done of the complete picture before applying any of the o11 medium in an opaque manner. The wash drawing made it possible to check color discrepancies resulting from the change of medium before applying the thick paint. Without allowing the wash drawing to dry, the paint was added freely and thickly. The slight moisture present on the canvas facilitated the spreading of the medium. The blue of the sky was applied heavily with e bristle brush, as was the grey purple of the clouds. The white of the clouds was spread on with a palette knife and then the blending to prevent hard edges was done with the fingers. The tree colors were applied with the bristle brush and blended into the sky with the fingers. The white of the leafless trees was put in thickly with the edge of the brush. The white of the barn was layed in with the palette knife, then stroked vertically with the brush to give the effect of the boards from which it was constructed. The roof32 was put in with the brush and the roof color was repeated in the shadows cast on the barn. The grass in front of the barn and the eerth area were laid in freely with the brush, es were the weeds in the foreground, The canvas was allowed to dry to the point of tackiness at which time the fence posts were put in with paint thick enough to cover the background color which had already been applied. The shadows were applied and blended into the white leafless trees to give them form, Texture wes given to the weeks in the foreground by applying thick paint in the dry brush technique spoken of in the watercolor. Next the canvas was allowed to dry completely, and the trunks and branches of the soft trees were put in with very liquid paint and smudged with the fingers. This method permits e@ delicacy of line which cannot be achleved over thick wet paint. The edges of the barn were also sharpened up a little. The canvas was again dried completely and as a last step the varnish was applied. Tempere (plate 3) The first step in the painting of the tempera picture was the drawing of the composition on the gesso panel. The drawing was very carefully done in33 pencil and all excess lines erased before applying the paint because any lines would show through the transparent medium. The sky was leid in first with a full brush making the strokes as flowing as possible. The white of the clouds was patted on against the blue and allowed to fuse as much as possible to avoid a hard outline. ‘The grey purple of the clouds was stroked across as was the blue and blended into the white. While the sky was still wet, the yellow green of the trees was put on very freely and allowed to flow up into the sky to give @ soft outline. The grass and ground areas were stroked on in rapid succession in order to blend them one into the other. The outline of the weeks in the foreground against the earth was softened by stroking upwards from the weed area into the already painted earth area with a brush containing only the egg medium, Then the weed colors were added in upward strokes. The spaces for the fence posts which had been painted over in order to make the background smooth, were then cleaned off and the proper color applied. The barn was painted in after the surrounding parts had dried because a crisp outline was desired.34 After the sky was dry, the leefless trees were superimposed on that area with the thick white medium. The trunks and branches of the soft yellow green trees were put on with diluted color after the foliage color was ary. The last step was the application of the varnish, This was done by spreying to avoid chipping, which frequently occurs in tempera painting, and to bring out the full richness of the color. II. PRELIMINARY COMPOSITIONS AND EXPERIMENTS Preliminary compositions. Three preliminary composi- tions were made: Plates 4,5, and 6. Plate 4 is a scene showing a mountein of rugged outline against a pure blue sky. In the foreground is a plowed field bordered by a fence, The color is predominantly the yellow green of the grass which covers the mountain. It is a study of the rhythm of the mountain formation in light and shadow. This study was discarded for two reasons, namely: lack of color variety and lack of divergent textures. Plate 5 is a study of rolling green hills with trees of autumn colors at their base, and the combination of dry sandy earth and soft yellow green grass in the foreground. This picture gives an interesting selection of colors but is35 composed entirely of natural elements. ‘The complete absence of man-made objects to form a wide comparative basis for texture study, makes this composition undesirable for use in this study. Plate 6, the composition chosen for rendering in the three mediums, gives the desired full palette range of colors and combines naturel and man-made objects in the proper ratio to facilitate textural comparison. The mediums of oil and watercolor being ones with which the writer wes femiliar demanded no preliminary experimentation as to method and style; however, tempera was @ relatively new experience, thus experiments were conducted prior to attempting the final painting. Experiments, Some of the conclusions arrived at through personal experience are as follows: It was found, in the tempera experiment, that it was simplest to mix the ary pigments in water, one-third water added to the pigment. This mixture should be allowed to stand until the pigment is well soaked, then any excess water poured off, Then to this pigment the well mixed egg should be added in proportion of one-third, When the mixture becomes slightly sticky, it can be applied to the prepared panel. If the pigment is too thin, it will lose its gloss, and if it is too thick the paint will chip, A coat of plain egg mixture applied over the paint