Part 1 (Morphology)

1. The notion of grammar, its objectives. Definitions of the branches of grammar, their
connection.
5 The notion of grammar, its objectives
The term "grammar" has two meanings:
1) a branch of linguistics that studies language structure;
2) grammatical structure inherent in every language, i.e. laws according to which language
units function.
10 The rules controlling the way a communication system works are known as its grammar,
and both sender and recipient need to use the same grammar if they are to understand each
other. If there is no grammar, there can be no effective communication.
Objectives of the course
 comparative investigation of the English and Ukrainian grammar systems;
15  establishing common and specific features of the languages;
 revealing the causes for the present state of a language structure, referring to the history
of the language development;
 singling out isomorphic and allomorphic features of English and Ukrainian grammatical
structures.
20 Definitions of the branches of grammar, their connection
Morphology (Greek: morphé –form, logos –learning) is a branch of grammar dealing with
regularities of functioning and development of the language system that provides structuring
and understanding of word-forms.
Morphology studies the grammatical classes and groups of words, their grammatical
25 categories and systems of forms (paradigms) in which these categories actually exist.
The main unit of the morphological level is a morpheme, the smallest structural unit, which
has two-side nature (morpheme represents the unity of the form and meaning ).
Syntax (from Latin syntaxis, and earlier from Greek syn+tassein “together + arrange”).
Syntactic units, in contradiction to morphological units do not represent such linguistic
30 elements that could be studied and differentiated by specific material structure of their own.
Here belong word-groups (phrases), parts of the sentence, clause (sentence).
Sentence is a communicative unit, built according to the definite grammatical (syntactic)
pattern, which exists in the language in different forms and modifications, performing its
communicative functions and having intonation of its own.
35 These parts of grammar are connected with each other. The connection is shown in the fact
that words don’t change when taken separately. They change only when they are connected
in sentences.

2. The criteria for the contrastive study of different units. The criteria for parts of
40 speech differentiation. Allomorphic features in the English and Ukrainian parts of
speech systems.
The criteria for the contrastive study of different units.
The first criterion is the criterion of functional similarity of the contrasted phenomena.
Thus, for instance, morphemes expressing degrees of comparison in Ukrainian -іше and
45 English -er, number morphemes in Ukrainian -і, -и, -а and in English -(e)s.
But suffixes of the feminine gender in Ukrainian (вихователька, учениця) cannot be
contrasted to the corresponding English suffixes (-ess, -me, -rix, -ine, -ette) which identify
the masculine and feminine sex, not grammatical gender.
The second criterion for the typological unit to be contrasted is its ability to combine
 general and particular features. It allows to make generalized conclusions as of the particular
phenomena of the contrasted languages (different cases have their own features, their own
semes), while they all have a common feature, they express the relation of the subject to
other subjects, phenomena, processes, etc.
5 The third criterion: the unit of typological comparison should include not individual words
but a class of words.
The criteria for parts of speech differentiation.
The principles on which the classification is based are three in number: 1) meaning; 2) from;
3) function. Each of these requires some additional explanations.
10 1. By meaning we do understand not the individual meaning of each separate word (its
lexical meaning) but the meaning common to all the words of the given class and
constituting its essence. Thus, the meaning of the substiveness is “thing-ness.
2. By form we mean the morphological characteristics of a type of word. Thus, the noun is
characterized by the category of number (singular and plural), the verb by tense, mood and
15 others.
2. 3. By function we mean the syntactic properties of a type of word. These are subdivided
into two: a) its method of combining with other words; b) function of the words in the
sentence.
Allomorphic features in the English and Ukrainian parts of speech systems.
20 Allomorphic features/phenomena are those observed in one language and missing in the
other.
Both in Ukrainian and English there are the following parts of speech: noun, adjective,
numeral, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection
Only for English articles, auxiliaries are characteristic. In Ukrainian there is the adverbial
25 participle, not found in English.
However, though the parts of speech presented in the contrasted languages are nearly the
same, they have considerable differences. The main difference consists in grammatical
categories and means of expressing them in the contrasted languages. For instance, in
Ukrainian, a noun is characterized by three grammatical categories: 1) case (declension
30 paradigm of 6 cases); 2) number (singular and plural); 3) grammatical gender (masculine,
feminine, neuter). As distinct from Ukrainian, the noun in English is characterized by 3
grammatical categories: number (singular and plural), case and definiteness/indefiniteness
(definite and indefinite articles).

35 3. The tense and aspect systems of verbs in English and Ukrainian.

The category of tense is a grammatical category of the verb reflecting temporal localization
of the action or state expressed by the verb. The localization is correlated with real or
imaginative "here and now". It is expressed by opposition of tense forms of the verb,
indicating if the action is simultaneous, preceding or following the moment of speaking.
40 The category of tense serves to localize the action expressed by the verb in time; grammemes
of this category express different types of relation between time of the action and moment of
speaking, and sometimes between the time of the action and some other moment, except the
moment of speaking (see relative tenses).
In Modern Ukrainian verb tense forms, if used directly, indicate that the action coincides
45 with the moment of speaking (“the Present Tense”), precedes the moment of speaking (“the
Past Tense”) or follows the moment of speaking (“the Future Tense”). In Ukrainian it is hard
to state the meaning expressed by the Present Tense form, it does not come to just denoting
the action, immediately connected with the moment of speaking. In the English verb system
the three main divisions of time are represented by three tenses. Each of them may appear in
 the common and in the continuous aspect.
Means of expressing the tense category are various, both analytical and synthetic means are
found in English and Ukrainian. Though in English analytical forms prevail, while in
Ukrainian they are few in number.
5 The category of aspect is a lexical-grammatical category, characterizing the process or
action, expressed by the verb (if the action is repeated, continuous, frequent, immediate,
complete, incomplete, terminative, non-terminative). These characteristics are expressed in
different languages in various morphological (morpho-syntactic) forms, therefore we can
speak about different sub-classes of aspect category.
10 In the Ukrainian language aspect distinctions are drawn according to the relation of the
action to its own limit, and two aspect forms are singled out, perfective and imperfective
aspects. The imperfective aspect expresses the action in process, no limit implied – писати,
говорити, малювати, стрибати.
Perfective aspect expresses the action bounded by some limit, some result of it is implied –
15 написати, прийти, сказати, стрибнути.
The aspect system in Ukrainian is characterized by the correlated pairs of perfective and
imperfective verbs, close or similar in meaning: носити-нести, носив-ніс.
As far as the English language has no perfective/imperfective aspects, and still the way how
the action is going on is characterized morphologically, we are to speak about different
20 aspectual properties of the English verb in comparison with the Ukrainian one.
Treating the category of aspect as characterizing the actions by their behaviour and having
certain morphological signs, Smirnitsky singled out two aspects, common and continuous.
Common aspect is expressed by zero ending or –s in the Present, -ed ending or vowel
interchange in the Past, shall/will + verb forms in the Future and denotes the fact.
25 Continuous aspect is expressed by the verb to be in the corresponding tense form and –ing
ending of the verb and denotes the process.
NB! As distinct from Ukrainian aspect category, where all the verbs form correspondent
pairs of perfective and imperfective verbs with their own morphological characteristics,
presenting two correspondent sets of forms, in English verbs of common and continuous
30 aspect do not form such pairs, almost any verb can appear in both common and continuous
form.
So, it is obvious that there is no direct correspondence between English and Ukrainian
aspects, thus the English continuous aspect is not identical with the Ukrainian imperfective.
The relation between the two systems is not simple. On the one hand, the English common
35 aspect may correspond not only to the Ukrainian perfective but also to the Ukrainian
imperfective aspect; thus he wrote may correspond both to написав and to писав. On the
other hand, the Ukrainian imperfective aspect may correspond not only to the continuous but
also to the common aspect in English: писав – wrote, was writing.

40 4. Allomorphic features of the verb in the contrasted languages.

Allomorphic is the combinability of English verbs with postpositional particles (cf. sit down,
stand up, put off, read through) which need not be confused or in any way compared to their
ability of being identified with the Ukrainian subjunctive mood particles б or би fas
in піти б, хотів би, знав би).
45 Reflexive verbs in Ukrainian have some peculiar allomorphic features. Regular equivalents
to English verbs can be observed only in the group of the so-called reflexive verbs proper (to
wash oneself, to dress oneself, to shave oneself, to powder oneself, etc.), which have also
corresponding forms in
Ukrainian (вмиватися, голитися, одягатися, пудритися, купатися, etc.).
 Other groups of Ukrainian reflexive verbs have no equivalents in English and form
an allomorphic feature in the contrasted languages. These verbs are identified as follows:
1. Reciprocally reflexive/взаємно-зворотні: зустрічатися,
2.  Indirectly re-flexive/непрямо-зворотні: радитися,
5 3. Generally reflexive/загально-зворотні: милуватися,
4. Active-objectless/reflexive verbs (активно-безоб'єктні) кусатися (собака кусається), 
5. Passively-qualitative/reflexive пасивно-якісні: гнутися, битися
6. Impersonal-reflexive verbs/безособово-зворотні: не спиться, не їсться, не
лежиться (the Ukrainian folk-song: І не спиться й не лежиться, І сон мене не бере...).
10 Аllomorphic features find their expression in the ways of realization of some morphological
categories in English and Ukrainian. These allomorphic ways are observed in the following:
1. In the use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense, aspect and voice forms, as
well as in, negative/interrogative forms like: He is reading now. Is he reading now? Does/did
he speak English? The passage is being translated. The article will have been translated by
15 then, etc.
2. In the absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose durative meaning can be
expressed by the transitive verb stems with the suffixes -сь, -ся and a corresponding
adverb/adverbial phrase identifying the moment/period of action. eg. Школа ще (тоді)
будувалась/будуватиметься.
20
5. The category of voice and mood in English and Ukrainian.
The category of mood reflects the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from
the speaker’s point of view. Both contrasted languages have the system of three moods:
indicative, imperative, and subjunctive.
25 Much greater differences can be found in the system of the subjunctive mood forms in
English as compared to Ukrainian. In Ukrainian there is just one mood, expressing unreality,
called either subjunctive, or conditional or suppositional. It is used to denote an action,
thought to be unreal, desirable or possible. It is formed by means of the past tense form of
the verb and particle би (б), which can both precede or follow the verb. The action can be
30 referred to the present, past or future: він би пішов; якби ви йому все розповіли.
As distinct from Ukrainian, in English there are 4 oblique moods: subjunctive I (Be it as it
is), subjunctive II (It is time we went home), suppositional (It is only natural that we should
do it) and conditional (To go there would be unreasonable), expressed both synthetically and
analytically.
35 n Ukrainian there is just one mood, expressing unreality, called either subjunctive, or
conditional or suppositional. It is used to denote an action, thought to be unreal, desirable or
possible.
It is formed by means of the past tense form of the verb and particle би (б), which can both
precede or follow the verb.
40 The category of voice shows whether the action is represented as issuing from its subject or
as experienced by its object. Both English and Ukrainian have two voices: active and
passive. The category of voice is represented by the opposemes like loves/love :: am/is/are
loved.
In Ukrainian the passive voice is expressed by the discontinuous morpheme: бути ... Vpast
45 participle, cf. Л.с. (є/був/буде н.п.с.ний.
The fact that the both languages have similar grammatical categories does not prove their
typological similarity. One should take into account their distribution and functioning. If we
compare the use of passive voice forms in the contrasted languages, we will see that it differs
considerably. Thus, for instance, in English the passive forms are widely used when the
 action is directed at the subject of the sentence, while in Ukrainian and Russian word order is
used in this case (the object in the accusative case is placed before the predicate: this long
bridge was built at the beginning of this century – ц.йд.в.и. м.с. п.б.д.в.л. н. п.ч.т.ус.о.і.ч.).
The Ukrainian verb in the active voice form functioning as the predicate of the indefinite-
5 personal sentences corresponds to the English passive verb form.
In English some forms of the active voice find no parallel in the passive: the forms of future
continuous, present perfect continuous, past perfect continuous.

6. The differences in the grammatical structure of English and Ukrainian. Highlight

10 elements of synthesis and analysis.
The differences in the grammatical structure of English and Ukrainian.
Аllomorphic features find their expression in the ways of realization of some morphological
categories in English and Ukrainian. These allomorphic ways are observed in the following:
1) In the use of analytical paradigms in English to express tense, and voice forms, as well as
15 in negative/interrogative forms like: The passage is being translated. The article will have
been translated by then, etc.
2) In the absence in Ukrainian of the continuous aspect, whose meaning can be expressed by
the transitive verb stems with the suffixes -сь, -ся and a corresponding adverb/adverbial
phrase identifying the moment/period of action. Школа ще (тоді) будувалась/будуватиметься.
20 3) Allomorphism exists in the expression of the category of Ukrainian imperative mood
forms which is alien to English. For example: Пиши! (Ти пиши!) Пишіть! (Ви пишіть!)
Іди! Будьмо/будьте здорові!
Analytical imperative mood forms may have corresponding personal pronouns in English
with the verb let (Let me say. Let him/us say. Let them come/say it). The corresponding
25 Ukrainian forms have the particles нум or нумо (for singular or plural forms respectively)
and also person and number inflexions of the notional verb. Cf. Нум я запитаю. Нумо
заспівайте! Нумо до праці, брати!
Highlight elements of synthesis and analysis.
English is “mainly analytical” and Ukrainian is “mainly synthetic”.
30 Analytical languages are the languages, whose grammatical and word-forming meanings are
mostly expressed by analytical means (split analytical forms of the word, auxiliaries, word
order). Analytical constructions include the combination of the meaningful and auxiliary
words.
Analytical features of the languages are as follows:
35  morphologically indeclinable words and analytical (compound) forms and constructions
 comparatively few grammatical inflections (case inflections in nouns, adjectives and
pronouns, and personal inflections in verbs);
 a sparing use of sound alterations to denote grammatical forms;
 a wide use of prepositions to denote relations between objects and to connect words in
40 the sentence;
 a prominent use of word order to denote grammatical relations: a more or less fixed word
order.
According to their functions, analytical constructions can be morphological, syntactic and
lexical.
45 1. Morphological analytical constructions constitute one word-form, expressing some
morphological category: tense (is reading); aspect (буду читать); voice (is done); degree
of comparison (найбільш приємний) and others.
2. Syntactic analytical constructions form one and the same part of the sentence. For
example, a compound predicate: He started singing; an attribute: чоловік великої волі.
 3. Lexical analytical constructions express word-forming meanings: little house, брати
участь, жінка-пілот.
In the course of a language history some synthetic constructions are substituted by analytical
ones. On the other hand, on the basis of some analytical constructions, synthetic forms can
5 appear.
Synthesis in language is a typological property of a language system which consists in
combination of several morphemes within one word.
Beside morphological synthesis there exists syntactical and word-forming synthesis. The
former consists in forming a part of the sentence by means of one word-form, without formal
10 words or word order.
Synthesis in word-formation consists in expressing several meanings by one word (simple,
derivative or compound), whereas analytical forms express the same meanings with the help
of word-combinations: широкоплечий – широкий в плечах, to partake – to take part.

15 7. Characteristics of the main units of morphology. Speak on the paradigmatic and

syntagmatic studies of morphology.
Characteristics of the main units of morphology.
The morphological system of language reveals its properties through the morphemic
structure of words.
20 The main task of morphology is the study of the structure of words. The smallest significant
(meaningful) units of grammar are called morphemes.
In traditional grammar the study of the morphemic structure of the word was conducted in
the light of the two basic criteria: positional (the location of the marginal morphemes in
relation to the central ones) and semantic or functional (the correlative contribution of the
25 morphemes to the general meaning of the word). The combination of these two criteria
results in different classifications of morphemes
Criteria of classifying and types of morphemes
Function – what they are used for:word- building – worker, form – building ( inflexions) –
bigger
30 Sphere/ subsystem in which they operate: lexical(roots- child, dog), lexico-grammatical
(word-building affixes- friend-friendship), grammatical (form-building affixes or inflexions-
I cleaned the floor).
Form – positive – worker, dogs and zero morphemes dog – meaningful absence(Grammatical
meanings may be expressed by the absence of the morpheme. Compare: book — books. The
35 meaning of plurality is expressed by the morpheme -s. The meaning of singularity is
expressed by the absence of the morpheme. Such meaningful absence of the morpheme is
called zero morpheme.)
Place - how they are used/ spelled free, bound – dogs, semi-bound – shall ask, discontinuous
– is asking (The function of the morpheme may be performed by a separate word. In the
40 opposition work — will work the meaning of the future is expressed by the word will. Will is
a contradictory unit. Formally it is a word, functionally it is a morpheme. As it has the
features of a word and a morpheme, it is called a word-morpheme. Word-morphemes may be
called semi-bound morphemes).
Morphemes are abstract units, represented in speech by morphs. Most morphemes are
45 realized by single morphs: un-self-ish. Some morphemes may be manifested by more than
one morph according to their position. Such alternative morphs, or positional variants of a
morpheme are called allomorphs: cats, [s], dogs. [z], foxes [iz], oxen-
Morphemic variants are identified in the text on the basis of their co-occurence with other
morphs, or their environment. The total of environments constitutes the distribution.
 There may be three types of morphemic distribution: contrastive, non-contrastive,
complementary. Morphs are in contrastive distribution if their position is the same and their
meanings are different: charming — charmed. Morphs are in non- contrastive distribution if
their position is the same and their meanings are the same: learned — learnt Such morphs
5 constitute free variants of the same morpheme. Morphs are in complementary distribution if
their positions are different and their meanings are the same: speaks, — teaches. Such
morphs are allomorphs of the same morpheme.

Speak on the paradigmatic and syntagmatic studies of morphology.

10 Language is organized according to paradigmatic and syntagmatic
relations. Paradigmatic are intra-systemic relations that exist between the members of a class
based on different formal, semantic and functional principles. Paradigmatic relations are
inherent in units of different levels – phonemes, morphemes, lexemes, and sentences.
There are formal paradigmatic relations based on the similarity of formal features of
15 linguistic elements, or a set of forms, e.g.: sing. & pl. form of a noun
There are also semantic paradigmatic relations, e.g.: synonyms and antonyms, hyponyms and
hyperonyms.
Functional paradigmatic relations are based on functional significance of linguistic units,
e.g., falling and rising tones, sentence modifiers, like: probably, in fact, as you know etc.
20 Syntagmatic relations can be found both in language and speech. They exist between the
elements linearly ordered at different levels of language. There are collocational relations,
i.e. elements located in the same linear arrangement, and compositional relations found in a
syntagmatic formation. The combination of two words or word groups one of which is
modified by the other forms a unit that is called a syntactic syntagma. There 4 main types of
25 notional syntagmas: predicative (subject +predicate), objective –verb &
object, attributive (noun & attribute) adverbial – (verb & adverbial modifier)

8. The grammatical categories of English and Ukrainian nouns that are common and
different for the languages under consideration.
30 The Noun is a part of speech, which is characterized by the following features in English and
Ukrainian:
1. Lexico-grammatical meaning of substance;
2. The noun is characterized in the contrasted languages by the existence of a system of
suffixes and prefixes performing, as a rule, isomorphic functions in both contrasted
35 languages. These suffixes fall into several common in English and Ukrainian subgroups.
Among them are traditionally distinguished productive and unproductive suffixes, native and
borrowed (or international) suffixes, as well as different semantic groups of suffixes which,
when added to various roots or stems, may form agent nouns.
3. Typologically isomorphic are also the main paradigmatic classes of nouns, which are two:
40 1) common nouns and 2) proper names.
4. The noun possesses the categories of number, case and gender.

The only morphological category of the noun, which is almost always marked in present-day
English, is that of number. Like in Ukrainian, it is mostly realized synthetically, i.e. through
45 zero and marked inflexions respectively. E. g: child — children, book – books etc.
Completely allomorphic, i.e. pertained only to the English language is the formation of
plural number by way of sound interchange (ablaut): foot — feet, tooth —teeth, goose —
geese; man — men etc.
Unlike English number inflexions, Ukrainian inflexions are predetermined by the gender of
 the noun, its declension and the final consonant or vowel, which can, respectively, be hard,
soft or mixed (sibilant).
Typologically isomorphic is the existence in both languages of the classes of singularia and
pluralia tantum nouns.
5 The category of case in English is represented by zero inflexion (common case) :: positive
inflexion ’s/’ (genitive case) which is added to a noun in singular (’s) or in plural (’), cf.
boy :: boy’s, boys :: boys’. In Ukrainian there are 7 cases, which have different inflexions in
singular and in plural depending on the gender, declension and the consonant group of the
noun. The cases are: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and
10 vocative.
The grammatical gender in English had disappeared by the end of the Middle English period.
The expression of objective sex distinctions is provided only by lexical means. English
nouns can show the sex of their referents lexically.
English has one masculine derivational suffix –er(or) and a small number of feminine
15 derivational suffixes: -ess, -ette, -a, -oine and -ester. All but one of these feminizing suffixes
(-ster) are of foreign origin.
Thus the English gender differs much from the Ukrainian gender: the English gender has a
semantic character, while the gender in Ukrainian is partially semantic (Ukrainian animate
nouns have semantic gender distinctions), and partially formal. Traditionally some English
20 nouns are associated with feminine gender (nouns denoting boats and vehicles) when used in
connotative meaning (Fill her (car) up!). This, however, is considered a stylistically marked,
optional figure of speech (a figure of speech, sometimes termed a rhetorical, or elocution, is
a word or phrase that departs from straightforward, literal language). This usage is
furthermore in decline and advised against by most journalistic style guides. Gender in
25 English is also used in poetic language as means of personification (e.g. Sun is usually
associated with the pronoun he, while Moon is referred to as she).

9. The peculiarities of the case systems in the contrasted languages. The different
viewpoints concerning the number of cases in English.
30 The category of case in English is represented by zero inflexion (common case) :: positive
inflexion ’s/’ (genitive case) which is added to a noun in singular (’s) or in plural (’), cf.
boy :: boy’s, boys :: boys’. In Ukrainian there are 7 cases, which have different inflexions in
singular and in plural depending on the gender, declension and the consonant group of the
noun. The cases are: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative and
35 vocative.
The case meanings in English relate to one another in a peculiar, unknown in other languages
way: the common case is quite indifferent from the semantic point of view, while the
genitive case functions as a subsidiary element in the morphological system of English
because its semantics is also rendered by the Common Case noun in prepositional
40 collocations and in contact.
The category of case has become one of the vexed problems of theoretical discussion. Four
special views advanced at various times by different scholars should be considered as
successive stages in the analysis of this problem:
(1) According to the “theory of positional cases” the English noun distinguishes the
45 inflectional genitive case and four non-inflectional, purely positional, cases – Nominative,
Vocative, Dative, Accusative
(2) “The theory of prepositional cases” regards noun combinations with prepositions as
morphological case forms: Dative case (to + N, for + N), Genitive (of + N), Instrumental
(with+ N, by + N)
 (3) “The limited case theory” recognizes the existence in English of a limited case system of
two members – Genitive Case (a strong form) and Common Case (a weak form)
(4) “The postpositional theory” claims that the English noun in the course of its historic
development has completely lost the morphological category of case, and ‘s is not a flection
5 but a postpositional particle since it can be attached not only to words but word-
combinations as well (somebody else’s bag).
As the case opposition does not work with all nouns, from the functional point of view the
Genitive Case is regarded as subsidiary to the syntactic system of prepositional cases.
In terms of functionality, the English noun in genitive is used to express few types of
10 possessive relations. Accordingly, the genitive of nouns can be further sub-categorized as
being one of the following: possessive genitive, subjective genitive, authorship genitive,
objective genitive, descriptive genitive, and adverbial genitive etc..
In terms of structure English has genitive forms unknown in Ukrainian: double genitive,
absolute genitive. The double genitive is sometimes called the “post-genitive”. The double
15 genitive has been around since the fifteenth century, and is widely accepted. It’s extremely
helpful, for instance, in distinguishing between “a picture of my father” (in which we see the
old man) and “a picture of my father’s” (which he owns). What precedes the element “of” is
usually indefinite article (a friend, not the best friend but “one of many”), unless it is
preceded by the demonstratives this or that, as in “this friend of my father’s”.
20 Absolute genitive is used to avoid repetition of the noun (Tom’s is a nice car.) or it can be
used in the meanings of “dwelling place” (He spent the week-end at his uncle’s.) and
“establishment” (dentist’s).

10. Singularia Tantum and Pluralia Tantum nouns in the contrasted languages.
25 Typologically isomorphic are the classes of singularia and pluralia tantum nouns, found both
in English and Ukrainian. They have either singular or plural meaning respectively.
There are certain semantic groups of singularia tantum nouns, presented in both languages:
1. Nouns denoting parts of the world: the North, the South-East, північний захід, південний
схід.
30 2. Names of materials: gold, silver, straw; золото, срібло, сіно…

3. Collective nouns: furniture, rubbish, hair, mankind; білизна, птаство, волосся,

професура, жіноцтво.
4. Abstract notions: courage, knowledge, advice, news; відвага, знання, виховання.
35 Isomorphic semantic groups of pluralia tantum nouns are:
1. Summations nouns: trousers, shorts, scales; окуляри, ворота,
2. Names of remnants: scraps, sweepings, remnants; покидькию, недоїдки
3. Names of some games: cards, darts, billiards; шахи, шашки, карти, кеглі.
4. Some abstract and concrete notions: outskirts, commas, contents, means; будні, злидні,
40 хрестини.
5. Geographical names: Athens, Nethelands, Carpathians; Атени, Суми, Карпати

As have already been mentioned, plural and singular nouns stand in contrast as diametrically
opposite. Instances are not few, however, when their opposition comes to be neutralised. And
45 this is to say that there are cases when the numeric differentiation appears to be of no
importance at all. Here belong many collective abstract and material nouns. If, for instance,
we look at the meaning of collective nouns, we cannot fail to see that they denote at the same
time some plurality and a unit. They may be said to be doubly countables and thus from a
logical point of view form the exact contrast to mass nouns: they are, in fact, at the same
 time singular and plural, while mass words are logically neither. The double-sidedness of
collective nouns weakens the opposition and leads to the development of either Pluralia
tantum, as in: weeds (in a garden), ashes, embers, etc., or Singularia tantum, as in: wildfowl,
clergy, foliage, etc.
5
11. Isomorphic and allomorphic features of verbals in English and Ukrainian.
The verbals differ a lot from the verbs, they are sometimes singled out into an individual
class of words, still they do not have specific characteristics of their own (their categories
coincide with those of the verb, while the functions in the sentence are the same as those of
10 nouns and adjectives), which proves that they cannot form an individual class of words.
The verbals in English are represented by the infinitive, the gerund, the participle.
in Ukrainian there is the infinitive, the participle and the adverbial participle.
So allomorphic are the gerund in English and the adverbial participle in Ukrainian.
The forms of the infinitive in both languages represent allomorphic features. Thus, the
15 English infinitive is always distinguished by its identifier "to" (to come, to be asked, to be
doing), whereas the Ukrainian infinitive is characterized by the suffixes -ти, -ть, -тись, -тися
(бігти, везти, сісти, їхать, сіять).
In English none of the verbals has any category of person, number and mood, while in
Ukrainian …
20 in Ukrainian the participles have the categories of number, and gender (стрибаючий,
стрибаюча, стрибаючі).
Still the greatest interest present the categories of aspect, tense, taxis and voice which are
explicitly presented in both languages.
In Ukrainian the category of aspect is represented in the system of non-finite forms of the
25 verb in the same way as in the system of the finite verbs, that is by the set of opposed
perfective and imperfective verbs.
all verbals have the categories of correlation and voice; the infinitive, in addition, has the
category of aspect.
None of the verbals has the categories of tense, mood, person, or number in English.
30 So, allomorphism is observed in the categorical meanings of the infinitive and the participle.
The infinitive in Ukrainian has no perfect (perfective) passive form, no continuous aspect
form, no perfect active and perfect passive forms of the Participle, that are pertained to
present-day English (to have slept, to be sleeping, to have been seen; having been
asked/having asked, even to have been being asked, etc).
35 The Ukrainian adverbial participle, whether active or passive, or non-perfective present and
perfective past, remains an indeclinable verbal form (несучи, працюючи, слухаючи)
The functions of the infinitive and the participles in the sentence generally coincide in both
languages.
Allomorphic for the Ukrainian language are some syntactic functions typical of the English
40 participles and infinitives, which may form with some classes of verbs (for example, those of
the physical and mental perceptions) complex parts of the sentence. These parts of the
sentence are completely alien to Ukrainian:
He was seen to go/going home. We heard him sing/singing. He wants me to be reading. The
lesson (being) over, the students went to the reading-hall.
45 Each of these secondary predication complexes, with the exception of the for-to-infinitive
construction, has a subordinate clause or incomplete sentence equivalent in Ukrainian:
Бачили, як він ішов/коли він ішов додому. Ми чули, як він співає/ співав. Після
того/оскільки заняття закінчилося, студенти пішли до читальної зали.
 12. The category of grading in English and Ukrainian; types of adjectives.
Qualitative adjectives in both languages have the category of the degrees of comparison
showing whether the adjective denotes the property absolutely (positive degree) or relatively
in its higher (comparative degree) or the highest manifestation (superlative degree).
5 Both in English and Russian the category can be expressed synthetically and analytically.
English synthetic ways of expression include grammatical morphemes - er/-est while
analytical means embrace word-morphemes more/most, cf. nice – nicer – nicest; important –
more important – most important. In Ukrainian the category is expressed with the help of the
suffixes -іш-/-ш-, -жч-, -щ- (comparative) and the combination of these suffixes with the
10 prefixes най-/щонай-/якай- (superlative), cf. добрий – добріший – найдобріший/
щонайдобріший/ якнайдобріший. The Ukrainian suffix -ш- in the comparative and
superlative degrees correlates with -к- (короткий – коротший – найкоротший), -ок-
(глибокий – глибший – найглибший), -ек- (далекий – дальший – найдальший) in the
positive degree; the suffix -жч- correlates with -г- (дорогий – дорожчий – найдорожчий),
15 -ж- (дужий – дужчий – найдужчий), -к- in the soft stem (близький – ближчий –
найближчий); the suffix -щ- correlates with -о.-, (високий- вищий– найвищий).
Isomorphic in both languages is the formation of the degrees of comparison through
suppletivity, cf. good – better – best; bad – worse – worst; д.б.ии. – к.а.ии. – н.и.к.а.ии.;
п.г.н.и. – г.р.ии. – н.и.г.р.ии..
20 Some qualitative adjectives in both languages do not form the degrees of comparison:
(1) those already expressing the highest degree of quality, cf. supreme, extreme;
супермодний, прегарний;
(2) indicating some degree of quality, cf. bluish/с.н.в.т.и., reddish/ч.р.о.у.а.ии.,
yellowish/ж.в.у.а.ии.;
25 (3) indicating qualities which are not compatible with the idea of comparison, cf.
blind/с.і.ии., deaf/г.у.ии., pregnant/в.г.т.а
Allomorphism between English and Ukrainian adjectives lies in the fact that Ukrainian
adjectives, unlike English, have gender, case and number inflexions. Most of the qualitative
and relative adjectives belong to the first declension and split into hard and soft consonant
30 groups. Possessive adjectives have their own inflections.

13. Pronouns in the contrasted languages.

35 The Pronoun is a part of speech, which serves to denote substances, qualities,
quantities, circumstances etc. not by naming or describing them, but by indicating them.
Grammarians often speak about some difficulties in singling out this part of speech. Some
pronouns, e.g. somebody, nobody etc. behave like nouns: somebody’s article, other pronouns
substitute adjectives or numerals: such, many, some etc.
40 English and Ukrainian pronouns correlate with (1) nouns, cf. he/він, she/вона,
something/щось, somebody/хтось; (2) adjectives, cf. his/його, that/цей; (3) numerals, cf.
some/кілька, much/багато, few/мало; (4) adverbs, cf. here/тут, there/там.
Pronouns fall into the following classes: (1) personal; (2) possessive; (3) reflexive; (4)
demonstrative; (5) interrogative; (6) connective; (7) reciprocal; (8) indefinite; (9) negative;
45 (10) generalizing; (11) quantitative; (12) contrasting.
According to their stem structure, pronouns fall into (1) simple-stem, cf. I, he, some, which;
я, ти, хто, ваш, цей, наш; (2) compound-stem, cf. myself, someone, nobody; абихто,
абищо, хто-небудь, будь-хто; (3) composite-stem, cf. somebody else, this same; той самий,
хто інший, ніхто й ніщo.
 The shift of the pronominal form expresses a shift in the speaker's attitude and tone. Here
again we must say that this recurrent feature is not specifically English. Other languages
present similar phenomena.
In Russian and Ukrainian the generic use of verb-forms in the 2nd person singular and plural
5 without a pronominal indicator is a well known stylistic device, e. g.:
Сонце! Сонце! Це тебе, довічний світе, стріваючи, вітає земля... Прокинулась світова
мати, показала нам личенько красне... Ви почуваєте, що ви частина того світу,
невеличка цяточка його живого тіла, непримітний куточок його безмірної душі (П.
Мирний).
10
14. Categories of numerals in English and Ukrainian.
The Numeral is a part of speech, which is characterized by the following features:
(1) Lexico-grammatical meaning of number;
(2) Typical stem-building elements, cf. -teen (fifteen), -ty (twenty), -th (fifth); -дцять
15 (двадцять), -надцять (дванадцять);
(3) Right-hand combinability with nouns, articles (the four days), adverbs (the two
below/ahead; двоє внизу/попереду), left-hand combinability with pronouns (all the three,
some five or so; усі четверо), bilateral combinability with prepositions (two from ten; два з
десяти);
20 (4) Functions of an attribute (three girls/три дівчини), predicative complement (she came
third/вона прийшла першою), subject (The first ten have arrived/Перші десятеро
приїхали), adverbial modifier (They ran four and four/ Вони бігли по чотири).
In accordance with their lexico-grammatical meaning numerals fall into such isomorphic
groups as:
25 (1) Cardinals, denoting number, cf. three, five, twenty-one; три, п’ять, двадцять один;
(2) Ordinals, denoting order, cf. the third, the fifth, the twenty-first; перший, п’ятий,
двадцять перший;
(3) Fractionals, denoting parts of a whole, cf. two tenth; дві десятих.
Besides, in Ukrainian there are also allomorphic groups of collective numerals denoting
30 quantity as indivisibly unity, cf. двоє, четверо, двадцятеро, п’ятеро, десятеро and
indefinite cardinal numerals denoting indefinite number, cf. кількасот, кількадесят,
кільканадцять/кільканадцятеро.
As for their stem structure, numerals can be:
1. Simple-stem, cf. one, eleven; один, п’ять;
35 2. Derivative stem, formed with the help of the suffixes -teen and -ty (cardinals) and -th
(ordinals) in English and -надцять, -дцять (cardinals), in Ukrainian, cf. nineteen, twenty;
тринадцять, п’ятнадцять;
3. Compound-stem, cf. кількадесят, кількасот, триста;
4. Compound-derivative, cf. twenty-one, forty-three, three-ninth, twenty-fifth; три
40 двадцятих;
5. Composite, cf. one hundred and twenty, twenty two thousand; три цілих і одна четверта.
Ukrainian collective numerals also have diminutive suffixes, cf. двоє – двоєчко. The main
allomorphic feature of Ukrainian numerals is that, unlike those in English, they have
grammatical categories of number, case and partly gender. All Ukrainian numerals have the
45 category of case, cf. п’ять – п’яти – п’яти – п’ять – п’ятьма – (на) п’яти; семеро –
сімох – сімом – сімох – сімома – (на) сімох; дві треті – двох третіх – двом третім –
дві третіх – двома третіми – (на) двох третіх; перший – першого – першому –
першого – першим – (на) першому. The cardinal numerals один and два have gender and
number distinctions, cf. один, одна, одне/одно, одні; два, дві. Ordinal numerals also have
 number and gender distinctions, cf. перший – перша – перше – перші; перша – першої –
першій – першу – першою – (на) першій; перше – першого – першому – перше –
першим – (на) першому; перші – перших – першим – перших – першими – (на) перших.

5 15. Non-finites and the notion of secondary predication in the contrasted languages.
The system of non-finite forms (also called verbals or verbids) of Ukrainian and English
verbs differs. The only common verbal form in these systems is the Infinitive (the indefinite
form of the verb). The English language besides possesses a peculiar verbal form – the
Gerund, which does not have its counterpart in Ukrainian. The third verbal form of the
10 English language – Participle (in Ukrainian grammars rendered correspondingly as
дієприкметник) – has a number of such qualities and functions that correspond in Ukrainian
to two non-finite verb forms – дієприкметник and дієприслівник
One of the peculiarities of English verbids is their being used as secondary predicates. In the
sentence I saw them dancing two actions are named as well as two doers of those actions.
15 But there is a great difference between I saw and them dancing. I saw is more or less
independent. It makes a predication, that is the core of the sentence or the sentence itself.
Them dancing can exist only in a sentence where there is predication (therefore it is called
“secondary”). The tense and mood relations of the finite verb are then reflected in the verbid
and it becomes a secondary predicate, and combinations like them dancing become
20 secondary predications (called “nexuses” by the prominent English grammarian Otto
Jespersen, who was one of the first to draw attention to this kind of grammar phenomenon).
The phenomenon of “secondary predication” constructions is a peculiar feature of the
English language not found in Ukrainian.
The English infinitive is characterized by the word-morpheme “to”. The presence or absence
25 of this word-morpheme depends on the context of the infinitive in speech.
In Ukrainian the infinitive is characterized by the following typical stem-building
morphemes: suffixes -ти (-ть) (плакати, робить), -ну, -ува (-юва), -а, -и, -і (ї) +
-ти (стукнути, мандрувати, гостювати, читати, бачити, уміти).
The peculiarity of the English infinitive is the fact that it has the category of tense expressed
30 not absolutely but relatively. The tense of the infinitive is subordinated to the tense meaning
of the finite verb form, performing the function of the predicate in the sentence.
The paradigm of the Ukrainian infinitive is characterized by the general verb categories of
transitiveness – intransitiveness, aspect and voice (стояти – стати, укривати – укрити,
умивати – умиватися, побороти – поборотися, будувати – бути збудованим, написати –
35 бути написаним).

16. Syntactic relations in English and Ukrainian.

UKRAINIAN ENGLISH
- relations between sentences (SR) and their - for the English language of great
members, are expressed with the help of importance is the word order. The word order
flexions; is crucial for differentiating the subject and
auxiliary and pronoun words; the predicate, the subject and the object etc.
the word order;
intonation - the specific way to express word relations
in English is the so-called enclosement
(замикання).
within grammar pairs the most widespread
types of syntactic means in Ukrainian are:
agreement (узгодження) for example:
 наступного дня, усім трьом, на першому
поверсі;
government (керування), for example:
корисний усім, усіх розважав, усміхнувся
від задоволення;
adjoinment (прилягання), for example:
досконало перевірити, його задум, рушив
услід.

17. The phrases of coordination, phrases of subordination and predicative phrases in

the contrasted languages.
5 In both contrasted languages, phrases fall into three types according to the type of syntactic
realations between the components:
(1) coordinate,
(2) subordinate and
(3) predicative.
10 In coordinate phrases the components are equal in rank and may be connected syndetically
(young but clever, школи та бібліотеки) or assyndetically (young, non-chalant, charming;
гармати, вози, машини). Such word-groups in both contrasted languages perform the
function of homogeneous parts of the sentence, eg: Не was clean, handsome, well-dressed,
and sympathetic. Це було зроблено досконало, гарно й швидко.
15 In subordinate phrases the syntactic ranks of the constituents are not equal as they refer to
one another as the modifyer and the modified (the head/nucleus and the
adjunct/complement).
Subordinate phrases fall into two main groups: objective (ask a question, заспівати пісню)
and qualifying. Objective subordinate phrases eflect the relation of the object to the process.
20 Qualifying subordinate phrases are divided into attributive, expressing quality of an object (a
flowery dress, настільна гра) and adverbial, expressing quality of an action or another
quality (laughed a little, extremely difficult, рано піти, надто повільно).
Types of connection

25
Agreement
the subordinate element gets
the same grammatical meaning
as the head one (this book,
велике щастя).
Government Adjoinment
the grammatical meaning of the kernel the elements are joined without
element demands from the subordinate changing their forms (to go
one particular form (to be fond of sth, quickly, можливість
читаю роман). аналізувати).

30
Subordinate phrases are also classified in accordance with with the name of the part of
speech representing the head (nucleus) of the subordinate phrase. Thus, we can distinguish
between noun phrases, verb phrases, adjectival phrases, adverbial phrases etc.
Predicative phrases may be primary and secondary. Primary predicative phrases (those that
35 comprise the subject and the predicate) are of isomorphic nature, therefore translated without
any transformations e.g.: The student works hard. Студент багато працює. Secondary
predicative phrases are not found in Ukrainian and are represented in English in the
structural types or syntactic constructions which are often referred to as complexes
 (Complex object, Complex subject, Forcomplex, Participle constructions, Gerundial
complex)

18. Communicative types of sentences in English and Ukrainian.

5 From the viewpoint of their role in the process of communication sentences are divided into
four types, grammatically marked: declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory
sentences. These types differ in the aim of communication and express statements,
questions, commands and exclamations respectively. These types are usually applied to
simple sentences. In a complex sentence the communicative type depends upon that
10 of the main clause.
Dickens was born in 1812.
Come and sit down!
What do we do next?
Ти завжди так робиш?
15 A declarative sentence contains a statement which gives the reader or the listener some
information about various events, activities or attitudes, thoughts and feelings. Statements
form the bulk of monological speech, and the greater part of conversation. A statement may
be positive (affirmative) or negative. Grammatically, statements are characterized by the
subjectpredicate structure with the direct order of words. They are mostly two-member
20 sentences, although they may be one-member sentences. Statements usually have a falling
tone; they are marked by a pause in speaking and by a
full stop in writing.
In conversation, statements are often structurally incomplete, especially when they serve as a
response to a question asking for some information, and the response conveys the most
25 important idea. Thanks to their structure and lexical content, declarative sentences are
communicatively polyfunctional.
Thus, besides their main function as information-carriers, statements may be used with the
force of questions, commands and exclamations. Interrogative sentences contain questions.
Their communicative function consists in asking for information. They belong to the sphere
30 of conversation and only occasionally occur in monological speech.
All varieties of questions may be structurally reduced to two main types, general questions
(also called “yes-no” questions) and pronominal questions (otherwise called “special” or
“wh” - questions). Both are graphically identified by a question mark. The two main types
have a number of structural and communicative modifications.
35 Sentences belonging to the different types differ from each other in some grammatical point.
Thus, interrogative sentences are characterised by a special word order. In interrogative
sentences very few modal words are used, as the meanings of some modal words are
incompatible with the meaning of an interrogative sentence. It is clear that modal words
expressing full certainty, such as certainly, surely, naturally, etc., cannot appear in a sentence
40 expressing a question. On the other hand, the modal word indeed, with its peculiar shades of
meaning, is quite possible in interrogative sentences, for instance, Isn't so indeed?
(Shakespeare).
Imperative sentences also show marked peculiarities in the use of modal words. It is quite
evident, for example, that modal words expressing possibility, such as perhaps, maybe,
45 possibly, are incompatible with the notion of order or request. Indeed, modal words are
hardly used at all in imperative sentences.
The notion of exclamatory sentences and their relation to the three established types of
declarative, interrogative, and imperative sentences presents some difficulty. On the one
hand, every sentence, whether narrative, interrogative, or imperative, may be exclamatory at
 the same time, that is, it may convey the speaker's feelings and be characterised by emphatic
intonation and by an exclamation mark in writing. This may be seen in the following
examples: Bat he can't do anything to you! (R. West). On the other hand, a sentence may be
purely exclamatory, that is. it may not belong to any of the three types classed above. This
5 would be the case in the following examples: "Well, fiddle‐dee‐dee!" said Scarlett. (M.
Mitchell) Oh, for God's sake, Henry! (Idem)
19. Classifications of sentences in English and Ukrainian according to their structure.
From the point of view of their structure, sentences can be:
1. Simple or composite (compound and complex).
10 2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical).
3. Two‐member (double-nucleus) or one‐member (single-nucleus).
These three classifications are based on different approaches to the structural organisation of
sentences and reflect its different aspects. The difference between the simple sentence and
the composite sentence lies in the fact that the former contains only one subject-predicate
15 unit and the latter more than one. Subject-predicate units that form composite sentences are
called clauses.
The difference between the compound and complex sentences lies in the relations between
the clauses that constitute them. Complete and incomplete (or elliptical) sentences are
distinguished by the presence or absence of wordforms in the principal positions of two-
20 member sentences. In a complete sentence both the principal positions are filled with word-
forms.
In an incomplete (elliptical) sentence one or both of the main positions are not filled, but can
be easily supplied as it is clear from the context what is missing. Elliptical sentences are
typical of conversational English.
25 Cheerful, aren’t you?
One-member and two-member sentences are distinguished by the number of principal parts
(positions) they contain: two-member sentences have two main parts - the subject and the
predicate, while one-member sentences have only one principal part, which is neither the
subject nor the predicate.
30 One-member sentence
Common for both languages are the in Ukrainian there are widely used other
following types of one-member types of onemember sentences which have as
sentences: their correspondences two-member sentences
1) Nominative sentences (називні), e.g.: in English, in particular:
Thomas, Sir. A man 1) Impersonal sentences (безособові):
of facts and calculations. Вечір. Ніч. Сутеніє. It is getting dark.
2) Imperative sentences (наказові), e.g.: 2) Indefinite-personal sentences
Come here at once. (неозначено-особові): Кажуть, що його
Іди сюди негайно. немає. They say he is out.
3) Infinitive sentences (інфінітивні), e.g.: To 3) Generalizing-personal (узагальнено-
be lonely and to особові): Дарованим конем не наїздишся.
You mustn't change horses in the midstream.
grow older and older. Especially widespread
is this kind of sentences 4) Sentences with unchangeable predicate-
words (речення з незмінними
in Ukrainian where the infinitive by its
присудковими словами): можна, шкода,
function in the
треба, слід та ін.: Треба йти додому. It is
sentence has become similar to the personal necessary to go home (I must go home).
form of the verb.
5) Sentences with adverbs of the type
 E.g.: Що робити?За людьми іти ... Оте й (речення з прислівниками):
робити'. Йому весело зараз. Не is rather jolly now.
6) Sentences with unchangeable verbal
predicate forms in -ho, -то (речення з
незмінними дієслівними присудковими
формами на -но -то)

20. Types of the subject in English and Ukrainian, allomorphic features of the subject
in both languages.
The subject is the independent member of a two-member predication, containing the person
5 component of predicativity. The subject is usually defined as a word or a group of words
denoting the thing we speak about. This traditional definition is rather logical than
grammatical. The subject of a simple sentence can be a word, a syntactical word-morpheme
(in English — there, it) or a complex. As a word it can belong to different parts of speech,
but it is mostly a noun or a pronoun, e.g.:
10 Fame is the thirst of youth (G. Byron).
Nothing endures but personal qualities (W. Whitman).
In Ukrainian the subject is most frequently expressed by the nominative case of the noun
or personal pronoun. Other parts of speech can be used in the function of the subject only
when they are substantivized. (їхало двоє молодих хлопців.)
15 The structural forms, common for the subject in the contrasted languages are simple
subject, extended, expanded. In English there are also formal and complex forms of the
subject
Both in English and Ukrainian the subject is expressed by: nouns, pronouns, numerals,
adjectives, adverbs, infinitive, participle, clause. Still, some ways of expressing the subject
20 are found only in English:
-indefinite pronouns one, you, they, expressing an indefinite doer of the
action. They say I am like my father;
‐ impersonal pronoun it: It was very dark, by means of the formal there;
‐ For-to-infinitive predicative construction;
25 - Gerundial predicative construction.

21. The adverbial modifier from the point of view of its types and ways of expression in
English and Ukrainian.
There are several ways of classifying adverbial modifiers:
30 (1) according to their meaning,
(2) according to their morphological peculiarities,
(3) according to the type of their head word.
Of these, the classification according to meaning is not in itself a grammatical
classification. For instance, the difference between an adverbial modifier of place and one of
35 time is basically semantic and depends on the lexical meaning of the words functioning as
adverbial modifiers. However, this classification may acquire some grammatical
significance, especially when we analyse word order in a sentence and one semantic type of
adverbial modifier proves to differ in this respect from another. Therefore the classification
of adverbial modifiers according to their meaning cannot be ignored by syntactic theory.
40 Classification according to morphological peculiarities, i. e. according to the parts of
speech and to phrase patterns, is essential: it has also something to do with word order, and
 stands in a certain relation to the classification according to meaning.
Classification according to the element modified is the syntactic classification proper. It is of
course connected in some ways with the classification according to meaning; for instance, an
adverbial modifier can modify a part of the sentence expressed by a verb only if the type of
5 meaning of the word (or phrase) acting as modifier is compatible with the meaning of a verb,
etc.
A complete classification of adverbial modifiers according to their meaning, i. e. a list of all
possible meanings they can have, is impossible to achieve, and it would serve no useful
purpose. A certain number of meanings can be found quite easily, such as place, time,
10 condition, manner of an action, degree of a property, etc., but whatever list we may compile
along these lines, there are bound to be special cases which will not fit in. For instance, in the
sentence “I saw him at the concer”t it is hard to tell whether the adverbial modifier at the
concert expresses place or time.

15 22. Typology of the composite sentence in English and Ukrainian. The compound
sentence in the contrasted languages.
Within a composite sentence clauses may be joined by means of coordination or
subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence respectively.
Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank.
20 Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent
upon the other (or they are mutually dependent).
A compound sentence may contain coordinate clauses extended by subordinate clauses, and
the resulting structure is a compound-complex sentence.
A complex sentence may contain subordinate clauses joined by means of coordination, the
25 resulting structure being a complex sentence with homogeneous subordinate clauses.
Clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are mostly joined by means of
co-ordinate conjunctions which provide parataxal relations between them. Conjunctions
joining clauses in compound sentences of the contrasted languages are practically of the
same semantic nature: copulative, adversative, and causal/or (in English only). Equally
30 common in the contrasted languages are various connectives that join coordinate clauses.
These are as follows: therefore, consequently, accordingly, then, hence, so, while, as well
as and some explanatory connective words (that is to say, such as, like, let me say and
others), which have corresponding functional (and semantic) equivalents in Ukrainian (отже,
та, а саме, звідси, тобто, тоді, як-то, так-як, ...так, скажімо, то...то). Co-ordinate
35 conjunctions, as well as various connectives, realize their functional and semantic meaning
in structurally and semantically identical English and Ukrainian compound sentences. This is
to be explained by the existence of common relations that are created between the coordinate
clauses of compound sentences and to a large degree by the semantic meanings of
conjunctions/connectives that join these clauses. As a result, isomorphism, if not exact
40 likeness, is observed in the nature of some subtypes of English and Ukrainian compound
sentences. These isomorphic features find their expressions in the existence of the following
subtypes of them:
1) compound sentences with free/ netral Interrelation between their clauses ( when you
transform the coordinate clauses in the sentence, the meaning is not changed)
45 2) compound sentences with adversative interrelation between their clauses ( but, still, yet),
the placement of clauses is fixed and predetermined because the second part is semantically
dependent, the nature of the conjunction or connective word requires such an order, there are
more then one conjunction, there are can be another sentences joined with the following, the
 existence of extension or expansion of component clauses.
3) Contrastive and adversative compound sentences ( and in the meaning of “ a” )
transformation of this kind is impossible in both languages when their clauses are
semantically bound to one object or action.
5

23. Typology of simple sentences in two contrasted languages.

2 types of the simple sentence in Uk and Eng:

- one-member (more numerous in Uk)

- two-member (in Eng. are represented by a larger variety of paradigmatic subtypes than in
10 Uk.)

One-member sentences. Common types:

nominal sentences – isomorphic in the structural form (extended/expanded),

allomorphic in the grammatical means of connection of the same component parts (in
Eng. – by analytical means, in Uk. – synthetic or analytico-synthetic means)

15 Imperative sentences (V or VP structure) ex: Keep aside! Open the door! Не

підходь! Відчиніть двері!

Exclamatory (may structurally coincide with nominal and infinitival) ex: How funny!
Як гарно!

Infinitival (extended/unextended) ex: To be or not to be? Бути чи не бути?

20 Only in Ukrainian:

The definite personal sentences - Любіть Україну всім серцем своїм....

The indefinite personal - Дзвонять в усі дзвони! Не за те вовка б'ють, що сірий, а

за те, що овечку вкрав.

Generalized personal – Поживемо – побачимо!

25 Impersonal – Світає. Край неба палає.

Two-member sentence. In Eng. only:

Impersonal sentences with IT – It rains. It is snowing

Indefinite personal with one, they, you – They say.

With It or There – There is nothing to say.

30 With the implicit agent and passive predicate verb followed by a preposition – He was
sent for.
 With secondary predication – I thought him to be a teacher. (Such sentences in Uk.
have either simple or complex definite personal sentences for their semantic
equivalents – Я думав, що він учитиель)

With gerundial complexes used as predicative constructions – You can rely on her
5 coming in time.

Two-member sentences of the common structural form in both languages:

With subject expressed by a notional word and predicate – by a verb – Breakfast was
not yet over… Ідуть дощі.

With simple nominal predicate expressed by a noun/an adj./a numeral/an infinitive/a

10 participle/a phrase. – Poor little thing! Нас троє. Гарні манеи і все інше.

24. Typology of the main parts of the sentences. Predicate.

The subject and the predicate are considered to be interdependent parts of the
sentence. They are bearers of predication forming the sentence. Predicative connection
15 is a mandatory type of the connection in forming a sentence as a communicative unit.
Predication underlying the relations of the subject and the predicate is called primary
predication, it includes the arrangement an utterance out of the syntactic components,
in order to form a communicative unit correlated with reality. The predicative
connection is characterized by the fact that its components are equal in rank. Such a
20 connection is called coordination/interdependence. Syntactic connections are
expressed by means of: morphological means, word order, intonation, functional words
and others.
The predicate is the main part of the sentence and its organizing centre, for the object
and nearly all adverbial modifiers are dependent on it. The predicate can be considered
25 from the semantic or from the structural point of view. According to the meaning of its
components the predicate can denote an action, a state, a quality, process, an attitude to
some action or state, expressed by the subject.
The predicate is the member of predication containing the mood and tense (or only
mood) components of predicativity. E.g.: I would hate to make you cry. The predicate
30 can be a word or a syntactical word-morpheme (in English — does, will).
In both languages the predicate reveals its syntactic connection with the subject by
means of the grammatical agreement with it (узгодження). But since the English verb
has much fewer categorical forms (in particular the form of person, gender and
number) the possibilities of coordination between the subject and the predicate are
35 much fewer. The predicate in the English sentence always has its certain place
depending on the type of the sentence.
There are such types of the predicate:
 The simple predicate
 The compound nominal predicate
40  The compound verbal predicate

25. Typology of the secondary parts of the sentences.

In both contrasted languages there can be distinguished the following types of objects:
according to the type of connection with a verb or some other governing word
 - prepositional object
- non-prepositional object (прийменниковий та безприйменниковий додатки);
2) according to the grammatical meaning —
- direct and
5 - indirect objects (прямий та непрямий додатки).

In Ukrainian there are distinguished two types of attributes — agreed and non-agreed
(узгоджені та неузгоджені означення).
The agreed attribute can be expressed by an adjective, a participle, a pronoun, an ordinal
10 numeral, as well as by a detached participial construction. With the modified word it is
agreed in case and in number, and in singular — as well in gender, for example: у рідну
країну, малий хлопець, чудна дівчинка.
The attribute in the English language is expressed mostly by the same parts of speech as
in Ukrainian. The characteristic feature of the English language in this respect is the
15 possibility to use a noun in the common case in the function of an attribute: a stone house
(кам’яний будинок).

According to their meaning adverbial modifiers are subdivided into many types, which
are basically similar in English and in Ukrainian. These are adverbial modifiers of: place
20 (місця), time (часу), manner (способу дії), measure and degree (ступеня й міри), reason
(причини), purpose (мети), result (наслідку), condition (умови), concession (допусту).
Besides in English there is one more type of adverbial modifier — the adverbial modifier of
attending circumstances (обставина супровідних умов).
In Ukrainian adverbial modifiers are not attached to any particular position in a sentence,
25 whereas in English adverbial modifiers have their certain position in a sentence.

26. The complex sentence, the main types of subordinate clauses in the languages under
analysis.
There is much more to be said about the complex sentence than about the compound. This is
30 due to several causes, which are, however, connected with one another. For one thing, the
semantic relations expressed by subordination are much more numerous and more varied
than with co-ordination: all such relations as time, place, concession, purpose, etc. are
expressly stated in complex sentences only.
Then again, the means of expressing subordination are much more numerous. There is here a
35 great variety of conjunctions: when, after, before, while, till, until, though, although, albeit,
that, as, because, since; a number of phrases performing the same function: as soon as, as
long as, so long as, notwithstanding that, in order that, according as, etc. Besides, a certain
number of conjunctive words are used: the relative pronouns who, which, that, whoever,
whatever, whichever, and the relative adverbs where, how, whenever, wherever, however,
40 why, etc.
We may note that the boundary line between conjunctions and relative adverbs is not quite
clearly drawn. We shall also see this when we come to the adverbial clauses introduced by
the word when and those introduced by the word where. Historically speaking, conjunctions
develop from adverbs, and one word or another may prove to be in an intermediate stage,
45 when there are no sufficient objective criteria to define its status.

According to I.V. Korunets, the nature of many logical-grammatical relations created

between the subordinate and the matrix clause generally corresponds to the nature of
relations created between the adjuncts/complements and their heads in subordinate word-
 groups. Hence, there are distinguished the following groups of subordinate clauses:
In English In Ukrainian
1. Substantive-nominal: a) subject
1. Субстантивно-номінативні: а) підметові
subordinate clauses, b) predicative
підрядні речення, б) присудкові підрядні
subordinate clauses, c) objective
речення, в) додаткові підрядні речення.
subordinate clauses.
2. Qualitatively-nominal: a) descriptive 2. Квалітативно-номінативні: а) описові
attributive clauses, b) restrictive/limiting атрибутивні підрядні речення, б) обмежуючі
attributive clauses. атрибутивні підрядні речення.
3. Adverbial clauses: of time, place, 3. Адвербіальні підрядні речення: Часу, місця,
purpose, cause, attending circumstances, мети, причини, способу дії, умови, допусту,
condition, concession, result, etc. наслідку тощо.
 
Similar ideas are expressed by another Ukrainian scholar Yu.O. Zhluktenko, who claims that
the structure of complex sentences and the types of complex sentences do not show much
5 difference in English and in Ukrainian. The peculiarity of Ukrainian complex sentences is a
wider use of the complex sentences in the principal part of which there is a correlative or
relative (or demonstrative) word (корелятивне, або співвідносне або вказівне слово)
which is concretized or specified by the subordinate clause

10 27. Typological features of the subordinate subject, predicative and object clauses.

1. The subject clause / Підметове підрядне речення

This type of subordinate sentence or clause performs the function of the subject in regard to the
principal clause. If such a type of clause is eliminated then the principal clause becomes
incomplete and looses its sense.

15 In English such sentences are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, whether, if and the
connective words (сполучні слова) who, what, which, the
pronouns whatever, whoever, whichever, the pronominal adverbs where, when, why, how,
e.g.: That he has made this mistake is strange. Whether he will come is uncertain.

Ukrainian subject clauses are most often connected with the help of relative
20 pronouns хто, що in the form of different cases. The main clause necessarily contains the
correlative (or demonstrative) word which performs the function of the formal subject, most
often these are such words as – той, та, те, ті, or весь (вся, все, всі). Compare:
Перемагає той, хто невідступно бореться. Всі, хто побачив його, вклонилися.

When a demonstrative word is absent the connection between the principal and subordinate
25 parts of the sentence becomes closer and acquires the adversative meaning, e.g.: Що не
склонилось – ожило, що не скорилось – не зійшло з народної дороги (А. Малишко)

2. The predicative clause / Присудкове підрядне речення

Clauses of this type are connected with the help of auxiliary part of the compound predicate of
the principal clause and substitute or complement its predicative member (that is the nominal
30 part of the compound nominal predicate). In English such sentences are connected with the
help of the conjunctions that, whether, if, as if, and the connective
 words what, who, why, where, how, when, e.g.: This is what I have thought for the last
fifteen years. The weather is not what it was yesterday.

The authors of different grammars do not coincide in their views regarding the type of such
subordinate sentences which refer to the principal clause with the formal subject it, e.g.: It is
5 strange that he should behave so. The majority of linguists consider such clauses to be subject
subordinate clauses. The linguist L.L. Ioffic is of the view that such sentences can be regarded
as predicative subordinate clauses. He considers that the principal clause has the impersonal
character and the relations between the adjective of the principal clause and the subordinate
clause are similar to the relations between the parts of the compound predicate.

10 In Ukrainian predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause by means of the
conjunctions and the connective words хто, що, який, щоб and others. The principal clause
contains necessarily the correlative word той (та, те, ті), or такий (така, таке, такі),
e.g.: Він не такий, щоб без діла сидіти. Ми – ті, що ви хотіли бачити.

3. The object/objective clause / Підрядне додаткове речення

15 English object clauses are connected by means of the conjunctions that, whether, if and those
connective words that are used for subject and predicative subordinate clauses. The asyndetic
connection of object clauses is also widespread.

In Ukrainian the most characteristic conjunctions of object clauses are що and щоб. Besides,

the following connective words are also widely used: pronouns хто, що, який, чий, котрий,
20 стільки; adverbs як, де, куди, звідки, коли, чому, нащо. Compare: We didn't forget that
our destination was far away. Ми не забували, що до мети ще далеко.

As well as in other types of subordinate sentences main sentences can have demonstrative or
correlative words той, та, те, ті: Скориставшись з того, що я відвернувся, він
проскочив у хату.

25 In object clauses which present the indirect speech in English the phenomenon of sequence of
tenses is widely spread. In Ukrainian this phenomenon is absent.

28. Typological features of the adverbial clauses (of time, manner, cause, purpose,
result, condition, concession, attendant circumstances, comparison, degree, measure).

Such clauses are of various types in both languages.

30 1. Adverbial clauses of place / підрядні речення місця.

In both languages the sentences of such a type characterize the action of the main or
principal clause, pointing towards its place or direction.

English sentences are joined to the main clause with the help of the connective
words where, wherever, whence.

35 Ukrainian adverbial clauses of place are connected with the principal clause with the help of
the connective words де, куди, звідки (розм. відкіль, звідкіль). Unlike English in the
Ukrainian main clauses there can be observed the use of the so-called demonstrative words
– adverbs, having spatial meaning, – там, туди, звідти (розм. звідтіль, відти), for
 example: Звідти, звідки на темному фоні неба все частіше спалахувала блискавка,
загуркотів грім.

In the English main clauses demonstrative words of such a meaning are not used in similar
cases, and the main function of the expression of relations of place and direction is rendered
5 with the help of the connective word and the context. Compare: I shall go where my
brother lives. Я поїду туди, де живе мій брат.

2. Adverbial clauses of time / підрядні речення часу.

The adverbial clauses of time are joined in English to the main one with the help of the
conjunctions when, while, as, after, before, till, until, since, as long as, etc. In Ukrainian
10 the adverbial clauses of time are joined with the help of the following connective words and
conjunctions: коли, відколи, поки (розм. покіль), аж поки, доки (розм. докіль), аж
доки, як після того як, в міру того як, тільки, як тільки, тільки що, щойно, ледве,
скоро and others.

In English the function of conjunctions of adverbial clauses of time can be fulfilled also by
15 some adverbs, for example, directly, immediately: I recognized the place directly I saw it.
– Я пізнав це місце, як тільки його побачив.

The connective function with the meaning of time is performed in modern English also by
some nouns or word-combinations: the moment (в ту мить як), the day (в той день
коли), the evening (у той вечір коли), the next time (наступного разу), at the time (в
20 той час як), by the time (до того часу коли), etc.: The moment I saw him I understood
everything. – У ту мить, як я його побачив, я все зрозумів.

The peculiarity of Ukrainian adverbial clauses of time are the composite conjunctions of the
type після того як, відтоді як, в той час як, відтоді як, з того часу як, в той
часяк etc. The first part of such a conjunction can be placed in the main clause, whereas the
25 second part як (коли) – is in the subordinate clause and is separated from the first one by
the intonation pause, and by coma in writing, e.g.: Зробимо це після того, як усі
матеріали будуть перевірені.

3. Adverbial clauses of manner (attending circumstances) / підрядні речення способу

дії (супровідних обставин)

30 Adverbial classes of manner are joined in English with the help of the conjunctions as, the
way, as if, as though. They point out in what way the action of the main clause takes place.
Rather often such a sentence bears in its meaning some sort of comparison, connected with
the shade of suggestion, e.g.: You speak so as if you did not know me. – Ви говорите так,
ніби ви мене не знаєте.

35 In Ukrainian such subordinate sentences are joined with the help of the connective
word як and the conjunctions: як, ніби, мoв, немов, наче, неначе,
ніж (розм. аніж), що and others. All of them (except ніж, чим) have a correlative
word такin the main clause, which is concretized by the subordinate sentence: Він
ішов так, наче добре знав дорогу.
 Among the adverbial clauses of manner there are differentiated in both languages the three
subtypes:

a) Adverbial clauses of manner proper (власне способу дії), joined in English with the help
of the conjunctions: as, as … as and others; in Ukrainian – як, що, щоб, e.g.: You ought to
5 write as he does. Буде так, як хотіла ти (В. Сосюра).

b) Adverbial clauses of comparison (порівняльні) with the conjunctions: in English as if,

as though; in Ukrainian як, ніби, мов, немов, наче, неначе, e.g. I remember this story as
if (as though) I had just read it. А він, мов нічого не чув, іде собі далі(А. Малишко).

The peculiarity of English adverbial clauses of comparison is that their predicate is used in
10 the form of conditional mood: He spoke as if (as though) he knew this question very well.

In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of comparison are also widely used in conditional mood,
where almost all conjunctions can be joined with the particle би/б: По траві плили
хвилі, начебто це був не луг, а річка.

c) Adverbial clauses of result (наслідкові) with the conjunctions: in English so … that; in

15 Ukrainian що, аж, for example: He played so that we admired him. Вода б’ється в
береги, аж осока шумить (Леся Українка) [5; 149–150].

4. Adverbial clauses of measure or degree / підрядні речення міри або ступеня.These

adverbial clauses are very close in their meaning to adverbial clauses of manner. While the
latter usually explain the verb-predicate of the main clause, adverbial clauses of measure or
20 degree refer to some adjective or adverb in such a sentence.

In English such sentences are connected with the main clause with the help of the
conjunctions as…as, so…as, as, as if, as though, not so...as and others, e.g.: He played so
well that everybody admired him. – Він грав так гарно, що всі ним захопилися.

In Ukrainian the adverbial clauses of measure or degree also include clauses joined with
25 help of double conjunctions чим…тим, що…то, чим…то and others, for
example: Чим вище деревотим, глибше йде коріння. Що далі ми заглиблювалися в
ліс, то темніше ставало навкруги .

5. Adverbial clauses of purpose / підрядні речення мети

English adverbial clausesof purpose are joined with the help of the conjunctions that, in
30 order that, so that, lest, for fear (that). These clauses are marked in the way that their
predicate has a special modal expression. Very often it is used in the analytical form of
conditional mood: I speak slowly so that you may understand me. Я говорю
повільно, щоб ви мене зрозуміли.

In Ukrainian such clauses are joined most often by the conjunctions щоб and для того
35 щоб, less often by – аби, for example: Він піде туди, щоб почути все самому [5; 151].

6. Adverbial clauses of cause / підрядні речення причини.

Adverbial clauses of cause are joined in English to the main clause with the help of the
conjunctions because, as, since, now that. Sentences with the conjunction because point
 towards the immediate cause of action or state, which is spoken about in the main clause,
while the adverbial clause of cause with the conjunction as usually motivates content of the
main sentence. Compare:

I went away because there was no one there. – Я пішов, бо там не було нікого.

5 As there was no one, I had to work alone. – Оскільки там не було нікого, я мусив
працювати один.

Besides the mentioned conjunctions the adverbial clauses of cause are joined with the main
clause also by means of the composite conjunctions, which originated from the substantival
and participial word combinations, for example: for the reason that, on the ground that,
10 seeing that, considering that.

In Ukrainian most frequently used in adverbial clauses of cause conjunctions are: бо, тому
що, через те що, тим що, від того що, що, а що, а як and others. The most peculiar of
them are бо, тому що, через те що, for example: Він не ходить на збори, тому що
боїться критики [5; 152].

15 7. Adverbial clauses of condition / підрядні речення умови.

In English the adverbial clauses of condition are joined with the help of the conjunctions if,
unless, but that, in case, provided, suppose, supposing and others. The most often of them
is the conjunction if. The conjunctions unless and but having negative meaning, point to the
fact that the action of the main sentence can take place only in case, when the action of the
20 subordinate sentence does not take place, for example:

He is sure to come unless he has some urgent work to do. – Він обов’язково

прийде, якщо тільки в нього немає якої-небудь дуже термінової роботи.

Adverbial clauses of condition are characterized by distinct modality. That is why they are
so widely used in conditional mood.

25 In English complex sentences with adverbial clauses of condition are characterized by

asyndentic connection. By this there is often observed inversion, for example: Had it not
been so late, I should have stayed longer.

Widely spread in English are eleptical clauses of condition of the type: If necessary, I shall
do it. I am sure you would act in the same way if in his place.

30 In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of condition are connected with the help of the
conjunctions коли, якщо, як, як тільки, аби, скоро, раз and others. When the adverbial
clause of condition is placed before the main one, then the latter starts with the conjunction-
equivalent то: Якби я знала, що діждуся, що побачу, то ще б підождала (Т.
Шевченко) [5; 153].

35 8. Adverbial clauses of concession / підрядні речення допусту.

Adverbial clauses of concession are joined in English with the help of the conjunctions and
the connective words though (although), in spite of the fact that, notwithstanding that,
whoever, what ever, however, no matter that.
 Though it was only nine o'clock, there were few people in the streets. – Хоч було лише
дев’ять годин, на вулицях було мало людей.

He went out in spite of the fact that he was quite ill. – Він вийшов, хоч був зовсім
хворий.

5 In Ukrainian adverbial clauses of concession are joined with the main clause by means of
the conjunctions and the connective words хоч (хоча, хоть), хай (нехай), дарма що,
незважаючи на те що, як не, скільки не and others. These conjunctions can have as
their correlatives the adversative conjunctions а, але, однак, проте etc., for example: Хоч
уже листя падало, осінню пахло, а проте було тепло та ясно (П. Мирний) [5; 156].

10 9. Adverbial clauses of result / підрядні речення наслідку.

Adverbial clauses of result are joined in English to the main sentence with the help of the
composite conjunction so that or the conjunction that, which has as its correlative the
demonstrative adverb so, compare:

She sat behind me so that I couldn't see her face. – Вона сиділа позаду мене, так що я
15 не міг бачити її обличчя.

The weather was so bad that the plane could not start. – Погода була така погана, що
літак не міг вилетіти.

Ukrainian adverbial clauses of result have the same type of conjunction так що

(й): Підхопили всі, всі враз і з усіх сил, так що коні шарахнулися набік (Ю. Смолич).

20 In both languages adverbial clauses of result usually occupy the position after the main
clause.

29. The English and Ukrainian punctuation.

ENGLISH UKRAINIAN ISOMORPHIC FEATURES
1 .The end of a sentence
2. In money expressed in decimal
system and in mathematics
PERIOD
3.In both languages the period is not
used after headings, titles, headlines,
signboards.
1. The end of a direct question
In Ukrainian the question mark in
2. A doubtful date or fact
QUESTION parentheses (?), (??) or (?!) applied to a
3. question mark is not usually used
MARK citation shows irony or doubt in
after a polite request put in the form
originality.
of a question
The exclamation point in parentheses (!) is
used to attract attention and sometimes to 1. The end of the exclamatory
express irony or surprise sentence, after statements or words
In Ukrainian, the exclamation point can be expressing strong feelings, after
EXCLAMA
used with emotional interrupters set off words of politeness or interjections
TION
with a pair of dashes in order to emphasize 2. The exclamation point in
POINT
the effect of some words. parentheses (!), (!!) after or in the
In Ukrainian, formal writing, a greeting middle ofa citation is used to attract
and a direct address end with the attention
exclamation point.
 1.In Ukrainian, the dots for ellipsis are not
1. The mark of omission (indication
separated with spaces, and at the end of a
that part of a direct quotation has
sentence the fourth dot is not added.
been left out).
2.In Ukrainian, the ellipsis is used for
ELLIPSIS 2. All the dots are separated with
stylistic effect: a) to express suddenness
spaces. If the words left out are at
after a pause
the end of a sentence, a fourth dot is
b) for the effect of the fragmentary
added for the period:
character or non-finality of discourse
1. Between two independent clauses
2. Two independent clauses may be
SEMICOL joined by a comma and a
ON conjunction. However, if there are
other commas in the sentence, the
comma is replaced by a semicolon
1. Introduces (a list of) explanation
In English a colon
2. In a book title, a colon separates
is never used
the title from the subtitle
COLON immediately after a
3. A colon introduces a long
verb or a
quotation separated from the rest of
preposition.
the text
1. In English a
dash should not
be used in the In Ukrainian, a dash is separated from
most formal the adjacent words with spaces In informal writing a dash can
writing, unless replace a colon, and a pair of
it is a direct Only in Ukrainian a dash can be used to dashes can replace a pair of
quotation. substitute the linking verb in the commas or parentheses.
DASH
complex nominal predicate.
2. In English, a A dash or a pair of dashes is put
dash is not Only in Ukrainian dashes are used to set to set off a long interrupter that
separated from off the author's words in direct speech already has commas in it.
the adjacent or to mark each new cue in a dialogue.
words with
spaces:

ENGLISH UKRAINIAN

COMMA

1. Commas That Separate  

Independent clauses Independent clauses are joined by

coordinate conjunctions, particularly but and for, in order
to emphasize the contrast:

The comma may be omitted:

when the independent parts of a compound sentence

have a notional element in common; when they are
when the independent clauses are short and closely
closely related and joined with conjunction i(й), та
related: Each performance of an experiment is called a
(=
trial and its result is called an outcome.
і): На хвилину раптом стихли голоси і спинилися 
тіні (Л.Смілянський).

The comma alone should be avoided between two
independent clauses (the comma splice): The beams have
rotted: they can no longer support the roof. [or] The
beams have rotted, so they can no longer support the roof.
[or] Since the beams have rotted, they can no longer
The comma between two independent clauses can be
used alone: Під вікном ростуть
банани, Шелестять високі пальми, Мирти, фіги
і платани (Кримський).
 support the roof.

Introductory phrases and clauses

A comma is used to separate an introductory phrase or In Ukrainian, a comma is always used to separate
clause from the main clause: If the variable t is actually parts of a complex sentence that are introduced with
time, then f is frequency. a conjunction or adverb.

Elements of series

Commas are required to separate series of

Commas are required to separate series of three or more
homogeneous
elements: The flight navigation system also provides
elements:Під вікнами насадила Ганна бузку,
altitude, roll, pitch, yaw, and ground speed.
любистку, півників та півонії (Нечуй-Левицький).

NOTE:A comma before the conjunction in a series is The comma before the conjunction in a series is
necessary to prevent misreading. omitted.

Coordinate adjectives

Separate by commas only those consecutive adjectives that

are coordinate, that is if (1) they can be linked by and and
(2) they independently modify the substantive:

Elliptical constructions

When clauses in a sentence contain repeated elements, the

omission of these elements is indicated by a comma: Wind
speed is obtained from antenna brightness temperature; In Ukrainian, the omitted elements are indicated
rain rate, from the brightness temperature difference at with a dash.
two frequencies; and wind vector, from radar cross
section.

Direct quotations and questions

Direct quotations and questions are separated from the rest

of the sentence with either commas or colons. A colon is
used to introduce a long or formal quotation. In reference
The comma can only be used after direct speech.
6, he states, "Thermal neutron fluxes up to 1020 might be
required." The obvious question is, how good is this
estimate?

NOTE:The dash is never used with direct speech in

 
English.

2. Commas That Enclose

A comma that encloses requires another comma on the

other side of the enclosed element; it can also be a colon,
semicolon, period, question mark, or exclamation mark.

30. Conversion in the modern linguistic studies. The ways of translating conversion
from English into Ukrainian.
Difference of paramount importance between the two languages is that of word order.
5 Ukrainian, conveying grammatical information mostly through inflection, allows
relative flexibility, which can be used to encode pragmatic information such as
topicalisation or focus. Word order in English is of much greater importance than in
Ukrainian. The word order in the English sentence is fixed, for English as an analytic
 language relies much on the order of sentence constituents to convey important
grammatical information. The meaning of a sentence in English often depends entirely
on the order in which the elements are placed (cf.: The man ate the fish and The fish ate
the man). Therefore inversion in English is a powerful stylistic device. In Ukrainian,
5 with its non-fixed, flexible order of words, inversion is less conspicuous. Hence,
inversion as it is, often doesn’t adequately convey 55the expressiveness of the English
sentence: Now was the moment to act. “Зараз” placed at the beginning in the Ukrainian
translation is not enough. As an adequate translation, one may perhaps use “саме
зараз”. So inversion in English is a much more expressive means of the language than
10 that in Ukrainian.