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Cultural Life at Nalanda University

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 7 Tad ekam: Not Female, Not Male
• Nicholas Kazanas
18 Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient
India: A New Nine Phase Acculturation
Model Explaining the Process of Transfer
of Power from the Harappans to the
Indo-Aryans-Part Two
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
96 Cultural Life at Na.landa University
Pi Kumar
119 Indo-Iranian Cultural Heritage in the
Context of Sufism
Ananda Bhattacharya
137 On the Origin of Modular Design
of Mughal Architecture
R Balasubramaniam
- 160 Negotiation for Power: Local Chieftains
vs. State in 18th Century Andhra
G Naga Sridhar
179 Studying Slum-Subaltern in Recent
Indian Fiction and Celluloid: The Case
of Slumdog Millionaire
A J Sebast"an sdb
 t!~ The Icfai University Journal of

o History'and Culture
Contents •

Tad ekam: Not Female, Not Male 7

Nicholas Kazanas

Syncretism and Acculturation in Ancient India:

A New Nine Phase Acculturation Model Explaining
the Process of Transfer of Power from the Harappans
to the Indo-Aryans-Part Two 18
Sujay Rao Mandavilli

Cultural Life at Nilandi University 96

PintuKumar

Indo-Iranian Cultural Heritage in the Context of Sufism 119

Ananda Bhattacharya

On the Origin of Modular Design of Mughal Architecture 137

R Balasubramaniam

Negotiation for Power:

Local Chieftains vs. State in 18th Century Andhra
G Naga Sridhar

Studying Slum-Subaltern in Recent Indian Fiction

and Celluloid: The Case of Slumdog Millionaire
A J Sebastian sdb

Book Reviews
India: A Cultural Decline or Revival? 199
Mohandas: A True Story of a Man, his People and An Empire 202
The Root of All Evil: An Exposition of Prejudice,
Fundamentalism and Gender Imbalance 206
EDITOR
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 Cultural Life at Nalanda University

The cultural life of a learning institution particularly a residential one has its
own magnitude for its continuous existence and to acquire prestigious position
among other contemporary establishments. On the other side, its academic and
extra curricular activities also reflect the real nature of instruction provided
there. The everyday living pattern also helps a lot in the inclusive development of
students and makes them a complete man and responsible citizen. It is also quite
relevant in the case of the ancient Indian education system especially with the
organized educational centers mostly operated in the vicinity of Buddhist
mahaviharas such as NCilanda University; the oldest, the largest and the
coordinator of all contemporary universities.

The early Indian education reflected an age of creativity and intellectual freedom. The
continuous curiosity to comprehend the natural and the worldly affair made the ancient
Indian educational system to reach its apogee, which reflected in its organized or university
educational centers. Early Indian education witnessed two main stages in its development,
viz., the gurukulas or the Vedic school system and the monastery or university education
system. The gurukula was mainly the center for primary education that later evolved also
into a college such as Taxila. But the mahaviharas being centers for institutionalized
education mainly focused on higher education. The main universities of ancient India were
Na1amla, VikramaslIa Odantapurl, Valabhl, etc. The Nalancla University was the
coordinator of this institutional educational system.

Nalancla mahaviharas were a learning place, which could be treated at par with the
modern advanced study centers. This was the next stage of development in ancient Indian
education after gurukula education, it symbolized the beginning of organized instruction
with adaptation of salient features of Vedic schools, an unorganized educational system.
This Buddhist higher study center has acquired an international prestige with attracting
students from Asia and Europe by successfully achieving its objectives. The devoted monk
students and scholars were always engaged in re-exploring and researching deeply the
Buddhist philosophy. Generally Buddhist monks confined themselves to the study of their
sacred scriptures only; they implied the learning and teachings of the 'Tripi takas' (collection
of Buddha's sermons). The widely recognized Nalancla scholars have contributed a lot
directly and indirectly to the expansion and popularization of Buddhism not only in India
but also in South Asian countries.

* Assistant Professor, Motilal Nehru College (Eve.), Delhi University, Delhi, India.
E-mail: pintujnu2004@rediffmail.com
 Objectives
Here, we shall go into the details of daily life of Na1anda University.The activities of resident
monks become very important in the sense to I<1towthe nature of its educational system.
This highly moral and spiritual life was on the one side connected with the gaining of
knowledge and on the other hand deeply rooted in the devotion for Buddhism. As an ancient
learning center, the cultural life ofNa1anda presents a beautiful combination of study and
veneration. As a premier Buddhist study center, examining the output of Nalanda's life also-
becomes important; it will be done at the end. We shall look into Nalanda's input to various
fields such as education, society, religion, philosophy, etc.

Origin, Development and Decline of Nilandi University

The story of the ancient Nalanda University is very long. It begins from the age of Buddha
and goes to the early medieval period of India. It originated as a small vihara, and then
expanded as mahavihara, which later transformed into the temple of learning. The birth,
growth and decline of Nalanda were deeply rooted in the Buddhist religion and philosophy
and stimulated by contemporary social, political and religious conditions.

In Sanskrit, a monastery is called a sangharama and sometimes vihara. Literary it meant,

'the resting place' where the samgha stayed. In the sixth century Be, there were many
wandering religious saints or Parivrajakas, who were called samghas.1 Even before the
monastic establishment came into existence, the samghas functioned like a roaming
educational institution. In such a system some had to specialize, by designation given to
certain monks as specialist of the discipline viz. Dhammadhara and Vinayadhara.2 Among
them Buddhist bhikkhus were known as Sakyaputtiya Samanas. Generally these Buddhist
monks had renounced the world; they were nomadic mendicants; their sole purpose in life
was to practice and to propagate the religion of Buddha. We are told
in Mahavagga that the mendicants went on their travels during winter, summer and the rainy
season. The monks had no dwelling place. Buddha institutionalized the retreat during rainy
season.3 We learn from Cullavagga that Buddha afterwards at the request of the setthi
of Rajagrha allowed the following abodes: vihara, addhayogas, storied dwellings, attics
and caves.4 Some centuries must have elapsed before the avasascame to be organized and
had distinct existence.

Dutt's conclusions are founded on certain rules of Cullavagga, which deal with the
allotment of seats in avasa. 5 The general rule is that the seats are to be retained during
the period of yassa (stay) by the two regular occasions for the allotment of seats, the

1 Dutt S (1984), Early Buddhist Monachism, 2nd Edition, p. 32, Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi.
Anand W P Guruge (1977), "The Contribution of Buddhism to Education", paper presented in
International Seminar on Buddhism's Contribution to World Civilization and Culture,
March 27-29, pp. 10-12, Vigyan Bhavan, New Delhi.

Mahavagga, Vol. III, p. l.

4 Cullavagga, Vol. VI, pp. 1-2.
sOp. cit, p. 130.
 commencement of the earlier and that of the later vassa. Also the day after the Pavarana
ceremony is recognized the seats are allotted for the next rain retreat in anticipation.6 The
avasa from being shelters during the rain retreat became place of domicile and hence seats
1>.
had to be allotted not only for three or four months of the year but also for the remaining
period. The allotment, which is really made for the non-vassa period, is said to be made
in advance for the next vassa period.

As the viharas became permanent place of residence, the want of monks increased.
We find description ofviharas in Mahavagga and Cullavagga are like full-fledged houses.?
Afterwards Buddha allowed the monks to have a fence made of bamboo-sticks, thorns or
a ditch as we find in the case of Na1amla viharas .8 The purpose ofthe viharas and the other
dwelling places in the words of Buddha was this: "to give viharas to the samgha, where,
in safety and in peace, to meditation and think at ease, the Buddha calls the best of gifts".9
In this way the learned saints and the knowledge thrust men got lodged in the viharas.
There are two kinds of learned monks who reside in these monasteries. First, the monks
whose aim was to get salvation by searching the real truth in Buddhist scriptures and then
enlighten the whole society; and second, the monks whose aim was also to get salvation
but only for himself by studying the Buddhist texts and after that either adopt the wandering
life or family life.

Gradually as viharas became repositories of learned men they began to attract students
for the acquisition of knowledge. The doors of the Buddhist samgha which were open before
only to those who had forsaken the world, were now thrown open to the students as well,
who if they chose were at liberty to leave the monastery and embrace the life of a
householder, after they finished their education. It is in this transformation of the
monasteries that we find the seeds of a university of Nalanda. A change, however, was
coming over the monasteries for when we come to Nalanclli, it is now no more only shelter
for meditation on the teachings of Buddha, but the pursuit of all sorts of knowledge became
an ideal of the monasteries.

Unfortunately we do not have a systematic history ofNalanda depicting the different

stages of its growth as a university. The Chinese and the Tibetan sources give us a lot of
information about Nalanda's scholars, curriculum of studies, life, status and the different
kings who patronized it. But these sources enlighten us about its glorious days and declining
period. The extensively excavated ruins ofNalanda speak a different language of their own
which has made possible to some extent the glorious period of Nalanda. It is difficult to
ascertain when Nalanda was first started and attained the height in later times.

The earliest datable objects and structures found at Nalanda belong to the Gupta period.
The name of the royal founder ofNalanda is given by Hiuen-Tsang as Sakraditya, otherwise

Mahuvagga, Vol. Iv, pp. 19-22.

7 Op. cit., Cullavagga, pp. 3-6.
8 Ibid., pp. 4-10.
9 Ibid., pp. 1-5.
 known as Kumaragupta I, who reigned during 415-455 AD. With the establishment of the
greatness of the monastery of Sakraditya, the site of Nalanda assumed an importance to
the Gupta Emperors.

Successive Gupta kings who went on constructing monasteries of their own on the
different sides of the original structure-followed the example set by Sakraditya. Hiuen
Tsang thus continues his account of the construction ofNalanda University, "his son
(Sakraditya's) Buddhaguptaraja, who succeeded him, built another samgharama or
monastery. Tathagataguptaraja vigorously practiced the rules of his ancestors, and he built
to the east from it another samgharama".

We can identify Purugupta was the same as Tathagatagupta. Baladitya, otherwise known
as Narasimhagupta, was the son ofPurugupta and succeeded him to the empire in 467 AD.10
His son Vikramaditya II succeeded Baladitya to the Empire. On the north-east side, Baladitya
built a sangharama, in addition to this, he had built a great vihara, about 300 feet in height
and the statue of Buddha was placed in it. And a striking confirmation of Hiuen Tsang's
statement is found in the recently discovered inscription of the reign of Yasovermadeva.J1

Baladitya's son, Vajra, erected a vihara to the west of Baladitya's. Vajra was the King
of Central India who built a great sangharama, to north of Vajra and an encircling with
one gate.12 After Vajra, King Harsavardhana of Kanauj appeared to be the King of Central
India. 13

Nalanda University came to the Palas as a cultural legacy of the past, which they being
Mahayana Buddhists were bound to cherish. Now it was becoming a citadel of the tantric
cult.14 Gopala, the first Pala king built a monastery here. Dharmapala built a monastery
called Amrtakara to south of Nalanda. But the most important king of the Pala dynasty who
patronized Nalanda was Devapala. He identifies himself with the cause of Nalanda and it
was during his time that Nalanda emerged as an international university. The discovery of
large number of images and inscriptions give testimony to the patronage of this king.

The historians are not unified about the reasons behind the degradation of the ancient
Nalanda University. It was the changes in the contemporary social, religious and political
conditions that brought its end. Some buildings were damaged and it is possible that at least
part ofNalanda was destroyed by fire since heaps of ashes and charcoal were found at
excavation. IS Nalanda together with the universities of Vikramaslla and Odantapurl,
suffered gravely during the conquest of Bihar by the Muslim General Muhammad Bhaktiyar

Xl Raychaudhary H C (1972), Political History of Ancient India, p. 297, University of Calcutta, Calcutta.
11 Epigraphica Indica, Vol.XX,p. 37.
12 Beal S (Trans.) (1888), The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by Hwui Li, 1" Edition, Vol. I, Trench Trubner Corn.,
London, reprinted 1911, 1914, 2nd Edition (1973), Munshirarn Manoharlal, New Delhi, p. 216.
13 Roychaudhary H C (1972), Political History of Ancient India, p. 225, University of Calcutta, Calcutta.
14 Upasak C S (1977), NalandCi: Past and Present, p. 11, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda.
IS Misra B N (1998), NalandCi (Sources and Background), Vol. 1, p. 203, B R Publishing Corporation,
Delhi; Sankalia H D (1972), University of NalandCi, p. 246, Indian Historical Institute Series, Oriental
Publication, New Delhi.
 Khalji between 1197 and 1206 AD and many monks were killed or forced to leave.16
Survivors fled to Nepal and Tibet, and Tibetan monks who in previous times would have
gone to India for advanced studies now went 1ot4> Nepal to study and in search of
manuscripts.17 The destruction though might not have been total right away since 1234 AD
the Tibetan monk Dharmasvamin visited N"alanda, found some buildings unscathed with
some pandits and monks residing there under the leadership of Rahulasribhadra and were
receiving instruction. 18

Cultural Life at Na:Ianda University

NaIanda mahaviharas grew up as a huge complex of teaching center from a small
monastery. The monastic nature of NaIanda University was intimately connected with its
development till its last breath. The Buddhist orientation was visible in every aspect of
Nl:i1andaUniversity apparatus especially from its cultural life. In fact the Buddhist religion
largely got its maturity at Nalanda and later propagated and advertised it in other parts of
India and outside. Nalanda 's cultural life was a true representation of Buddhist sacred
worship, rituals and ceremonies from its establishment. In this way it also presented an idea
of the ceremonies performed by the Buddhist monks and the activities of the
Buddhist Samghas in contemporary India. This cultural life was not static but quite mobile.
It got changed and modified always according to the further growth in Buddhism and
Brahmanism. It also reflected the mutual interaction and contradiction between Buddhism
and Brahmanism, the two dominant religions of ancient India.

Excavations at Nalanda have brought to light numerous images in bronze and stone.
They are worked out in such a variety of shapes that it looks so natural. So, what did the
University have to do with so many spotted images. The study at Nalanda did not consist
merely of theological knowledge of the Buddhist religion and philosophy. The student was
required to perform the religious rites and worship images, about which he read in holy
Buddhist scriptures. I-Tsingaccounts on the rules and the ceremonies established by Buddha,
gives us an idea of the rituals performed by the Buddhist monks. With time, these sacred
duties got institutionalized in the everyday life of Nalanda, which were followed with deep
devotion.

We can feel the main thrust of the peculiar cultural life ofNalanda by peeping through
these rituals, customs and ceremonies. This cultural life was different in other mahaviharas
of different sects of Buddhism. Such as Vikramaslla, the monastery of Htnayana sect had
a different structure of everyday life with dissimilar rituals. Interestingly the customary life
of Buddhist monks also got changed in accordance with development in the particular
society and culture and with modification in the Buddhist religion and philosophy.
The continuous changes in the cultural life ofNalanda also reflected the increasing effect

r; Chirnpa Lama and Chattopadhyaya Alaka (Trans.) (1980), Lama Tara natha: History of Buddhism in
India, p. 139, K P Bagchi Com., Calcutta.

17 Roerich G N (Ed. and Trans.) (1959), Biography of Dharmaswamin, p. XX,K P Jayaswal Research
Institute, Patna.
18 Ibid., p. 90 and pp. 90-95.
 of the Brahmanic religion on Buddhism. The simple rituals and the ceremonies at
Nalanda became more and more complex in lat~J\stages with more and more assimilation
of modified Brahmanical features such as image worship, enormous offerings, tantra-
mantra, etc. In the last stage, these radical changes in Nalanda's life resulted in the
emergence of many sects in Buddhism itself patronizing typical religious and cultural
activities. Of course, these rites and ceremonies at Nalanda were mainly those taught by the
later Mahayana Buddhism. Only such rites as Caityavandana (which is described below)
belonged to early Buddhism. The worship of images was a distinct feature of the
Mahayana, and the later Tantrayana.

As a religious-cum-academic institution, the most attractive aspect of the cultural life of

Nalanda University was a stunning balance of study and veneration. It was quite visible by
the architectural plan of Nalanda (Figure 1). Its campus comprised 14 temples and 13
monasteries facing each other.19 Whenever a monk comes out of his monastery, first thing
visible is the stupa or temple to which he can easily reach and can perform sacrificial rites
and prayer. It is also beneficial in the sense that the monks can revere in the night also. The
temples are also clearly visible from students rooms, so they can also pray every time from
the room itself. Not only this, there were small temples constructed with possible Buddha
images at the main gate of every vihara, inside the monastery facing the main gate and
sometimes at every corner of the hostels.

In this way, the structure of the whole Nalanda University was well planned and
arranged in such a way that students and teachers can do meditation and veneration with
their study every time and at every place. The act of worship was deeply imbedded in the
learning process because of its religious orientation. On the reverse, we can also say that
the act of studying was rooted in the process of adoration. Both were intermingled together
as it was difficult to recognize. Even gaining knowledge of Buddhist scriptures was also a
sacred work which is supposed to be the way to reach salvation.

The ceremonies and rituals start with joining the monastery itself and continue till the end
of study of every monk. First, the new monk would be instructed with the five well-known
fundamental prohibition of Buddhism, Le., do not kill, do not steal, do not tell a lie, do not
commit adultery, nor drink any intoxicating liquor.2o This was regarded as the first step into
the Law of the Buddha. The teacher then arranged a pata (Le., a simple cloak), a
sankakshikii, a nivasana (Le., undergarment), a bowl and a fitter for his candidate and with
the permission of samgha he requested the acarya to perform the ceremony of his

19 There are eleven monasteries in the site of Nalanda but during excavation, the monastery one
emerged with its two parts, which named as monastery lA and lB. See, Ghosh A (1957), Niilandii,
pp. 16-24, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi.
:D Takakusu J (1896), A Records of Buddhist Religion as Practiced in India and Malay Peninsula by
I-Tsing, 1" Edition, London, reprinted Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, p. 95.
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 candidate, who then shaved his head and beard with the help of a barber and took a bath.
The teacher after examining him thoroughly gave his candidate the nivasana, the upper
cloak and the bowl. He was then called • pravrajita (i.e., a homeless priest or monk).
The acarya then gave him a discourse on the 10 precepts, i.e., refraining from killing being,
theft, unchastity, falsehood, intoxicating drinks, eating at the wrong hour, worldly
amusement, using neither unguents nor ornaments, sleeping on a high, big bed and
accepting any gold or silver. After this ceremony, he was called sramanera or a novice. Then
a series of rituals were performed in further according to the progress in study for ascribing
higher grades such as Upasampada (small teacher) at the age of 20, etc.21I-Tsing says that
in the Na1anda monastery22 the monks used to receive the Upasampada title in the early
morning on the first day of the long season (17tb of the sixth Moon) because they claimed
seniority among those who took ordination in the same summer.

Along with these, the monks at NaIanda used to perform many purifying ceremonies
after the rainy season and reside for three months at one place, i.e., varshUvasa. The
observance ofvarshUvasa was an ancient custom in India. The Buddhist monks ofIndia used
to observe it at an early date. I-Tsing23records, "The ceremony of pravarana was performed
at the end of the varshUvasa with objective of confessing all their sins committed during
the varshUvasa. On the night of the 14tb day (the 15tb day is the last day of the retreat),
the assembly should invite a preceptor to mount a high seat and recite a Buddhist hymn,
when the lay devotees as well as the priests gather together like clouds or mist. They light
lamps continually and offer incense and flowers. The following morning they will go round
villages or towns and worship all the caityas (temple) with sincere mind."

The life at Na1anda began with a bath in the early morning. I-Tsing writes, "every
morning a ghanti (bell) is sounded to remind the priests of the bathing-hour. Sometimes
a hundred, sometimes a thousand (priests) leave the monastery together and proceed in all
directions towards a number of great pools of water near Na1anda where all of them take
bath".24 Every morning one must chew tooth-wood (a small stick taken out of a large piece
of wood, or from a small stem of a tree, or a branch of an elm, or a creeper, if in the forest;
if in a field, of the paper mulberry, a peach, a sophora japonica, willow tree, etc.) and clean
the teeth with them, and rub off the dirt of the tongue as carefully as possible. Only after
the hands have been washed and the mouth cleansed is a man fit to make a salutation;
if not, both the saluter and the saluted are at fault. From the graphic description quoted
above, it would appear that a morning bath and tooth cleansing were obligatory for all and
that it could not be taken at any time one liked but only at the prescribed hour. Due to the
custom of chewing tooth-wood, toothache was very rare in ancient India.

Caityavandana (the worship of temple) was an important ceremony of the Buddhist

from the beginning. This worship was performed in a slightly different manner at Nalanda

2l Ibid., pp. 96-100.

2! Ibid., p. 101.
Zl Ibid., pp. 86-89.
'" Ibid., pp. 108-109; this is true even today in many religious institutions.
 in comparison to Tamralipti because it was difficult to assemble a large number of priests
in one place. At Nalanda, therefore, the worship wa~performed in the following manner.2S
"Every day" says I-Tsing, "it is customary to send out one teacher to go round from place
to place chanting hymns,26being preceded by monastic lay servants and children carrying
with them incense and flowers. He goes from one hall to another, and in each he chants
hymns in praise of the great teacher, i.e., Buddha, every time he sings three or five slokas
in a high tone and the sound is heard all around and they performed the threefold salutation
in this manner. At twilight he would finish his duty".

I-Tsing also presents an account of worshipping at a temple in a different manner. He

states: "in addition to the above referred to Caityavandana there are some who, sitting
alone, facing the shrine (GandhakutiJ, praise the Buddha in their heart; there are others
who, going to the temple (in a small party) kneel side by side with their bodies upright and
putting their hands on the ground, touch it with their heads and thus perform the threefold
saJutation".27 But Hiuen Tsang says that kneeling was not the only way to pay respect or
do worship but also was saluting and reverence.28 It depends on their feelings and their
mental attitude.

I-Tsing gives a good deal of valuable information as to rules of consecrating a ground

about marking out and selection.29 He refers to five kinds of consecrated land under which
comes holy place and the construction site of monastery viz., at the request of an individual,
by a declaration of more than two monks, a building like a lying co-w,a ruin of sacred
building and a ground with religious ceremony by monks.30

It is rather surprising that neither Hiuen Tsang nor I-Tsing spoke of any of the tantric
images and their worship, I-Tsing only refers to the images of Buddha and Hariti and Hiuen
Tsang, though he does mention Tara, Avalokitesvara, Hariti, Buddha, Bodhisattva, never
speaks of any other image, such as Marici, Jathbhala, Mahakala-all Tantric images-or
of Vishnu, Siva, Parvati, Surya, Ganesha and many others which have been discovered at
Nalanda and many places in Magadha.31 Of numerous such images are perhaps the finest
examples of the Pala School of art.32It is quite certain that the worship of these images was
prevalent among the Buddhist from a very early date. As I-Tsing says, "The image of Hariti
is found either in the porch or in a corner of the dining hall of all monasteries depicting

2> Op. cit., Sankalia (1972), p. 154.

., Op. cit.,Takakusu (1896), p. 155.
ZJ Ibid., p. 123.
'" Watters T (1973), On Yuan-Chwang's Travels in India (A.D. 629-695), in Rhys Davids T Wand
Busshell S W (Eds.), 2nd Edition, Vol. II, p. 173, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi.
29 Op. cit., Takakusu (1966), p. 147.
:JJ Hazara K L (1983), Buddhism in India as Described by the Chinese Pilgrims A.D. 399-689,
pp. 63-64, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi.
31 Op.cit., Sankalia (1972).
'" Coomaraswamy Anand K(1965), History of Indian and Indonesian Art, pp. 113-114, Dover Publication
Inc., New York.
 her as holding a baby in her arms, and round her knees three or five children. Every day
an abundant offering of food is made before this image" and the priest ate with the
\,'.
permission of the head priest.33

As noticed by I-Tsing, the Buddhists believed that if the use of food and clothing were
against proper rules, every step would involve some crime.34 The dressing pattern at
Nalamla was different for each community. It varies according to the status of individuals
such as students, monks, teachers, professors, working staff, laymen, etc. For example, the
costumes of sramanas consisted of the three robes, a samkaksika (a side-covering) and
a nivasana (it was put on crosswise round the lower part of one's body).35There were many
rituals related on having food and water.36 The concept of distinction between pure and
impure food was also quite prominent at Nalamla. Everything must be pure and clean, if
anyone prepares either food or drink, intending to offer it to the Three Jewels, or to the
Spirits, or mean it for an ordinary meal for the monks. The priests wash their hands and
feet before meals and sit on separate small chairs according to their status, arranged at
some intervals so that they do not touch each another. They place their feet on the ground
and trays (on which food is served) are placed before him. The ground is strewn with cow
dung and fresh leaves are scattered over. To sit cross-legged side by side and to have meals
with knees stretched out is not a proper way. At a reception or ordinary meals, no one ought
to touch another or taste any fresh food until he has rinsed his mouth with pure water, and
after each course, he must repeat the rinsing. It is surely not seemly for anyone to spend
his time after meals chaffing and chattering nor is it right to remain impure and guilty all
day and night, without rinsing the mouth two or three times with pure water or without
chewing a tooth-wood. The clean water is kept separately in earthenware or porcelain for
drinking and water for cleansing purposes in an iron or cooper jar.

Sometimes the ceremony differed a little. Installation of a new image, selection of a new
teacher, victory even in a religious discussion and so on could lead to happy moments in
the campus life followed by many rituals.J7 The ceremony, I-Tsing says was observed on a
large scale so grand that all the trays and plates were full of the cakes and rice and melted
butter and cream.38 On the occasion of the set up holy images at Nalanda, all the guests
had to sit with folded hands before the image and each had to meditate upon the objects
of worship. Sometimes the host selected one priest to go before the image and worship and
praise the Buddha, in a loud voice.39

3J op. cit., Takakusu (1896), pp. 37-38.

JI Ibid., p. 53.
:Ii Op. cit.,Watters (1973), Vol. I, p. 149.
:. Op. cit., Takakusu (1896), pp. 35-39.
37 Sharma Brij Narayan (1996), Social Life in Northern India (A.D. 600-1000), p. 265, Munshiram
Manoharlal, Delhi.
:ti Op. cit., Takakusu (1896), p. 40.
:P Ibid., p. 42.
 I-Tsing also recorded the ceremonies of receiving visitors such as teachers, pupils,
disciples, strangers, friends, etc.40 The monks of NalrJIcla received a visitor, who was a
stranger, by pronouncing sushvagata (Le., most welcome). After his arrival the visitor, who
was a venerable guest, took his rest in the front apartment, and when he was a novice he
went to a private place for rest at the request of his host. After taking rest and washing his
hands and feet, the guest paid respect to his supervisors by touching their feet. The host then
offered to the guest ghee, honey, or sugar or any other eatables and drink.

To take up the query we had raised, to wit, why do not Hiuen Tsang and I-Tsing refer
to any of the tantric images and their forms of worship at Nalancla University? The answer
of this question also retlected the changes and modification in the cultural life ofNalancla
and the overall growth of Buddhism in ancient India. It also visualized the growth of more
and more complexity by Nalancla University. Actually when Hiuen Tsang and I-Tsing came
to Nalancla mahavihara, it was at its height of growth. Its cultural and academic life was
quite simple, spiritual and moral directly inspired from Buddha's preaching, which had
been maintained from the beginning. It was not that much complex even with the above-
mentioned religious activities. In time, the studies at Nalancla became wider and deeper and
produced many sub-thoughts of Buddhism in the form of specializations. These sub-ideas
grew gradually with their rituals and practices and made the life at Nalancla more
complex. From this point of juncture the decline of Nalancla University started.

On the other side, it is also related to the growth of Buddhism after the death of Buddha.
In the lapse of time, Buddhism got divided into many sects with increasing degree of
proximity with Brahmanical religion. This immediacy later increased to the extent
that Brahmanical system finished the existence of Buddhism. In this way, it appears
that tantrayana introduced into Buddhism since the seventh century had not yet become very
popular till the arrival of Hiuen Tsang and I-Tsing. Especially its later
developments vajrayana and kalacakrayana made their appearance only about the 10th
century AD. What is important here is to note that the introduction oftantrayana in
Buddhism that transformed the simple and spiritual life of Buddhism into one full of rituals
and practices .,with minute detail. It made the worship of images of Buddha in different
gestures and postures and various gods and goddesses very popular. Not only
this, tantrism also institutionalized magic, erotic and meditation in their religious
life. 41 NaIancla University as a main center for propagation of Buddhism
started Tiintric Mahayana Buddhism at first in ancient India. We knew that in the last period
of Nalancla's existence, it became the center for studies and practices oftantric cult.
Nalancla's campus life now became more multifaceted and started with the beginning of
adoration of many tantric gods and goddesses. Taranatha, the last Tibetan student of
Nalancla, had presented these details of the last life of Nalancla University.

4J Ibid., p. 124.
41 Singh Bali Ram (2002), The Tantric Mahayana Buddhism, in Panth R (Chief Editor), NalandQ and
Buddhism, Vol.VIII, pp. 1169-1172, Research Nava Nalanda Mahaviharas, Nalanda.
It is clear now that the cultural life at Nalanda was highly disciplined, strict, moral and
spiritual. There was no place fetr loutishness and violence; in opposite it was full of love
and mercy. That's why Buddhism also succeeded in providing a much more open and less
ritualized education than Brahmanic teachings. This higWy valued Buddhist way of life and
Nalanda's unique nature, organization and function left unforgettable impact on the
growth of Indian civilization. We can classify the contributions ofNalanda in three
categories. The first and foremost contribution was in the sphere of Buddhist religion and
philosophy. The other beneficiation was related to the field of education.
Nalanda mahaviharaalso made a lasting contribution in particular on the contemporary
society ofNalanda and in general on the ancient Indian society.

As a learning center, although with religious orientation, the direct contribution ofNalanda
University's in the early Indian education was also invincible. It was the highest point of the
new era of institutionalized instructions with assimilation of the basic features of Vedic
educational system. In a broader perspective, this university education system was the fully-
grown form of the gurukula educational system. The early Indians used to begin their
education in these Vedic schools and which ended in mo nastic learning centers. In this
way, Nalanda University has contributed a lot in the gurukula educational system in the way
of its expansion, development and transformation for its betterment.

Nalanda educational apparatus has adopted many basic features of the gurukula
educational system, such as methods of instruction like memorization and lecturing, teacher
and student relationship, highly moral and spiritual life, study and veneration, etc. It is
important to note that these activities got expanded and institutionalized in this
mahavihara educational system. For example, almost hundred classes were organized
at Nalanda on different topics every day in which teachers used to deliver lectures
(Figure 2). The seminars and discussions were sometime continued for a month and were
attended by many well-known scholars from all over India. "

Nalanda University's contribution to humanity is singular in-so-far as almost all the

alumni that it trained were living examples of not only high learning but also of high morals
and spiritual development that went a long way in enriching human life. It also showed the
ennobling and sweetening effect of education on them imparted at Nalanda. The power of
Nalanda scholar as a good debater suggests the capacity of the university which could
convert a traveler into such a learned debater, one who could talk on all the then known
philosophies with so much accuracy.42The greatness of this university lies in training many
other scholars, Chinese, Tibetan and Indian whose contribution in the field of translation
work is very great.
 Figure 2: The Court of Monastery Number 11 Used
as Classroom with 25 Fragmentary Sto~ Pillars Some
of Which are Still Standing at Their Base

It is very important to observe that Nalancla's way of studying, teaching and writing
made early Indian education more scientific and systematic. It sufficiently developed science
of logic at Nalancla, which readily transformed the studies ofNalancla into scientific and
proof based. The science of logic developed to separate the genuine in the realm of existence
from the fake one. Entities whose existence could not be proved by the laws of logic were
ruthlessly repudiated. The science of logic developed in course of refuting the opponents and
proving one's points of view, which was the most essential part of the academic activities
of Nalancla.

Religious Contributions
Na1ancla University was a highly prestigious institution of Buddhist studies in early India.
This mahavihara was the highest authority on studies, research and controversies related to
the Mahayana Buddhism. Basically Nalancla could be included among that type of learning
seats, which developed the new ideas of Buddhism through the deep re-exploration of
religious scriptures, and from here this knowledge got diffused not only in India but also
in the whole of Asia. In this way, the real contribution of Nalancla was related to the
Buddhist religion and philosophy, for which Buddhism would be always indebted to
Nalancla. We can easily see Na1ancla's contribution both in the field of generation and
development of Buddhist knowledge and thoughts and propagation of Buddhism in ancient
India and outside.
 Nalanda University's endowment to Buddhism as a whole was unique in nature.
Buddhism was deeply rooted in Nalanda from the very beginning. In the whole ancient east,
it was the center where the Bud~hist ideas and thoughts evolved, matured and refined and
generated outside of its campus by its revered scholars. This continuous process led
Buddhism to the apogee of its growth_ On the negative part, Nalanda was also the seat
where new thoughts and philosophies got mutation, which led Buddhism to its decline in
India. The divisive thoughts also emerged here through the specializations in different
supplementary activities, which ultimately pushed forward Buddhism to deterioration.
We knew that in the last phase of Nalanda, Tantric Mahayana Buddhism got popularity in
the campus life, which was full of magic, esoteric, image worship and rituals. This sect and
its religious activities and rituals played a decisive role in degenerating Buddhism in India.
It is also evidenced by the fact that it was about the same period of the decline ofNalanda
and Buddhism.

Regarding the maturation of Buddhist ideas, we can say that Nalanda was the highest,
largest and internationally acclaimed organization for the advanced study and teaching of
Buddhism. Obviously Nalanda contributed a lot to Buddhism those endowments could be
seen in two ways. First of all, it was an educational cum monastic institution where monks
and students in large number from all over the ancient world got admitted for going
through the ideas of Buddhism (Figure 3). In this way, its versatile scholars had contributed
little or more in the maturation of Buddha vachanas through the rigorous study and
research. Nalanda was also the place where not only Buddhism was taught but also it was
practiced with its full spirituality, morality and rituality. So, the effects and side effects of
the particular practice and
thought got examined at Figure 3: Small Stupas Opposite
the Nalanda itself. In these to the Rows of Residential Complex
favorable conditions of
Nalanda, the Buddhist
religion and philosophy got
rapid expansion.

Second, Nalanda's
contribution in the field of
Buddhist philosophy and
canonical literature
through its extensive
translation and writings is
incredibly great. Besides
delivering lectures, the
writing and translation
were the most important
academic activities. This
resulted in the creation of
commentaries and re-
 commentaries on the basic Buddhist literatures such as Tripitakas. It is also evidenced by
the fact that there were three libraries at Nalanda with thousands of books written by its
monk scholars only. One example will amply illustrate it,.jIiuen Tsang translated a number
of texts into Chinese and wrote commentaries on difficult philosophical texts, which are still
an intellectual treat to scholars.43 Nalanda also contributed a lot to Tantric Buddhism. The
Nalanda Copper Plate of Devapala refers to Nalanda as the abode of bhikkhus and
bodhisatvas well-versed in t"antra. A vast tantra literature was also composed at Nalanda
University such as Mahajalatantra, Samajatantra, Mahasamayantra. Tatvasangraha,
Bhutadiimaratantra. Vajramrtatantra, and Cakrasamvaratantra, etc.44

Nalanda's role in. the exposition of Buddhism in different countries of the world will
always be recalled. Although Buddhism disappeared from its birth land but it spread out
in the areas outside of India and is still alive. The almost complete credit of this sacred work
goes to Nalanda. The expansion of Buddhism to the unreached land was the main objective
ofNalanda University. Many abbots of Nalanda mahaviharaswent outside India such as
Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China, Central Asia, Java, Sumatra, etc., and successfully propagated
Buddhism there. Some of those upajjhayas like Santarakkhita, Kamalashila, Atisa Dipankara
and Padmasambhava45 were the first amongst many to visit Tibet where they learnt the
Tibetan language and translated the Buddhist and Sanskrit works into Tibetan and
consequently transformed the inhabitants into Buddhism.46

Contribution to Indian and Buddhist Logic

Nalanda University had rendered valuable services to the development of Indian Logic
in general and Buddhist logic in particular. It was the need ofNalanda mahaviharas
religious life to develop and then use the science of logic. Let us see how the science of logic
evolved and flourished at Nalanda and how did the monk scholars of Nalanda water it.

Every system of Logic is primarily concerned with proving its own points of view in
regard to Ontology and Epistemology-the
, two main divisions of Metaphysics. Ontology
deals with the nature and number of ultimate reality and Epistemology deals with the
source and validity of knowledge. The science of logic originated to separate the genuine
in the realm of existence from the fake one. Entities whose existence could not be proved
by the laws of logic were ruthlessly repudiated. The discipline of logic developed in course

<l Beal S (Trans.) (1884), Si-Yu-Ki Buddhist Record of Western World Translated from the Chinese of
Hiuen Tsiang (AD629), 1" Edition, Vol. II, London, reprinted Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1969,
pp.111-119.
44 Prasad Murali Chand (2000), "Contribution of Nalanda to Buddhist Thought and Culture", in
Panth R (Chief Editor), Heritage of Nalandii and Its Continuity, Research Vol. VI, p. 84, Nava
Nalanda Mahavihara, NaIanda.
~ Padmasambhava, a teacherlof Tiintric school, was also a leading personality in the second
propagation of -!he Buddhist doctrines in Bhutan. See, Ansar~ A Q (2000), Padmasambhava: A
Missionary of Nalandii, in Panth R (Chief Editor), Heritage of Nalandii and its Continuity, Research
Vol.VI, pp. 109-115, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda.
~ Ven. Rastrapal Mahathera (2000), Nalandii: Its Historical Background, in Panth R (Chief Editor),
Heritage of Nalandiiand Its Continuity, Research Vol.VI,p. 78, Nava Nalanda Mahavihara, Nalanda.
of refuting the opponents and proving one's points of view. As it was badly needed to
Buddhism for establishing their emerging order and analyzing its good values in
comparison to other religious ~}fstemsof ancient India.

Although in the early literature of Theravada Buddhism, we do not find the developed
form of the science of logic nor do we find it put to any use for proving one's point of view
or disproving or demolishing others. In fact, the context in which people have been shown
to have recourse to logic proves only its inadequacy and limitations as a means of exploring
and realizing the ultimate reality. To be precise, logic as a means of exploring the truth was
not held in high esteem. After the death of Buddha, when mahaviharas transformed into
learning centers, these monasteries started systematic discovery for truth in Buddha's
preaching.

There are two categories of philosophers: those who realize the truth by achieving what
is called the concentration of mind and developing prajnaj and those who struggle to know
the truth by argument or logic. The Buddha belonged to the former. He had realized the truth
and as such his authority was so commanding that whatever he said or preached was
accepted without testing it on the touchstone of logic. The Buddha, as a matter of fact, never
asked anybody to believe what he said blindly. In fact, he wanted everybody to follow the
path he himself had trodden but the fact that people did accept what he said continued for
quite some time.

It is indeed very difficult to rub one's own experiences on others and it is more so when
the experiences are related to the highest truth. The inadequacy of language to describe the
truth is apparent. The Buddha, therefore, while preaching to others adopted a method that
consisted comparison, symbol, tale and an occasional trace of induction by simple
enumeration of cases, but there were some questions, which he thought could never be
proved by logic, called them indeterminate.

With the passage of time as also with the realization of the fact that the true nature of
things is difficult to understand, people thought it their duty to prove the doctrine of the
Buddha logically at the level of intellect. Not only the proponents but also the opponents
needed intellectual basis to understand, refute and prove the different theories in regard to
the nature of reality. The desire and the necessity to test the validity of a theory at an
intellectual level compelled them to be definite, clear and precise and this led them to evolve
what is called the science of logic. Besides, there were other systems of logic, which
constantly kept on making intellectual onslaughts on the Buddhists and compelled them to
create intellectual weapons and sharpen them.

These factors led to the origin and growth of Buddhist logic in which Nalan<la University
played the role of storehouse. Buddhist logic has not come out of nothing like a sky flower
nor has it developed in isolation. An infinite variety of philosophic opinions seem to have
existed during the formation of the different phases of Buddhist philosophy. Stcherbatsky
opined that seven philosophic systems have exercised a somewhat palpable influence upon
 the phases of Buddhist phiiosophyY The first of them were the Materialists conveniently
called Carvakas who denied the existence of any spirituusubstance. They did not believe
in the theory of Karma. The second system of philosophy was Jainism in which the Buddhists
found a developed theory of moral defilement and purification, just as in the Samkhya
system of philosophy, last elements are called qualities, and so in the early Buddhist
philosophy qualities are substantives. The Buddhist philosophy has much in common with
the yoga system of philosophy in that both believe in practicing meditation for realizing the
truth. Vedanta and Buddhism at different times of their parallel development show great
mutual influences, now mutually attracted, now repelled. The Buddhists believe that
Nirvana can be attained by treading the eightfold path, not by performing the kind of
sacrifice enjoined by the Mimansakas. The Buddhists had a developed logic before
Nyaya-Vaisesika, but their interest in it was not formal as was the attitude of the latter.

All that has been said above influenced and shaped to a greater extent the intellectual
milieu in which Buddhist logic sprouted and blossomed. The logicians whose contributions
went a long way in shaping Buddhist logic were many in number. The most renowned of
them were Vasubandhu, Dignaga Isvarsena and DharmakIrti. Beside these, there is one more
celebrated name-that of Nagarjuna who is more a philosopher than a logician. The life
ofNagarjuna is shrouded in mystery. His Madhyamika Karika propounds the philosophy of
Sunyavada, i.e., Svabhavasunyata and asserts what is called the theory of relativity. But he
also composed some works and showed how to carry on the art of debate. His Vigraha
Vyavartini (restored in Sanskrit in part from the Tibetan translation) is the exposition and
the vindication of that unique method of conducting a debate, which consists in proving
nothing positive, but in applying the test of relativity to every positive thesis of the opponent
and thus destroying it dialectically.48Much progress in logic could not be made during the
centuries that followed Nagarjuna because of the fact that he condemned all logic for the
cognition of the absolute.

We find from the records that the brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu took up the study
of Nyaya logic in all seriousness and adapted it to their philosophy, which had idealistic
foundations.49 The elder brother ofVasubandhu and acarya of Nalanda Asanga, established
a set of rules on the art of debate, which is not substantially different from the rules
prescribed in the Nyaya School. In his Yogacarabhumi he has described in detail the
hetuvidya. According to Stcherbatsky, he was probably the first Buddhist logician who
seems to have made good use of the five-member syllogism of the Naiyayikas. The five
members of a syllogism are:

41 R Th. Stcherbatsky (1984), Buddhist Logic, Vol. I, pp. 2-22, Oriental Publication, New Delhi.
.•• Ibid., p. 28.
41 Op. cit., Beal (1884), pp. 98-100.
 ••
Asanga's younger brother and the second Buddha Vasubandhu51 has authorized three
logical treatises namely Vadavidhi, Vadavidhana and Vada-hrdaya. The meaning of the title
Vddavidhi is the "art of disputation". His other treatise on logic called Vadavidhana contains
his corrected formulations. From this it appears that Vasubandhu makes use of the
five-membered syllogism but in course of time he thinks hard on it and uses the abridged
though equally efficient three-membered form. It is in Vasubandhu that we find the Buddhist
method of formulating what is called the invariable concomitance.52 Apart from this, the
contribution of Vasubandhu to the science of discussion is great inasmuch as the way in
which he classifies reasons and fallacies forms the seeds, which are developed by Dignaga
and Dhannaklrti.

When Vasubandhu was at Nalanda monastery it became great center of Buddhist logic
and that's why Dignaga came all the way from Kanci to receive higher training in Buddhist
logic under Vasubandhu. He was a powerful logician so much so that even after his death
the intellectual war continued and his opponents kept on raining scorn and abuse on him.
He laid the foundation of a new school which went by name of Pramana School since it
put the study of the means of knowledge (Pramana) in the first place in lieu of taking up
sutra and abhidhamma as the foundation of Buddhist philosophy as was the practice of
some schools. The impact of Dignaga's epistemological knowledge and logical idea was
so great that both Brahmanical and Buddhist philosophers of later times borrowed freely
from him. The logic of Dignaga was carried to China by the famous traveler Hiuen Tsiang
who learnt it in the course of stay at Nalanda.

One of Dignaga's two early works is Abhidharmakosamarmapradipa, which summarizes

Vasubandhu's magnum opus Abhidharmakosa. The second work contains in summary form
all the topics discussed in the Asta-Sahasrka Paramita Sutra and has been written in
mnemonic verse. Besides these two works, all his works are devoted to logic and which are
Hasta Vala Prakarana (frunk and Tail of Treaties), Alambana Pariksa (Critique of the
Object), Samanya Pariktii (Critique of the Universa1), Hetucakradamaru (Drum of the
Wheel of Middle Term), Nyayamukha (Introduction to logic) and Pramana Samuccaya
(Compendium of the theory of Knowledge).53The last is his major work, which contains
the condensed form all-important things he had to say on logic.

Dignaga holds that perception is knowledge without imagining (kalpanabodh). In his

view there are only two means of knowledge, i.e., perception and inference. 54The supposed

SJ Op. dt., F. Th Stcherbatsky (1984), p. 26.

51 Ibid., p. 32.
52 Ibid., pp. 343-349.
'" Op. dt., Prasad (2000), p. 86.
54 Keith A B (2007), The Origin and Development of Buddhist Philosophy and Religion in India and
Ceylon, pp. 305-307, Universal Voice, Delhi.
 authority of the sacred scripture or the master himself is nothing except these two. Relative
significance (anyapoha) of words propounded by Dignaga is the meaning of a word. It can
express meaning only by excluding the other contradictoIW,meaning, not referring directly
to objects. For instance the word white does not convey the knowledge of all white objects
as these are infinite in number and so cannot be grasped. The word simply draws a
demarcation between white and non-white by excluding the non-white. Words in this way
convey knowledge of negation. Knowledge obtained from words is of the same kind as of
inference. He argues that the apprehension of the knowledge and the object is simultaneous.
Blue color and the idea of blue are apprehended together. Hence there is non-difference
(abheda) between them. This is the law of simultaneous apprehension (Sahopalambha).55

The other logician who came to Nalanda to study was Dharmakirti -a Brahmin from
'Iiimalaya (Tirunalla) in South India. His period was a bad one for Buddhism, because the
process of decay had set in and the able pens of Kumarila and Sancaracarya gave almost
a deathblow to Buddhism.56 Dharmakirti dominated the Praniiina School. He has seven
logical works57 to his credit, which have formed the textbooks for the study of logic by the
Buddhists in Tibet. His Praniiina Vartika, which is an explanation and supplement of the
Praniiina Samuccaya of Dignaga is considered a kind of canon on which all study should
be based. Here he makes addition to Dignaga's doctrines. For instance, the chapter on
inference may be cited. Inferences are based either on own nature (Svabhava) or effect
(Karya) or else on non-perception (anupalabdhi).58

Dharmakirti's works sparked off a large number of commentarial literatures. They are
philological, philosophical and religious comments on them, and as a result three schools
of commentators came into being. The first school started by Davendrabuddhi is termed
philological as it tries to interpret the direct meaning of the text. The second school called
Ka.shmirian school founded by Dharmottara, as its main center of activity was Kashmir,
strove to bring out the profound philosophical meaning. Prajnakara Gupta, a native of
Bengal, who probably flourished in the Pala period, was a contemporary of Udayanacarya
who frequently quoted him, founded the religious school.

Santarakkhita, though a Madhyamaka acarya, adopted the new epistemology from

Dharmakirti. He refused to accept the idealist explanation of the nature of reality and
followed Dhannakirti's doctrine that perception relates to the nature of reality. His
Tatva.sangraha is a kind of critical encyclopedia of philosophy. It is a series of 26 critiques
of the reality, first causes, categories, etc., as convinced by diverse schools of philosophy.
He went to Tibet and founded a permanent school there for imparting training to Tibetan

:D Op. cit., Prasad (2000), pp. 87-88.

:D Op. cit., Chimpa and Chattopadhyaya (Trans!.) (1980), p. 38.
'" Pramana-Viirttika (Explanation and supplement of Pramana Samuccaya), Pramana Viniscaya
(Assertation of the means of Knowledge), NyCiyabindu (Point of Logic), Hetuvindu (Manual of the
Middle Term), SambandhaJXlriksa (Critique of Relations), VCidanyCiya (Method of Debate),
Santantra Siddhi (Proof of other series of Consciousness); See, Op. cit., Prasad (2000), p. 89.
58 Op. cit., Keith (2007), pp.311-313.
 disciples. A fusion of Madhyamaka and Pramana School can be discerned. During the reign
of Pala kings, Nalanda became the center for tantric activities. SiddhCis like Sarahapa,
., -
Bhusukapa, Naropa and others were gems of Nalanda at this time. Their contribution to
Buddhist thought is also praiseworthy.

It is apparent from a study of the origin, growth and development of logic that the role
of Buddhist logic and that of the Brahmanical logic was great in influencing each other.
So, even when the sway of Buddhism became weak and almost extinct, its influence could
be seen in the fact that the schools were accusing one another of having yielded to Buddhist
influences. The Vedantis accused the Vaisesikas of being Buddhists in disguise; in their turn
the Vaisesikas accused the Vedantis of denying like the Buddhists the ultimate reality of the
external world.

It is generally understood that the acaryas and scholars of the ancient University of Nalanda
laid too much emphasis on higher and abstruse learning of Buddhism that was kept closely
confined within the four walls of monastery. The monastic learning completely dissociated
itself from the general cultural stream. But the excavated archaeological materials such as
images, seals and inscriptions from surrounding areas and available literary sources tell a
different story. There can be no doubt that Buddha's dynamic personality and his forceful
message left permanent imprint on many aspects of social and religious life. It was in reality
a two-way process of mutual interaction between Buddhism and Brahamanism.

There was a famous halting-place Pavarika's Mango-grove at Nalanda for Buddha

where many sermons and discussions with other cults were held. The canonical writings
almost all supposedly from the Buddha's discourse and dialogues were in every day
language addressed to the whole of contemporary society.59 It defused the breath of new life
in the society. Buddha may not have thought of himself as the founder of a new religion;
probably he looked upon himself as reformer only and attacked evils that had grown in
society. The Buddha and his pupils are no more but the Buddhist doctrine continues to grow
in Nalanda because it was eminently fitted to the need of a rapidly growing society.

Buddhism had started at a time of social and spiritual revival and reform, which
increased the degree of effect on the society. The cult of sacrifice so much advocated by the
Vedic Indians for happy life in this world as also in the next, could not really secure for the
performer the objectives for which the sacrifices were performed.60 Merits achieved through
them efficacious, only for short time. The four Varna system of social grades developed into
a rigid and hereditary caste system61• Women were regarded as household· goods and held
a very negligible position in the society.

'" Wilson H H (1979), Buddha and Buddhism, p. 45, Nag Publication, Delhi.
fiJ Kosambi D D (1970), Culture and Civilizations of Ancient Indian in Historical Outline, pp. 96-110,
Vikas Publication, Delhi.
61 Banerjee A C (1973), Buddhism in India and Abroad, p. 47, World Press, Calcutta.
 In this situation Buddhism emerged as the most social religion because the application
of its various steps is carefully developed and expounded in a long series of discourses
ascribed to the Buddha. There were regulations speci~'ly meant for the monk as they are
the representative of Buddhism which is not binding upon the lay followers. The monk's life
is formulated according to the society after many discussions. Several times, their garment,
itinerants and behaviors got changed, which did not fit in the need of contemporary
society.62

The very effect of the Buddhism on social structure appears to have been one that was
entirely opposed to Brahmanic outlook. Till the age of Buddha, the Brahmanical Varna
system became too rigid and determined by birth. Indirectly it resulted in the emergence
of various low castes with subordinate social status. Buddha did not approve it and equally
treated everyone. He stressed more on capacity character and occupation than to birth.
Buddha himself often uses the term Brahmin as equivalent to an able earnest and
disciplined person. Buddha did not attack caste directly, yet in his own order he did not
recognize it. There is no doubt that his whole attitude and activity weakened the caste
system.63

Buddha envisaged a society of equality by birth, condemned the system in definite works,
and attracted all castes to his order of Samghii, lay disciples, and friends of co-religious
society to be created for unification. There were Buddha disciples from all walks of life. The
Brahmins Sariputta and Moggallana were the leading disciples. During the Buddha's life
time Upali a lowly barber, a scavenger, a dog eater and many more members of the lowest
castes were highly respected monks, and were initiated by the Buddha himself. There was
a separate order of Buddhist nuns with their own organization. Although we don't have any
reference of this in Nalanda but surely the women condition improved in Nalanda. Buddha
gave the dhamma to both; he also gave talks to the householder and their wives. Women
came to enjoy equality and greater respect and authority than ever hitherto accorded to
them.64

Much of the ritualism and ceremonial associated with the Vedic as well as more popular
forms of religion disappeared, particularly animal sacrifice. Buddhist scriptures worked out
the duties of caste, wealth, profession, and with no attention whatever to ritual. Sexual
continence was encouraged and vegetarianism increased. This was new respect for the life
and a kindness to animal and behind this was the endeavor to lead a good higher life.

Previously small group of ascetically inclined school lived in forest settlement. It usually
attracted students but with the coming of Buddhism, huge monasteries grew up everywhere
as in Nalanda also where a regular flow of population towards them was. In reality it was
a selfless band of social workers and in order ta develop the method of protection created

61 Christmas Humphreys (1969), The Buddhist Way of Life, pp. 25-30, George Allen & Unwin, London.
6l Jawaharlal Nehru (1946), Discovery of India, p. 120, Singet Press, Calcutta.
64 Kumkum Roy (Ed.) (1999), Women in Early Indian Society, p. 84, Manohar Publications, New Delhi.
 an "order of SamgJiii" consisting of monks based on equality as presented L:' the Nalanda
monastery.6S This monastery opened gates of knowledge to all irrespective of caste and
creed; hitherto Vedic educat'ten had been prohibited to Sudras and women. But it is
unfortunate that there is no reference of women monks here. These were also centers of
material development as it teaches to control lust for individual acquisition of property. One
has to pay highest tribute to the philosophy and practical approach of laying the foundation
for solving the problems of humanity by establishing SamgJiii to accept the principle of
common property to serve the humanity for several years.

Most important of all that Buddha and some of his early disciples ventured to propound
new duties for the absolute monarch.66 They knew very well that the root of social evil was
poverty and unemployment; and so the king should supply seed and food to those who lived
by farming and trading. The surplus accumulation of the state should be spent on public
works such as digging wells, plantation, etc. This might be the basic reason of the prosperity
of Nalanda, which is clear from both the contemporary Buddhist and Jain scriptures.

It is interesting to note about the process of interaction between Buddhism and

Brahmanism. They acted and reacted to each other in spite of their dialectical conflict or
because of them, approached nearer of philosophy and that of popular belief.67This process
is quite clear in Nalanda from the Buddhist images found alike Brahmanism deities and
the philosophical developments at Nalanda monastery. The Mahayana specially approached
the Brahmanicalsystems and forms, which reflect the Brahmins who later joined Buddhism.
It was prepared to compromise with almost anything, so long as its ethical background
remained Brahmanism made Buddha an avatar of god Vishnu, so did Buddhism. In the
eighth century Sankaracarya, one of the greatest Indian philosophers, started religious
orders for Hindu monks. This was an adoption of the old Buddhist practice of samgha. Both
Brahmanism and Buddhism deteriorated and degrading practice grew up in them.
It became difficult to distinguish the two. If Brahmanism observed Buddhism, this process
also changed Brahmanism itself in many ways.

It is clear that Nalanda was widely acclaimed higher educational institution for Buddhist
religion and philosophy. This religious-cum-organized educational center was less than a
university, which accommodates students and teachers from all religions with secular
curriculum. It grew from small vihara to mahavihara and transformed into a temple of
learning. It maintained its Buddhist nature of origin, growth and development till its
decline, which got reflected from its academic activities, cultural life and outputs.

to Dutt S (1988), Buddhist Monk and Monasteries in India: Their History and Their Contribution to
Indian Culture, p. 102, Motilal Banarasidass, Delhi.
(6 Kosambi D D (1975), An Introduction to the Study of Indian History, p. 232, Popular Prakasan,
Bombay,
61 Bapat P V (1956), 2500 Years of Buddhism, 1" Edition, p. 227, Publication Division, Delhi.
 The cultural life at the campus of Nalanda was beautiful combination of study and
lOf
veneration. As an authorized center of Buddhist religion, rituals and traditions of Buddhism
got matured at N~i1andaand diffused from here to other parts because the peculiar feature
of Nalanda's cultural and academic life was the practice of its curriculum in daily routine.
In this regard, its contribution to Buddhism was incomparable in the sphere of the growth
of Buddhist religion and philosophy with special reference to Buddhist logic. Nalanda
enlightened especially downtrodden classes of the contemporary society such as Vaisyas,
Sudras, untouchables, etc., with its knowledge of religion and philosophy and made them
worth for salvation. A sense of pride and equality generated among them, which was
challenging Brahmanical supremacy up to an extent, was also long standing contribution
of Nalanda. iii

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