Bioenergetics Photosynthesis: Chemically photosynthesis is 0 “redox” process in which CO2 (an oxidized form of carbon} is reduced into glucose (a reduced form of carbon). Water acts as reducing agent which is oxidized into oxpgen during this process Bio-energetically photosynthesis con be defined as;"an energy conversion process in which energy poor molecules Le. CO2 and 420 are transformed into energy rich molecule such ‘as glucose”. The extra energy is absorbed in the form of sunlight by the photosynthetic pigments, The overall reaction of photosynthesis can be summarized as follows: 6CO; + 12H,0 “> CelHiiOy + 6O; + 6H;O 1._Redox reaction takes place during the process of: (2012-95) 3) respiration b) photosynthesis ©) growth d) bothoondb Role of Light: Sunlight is an electromagnetic orradiant form of energy Electromagnetic spectrum: [Me full range of electromagnetic radiation in the universe is called electromagnetic spectrum Visible light is onty a small part of the spectrum between 390nm to 760nm and is not only seen by noked eye but is also effective for the process of photosynthesis. The effectiveness of @ particular wovelength of light for the process of photosynthesis primarily depends upon its absorption in plant body. Action spectrum: [Such o graph which shows the effectiveness of different wavelength of light for the process of photosynthesis is called action spectrum, Light is absorbed in the form of phatons by the photosystem (a cluster of photosynthetic pigments). The absorption of photons causes photoelectric effect Le. excitation of electrons in the atoms of photosystem and ultimately these excited electrons leave the photosystem. 65,These excited electrons after leaving the photosystem begin to flow through an electron transport chain and their energy is utilized in formation of ATP and NADPH2 by cherniosmosis (will be described later in this chapter) mechanism. 2._The following statement is true for the absorption spectra of photosynthesis: (2018) ‘@. Chlorophyll a ond b have the same absorption spectra. 1b. Chlorophyll a and b have the different absorption spectra. © Chlorophyll a and caratenokts have the some absorption spectra. d,_ Chlorophyll b and carotenoids have the same absorption spectra Photosynthetic pigmen Pigment is any substance that absorbs light energy. All the wavelengths which are ‘absorbed by a pigment are disoppeared. A particular pigment shows only those wavelengths which are reflected back All the pigments that take part in photosynthesis are embedded in thylokoid membranes (g/an0 | within chloroplasts. Higher plants have two major group of pigments Le, chlorophyll and carotenoids. Mh: Chlorophylis absorb mainly violet blue(340nm to 460nm) and red[630nm to 70Onm) wavelengths. Green and yellow are least absorbed and are reflected therefor piant looks green. Types of Chlorophyll: Two mojor types of chlorophyll are Chlorophyll ~ a and Chlorophyll - b. © Chlorophyll — @ is a bluish green pigment which is found in all photosynthetic organisms except photosynthetic bacteria. © Chlorophyll — b is yellowish green pigment which ts also found in all photosynthetic organisms except brown, red algae and photosynthetic bacteria. * Algae also have some other form of chlorophylls Le.Chloraphyll ~ c, Chlorophyll — d and Chlorophyll - ¢ while photosynthetic bocteria have yet another type of chlorophyll Le. bocteriochlorophyill. Formula: Molecular formula of chtorophyil a, b, ¢ and d. Chlorophyll 0 Csi /0.NeMg Chlorophyll b Cut oONiMg Chlorophyll €:CysHeOsNiMg Chlorophyll d:Cs.HO.NubgvTrytakoid Porphyrin: head Granum (stack of thylakoids) 8. Light-harvesting chlorophyll complex C. Chiorophyl! molecule Chi I: ‘A molecule of chlorophyll consists of a head and two tails, Head of chlorophyll The head 's composed of a porphyrin ring with Mg+2 in the center. The porphyrin ring further consists of four pyrrole rings (each pyrrole ring contains four carbons ond one nitrogen atom) The nitrogen atoms of pyrrote rings interact with central Mg+2 atom. The pyrrole rings also contain different groups around them. ‘The only difference between chlorophyll - a and ehloraphyll - bis that chlorophyll - a has methyl group|-CH3) on 2nd pyrrole ring whereas chlorophyli-b has aldehyde group|-CHO) at this point. The head of chlorophyll is hydrophilic in nature. Jt is exposed on the surface of thylakoid membrane. It is light absorbing part of chlorophyll.Human Blood Hemoglobin Plant Chiarophyil Tail of chlorophyll © The two side chains in the chforaphyll molecule are called tails. ‘© One side chain consists of 9 long chain terpenoid alcohol phytol (CM) . This chain is linked with 4th pyrrote ring of the head. ‘* The other side chain consists of methyl (CH3) ester which is linked to head between 3rd and 4th pyrrole rings of porphyrin. ‘* The chlorophyll tails are hydrophobic in nature. They are embedded into the thylakoid ‘membranes and serve to anchor the chlorophyll molecule in the membrone. . 3._Chiorophyll a. and b chiefly absorb: (2012-143) 9) violet and blue light b) orange ight ¢) blue-red light d) red-orange light 4__Which is least important in photosynthesis: (200$-172) a) red tight bo) blue ight ¢} suntight d) green light 5._Which statement about chlorophyll is not true? (2019) @. it Contains terminal carbonyl group 6. It contains phytol tail ©. (contains porphyrin ring @_Itcontains magnesium 6._inchlorophyll-b the porphyrin ring is attached to the: (2013-87. 2011-117) a) methyl group ) carboxy! group ¢) aldehyde group @) hydroxy! group7._Which of the following Is present in the center of porphyrin ring of chlorophyll: (2010-118) a. on b. sodium © potassium d._ magnesium 8 _The center of porphyrin in the head region of hemoglobin is occupied by: (2010-44) @. iron b. magnesium sodium d._ potassium 9._Which wave lengths are mainly absorbed by chlorophyll? (2019) 0. Violet blue and red b. Green and blue ¢._Violet and oronge d. Red and indigo Carotenoid: Carotenoids are terpenaid lipids, which ore yellow, orange, red or brown pigments. © = They absorb fight strongly in the blue-vialet range. © They are seen in leaves before leof fall, present in some flowers and fruits. © The carotenoids act as accessory pigment along with chlorophyll = b os they absorb intense light which can damage chlorophyll a and then transfer it to the chlorophyll = 0 $0 protect chlorophyll a from intense light. They also attract insects, birds and other animals for pollination and dispersal, Ss There are two types of carotenoids «© carotenes © xynthophyils. Carotenes: © The carotenes are orange redpigments, composed of soprenoid units and are found in all photosynthetic eukaryotes. * The most wide spread and important carotene is 8 carotene. Xanthophyll: © Xanthophyils are yellowin color and are also composed of isoprenoid units. © Lutein is widely distributed xynthophyil which is responsible for yellow color of foliage in autumn. 10. Chiorophyil is protected from intense light by: (2011-124) 0) plont hormone b) carotenoids ©) plant enzymes 6d)_water present in mesophyll tissues 11. Carotenoids cantain:_ (2012-160) a) Corotenes 6) xanthophyll ¢) chlorophyll-C d}_bothaandb 12. Pigment combination of a carotenoid is: (2016-62) @. Blue, green, brown, or red. b. Orange, yellow, blue, or brown ©. Yellow, orange, red, or brown go. Blue, red, orange, or brown 13, Carotenoids pigments are: (2015-02) @. Yellow, Red, Green, Blue b. Orange, Yellow, Red, Brown © Green, Yellow, Blue, Brown d._Blue, Red, Green, Yellow 14, Accessory pigments ore : (2014-102) red-yellow-green red-orange-blue orange-blue-green red-orange-yetlow 15. Which of the following statement is correct: (2018) a. Accessary pigments are not involved in phatosynthesis 1b. Accessary pigments add colar to plants but do nat absorb light energy ©. Atcessary pigments absorb colors of light that chiarophyil a cannot absorb d. Atcessary pigments receive electrans from the electron transport of photosystem i Mechanism of photosynthesis The process of photosynthesis has been divided into two phases. * Light reaction ® Dark cycle Light Dependent Phase (Light Reaction): * The first phase és colled fight dependent phase (light reaction) because it can take place anly in the presence of light. © The light- dependent phase occurs in the thylakeid membranes. © In this phase light energy (s used to make ATP ond NADPH 70Light dependent phase of photosynthesis involves the absorption of light by the photosystems, excitation and flow of electrons through an electron transport chain, chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP, and reduction of NADP" to NADPH. Photosystem: Region where cluster af photosynthetic pigment is found is called photosystem. There are two phatosystems i.¢ photosystem | (700) and photosystem I (P680). o OR For efficient absorption and utilization of light energy, the photosynthetic pigments are arranged in the form of clusters in thylakoid membranes. These clusters are called photosystems, Parts of photosystem; Antenna complex:The peripheral part of photosystem is called antenna complex which consists of aecessary pigments such as chlorophyll-b and carotenoids. Reaction center: The central part of photosystem is called reaction center which contains only chlorophyll-a and associated proteins. Which are electron carriers play rote ETC. The chlorophyll-a in the reaction center of PS-I can absorb maximum 70Gnm wavelength of light, hence called P700. While chlorophyll a of photosystem ii absorb light of 680nm therefor called P80, The photosystems are named for the order in which they were discavered and not for the order in which they accur in the thylakoid membrane. ‘AS chlorophyll-a con only absorb light of a narrow wavelength, it works with the pigments of antenna complex to gain energy from a larger part of the spectrum. The pigments absorb light of various wavelengths and pass along their gained energy to -chlorophiyi-a of the reaction center. When the energy reaches the chlorophyll-a its electrons become so excited that they escape and move to @ nearby electron transport chain In this way chlorophyll molecule becornes oxidized. Chiorophylt = ey Chlorophyll + © fret Bem onto ew) The electron transport system plays an important role in generation of ATP by the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. Types. The flow of excited electrons through an electron transport chain during light reaction |s of two different type;i.e., non-cyctic and cyclic.* Non-cyclic electron transport chain + In gan-cyelic election flow, the excited electrons ofter leaving a particular photosystem do not comeback; these electrons after lasing their energy are incorporated into another molecule. © On the other hand, in cyclic electron flow, the excited electeans after leaving a particular photosystem finally come back to their photosystem again. ‘© The most important event in light reaction is the production of ATP. ‘® This production of ATP during light reaction is called photophasphorylation and the mechanism involved in this photophosphorylation Js colled chemlosmosis. The process of photophosphorylation during non-cyclic electron flaw is ealled — nomcycle photophosphorylation and during cyclic electron flaw is called cyclic photophosphorylation Non-cyclic ph OS) lation: + {6s predominant pathway of light reactian in higher plants that accurs én routine. © in this process both photosystems i.e., PS-t and PS-li are utilized and two electron transport chains are involved, ‘+ When PS-Ii(P700) absorbs light, its excited electrons after flowing through on electron transport chain are transferred to PS-i. Similarly, the excited electrons which are liberated from PS-1 are finally accepted by NADP. Therefore it /s called non-cyciic efectron flaw. The events of nan-cyclc photophosphorylation are continuous but here they ore discussed in steps for convenience. Absorption of light by PS-I! and excitation of its electrons: © When the light fall on PS-11 chl a and carateniod found in antenna comlex absorb it and transfer energy to reaction center from where two election eseap. © These excited electrons are escape from chlorophyll a and is captured by the primary ‘electron acceptor (pheophytin) of PS+II ond leave two “electron hales” (electron deficiency) in the photosystem behind. * Pheopytin is actually a chlorophyll molecule lacking Mg++ ion. Ph is of water: © The electron holes of photosystem must be filled so that in the presence of woter splitting enzyme reactions can proceed. © When water reacts with oxidized state of chlorophyll ia photosystem, it breaks up into 2H* fons, 2e and 350; . HQ Petoinmetweter Ji + Qe + HOD * Since this breakdown occurs in the presence of sunlight therefore, it is termed as photolysis of woter. The electrons released from water are used to fill the “electron holes” of PS-1. n* Electron flow from PS-Il to PS-!: © The excited/energized electrons which have been released from PS-II and coptured by primary electron acceptor (pheopytin) now begin to flow to PS-I through a chain. The primary electron acceptor then transfer electron to an iron containing protein, the plastoquinone (PQ). © From PQ the electrons flow through a cluster/complex of another iron containing proteins, the cytochromes(Cyt) which consist of Cyt-be and Cyt-f. An ATP molecule synthesize during this called photophosphorylation. © This ATP, generated by light reactions will provide chemical energy for the synthesis of sugar during Colvin cycle or Dark cycte(C3 cycle). © The energired electrons after losing their energy, move from cytochrome complex to a copper containing protein, the plastocyanin (PC) and finally incorporated inta the PS-1 * Absorption of light by PS-I and excitation of its electrons: * On the other hand, when P700 in the reaction center of PS-4 molecule absorbs two photon of light, efectrons are boosted to a higher energy level. * 700 molecule passes these excited electrons too primary electron acceptor (ferodoxin reducing substanceor FRS) of PS-1, creating “electron holes. = The electron holes of P700 are filled by the pair of electrons received from the F680 (phatosystem Hl) via electron transport chain. © Ele in flow. PS-1 to NADP’: * The primary electron acceptor of photosystem! passes the photo excited electrons to 0 second electron transport chain 4 The electrons from FRS ore accepted by ferredoxin (Fd). It an iron containing pratein. © An enzyme calfed NADP reductase {flavoprotein enzyme) transfers the electrons from Fd to NADP”. *® NADP" combines with electrons and hydrogen ians ta form NADPH (reduced). «The NADPH will provide reducing power for the synthesis of sugar in the Calvin eycle. © NADP’ + 2e% 2H) ———® NADPH eH * The path of electron transport through the two photosystems during non-cyclic photophosphorylation is known as 2-Scheme due to its conceptual rigrag shape. So the product of non cyclic light rxn are 1 ATP and 1 NADPH. 316. Light reaction takes place in: (2018) a, Plasmodesmata 4. strama [cehforopiast @. granum @. Photosynthesis b. Photosystem 6. Photosynthetic cluster arrangement Calvin system 18. Photophosphorylation (s: (2014-16) | 12..Organization of phatosynthetic pigments into clusters is: (2029) @. ATP synthesis by food energy b. ATP synthesis by solar energy €. ATP synthesis by source of water ._ATP synthesis by source of NADH, 19. Chemiosmasis accurs in the: (2014-103) 0) grona 1b) stroma ) thylakoids dj _lntergrana o) stroma b) grona thylakoid membrane a) cristae The pigments of chlorophyll 0, b and caratenolds are present in : (2013-81) a) RUBP + ATP b) RUBP + PGAL «) NADPH + ATP id} PGAL + ATP 21. The products of light dependent reaction are: (2014-127) 422. The product af ight reaction travel from: (2015-31) 0. cristae to stroma ©. stroma to grane d. grana tocristoe @._grana to stroma 23. Light absorbing pigments in photosystem first is: (2014-17) 0. P600 b. P680 © P700 dP 760 24, Excited electrons from photo system-ll are coptured by: (2015-12) o) PC b) PQ ©) Cytochromesb d) Pentamerous hic hosphi ©The rise in NADPH and deficit of ATP may stimulate a temporary shift fram a nan-cyclic to cyclic electron flow unt ATP supply catches up the demand. * It is also a predominant pathway of light reaction during bacterial (except cyanobacteria) photosynthesis. In this mechanism only PS-1 és utilized. It absorbs energy in the form of photons. When energy reaches the reaction center of PS-I the electrons ore boosted up to higher eneegy level. Such excited electrons ore first coptured by primary electron acceptor{FRS) of PS-1, then they move through an electron transport chain containing ferridoxin, cytochrome bef complex and plastocyanin. When electrons ore passed from cytochrome be-f complex an ATP is generated by chemiosmosis. Finally, the electrons ofter losing the energy return back ta P700 chlorophyll in PS-i reaction center. There is no production of NADPH, no occurrence of photolysis of water and therefore, no release of oxygen. Dark cycle or calvin cycle or C3 cycle © The second phase of photosynthesis is called the light independent phase (dark reaction) becouse it can toke place whether light is present or not © This phi requires the products of light ATP and NADPH. Sine products are available in day therefore, dark reaction also oGlyeolate (occurs. in Strama) It. Glycolate-———-— > Glycine (Peroxisome) IM. 2 Glycine —-——-- > Serine +CO2 (Mitochondria) Effect of temperature on the activities of RuBisCO: Photorespiration is related to the functioning of the enzyme ribulose bisphosphate(RuBP) corboxylose oxygenase, Jt is often called RuBisCO because it con have an oxygenase vetivity in addition to carboxylase activity. Its activity depends upon the relative concentration of 0, and CO, in leaves. Photorespiration starts when the CO2 levels inside a leaf become low. This happens on hot dry days when plont begins to secrete abscisic orld which causes closing of stomata to prevent excess water loss. if the plant continues CO; fixation in photasynthesis when its stomata ore closed, the CO; will be used up and the O; released from photosynthesis will be prevented to release out of plant body, In this way, ratio of O, in the ieof will increase relative to CO; concentrations. a[ Disadvantages and Evolution of Photorespiration: Photorespiration costs the plant energy ond results in the net loss of CO) fixation from the plant. Thus, it reduces the rate of photosynthetic process. In most plants, photorespirotion reduces the amount of carbon fixed into carbohydrate during photosynthesis by 25 percent Photorespiration is not essential for plant. It & also observed that if photorespiration ts inhibited chemically, the plant con, still grow. Furthermore, some plants ere naturally resistant to photorespiration. Then why photorespiration exists? The commen simple answer to this question is that the active site of RuBisCO is evolved to bind both carbon diaxide and axygen. Originally it was nat a problem as there was no oxygen in the atmosphere at the time of establishment of earth 50 the carbon dioxide binding activity was the only one used. The photorespiration started when the oxygen began to accumulate in the atmosphere. Some plants which grow in tropical climate have an adaptation to the problem of photorespiration. They have an additional metabolic pathway in light independent phase of photasynthesis beside Colvin cycle. This metabolic pathway is called Hatch-Slock cycle of Cs pathway in which phosphoenol pirnuvate (PEP) carboxylase és used instead of RuBisCO to fix COs to phosphoenol pyruvote (a Cs mofecule), and the result is oxaloacetate, a Cemolecule. It takes place in cytoplasm of mesophyll celts PEPe CO? _tretewes __y Oxaloacetate As the first product of CO: fixation is a 4-carbon compound oxaloacetate, so the plants ore called C. plants e.g. maite, sugarcane, sorghum, etc Oxaloocetate is then transported tothe chloroplasts of mesophyll celis. it is then converted to another 4-C compound, the malate, with the help of NADH, produced in the photochemical phase. The malate is then transported to the chloroplasts of bundle sheath ceils. Here mofate is converted to pyruvate (Cx) with the release of CO, Thus concentration of CO; increases in the bundle sheath cells. These cells cantain enzymes of Colvin cycle. Becouse of high concentration of CO,, RUBP carboxylase participates in Calvin cycte and not in photorespiration, Sugar formed in Colvin cycle 's transported into the phloem. Pyruvic ocid (pyruvate) generated in the bundle sheath cells re-enters mesophyll cells and regenerates phosphoenol pyruvic acid (PEP) by consuming ane ATP.LR i i liphi > Wis most abundant protein in nature. * iis found in mesophyll cells of C3 plants & in Bundle sheath cells of C4 plants, +> So rwbisco is found in bolh C3 & C4 plants but Pepco only found in mesophyll cells of C4 plants. » Rubisco is dual in nature i.e, it acts both as oxygenase as well as catboxylase. But depends on concentration » WO: Concentration is high, it acts a5 oxygenase and in the presence of high CO: concentration, it acts as carboxylase. 2 nol F Ii only found in mesophyll cells of Ca plants. + Mis carborylase in nature, Difference b/w C3 & C4 cycle; ® As 1' compound produced in datk cycle Is 3-C, therefore called C3 cycle. © While in C4 cycle 1 compound produced és of 4C (oxaloacetate), therefore called Ca cyele. C, pathway C, pathway 1. Photosynthesis occurs im meso - | Photosynthesis occurs im mese « phyll cells phyll and bundle sheath cells 2 The CO, molecule acceptor is The CO, acceptor molecule is Rube 3. The first stable product is a 3C compound called 3 ~ DC 4. Photorespiration rate is high phosphoenol pyruvate The first stable product is a 4C compound called OAA Photorespiration is negligible and leads t0 loss of fixed CO, | and itis almost alent. Hence, It Uccreases CO, fixation rate it increases CO, fixation rate S$, Optimum temperature is 2010 | Optimusn temperature is 30 to se 48°C, 6. Examples of C, plants are rice, | Examples of C, plants are maize, wheat and potate sugarcane, Tribulus ard Amaranthus 93