NAME ONE THING THAT YOU KNOW IS TRUE

DOXA &
EPISTEME
OPINION & KNOWLEDGE

BY: LIMUEL AMER ABDULAZIZ C. PANGANIBAN

 TODAY’S PURSUIT OF
KNOWLEDGE

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OPINION & KNOWLEDGE PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS

04 05

ANCIENT ROOTS MODERN LEGACY CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

PHILOSOPHICAL QUESTIONS

Why is it important to distinguish

the false from the true?

What are some ways of justifying

that your beliefs or opinions are
true?

Can you recall some instances

that you have been deceived?

When was the last time you

doubted something?
Do you agree to the idea that there
can be more than one truth?
THE FALSE AND THE TRUE

Why is it important to distinguish

the false from the true?
OPINION VS KNOWLEDGE

To know the truth is different from

believing something to be true.

We are not supposed to believe all

views presented to us as true. We need
to distinguish the false from the true, or
the illusions from the real.

That is why philosophers like Plato

devoted much of their time to the
problem between appearance and
reality.

OPINION VS KNOWLEDGE
To know the truth is different from
believing something to be true.
We are not supposed to believe all
views presented to us as true. We need
to distinguish the false from the true, or
the illusions from the real.
That is why philosophers like Plato
devoted much of their time to the
problem between appearance and
reality.
DOXA & EPISTEME
When we talk about knowledge (episteme in
Greek), we are not concerned with mere
belief or opinion (doxa in Greek).
This thought is of great importance to
philosophy that a branch of philosophy
called epistemology is devoted specifically
to the problem of knowledge.
Every person has a set of beliefs or opinions.
With the diversity of beliefs through time and
across cultures, there seem to be no point in
claiming which views are correct.
 It is a different case, however, when we claim that our
belief is true. When we claim that a belief is true,
we are required to explain why we know it to be true.

TO KNOW IS TO BE ABLE TO GIVE

RATIONAL JUSTIFICATION.

Gut-feel that something is true would never be enough to justify what we claim to know. Hearsays and
opinions would not count as knowledge unless they pass a test of verification or confirmation.

Rational beings are held responsible for their thoughts in the same way that they are for their actions. We are
not creatures that passively accept whatever is given or presented to us. Human beings discover, unveil, and
seek truth.

Throughout the ages, many philosophers had their own ways of differentiating knowledge from opinion. As
time passed by, various ways of discovering truth and knowledge by using opinion as a starting point had
been developed.
SEEKING KNOWLEDGE:
ANCIENT ROOTS
 SEEKING KNOWLEDGE
ANCIENT ROOTS

Since the beginning Plato

of philosophy,
Is often considered the first to
it was recognized that truth differentiate knowledge from
is not readily accessible to opinion. Knowledge, according
human beings. Only gods, to Plato, is certain whereas
beings of supreme opinion is not certain.
intelligence, possess all
truths.

To learn or to know, we
Man has to exert mental
need to see beyond the
effort to know some of
material world through the
these truths. His rational
use of reason or intellect.
capacity (reason) is his tool
Our intellect alone enables
in such endeavor.
us to surpass appearances
and see the truth.
“Opinion is the medium between
knowledge and ignorance.”
-Plato
 ANCENT ROOTS

PLATONISM

Each of us perceive
Plato believed that
things differently. But
knowledge gained
Plato was not a
through senses was not
relativist, he believed
true knowledge
that there were certain
because the objects in
abstract ideas that are
the physical world is
universal and
changing.
unchanging.

Abstract Ideas must be

eternal, immaterial
ideas which exists in a We can't sense equality.
higher world of reality. It is something that our
He called these minds instinctly know.
universal ideas Forms.
 ANCENT ROOTS
PLATONISM

PLATO ON FORMS FORMS [ PEN HUMANNES LOG

The world around us belong to

kinds of things

They are individual examples of

the kind

To share in the ideal form of a

kind is to participate in that form

The Form is the essence of a

thing.
OBJECTS
[
ANCENT ROOTS
PLATONISM

PLATO ON FORMS

The things in the physical world merely

partake of in this universal ideas.

The human mind possesses true knowledge

when it grasps the knowledge of these
universal ideas.

How do we take a grasp of the

knowledge of these universal
ideas?
DIALOGUES OF PLATO

Plato’s dialogues are activities directed toward

discovering truths and acquiring knowledge.

Learning from his teacher Socrates, Plato's

dialogues begin with opinions that are agreed to by
interlocutors and then use series of questioning and
answering to discover truth.

An opinion is used as starting point and the

discussion progresses due to the cross-examination
of the given opinion. Implications are drawn out
and counter-examples are cited to arrive at truth.

This dialectic is instrumental in drawing out

assumptions, inconsistencies, and citing counter-
examples so the truth is known.
ANCIENT ROOTS Artistotle

The same emphasis on reason as a tool is found in

“To say of what is that it is,
or of what is not that it is
not, is true.”
-Aristotle
Aristotle.
Syllogism
Aristotle developed the syllogism. It is a deductive
argument of a certain form where a conclusion is
inferred from two premises. Syllogism is used to
demonstrate the truth of a claim or conclusion.

Valid arguments are those that begin with

premises that are knowable and guarantee the
truth of a conclusion. The premises serve as
explanation as to why the conclusion is valid or
acceptable. An example of this is:

Major Premise: All men are mortal

Minor Premise: Socrates is a man

Conclusion: Socrates is mortal

Aristotle identified valid syllogisms as proof or

demonstration of truth.
Major Premise: All men are mortal
Minor Premise: Socrates is a man
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal
If the premises are ought to be valid and
guaratnees the conclusion, truth and knowledge is
found.
If one of the premises are not seen to be valid and
the conclusion does not follow (non sequitur), truth
is not found and arguments will stay as opinions.
Artistotle
The same emphasis on reason as a tool is found in
Aristotle.
Syllogism
Aristotle developed the syllogism. It is a deductive
argument of a certain form where a conclusion is
inferred from two premises. Syllogism is used to
demonstrate the truth of a claim or conclusion.
Valid arguments are those that begin with
premises that are knowable and guarantee the
truth of a conclusion. The premises serve as
explanation as to why the conclusion is valid or
acceptable. An example of this is:
Major Premise: All men are mortal
Minor Premise: Socrates is a man
Conclusion: Socrates is mortal
Aristotle identified valid syllogisms as proof or
demonstration of truth.
 SEEKING KNOWLEDGE:
MODERN LEGACY
 SEEKING KNOWLEDGE: MODERN LEGACY

RENE DESCARTES Descartes believed that:

statements that are false, doubtful, or uncertain,

In the modern period, the most cannot be used as basis for knowledge.
important contribution was made by
Rene Descartes. He is considered
the Father of Modern Philosophy for The Meditations can be used as a method of doubt
introducing the notion of as a test to distinguish the indubitable from the
indubitability. dubitable.

Clear and distinct ideas alone can become the

In his Meditations on First Philosophy, Descartes begins his
foundation of all knowledge.
reflection with the admission that:

"from my earliest years, I have accepted many false opinions as
true, and that what I have concluded from such badly assured
premises could not but be highly doubtful and uncertain. From
the time that I first recognized this fact, 1 have realized that if I
wished to have any firm and constant knowledge in the sciences,
I would have to undertake, once and for all, to set aside all the
opinions which I have previously accepted among my beliefs and
start again from the very beginning."
Opinions are those that can be doubted and are
often confused in our thought. Their lack of clarity
makes them dubious.
Knowledge, on the other hand, are indubitable and
thus certain.
 SEEKING KNOWLEDGE:
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
SEEKING KNOWLEDGE:
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
CONTEMPORARY PERIOD
This period may be best seen as a
reaction against the views of the
modern period.
As such, postmodernists have
come to be known for their denial
of philosophical viewpoints held
between the sixteenth and mid-
twentieth centuries regarding
reality, truth, knowledge, human
nature, and language.
Postmodernism on
Truth and truth
To postmodernists, such reality is
nothing but a conceptual construct.
Since there is no objective reality,
there is no 'Truth’.
There are many truths, that is, truth Postmodernism on Logic
that is particular. There is no Truth
that is absolute.
In addition, they criticized the
modern period for its emphasis on
reason, logic, and science.
These things have led to knowledge
Postmodernism on
that some would describe as
Human Nature
oppressive for truth seemed to be
dictated by those in power.
Regarding human nature, they
claimed that much of who we are is
socially determined.
Many of these claims can be
illustrated by looking at Jacques
Derrida's contribution to
philosophy.
JACUES DERRIDA ON SEEKING KNOWLEDGE:
PLATONISM CONTEMPORARY PERIOD

Deconstruction Derrida's theory of deconstruction

significantly influenced contemporary
In the late 1960s, Derrida developed thought.
deconstruction which challenged
traditional views in philosophy.

Deconstruction is an approach to In Plato, to find essence is to

understanding the relationship between find knowledge
text and meaning.

In its simplest form it can be regarded as a In Derrida, non-essential

criticism of Platonism and the idea of true elements or appearance is the
forms, or essences, which take precedence basis of everything that can be
over appearances. spoken or written.

Deconstruction instead places the To insist on essence is to remain at

emphasis on appearance, or suggests, at the center which does not make
least, that essence is to be found in interpretation possible.
appearance.
JACUES DERRIDA
ON DESCARTES
Another way of understanding
Derrida's theory is by comparing it
with Descartes' destruction of his
beliefs in order to construct a
foundation for his knowledge.
Derrida's project is quite similar
except that he focuses on textual
criticism.
It is a revelation of the problem of
sign and signifier (structuralism),
It is a doing away with the author
and all that limits reading or
interpretation.
JACUES DERRIDA
ON THE SOCIETY
In Derrida, like other postmodern
thinkers, we find the desire for a
more democratic society. Power
and authority is shifted from those
who used to be at the center of
society. Knowledge is no longer
viewed as held by a privileged few.
However, the relativism of the
contemporary period due to
everything being permissible
requires much thought.
Many students nowadays tend to
think that beliefs do not need to he
justified. To think this way is
dangerous and irresponsible. It is
the same as arguing that one is
entitled to his/her own opinion or
interpretation and so there is no
room for discussion.
 DOXA & EPISTEME

These are just some of the views given by some philosophers. You have to read and research more
about them to determine which of these make more sense to you. Learning is a life-long activity. Be
diligent enough to know more so you can make progress in your journey to truth.
 THANK YOU FOR LISTENING!

“If you fuel your journey on the

opinions of others, you are going to
run out of gas.”
― Steve Maraboli