1.

What Is Research
Research, a somewhat intimidating term for some, is simply the process of finding the
solutions to a problem after a thorough study and analysis of the situational factors.
Managers in organizations constantly engage themselves in studying and analyzing issues
and hence are involved in some form of research activity as they make decisions at the
workplace.

2. Definition of Research
Business research can be defined as an organized, systematic, data based, critical,
objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with
the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.

3. General Characteristics of Research

In his book entitled Fundamentals of Educational Research, Gary Anderson has outlined
ten characteristics that can be used to further understand what the field of educational
research entails.

• Educational research attempts to solve a problem.

• Research involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.

• Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.

• Research demands accurate observation and description.

• Research generally employs carefully designed procedures and rigorous analysis.

• Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will

help in understanding, prediction and/or control.

• Research requires expertise—familiarity with the field; competence in methodology;

technical skill in collecting and analyzing the data.

• Research attempts to find an objective, unbiased solution to the problem and takes great
pains to validate the procedures employed.

• Research is carefully recorded and reported to other persons interested in the problem.

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4. Steps involved in a research process:
The steps involved in most research endeavors are

Step 1: Problem Definition

Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem

Step 3: Research Design Formulation

Step 4: Field Work or Data Collection:

Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis:

Step 6: Report Preparation and Presentation:

5. The scientific research process:

Any research involves several chronological steps, but that does not mean each step must
be completed before the next step is undertaken. Furthermore, the process of research is
dynamic and the process may change as the research progresses.

5.1. Broad problem area:

The broad problem area refers to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for
research and problem solving. The specific issues that need to be researched within the
broad problem area pertains to

1. Problems currently existing in an organizational setting that need to be solved*

2. Areas that a manager believes need to be improved in the organization

3. A conceptual or theoretical issue that needs to be tightened up for the basic

researcher to understand certain phenomenon

5.2. Problem Definition:

Problem definition or problem statement is a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the
question or issue that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.

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Managers' needs for information are the primary source of problem definition and the
research question. Managers need information to make educated decisions arising from
unanticipated as well as planned changes. As such, managers must select between
different alternatives and thus require information about the organization and its
environment. The question to be answered or the problem to be solved must first be
clearly defined. Questions to be answered could be very specific or extremely broad.
There might be hypotheses that could be tested scientifically. Once the questions to be
answered are clearly defined then the value of the research must be assessed.

5.3. The research proposal:

Research endeavors require a proposal that explains the problem to be address and the
procedure by which the questions will be answered. The researcher's proposal tells the
managers what they should expect from the research. It is a contract between the
managers and the researcher.

The different phases and task steps of the research process, he or she can develop a solid
research proposal. There are nine specific content sections suggested for inclusion: (1)
purpose of the proposed research project, (2) type of study, (3) definition of the target
population and sample size, (4) sample design, technique, and data collection method; (5)
specific research instruments; (6) potential managerial benefits of the proposed study; (7)
proposed cost structure for the total project; (8) profile of the researcher and company;
and (9) optional dummy tables of the projected results.

5.4. Theoretical framework:

A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts, like a theory but not

necessarily so well worked-out. A theoretical framework guides your research,
determining what things you will measure, and what statistical relationships you will look
for.

The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among the variables that are
deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. From the
theoretical framework, testable hypothesis can be developed to examine whether the
theory formulated is valid or not.

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5.4.1. Types of variables:

Four main types of variables are

i. Independent variable

ii. Dependent variable

iii. Moderating variable

iv. Intervening variable

A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during
the experiment. The dependent variable responds to the independent variable. It is called
dependent because it "depends" on the independent variable. In a scientific experiment,
you cannot have a dependent variable without an independent variable.

In an experiment, the independent variable is the variable that is varied or manipulated

by the researcher, and the dependent variable is the response that is measured.

For example concerning nutrition, the independent variable of daily vitamin C intake
(how much vitamin C one consumes) can influence the dependent variable of life
expectancy (the average age one attains). Over some period of time, scientists will
control the vitamin C intake in a substantial group of people. One part of the group will
be given a daily high dose of vitamin C, and the remainder will be given a placebo pill
(so that they are unaware of not belonging to the first group) without vitamin C. The
scientists will investigate if there is any statistically significant difference in the life span
of the people who took the high dose and those who took the placebo (no dose). The goal
is to see if the independent variable of high vitamin C dosage has a correlation with the
dependent variable of people's life span. The designation independent/dependent is clear
in this case, because if a correlation is found, it cannot be that life span has influenced
vitamin C intake, but an influence in the other direction is possible.

5.4.2. Moderating Variables:

Moderating variables are the variables which strongly effect on relationship of

independent-variables and dependent-variables i.e. existence of a moderating variable
transforms the original relationship between dependent and independent variable.

For example, the relationship between quality of a library facilities “X” and performance
of the students “Y” has been observed a strong one. Generally this relationship is
supposed to be true; it is on the other hand dependent on the interest and tendency of the
students. This means that improved performance in the studies will be showed by those
students who have interest and tendency to use library.

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In the above relationship moderating variable is interest and tendency, that is the one who
moderates the strength of the relationship between X and Y.

5.4.3. Intervening variable

A variable, used in the process of explaining an observed relationship between an

independent and dependent variable(s), such that X → T → Y—where T is the intervening
variable.

Example:

The statistical association between income and longevity needs to be explained because
just having money does not make one live longer. Other variables intervene between
money and long life. People with high incomes tend to have better medical care than
those with low incomes. Medical care is an intervening variable. It mediates the relation
between income and longevity.

5.5. Hypothesis Development:

A hypothesis is a suggested explanation of a phenomenon, or alternately a

reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation between or among a set
of phenomena.

It is a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the

form of a testable statement.

AIM: To test whether the relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true

5.5.1. Statements of hypothesis:

Propositions:

Employees who are healthier will take sick leaves less frequently

IF_THEN STATEMENT

IF employees are more healthy THAN they will take sick leave less frequently.

5.5.2. Directional & Non directional Hypothesis:

Directional: using “positive”, “negative”, “more than”, etc.

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e.g.; the greater the stress experienced in the job, the lower the job satisfaction of the
employees

Non _Directional: Offer no indication of the direction of the relationship

e.g.; there is a relationship between age and job satisfaction

5.5.3. Null and alternate hypothesis:

1. A proposition that states a definite, exact relationship between two variables

It is a statement that no difference exists between the parameter (population

characteristics) and the statistics (a limited number representative of the total population)
being compared to it.

2. Selected for possible acceptance/ rejection during the testing phase

3. Usually represented by the symbol

Example:

Hypothesis: Motivational level of the men and women is same

Could be represented as H: Mo= M

5.5.4. Alternate Hypothesis:

1. Opposition of the Null hypothesis i.e. indicates a definite difference in the

relationship between variables.
2. May take several forms, depending on the objective of the researcher e.g. Non
Directional& Directional
3. Represented by the symbol: HA
4. IF Hypothesis is:

“Women are more motivated than men”

It could be represented by

H: M< MA

5.6. Scientific Research Design:

Once the proposal is approved, the researcher has a foundation for development
of the research design. The plan for conducting the research is the research design.
There are two general forms of research design, namely :

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a. non-experimental (ex-post-facto) and

b. experimental.

5.6.1. a. Non-experimental (ex-post-facto)

In a non-experimental design, the researcher does not control or alter any of the
independent variables. The researcher merely studies existing situations, variables,
and the interrelation among variables and reports the results of his or her findings.
The two major non-experimental designs are

 field studies and

 surveys.

Field studies: Field studies combine literature review and possibly analysis of some
case studies. A literature review means that a researcher identifies previous
writings and research on a topic, summarizes the current knowledge on the topic,
and assesses the value of that prior research on the current problem.

Surveys: On the other hand, surveys deal with the formulation of a questionnaire
(survey instrument) by which one can measure the magnitude of the desired
variables as well as the interrelation among the variables. Non-experimental designs
are primarily exploratory in nature and provide descriptive measures and can also
be used for predictive purposes.
5.6.2. b. Experimental
There are two broad categories of experimental designs:

 field and

 laboratory.

In both field experiments and laboratory experiments, the researcher controls and may
alter and introduce some variables in order to determine the effect of a given variable.
Field experiments are done in a natural setting, whereas laboratory experiments are
undertaken in a simulated setting.

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5.6.3. Research methods:

The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge. This process takes three
main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be
obscure.):

 Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems

 Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem
 Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical
evidence

Research can also fall into two distinct types:

 Primary research (collection of data that does not yet exist)

 Secondary research (summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research)

In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can
be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the
research:

 Qualitative research (understanding of human behavior and the reasons that

govern such behavior)
 Quantitative research (systematic empirical investigation of quantitative
properties and phenomena and their relationships)

Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research. The
hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required
information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then
expands the research in the form of discussion and results.

5.7. Data Collection:

Researchers and decision makers must understand that raw data, data structures, and
information are different constructs. Raw data consist of the responses obtained by either
questioning or observing people or physical phenomena. Data structures are created by
submitting the raw data to some type of analysis procedure. In turn, information is
created only when either the researcher or decision maker narratively interprets data
structures.

Data collection is the process of gathering the specific information used to answer the
research questions. There are a number of issues associated with data collection,
including the use of

a) primary and secondary data

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 b) survey design

c) sampling

d) survey administration

e) Increasing response rates.

5.7.1. a. Primary Data and Secondary Data:

Data can be primary or secondary, and whether one or both are used, and which is used,
depends largely on the research question and the availability of these data sources.

5.7.1.1. Primary data is that which is collected by the researcher to address the current
research question. Types of primary data include subject demographics, lifestyle
characteristics, attitudes, knowledge, intentions, motivations, and behavior. Demographic
data includes statistics regarding populations, such as age, sex, income, level of
education, and so forth. Primary data can be collected in the field or the laboratory
through communication and observation.

5.7.1.2. Secondary data refer to data gathered by others or from other studies. Secondary
data is generally less costly and less time consuming than gathering primary data,
typically is accumulated before primary data is gathered. An example of secondary data
is if a company uses data from the U.S. Census or data collected for another
organizational activity. While secondary data can be used for background information
about specific research, it may also answer some specific research questions.

5.7.2. b. Survey design:

Survey design is of major importance, because if a survey is poorly designed, it will not
provide the researchers with the data that addresses the research question. Survey
questions, called items, must be properly chosen to in order to elicit appropriate
respondent answers. The steps involved include determining the information that will be
sought, the type of questionnaire, the method of administration, the content of individual
questions, the form of response to each question, the wording of each question, the
sequence of questions, the physical characteristics of the questionnaire, and, finally, pre-
testing the questionnaire.

5.7.3. c. Sample:

When selecting individuals for a sample, either a probability approach or a

nonprobability approach can be used.

Probability samples are those where each element of the population has a known
probability of being selected. A random sample, for example, is the case where each
element has the same probability of being selected.

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Nonprobability samples: There are some specific types of nonprobability samples:

i. convenience samples

ii. judgment samples

iii. quota samples

Convenience samples are chosen at the convenience of the researcher. For example, a
researcher might distribute a survey to all customers who enter one retail store in a one-
week period to determine their level of customer satisfaction with the company's
products. This sample is rather easy to select, but it may not represent the full range of
customers who have used that product.

In a judgment sample, individuals are selected by the researcher because they are
believed to represent the population under study.

Quota samples attempt to make the sample representative of the population under study
where quotas are set for specific groups of people, which are generally selected on the
basis of demographic characteristics.

5.7.4. d. Survey Administration:

After the survey has been designed and its reliability and validity assessed, the company
must decide the administration method that it will use. Each administration method has
its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost, information control, sampling
control, and administrative control. Administrative control refers to factors affecting the
efficiency of the survey, including timing, quality control, and standardization.

5.7.5. e. Increasing response rates:

One of the main concerns of survey research is the response rate, or the number of people
who are asked to complete a survey who actually do. Nonresponse error is a source of
bias because of the failure to get answers from some of the sample. "Not-at-homes"
plague the telephone survey and uncooperative respondents affect telephone, mail,
Internet, and personal interview surveys.

5.8. Data Analysis:

Research provides data, and it is the task of the researcher to transform the collected data
into useful information for management. The first step in data analysis is preparing the
data by editing it for several factors, including:

 completeness—checking for any omissions

 legibility—making sure that handwriting is understandable so that answers will be
coded correctly

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  comprehensibility—making sure the answer is understandable
 consistency—checking for consistent answers from the respondent
 uniformity—checking to see that responses are recorded in the same manner

Data analysis could be as simple as reporting descriptive statistics such as averages,

measures of variability, and percentages, or if needed, advance statistical techniques
could be applied.

5.9. Deduction:

Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of the

results of the data analysis. For instance, if it was found from the data analysis that
increasing the stocks was positively correlated to (increased) customer satisfaction, then
one can deduce that if customer satisfaction is to be increased, the shelves have to be
better stocked. Based on these deductions, the researcher would make recommendations
on how the “customer dissatisfaction: problem could be solved.

5.10. Research report:

The entire project should be documented in a written report which addresses the specific
research questions identified, describes the approach, the research design, data collection,
and a data analysis procedure adopted, and presents the results and the major findings.
The findings should be presented in a comprehensible format.

The research report can be as simple as a short report of a few pages giving the overall
findings of the research, or it can be a long report with numerous parts. The degree of
formality required by management dictates the type of report to prepare.

5.10.1. Parts of a Complete Formal Research Report

A .Prefatory section

In this part of the report, first a title fly needs to be prepared. The title fly only includes
the title of the report. The title should be carefully worded so it tells the reader exactly
what the report is about. Following the title fly is the title page. The title page should
include the title of the report, the name and the title of the recipient of the report, and the
name and the title of the individual who prepared the report and the date. The letter that
authorized the undertaking of the research project, followed by a letter of transmittal
indicating the completion of the research report are the next items included in the report.
Include a table of contents followed by an executive summary. The executive summary,
summarizing the report's major findings, should be brief and to the point. This summary
should briefly explain the conclusions.

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B. Introduction to the research

This section of the report provides a clear background and statement of the research
question and provides information about the objectives of the research. Included in this
section would be a literature review about previous studies with the same or similar
problem. If there are hypotheses to be tested, population parameters to be estimated,
theories to be considered, they will be incorporated into this section of the report

C. Research method

This section will provide a detailed explanation of research design and will provide
answers to many questions. What type of design was used? What instruments were used
for the collection of data? Were there any subjects involved in the study? What did the
subjects do? How was the sample selected? What kind of statistical or non-statistical
techniques were used for data analysis? Finally, in this section of the report the
limitations encountered in the study should be presented.

D. Findings

This section is probably one of the most important parts of the research report. Provided
in this section would be the results of the data analyses and explanation of all the
findings. At this point, all the raw data have been analyzed and converted to meaningful
information for management's use. This is the section where the original research
question is answered.

E. Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

A concise yet precise summary of major findings will be included in this section,
followed by any recommendations that the researcher considers important and
meaningful.

F. Appendices and Bibliography

Statistical tests, large tables of information, copies of measurement instruments, and

supporting documents should be included in the appendices. Finally, the report should
end by providing a bibliography of all sources of information.

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 6. Types of Research
Research-studies can be classified in a number of ways. Two major ways are to classify
by degree of applicability and generalizability to educational settings (basic versus
applied research) and to classify by general and specific approach to inquiry (qualitative
versus quantitative research and related subtypes).

6.1. Basic versus Applied Research

Basic research, either directly or indirectly, involves the development of theory; applied
research is concerned with the application of theory to the solution of problems.

Basic research is conducted solely for the purpose of theory development and refinement.
It is not concerned with practical applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory
conditions and controls usually associated with scientific research.

Applied research, as the name implies, is conducted for the purpose of applying, or
testing, theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving educational problems. Rightly or
wrongly, most educational research studies would be classified at the applied end of the
continuum; they are more concerned with “what” works best than with “why”.

Basic research is concerned with establishing general principles of learning; applied

research is concerned with their utility in educational settings. For example, much basic
research has been conducted with animals to determine principles of reinforcement and
their effect on learning.

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Applied research has tested these principles to determine their effectiveness in improving
learning (e.g. programmed microcomputer instruction) and behavior (e.g. behavior
modification)

6.2. Evaluation Research

Evaluation is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to make
decisions. In reality, there is a fine line between research and evaluation, and an
evaluation may very easily utilize a research design. Both research and evaluation
involve decision making and both involve steps which parallel those of the scientific
method.

6.2.1. Research and Development (R&D)

The major purpose of R& D efforts is not to formulate or test theory but to develop
effective products for use in schools. Products produced by R& D efforts include: teacher
–training materials, learning materials, set of behavioral objectives, media materials, and
management systems.

6.3. Action Research

The purpose of action research is to solve practical problems through the application of
the scientific method. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in a local
setting. It is not concerned with whether the result are generalizable to any other setting
and is not characterized by the same kind of control evident in other categories of
research. The primary goal of action research is the solution of a given problem, not
contribution to science.

6.4. Qualitative VS Quantitative Approach

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Qualitative approach involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain
insights into phenomena of interest. Qualitative research studies many variables intensely
over an extended period of time in order to find out the way things are, how and why they
came to be that way and what it all means. They study only one or few units allow them
to do this.

Quantitative research on the other hand concentrate on one or small number of variables
in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationships, including cause-
effect relationship.

A very real difference between qualitative approach and quantitative approaches is the
degree of intervention and control involved. Qualitative researchers do not want to study
phenomena as they are in natural settings.

Quantitative researchers on the other hand often intervene and attempt to control as many
variables as possible.

An example of qualitative and quantitative research helps to understand the difference.

Accountability as practices in our primary health care system creates an undesirable

atmosphere of anxiety among nurses.

1. Strongly agree
2. Agree
3. Disagree
4. Strongly disagree

The nurse marked "strongly agree". Now compare this response to her response to an
open-ended question:

Question: Please add any personal comments you'd like to make in your own words about
any part of the primary health care system's accountability approach.

Response: 'Fear' is the word for 'accountability' as applied in our system. Accountability
is a political ploy to maintain power and control us. The disappointment in our system is

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incredible. You wouldn't believe the new layers of administration that have been created
just to keep this system going. Come down and visit in hell sometime.

These two responses illustrate one kind of difference that can exist between qualitative
data derived from responses to open-ended questions and quantitative measurement.
Quantitative measures are succinct and easily aggregated for analysis, they are
systematic, standardized and easily presented in a short space. By contrast, qualitative
responses are longer, more detailed and analysis is difficult because responses are neither
systematic nor standardized. The open-ended response permits one to understand the
world as seen by the respondent.

6.4.1. Qualitative approaches

These can be applied to the study of past events or current events. When applied to past
events the process is referred to as historical research when applied to current events, it is
referred to as qualitative research. It is conducted to promote greater understanding of not
just the way things are but also why.

6.4.1.1. Historical research

It is a systematic collection and evaluation of data related to past occurrence in order to

describe causes, effect or trends of those events that may help to explain present events
and anticipate future event.

The purpose of historical research is to arrive at conclusion concerning causes effects,

trends of past occurrence that may help to explain present events and anticipate future
events.

Historical research studies do not typically gather data by administering instrument to

individuals instead seek out data that is already available. Sources of data referred to as
primary or secondary. Primary sources constitute first hand knowledge such as eye
witness report and original documents. Secondary sources include description of an event
by other than an eyewitness.

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The assignation of Governor Salman Taseer is a good example to explain historical
research. If we research this event it is connected with the sequence of Namoos-a-Risalat
issues. So we can say that the cause of murder of Salman Taseer is his views on the
Namoos-a-Risalat act which affected the view of Mumtaz Qadri, agitate him to kill him
and we can say that this event may be the first in the chain of the future events.

6.4.1.2. Qualitative research

It is defined by describing what it entails and its rationale. Qualitative research involves
intensive data collection that is collection of extensive data on many variables over an
extended period of time in a naturalistic setting refers to the fact that the variables being
investigated are studied where they naturally occur as they naturally occur not in
researcher controlled environment under researcher controlled conditions.

The rationale behind the use of qualitative research is that behavior occurs in a context
and a more complete understanding of the behavior requires understanding of the context
in which it occurs. Thus qualitative researcher are not just concerned with describing the
way things are how people feel about the way the things are what they believe, what
means they attach to various activities and so forth.

In order to achieve the objective of holistic, in-depth understanding, qualitative

researchers utilize a variety of methods and data collection strategies and qualitative
research is often characterized as being multi method strategy used however is participant
observation usually supplemented by the collection of relevant documents and extensive,
informal, interviewing; participant observation basically involves the researcher
immersing herself or himself in the setting of interest, observing as much as possible and
taking extensive, detailed notes. What is observed is typically a single unit.

Qualitative research is clearly inductive. Through intensive and extensive observation,

the qualitative researcher seeks to derive and describe findings that promote greater
understanding of how and why people behave the way they do.

6.4.2. Quantitative research

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It is applied in order to describe current conditions or to investigate relationships
including cause-effect relationships.

6.4.2.1. Descriptive research

It involves collecting data in order to test hypothesis or to answer questions concerning

the current status of the subject of the study. A descriptive study determines and reports
the way things are.

One common type of descriptive research involves assessing attitudes or opinions

towards individuals, organizations, events, or procedures. Descriptive data are typically
collected through a questionnaire survey, an interview, or observation.

Descriptive research sounds very simple; there is considerably more or it, how ever, then
just asking questions and reporting answers.

Descriptive studies utilizing observational techniques to collect data also complexities

that are not readily apparent. Observers must be trained and recording forms must be
developed so that data will be collected objectively and reliably.

For example: How do adolescents spend their time?

In this example we are researching that how adolescents spend their time

6.4.2.2. Observational research

In an observational study, the current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking

but by observing. Observational data can be collected on intimate objects such as books
as well as human beings. In either case an observational study must be planned and
executed just as carefully as any other type of research study.

Types of observational research

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The major types of observational research are:

1. Non participant observation: includes both naturalistic observation and simulation

and typically involves observation of human subjects.
2. Meta-analysis: involves observation and numerical analysis of a number of
research reports. It involves document analysis.

6.4.2.3. Correlation research

Correlation research treated as a type of descriptive research. A correlation study

describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. Correlation
research involves collecting data in order to determine whether, and to what degree, a
relationship exists between two or more quantifiable variables. Degree of relationship is
expressed as a correlation coefficient.

Correlation research attempts to determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship

exists between two or more quantifiable variables. The purpose of a correlation study
may be to establish relationship or to use relationships in making predictions.

For example: Are children’s friendships related to their relationships with siblings?
Example explains research that the relationship between friendship and relationship with
the siblings.

6.4.2.4. Casual –Comparative and Experimental Research

While casual-comparative and experimental research represent distinctly different

methods, they can best be understood through comparison and contrast. Both attempt to
establish cause effect relationships; both involve group comparisons. The major
difference between them is that in experimental research the alleged “cause” is
manipulated, and in casual-comparative research it is not. In experimental research, the
alleged “cause”, the activity or characteristic believed to make a difference, is referred to
as a treatment; the more general term for “cause” is independent variable. The difference,
or “effect”, which is determined to occur or not occur, is refereed to as the dependent
variable. Thus, a study which investigates a cause-effect relationship investigates the
effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable.
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Casual –comparative research is sometimes treated as a type of descriptive research.
Casual –comparative research attempts to determine reasons, or causes, for the current
status of the phenomena under study. Casual-comparative is also known as that research
in which the researcher attempts to determine the cause, or reason, for existing
differences in the behavior or status of groups of individuals.

For example: do smoking cause cancer?

1. Dependent variable: cancer.

2. Independent variable: smoking.

6.4.2.5. Experimental Research

Experimental research is the only type of research that can truly test hypotheses
concerning cause-and-effect relationships. It represents the most valid approach to the
solution of educational problems, both practical and theoretical, and to the advancement
of education as a science. In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates at least
one independent variable, controls over relevant variables, and observes the effect on one
or more dependent variables. Experimental research is both the most demanding and the
most productive type of research.

For example: Does drawing improve children’s memory for an event?

1. Independent variable: drawing v/s telling alone
2. Dependent variable: memory performance

7. Managers and Research

Managers with knowledge of research have an advantage over those without. As world is
a global village managers should know about research methods. Reasons are as under:

1. A grasp of research methods will enable managers to understand, predict, and

control their environment.
2. Knowledge of research and problem-solving processes helps managers to identify
problem situations before they get out of control.

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3. Knowledge about research processes, design, and interpretation of data also helps
managers to become discriminating recipients of the research findings presented,
and to determine whether or not the recommended solutions are appropriate for
implementation.
4. Another reason why professional managers today need to know about research
methods is that they will become more discriminating while sifting through the
information disseminated in business journals. Some journal articles are more
scientific and objective than others. Even among the scientific articles, some are
more appropriate for application or adaptation to particular organizations and
situation than others. This is a function of the sampling design, the types of
organizations studied, and other factors reported in the journal articles. Unless the
manager is able to grasp fully what the published empirical research really
conveys, she or he is likely to err in incorporating some of the suggestions such
publications offer. By the same token, managers can handle with success their
own problems at considerable cost savings by studying the results of “good”
published research that has addressed similar issues.
5. Such knowledge sharpens the sensitivity of managers to the myriad variables
operating in a situation and reminds then frequently of the multi causality and
multi finality of phenomena, thus avoiding inappropriate, simplistic notions of
one variable “causing” another.
6. When managers understand the research reports about their organizations handed
to them by professionals, they will be equipped to take intelligent, educated,
calculated risks with known probabilities attached to the success or failure of their
decisions. Research then becomes a useful decision-making tool rather than a
mass of incomprehensible statistical information.
7. Managers become knowledgeable about scientific investigations, vested interests
inside or outside the organization will not prevail.
8. Knowledge about research helps the manager to relate to and share pertinent
information with the researcher or consultant hired for problem solving.
Being knowledgeable about research and research methods help professional
managers to:

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 1. Identify and effectively solve minor problems in the work setting.
2. Know how to discriminate good from bad research.
3. Appreciate and be constantly aware of the multiple influences and multiple effects
of factors impinging on a situation.
4. Take calculated risks in decision making, knowing full well the probabilities
associated with the different possible outcomes.
5. Prevent possible vested interests from exercising their influence in a situation.
6. Relate to hired researchers and consultants more effectively.
7. Combine experience with scientific knowledge while making decisions.

8. The manager and the consultant-researcher

8.1. How to locate and select a researcher

1. Some research firms are listed in the telephone directories and can be used for
consulting on various types of project. A broad identification about what areas or
issues need to be researched is stated the firm will provide lists of individuals that
have expertise in those particular areas.
2. Many colleges of business also have professor who do organizational consulting
work.

In all cases however it is advisable to check the worth, reputation and credibility of the
firm.

8.2. The manager-researcher relationship

Organization hire outside research agencies to identify and solve problems for them but
in this scenario the manager must not only interact effectively with the research team, but
must also explicitly delineate the roles for the researchers and the management.

Clarification of the issues offer the research team the opportunity to either accept the
assignment and find alternatives ways of dealing with the problem.

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When the manager is knowledgeable about the research then the interactions between the
manager and the researcher become more meaningful, purposeful and beneficial both to
the organization and the researcher alike.

8.3. Values

On one hand if specifying and identifying of duties and roles are the duty of the manager
then on the other hand he has to convey the value system of the value system of the
management to the researcher.

Exchange of information and value system in a straight forward and forthright manner
also helps to increase the rapport and trust between the manager and researchers helps to
motivate the two sides to interact effectively.

Guidelines for hiring a researcher or consultant

1. The function and anticipation of both the parties are unambiguous.

2. Philosophies and value system must be properly communicated.
3. A trust level is established between all the parties’ i.e researcher, manager and
employees to promote the air of cooperation in the organization.

9. External versus internal researcher/consultant

External researcher/consultants is an outside firm or individual hired in an organization in

order to carry out a research project whereas internal researcher(s) is an employee of
organization who perform ongoing research work in the organization.

Generally large organizations use external research more as compared to smaller

organizations. However both have inherent advantages and disadvantages described
below:

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9.1. Advantages of external researcher/consultant:

1) Additional skill/experience:

One of the most frequent reasons for instigating a consultancy project, and particularly
calling in an outside consultant, is when an organization requires additional skill or
experience over and above that which they can draw on their existing management team.

2) A fresh perspective:

External consultants/researchers bring with them a fresher perspective. As in so many

areas of life, have sometimes we are so close to problems, or have looked at them in a
particular way for so long, that we find it difficult to see what the real problem is and
how to solve it. An outside consultant often brings a fresh perspective to such problems
or issue thus helping to get the solution more effectively.

3) No vested interests:

External consultants do not have any vested interests and therefore can be more objective
and/or open in their approach to an organizational issue or problem.

4) High degree of influence/status:

Since external researchers are invited in the organization, they have increased leverage
(the degree of influence and status in the organization) and greater freedom of operations
than internal practitioners. Therefore they can perform their work with greater
improvisation.

5) Legal/ regulatory/ethical reasons:

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In some circumstances, using consultants and particularly consultants who are required to
come from outside organizations , may be legal/regulatory requirement ( e.g. to examine
allegations of wrong doings) . It may be considered more ethical to use external
consultants to address an organizational issue or problem. The most obvious advantage is
that it will help to ensure more objective report.

9.2. Disadvantages of external researcher/ consultant:

1) Cost

External consultants and consultancy companies have a reputation for being expensive.
However management should be careful in selecting an external researcher through
careful appraisals.

2) Resentment/fear/antagonism:

Bringing an external researcher(s) into an organization can be a major source of

resentment among existing staff. Sometimes this resentment is due to the fact that
bringing in an outside team is seen as being something of a slur or insult to the existing
internal research team, seemingly imply that the internal team are simply not up to the
mark. Often resentment is based on fear e.g. employees may fear that the team may make
such recommendations which will lead to some form of reprimand(criticism) or even
worse loss of their jobs.

3) Lack of familiarity with organization:

Outside researchers lack familiarity with the client organization. They are unfamiliar with
culture, communication networks and formal or informal power systems.This lack of
familiarity often means that the researcher has to undergo an organizational study.
However this extends the time period of consultancy which is often a source of
frustration for the client firm.

4) Lack of responsibility for results:

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Outside consultants often lack real responsibility and accountability for results. Certainly,
in many cases the responsibilities of the consultant end with the making of
recommendations and the implementation and follow up is left on the client organization.

9.3. Advantages of internal consultants/researcher:

Almost all the disadvantages of external researcher are the advantages of internal
researcher.

They are familiar with the organization’s culture and norms and probably accept and
behave in accordance with the norms. This means that they do not waste time becoming
familiar with the system and winning acceptance. Internal practitioners know the power
structures, who are the strategic people, how to apply leverage. They are already known
to the employees, and have personal interest in seeing the organization succeed.

9.4. Disadvantages of internal researcher/consultant:

Almost all the advantages of external researcher are the disadvantages of internal
researcher/consultant. They usually lack specialized skills as compared to external
researcher who have most updated knowledge of research. They lack objectivity. Internal
researcher maybe more likely to accept the organizational system as given and
accommodate their change tactics to the needs of management.

Being known to the workforce has advantage, but it can also work against the internal
researcher. Other employees may not understand the researcher’s role and will certainly
be influenced by his or her previous work and relationships in the organization,
particularly if the work and relationship have in anyway been questionable. Finally the
internal researcher may not have the necessary power and authority; internal researchers
are sometimes in a remote staff position and report to a mid-level manager.

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 10. Knowledge about research and managerial
effectiveness

I don’t know how you are supposed to make right decision without knowledge.

William Dillard SR.(founder and chairman Dillard’s department stores)

Question the loyalty of a loyal jeep owner and u are likely to hear these words: it’s a jeep
thing you would not understand. Consider for example the outward appearance of the
jeep Cherokee. The prospect of being smacked by a roving shopping cart in a parking lot
is a sort of thing that leads a lexus SUV(sport utility vehicle) owner to park a half mile
away from the closest car, but for the jeep owner, scratches, dings, gashes and chips are
like medal of owners bestowed to the vehicle. One of the greatest challenges for the
division of Daimlerchrysler, AG, is keeping up with the changing needs, wants desires
and diversity of its customer base. For a long time, jeeps were found mainly on army
bases, running remote trails or venturing out on exotic safaris. But now they are found at
different locations for different purposes.. in fact with increasing demand for other cars
jeep management realizes that learning about customers by convening focus groups and
compiling surveys is no longer enough. Rather jeep’s marketing research efforts are
focusing on individual consumers and creating a relationship between the jeep brand and
the buyer. Marketing research activities now focus on information technology and data
gathering through event sponsorship. Over the years, jeep has invited families to
participate in such activities as off-road driving clinics, fly-fishing contests, hiking and
mountain-biking competitions solely for the purpose of having a face to face interaction
with their customers and learning about the relationship they have with their vehicles.
And thus information collected is used to innovate, redesign or improvise their vehicles.
According to jeeps sales research, owners who participate in sponsored activities are four
times more likely to purchase another jeep than are owners who do not participate.

Knowledge of research goes hand in hand in the whole business career of a manager. In
order to be effective a manager must have a sound knowledge of research process. For a
marketing manager research helps to plan and execute the pricing, promotion and
distribution strategies. It also helps him in target marketing, positioning or new product
development through demand analysis. For a sales manager research helps to forecast
demand in the market, future sales and profitability etc. for an HR manager research

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helps to identify relationship of an employee with organization, his problems, needs,
required staff or layoffs etc. Thus research is everywhere and it is the task of manager to
identify when and how research is to be conducted, is internal research team is sufficient
or company needs to hire and external researcher (s), how much budget is available to the
organization for its R&D and most important what research is exactly for and how to
implement the research findings.. Answer to all these questions lay in the hands of a
manager and without having knowledge of research he would find himself standing in the
midst of hundreds of problem with no solution. So being a business student one must
have a profound understanding of research.

11. Negotiating access

Two important issues that the researchers confront during their conduct of research are
access and ethics. These are aspects that require careful attention at the outset of any
research project. First of all lets have some issues related to access.

11.1. Problems associated with access:

Researcher’s ability to access data depend on gaining access to their source or

appropriate sources where there is a choice.

The first level of access is Physical access or entry. Gaining physical access can be
difficult for a number of reasons.

a. Refusal to give access by the source:

Time and resources constraints may influence the source to deny access.

b. Disinterest of source:

This may be due to

 Lack of perceived value in relation to the work of organization or the

individual

 The nature of the topic because of its potential sensitivity, or because of

concerns about the confidentiality of information that may be required.

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  Perception about Researcher’s credibility and competence

c. Impact of external environment:

Organization may find itself in a difficult situation owing to certain external events total
out of their control e.g. a line manager who is willing to impart information but he is
unable to do so due to the restrictions of higher management.

Many writers see access as an iterative process where one has to seek access to
information in an organization in a cyclical manner. Physical access to an organization is
formally granted through its management. However it is also necessary to gain informal
acceptance from relevant intended persons in order to gain access to the data they are
able to provide.

Two important issues relevant to access are:

 Selection of appropriate sample

 Feasibility of research

11.2. Selection of appropriate sample

Access may also refer to the researcher’s ability to select a representative sample of
organizational participants in order to attempt to answer his research questions and meet
his objectives in an unbiased way and to produce valid and reliable data. Here this
broader meaning of access maybe referred to as cognitive access.

Two important issues relevant to researcher related to cognitive access are:

1) Whether the Researcher have sufficiently considered and therefore fully realized
the extent and nature of access that he will require in order to be able to answer
his research question and thus meet his objectives.

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 2) Whether researcher is able to gain access in practice to answer his research
questions and meet his objectives.

11.3. Feasibility of Research:

Feasibility of any research project is greatly influenced by the level of access researcher
has and he is able to maintain during his course of action. The issue of feasibility
determines the construction or refinement of One’s research questions and sometimes
objectives.

11.4. Strategies to Gain access:

Following are some of the strategies to gain access to an organization or people to have
one’s required information:

1. Allowing oneself sufficient time

2. Using existing contacts and developing new ones

3. Providing a clear account of purpose and type of access required

4. Overcoming organizational concern about the granting of access

5. Identifying possible benefits to the organization in granting him access

6. Using suitable language

7. Facilitating ease of reply when requesting access

8. Developing one’s access on an incremental basis

9. Establishing his credibility with intended participants

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 12. Research Ethics

Ethical concerns emerge as a researcher plan his research, seek access to organizations
and individuals, collect, analyze and report his data. In the context of Research ethics
refers to the appropriateness of one’s behavior in relation to the rights of those who
become the subject of his work or are affected by it. Wells defines ethics in terms of a
code of behavior appropriate to academics and conduct of research.

12.1. Nature and scope of ethical issues in business Research:

Discussion of ethical issues can be divided into four subsections:

1) Ethical issues that affect the research process generally

2) Ethical issues during the design and initial stage

3) Ethical issues during the data collection stage

4) Ethical issues related to analysis and reporting stage

12.1.1. Ethical issues that affect the research process generally:

A number of key ethical issues arise across the stages and duration of a research project.
They relate to ethical issues around the:

 Privacy of actual and possible participants ;

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  Voluntary nature of participation and the right to withdraw partially or completely
from the process;

 Consent and possible deception of participants;

 Maintenance of confidentiality of data provided by the individuals or identifiable

participants and their anonymity;

 Reactions of participants to the way in which you seek to collect data;

 Effects on participants of the way, in which you use, analyze and report your data;

 Behavior and objectivity of the research.

Moreover use of internet during research project undoubtedly continues to generate a

debate and evaluation about the ethical use of this particular means to collect data.
Expression netiquette has been developed to provide a heading for a number of ‘rules’ or
guidelines about how to act ethically when using internet. Internet may allow the
researcher to contact possible participants more easily and even to do this repeatedly-a
possibility that maybe an invasion of their privacy in a number of ways.

12.1.2. Ethical issues during the design and initial access stages:

One of the key stages at which you need to consider the potential for ethical problems to
arise is when you seek initial access.

 Being a part of internal research team, a researcher should not attempt to apply
any pressure on his colleagues or subordinates to cooperate.

 Privacy may also be affected by the nature and timings of any approach that you
make to intended participants (e.g. telephoning at unsociable times).

 Access to secondary data may also raise ethical problems in relation to privacy
(obtaining access to personal data about individuals who have not consented to let
you have this- through personnel or client records)

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Consent to participate in a research project is not a straightforward matter. In general
terms, an approach to a potential participant is an attempt to gain consent. However, this
raises a question about the scope of any consent given. Where someone agrees to
participate in a particular data collection method, this does not necessarily imply consent
about the way in which the data provided are subsequently used.

Clearly any assurance that a researcher provides about anonymity and confidentiality will
help to develop an understanding of the nature of the consent being entered into, but even
this maybe inadequate in terms of clarifying the nature of that consent. This suggest a
continuum that ranges across a lack of consent, involving some form of deception, a lack
of clarity about the nature of consent so that the researcher implies consent from taking
part, and consent that is fully informed as well as fully given.

Lack of consent Implied consent

33

Researcher uses deception
to collect data
Participant does not fully
understand his/her rights
Researcher implies consent
about use of data from fact
of access or return of
questionnaire
participant consent given
freely and based on full
information about
participation rights and use
of data

12.1.3. Ethical issues during the Data collection stage:

Data collection stage is associated with a range of ethical issues. Some of them are
general issues that apply to all methods of data collection while others are issues specific
to particular methods of data collection.

 A researcher should not intrude in an intended participant’s privacy by forcing

him to take part in research project. Moreover participants are free to withdraw or
not to take part in any aspect of research.

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  Once access has been granted researcher should remain within the aims of his
research project that he shared and agreed with his intended participant(s). To do
otherwise, without raising this with his participants and renegotiating access,
would come into the sphere of deceit.
 Researcher should maintain objectivity during the data collection stage- means
collect your data accurately and fully and avoid exercising subjective selectivity
in what he records.
 Confidentiality and anonymity of participants once promised should be
maintained in whole of the research project.
 Great care should be exercised while using internet in data collection stage
 Relatively greater level of control should be exercised while using qualitative
methods of data collection so that one’s behavior should remain within
appropriate and acceptable parameters.
 Use of observation techniques raises its own ethical concern. The boundaries of
what is permissible to observe need to be drawn clearly. A solution to this
problem of reactivity of the participants being observed can be solved by using a
covert study.

12.1.4. Ethical issues related to the analysis and reporting stages:

The maintenance of your objectivity will be vital during the analysis stage to make sure
that you do not misrepresent the data collected. This will include not being selective
about which data to report, or where appropriate misrepresenting its statistical accuracy.
Special care should be exercised at this level also to maintain the confidentiality and
anonymity of individuals and organization(s).

A further ethical concern stems from the use made by conclusions of the research project
and any course of action that is explicitly referred to or implicitly suggested. Here the
original assurances provided to those who participated in the research maybe set aside,

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with the result that the collective interest of participants maybe disadvantaged through
this use of data. The use of data for secondary purposes therefore also lead to ethical
concerns of potentially significant proportions, and researcher will need to consider these
in the way in which he make use of this type of data.

Summary

This chapter “Introduction to research” attempts to provide an insight on the overall crux
of research. Research is an organized, systematic, data based, critical, objective, scientific
inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding
answers or solutions to it.

The best way through the ado perform research is the adoption of a scientific research
design. It has ten steps; identifying broad problem area, problem definition, preparing a
research proposal, plotting a theoretical framework, development of hypothesis, making
a scientific research design, collecting relevant data through primary and secondary

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means, analyzing the data collected, deducing from the results and finally preparing a
research report.

There are many different types of research. Basic research, either directly or indirectly,
involves the development of theory; applied research is concerned with the application of
theory to the solution of problems. Another type is action research which is concerned
with a local problem and is conducted in a local setting. It is not concerned with whether
the result is generalizable to any other setting or not.

Qualitative approach involves the collection of extensive narrative data in order to gain
insights into phenomena of interest. Qualitative research studies many variables intensely
over an extended period of time in order to find out the way things are, how and why they
came to be that way and what it all means.

Organizations hire both types of researchers: external and internal. Both have inherent
advantages and disadvantages.

Two very important issues in the research process is negotiating access and research
ethics. Ethics is a code of behavior appropriate to academics and conduct of research.

Bibliography:

1. Gay, L.R. (1996). Educational research: competencies for analysis and

application. USA: Merril publishing.

2. Hair, J.F, Bush, R.P, & Ortinau, D.J. (2003). Marketing research. New
York: John E.Biernat.

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3. . Lancaster, G. (2005). Research methods in mangement. U.K.: Elsevier
Butterworth-heinemann.

4. Saunders, M, Lewis, P, & Thornhill, A. (2004). Research methods for

business students. Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.

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