Chapter 8

Conformal Mappings and Mobius

Tranformations

Contents: Conformal mappings, Mobius Transformations

8.1 Conformal Mappings

Let γ be a smooth arc with a parametric equation
z = z(t) for t ∈ [a, b] .
Let f (z) be a function defined at all points z on the arc C. Then, the equation
w(t) = f (z(t)) for t ∈ [a, b]
is a parametric equation of the image curve Γ of γ under the transformation w = f (z).

Suppose that γ passes through a point z0 = z(t0 ) where a < t0 < b at which f is
analytic and that f 0 (z) 6= 0. According to the chain rule, if w(t) = f (z(t)), then
w0 (t0 ) = f 0 (z(t0 ))) z 0 (t0 ) .
It gives that
arg (w0 (t0 )) = arg (f 0 (z(t0 )) + arg (z 0 (t0 )) .
Let θ0 be the angle of inclination of a directed line tangent to γ at z0 . That is, arg (z 0 (t0 )) =
θ0 . Let ψ0 denote a value of arg (f 0 (z0 )). Then the anlge of inclination (φ0 ) of a directed
line tangent to the imge curve Γ at the point w0 = f (z0 ) is given by
φ0 = ψ0 + θ0 .
Hence the anlge of inclination (φ0 ) of a directed line tangent to the image curve Γ at the
point w0 = f (z0 ) differes from the angle of inclination (θ0 ) of the directed line tangent to
the curve γ at the point z0 by the angle of rotation
ψ0 = arg (f 0 (z0 )) .

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Since |f 0 (z0 )| = limz→z0 |f (z)−f (z0 )|

|z−z0 |
, the image curve Γ is magnified by the factor |f 0 (z0 )|
at the point w0 = f (z0 ) under the mapping w = f (z).

Under the mapping w = f (z), at each point z0 , there is a rotation by an amount

arg(f 0 (z0 )) and magnification by an amount |f 0 (z0 )| which is responsible in locally distorting
the shape of the curve γ passing through z0 to its image Γ.

Definition 8.1.1. (Angle between Two Curves)

Let γ1 and γ2 be two smooth curves that intersect at the point z0 ∈ C. Let T1 and T2 be
the tangent vectors of γ1 and γ2 respectively at the point z0 . We define the angle between
γ1 and γ2 at z0 to be the angle θ measured counterclockwise from the tangent vector T1 to
the tangent vector T2 .

Now, suppose that f is a non-constant function (need not be analytic), defined in the
neighborhood of z0 . Let Γ1 and Γ2 be the images of the two curves γ1 and γ2 under the
function w = f (z). Since γ1 and γ2 intersect at the point z0 , the image curves Γ1 and
Γ2 intersect at the point w0 = f (z0 ). Let us denote the tangents at w0 of Γ1 and Γ2
respectively by T1∗ and T2∗ .

Definition 8.1.2. (Conformal Map)

We say that the mapping w = f (z) is a conformal mapping at z0 if, whenever two smooth
curves γ1 and γ2 that intersect at z0 , the angle between these two curves γ1 and γ2 is the
same as the angle between the image curves Γ1 and Γ2 (under the map w = f (z)) at the
point w0 = f (z0 ), and the sense of the angle between the curves and their images is also
preserved under the mapping.

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Here, by preservation of the sense of the angle (or orientation) under a mapping, we
mean that if at z0 , the tangent T2 is obtained from the tangent T1 by a counterclockwise
rotation through an angle θ, then at w0 = f (z0 ), the tangent T2∗ is obtained from the
tangent T1∗ in precisely the same manner (counter clockwise rotation).
Thus, a conformal mapping is a mapping that preserves the angle between in-
tersecting curves together with the sense in which the angle is measured.

The following theorem will be useful to determine the conformality of a map.

Theorem 8.1.3. Let f (z) be anallytic in a domain D. Let z0 ∈ D. Then, f (z) is conformal
at z0 if and only if f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0.
Proof.
Let γ1 : z1 (t) for t ∈ [0, 1] and γ2 : z2 (t) for t ∈ [0, 1] be two smooth curves in D that
intersect at the point z0 = z1 (t1 ) = z2 (t2 ).
Let z1 ∈ γ1 and z2 ∈ γ2 be such that |z1 − z0 | = |z2 − z0 | = r. Then
z1 − z0 = reiθ1 and z2 − z0 = reiθ2 .
 
z2 − z0 i (θ2 −θ1 ) z2 − z0
=⇒ =e =⇒ arg = θ2 − θ1 .
z1 − z0 z1 − z0
Let α be the angle between tangents to γ1 and γ2 at the point z0 which is measured from
γ1 to γ2 . Then  
z2 − z0
α = lim arg .
r→0 z1 − z0
Let w0 = f (z0 ), w1 = f (z1 ) and w2 = f (z2 ).
Further let Γ1 = f (γ1 ) and Γ2 = f (γ2 ).
Let β be the angle between tangents to Γ1 and Γ2 at the point w0 which is measured from
Γ1 to Γ2 . Then  
w2 − w0
β = lim arg
r→0 w1 − w0
 
f (z2 ) − f (z0 )
= lim arg
r→0 f (z1 ) − f (z0 )
  
(f (z2 ) − f (z0 ))/(z2 − z0 ) z2 − z0
= lim arg
r→0 (f (z1 ) − f (z0 ))/(z1 − z0 ) z1 − z0
Now, since f is differentiable at the point z0 , we have
f (z2 ) − f (z0 ) f (z1 ) − f (z0 )
lim = lim = f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0 .
r→0 z2 − z0 r→0 z1 − z0
Therefore, by using the continuity of argument function, we can conlude that
 
z2 − z0
β = lim arg =α
r→0 z1 − z0

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if and only if f is differentiable at z0 and f 0 (z0 ) 6= 0.

This also shows that the sense of rotation is also preserved.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

Corollary 8.1.4. If f is analytic and one-to-one on a domain D, then f is conformal at

all points of D.

Proof. First show that if f is one-to-one on a domain D then f 0 (z) 6= 0 for all z ∈ D.
Then apply Theorem 8.1.3 to conclude the result.

Note: The converse the above corollary is not true. For example w = z 2 is conformal at
all points of C \ {0}, but not one-to-one in C \ {0}.

Example 1: Since f (z) = ez is analytic in C and f 0 (z) = ez 6= 0 for all z ∈ C, the map
w = ez is conformal at all points in C. Note that f (z) = ez is not one-to-one in C.

Example 2: Since f (z) = az + b is analytic in C and f (z) one-to-one in C, the map

w = az + b is conformal at all points in C.

Example 3: The map w = z is not conformal at any point in C. The map w = z

preserves the magnitude of the angle between the two curves, but does not preserve the
sense in which the angle is measured. A map that preserves the magnitude, but not the
sense of the angle between two curves is called an isogonal mapping.

Theorem 8.1.5. Let f (z) be analytic in a domain D. Let z0 ∈ D. If f 0 (z0 ) = 0, . . .,

f (k−1) (z0 ) = 0 and f (k) (z0 ) 6= 0, then the mapping w = f (z) magnifies the angles between
any two curves at the point z0 by the factor k.

Proof.
Let γ1 : z1 (t) for t ∈ [0, 1] and γ2 : z2 (t) for t ∈ [0, 1] be two smooth curves in D that
intersect at the point z0 = z1 (t1 ) = z2 (t2 ).
Let z1 ∈ γ1 and z2 ∈ γ2 be such that |z1 − z0 | = |z2 − z0 | = r. Then

z1 − z0 = reiθ1 and z2 − z0 = reiθ2 .

 
z2 − z0 z2 − z0
=⇒ = ei (θ2 −θ1 ) =⇒ arg = θ2 − θ1 .
z1 − z0 z1 − z0
Let α be the angle between tangents to γ1 and γ2 at the point z0 which is measured from
γ1 to γ2 . Then  
z2 − z0
α = lim arg .
r→0 z1 − z0
Let w0 = f (z0 ), w1 = f (z1 ) and w2 = f (z2 ).
Further let Γ1 = f (γ1 ) and Γ2 = f (γ2 ).

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Let β be the angle between tangents to Γ1 and Γ2 at the point w0 which is measured from
Γ1 to Γ2 . Then  
w2 − w0
β = lim arg
r→0 w1 − w0
 
f (z2 ) − f (z0 )
= lim arg
r→0 f (z1 ) − f (z0 )
Now, if f 0 (z0 ) = 0, . . ., f (k−1) (z0 ) = 0 and f (k) (z0 ) 6= 0, then

f (z) = f (z0 ) + ck (z − z0 )k + ck+1 (z − z0 )k+1 + · · · for |z − z0 | < r ,

where ck 6= 0. Therefore,
( k )
ck (z2 − z0 )k
   
f (z2 ) − f (z0 ) z2 − z0
β = lim arg = lim arg = lim arg
r→0 f (z1 ) − f (z0 ) r→0 ck (z1 − z0 )k r→0 z1 − z0
    
z2 − z0 z2 − z0
= lim k arg = k lim arg = kα.
r→0 z1 − z0 r→0 z1 − z0
That is, the angle between the image curves at w0 is magnified by k times.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

Example 4: The map w = 5z 2 is conformal at all non-zero complex points. Whereas, the
map w = 5z 2 is not conformal at z = 0. To see this, the angle between the two rays
R1 : θ = 0 and R2 : θ = π/2 in the z-plane is π/2. Under the map w = 5z 2 , the image of
R1 is given by R1∗ : θ = 0 and the image of R2 is given by R2∗ : θ = π. The angle between
R1∗ and R2∗ is π and is not equal to the angle between R1 and R2 which is π/2. Therefore,
the map w = 5z 2 is not conformal at z = 0.
Since f 0 (0) = 0 and f 00 (0) = 10 6= 0, the mapping w = 5z 2 magnifies the angles between
any two curves that intersect at the point z0 = 0 by the factor 2. That is, by the mapping
w = 5z 2 , the angle between the image curves R1∗ and R2∗ intersecting at w0 = 0 in the
w-plane is two times the angle between the curves R1 and R2 intersecting at z0 = 0 in the
z-plane.

Definition 8.1.6. (Angle between two curves at an intersecting point ∞) Two continuous
curves γ1 and γ2 in the extended complex plane C
b form an angle θ at an intersecting point
∗ ∗
z = ∞ if and only if their images γ1 and γ2 in the extended complex plane under the
transformation ζ = 1/z form an angle θ at the intersecting point ζ = 0.

Definition 8.1.7. (Conformal at ∞) A map w = f (z) is conformal at z = ∞ if and only

if the map w = f (1/z) is conformal at z = 0.

Examples:
The map w = 1/z is conformal at z = ∞.

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The map w = az + b is conformal at z = ∞.

The theorem of greatest importance in the subject of conformal mapping is the famous
theorem of Bernhard Riemann and is stated below.

Theorem 8.1.8. (Riemann Mapping Theorem)

Suppose D is a simply connected domain with at least two points in its boundary. Let p
be a point in D, Then there is a one-to-one anlalytic function φ(z) that maps D onto the
open unit disk U = {w : |w| < 1} and φ(p) = 0. Furthermore, φ is uniquely determined
by the requirement that φ0 (p) be positive.

Example:
Let D = {z ∈ C : =(z) > 0} and let p = i in D. Then there is one-to-one analytic
function φ that maps D onto the open unit disk U = {w : |w| < 1} and φ(i) = 0 and is
z−i
given by w = φ(z) = .
z+i
Result: Let D1 and D2 be two simply connected domains each with two or more
boundary points. As a consequence of the Riemann mapping theorem that there exists a
one-to-one analytic function φ that maps D1 onto D2 .

Use of Conformal Mappings:

The Riemann mapping theorem or the above result guarantees a conformal mapping be-
tween the half plane onto a polygon (or open disk) that helps us to solve the problems in
the potential theory.
It guarantees a conformal mapping (w = z + 1/z) between a disk and an airfoil.

Image of Grids under various Conformal Maps:

Let us see below how the vertical lines and horizontal lines in the z-plane are getting
mapped by some of the conformal mappings.
Red color curves are the image of vertical lines of the z-plane.
Blue color curves are the image of horizontal lines of the z-plane.

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8.2 Mobius Transformations

We begin our detailed study with an elementary conformal mapping, namely, Mobius
transformations.

Definition 8.2.1. A Mobius transformation is a mapping of the form

az + b
w = T (z) =
cz + d

where a, b, c, d are complex constants satisfying ad − bc 6= 0.

The number (ad − bc) is called the determinant of the Mobius transformation T (z).

Mobius transforations are also called fractional linear transformations or linear fractional
transformations or bilinear transformations or homographic transformations.

az + b
The expression w = , (ad−bc 6= 0) can be written in the form Azw + Bz + Cw + D = 0
cz + d
(AD − BC 6= 0) and vice versa. Since this alternative form is linear in z and linear in w
or bilinear in z and w, the Mobius transformation is called as a bilinear transformation.

(1 + i)z + 5
Example: T (z) = is a Mobius transformation.
3z + (4 − 2i)
Observations:

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1. Since  
0 ad − bc −d
T (z) = for z ∈ C \ ,
(cz + d)2 c
 −d
the condition ad − bc 6= 0 guarantees that T 0 (z) 6= 0 for z ∈ C \ c
and hence T (z)
is not constant.

2. If λ is a non-zero complex number, then

(λa)z + (λb)
T (z) = .
(λc)z + (λd)

Therefore, the coefficients a, b, c, d of a Mobius transformation are not unique.

az + b αz + β
3. Let T (z) = and S(z) = . Then, S ≡ T if and only if there is non-zero
cz + d γz + δ
complex number λ such that a = λα, b = λβ, c = λγ and d = λδ.

Special Kind of Mobius Maps:

• Mobius transformations of the form T (z) = z + b where b 6= 0 are called translations.

Under this mapping every point is shifted by the vector corresponding to b.

• Mobius transformations of the form T (z) = eiθ z where θ ∈ R are called rotations.
Every point is rotated about the origin through the angle θ under this transformation.

• Mobius transformations of the form T (z) = ρz where ρ is a positive real constant

are called magnifications. The distance between any two points is magnified by the
factor ρ under this transformation.

• Mobius transformations of the form T (z) = az where a is a non-zero complex constant

are called dilations. The distance of every point from the origin is magnified by the
factor |a| and the point is rotated about the origin through the angle arg(a) under
this transformation.

• Mobius transformations of the form T (z) = az + b where a = 6 0 are called affine

transformations. The affine transformation can be considered as the composition of
a rotation, a magnification and a translation.
1
• The Mobius transformation T (z) = is called an inversion.
z
Suppose that c 6= 0 in the expression of T (z) = az+b
cz+d
. Observe that the Mobius trans-
formation T has a simple pole at −d/c and lim T (z) = a/c.
z→∞
Let us define T (−d/c) = ∞ and T (∞) = a/c, if c 6= 0. If c = 0 then define T (∞) = ∞.
b→C
Theorem 8.2.2. A Mobius transformation T : C b is a one-to-one and onto function.

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Proof. Let
az + b
T (z) =
cz + d
where a, b, c, d are complex constants satisfying ad − bc 6= 0.
Case I: c 6= 0
Suppose that
az1 + b az2 + b
= T (z1 ) = T (z2 ) = .
cz1 + d cz2 + d
Then
(az1 + b)(cz2 + d) = (az2 + b)(cz1 + d)
and gives that
(ad − bc)z1 = (ad − bc)z2 .
Consequently, z1 = z2 since ad − bc 6= 0. Therefore, the function T is a one-to-one function
in C \ { −d
c
}.
Observe that T (−d/c) = ∞ and T (∞) = a/c.
Therefore, the function T is one-to-one.

Let w be an arbitrary complex number such that w 6= a/c.

Then we want to find a complex number z such that T (z) = w.
−dw + b
Since T (z) = az+b
cz+d
= w, it gives that z = .
cw − a
If w = a/c then T −1 (w) = ∞.
If w = ∞ then T −1 (w) = −d/c.
Consequently, the function T is onto.

Case II: c = 0
In this case, T (z) take the form
T (z) = az + b where a 6= 0 .
If z1 and z2 in C such that T (z1 ) = T (z2 ) then
az1 + b = az2 + b =⇒ z1 = z2 .
If w is any complex number then there exists z = (w − b)/a in C such that T (z) = w.
Observe that T (∞) = ∞ and T −1 (∞) = ∞ in this case.
b = C ∪ {∞} onto the
Thus, T is a one-to-one function from the extended complex plane C
extended complex plane C b

Note: In the above theorem, it is shown that the Mobius transformation is a one-to-
one mapping of the extended complex plane onto itself. Conversely, a one-to-one ana-
lytic/meromorphic mapping of the extended complex plane onto itself is the Mobius trans-
formation.

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Theorem 8.2.3. A Mobius transformation T : C b is invertible. Further T −1 : C

b→C b→C
b
is also a Mobius transformation.
b = C ∪ {∞}
Proof. Since T is a one-to-one function from the extended complex plane C
onto the extended complex plane C and hence invertible.
b

If c 6= 0, then the inverse transformation T −1 of the Mobius transformation T (z) = az+b

cz+d
where ad − bc 6= 0, is given by
−dz + b
T −1 (z) = for all z ∈ C
b.
cz − a
Note that T −1 (a/c) = ∞ and T −1 (∞) = −d/c in this case.
Observe that its determinant (ad − bc) 6= 0.

If c = 0, then the inverse transformation T −1 of the Mobius transformation T (z) = az + b

where a 6= 0 is given by
1 b
T −1 (z) = z − for all z ∈ C
b.
a a
Note that T −1 (∞) = ∞ in this case.
Observe that its determinant (1/a) 6= 0 since a 6= 0.
In both the cases, observe that T −1 is a Mobius transformation.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

Theorem 8.2.4. The composition of two Mobius transformations is again a Mobius trans-
formation.
Proof.
Case I:
Let
a1 z + b 1 a2 z + b 2
T1 (z) = and T2 (z) = ,
c1 z + d1 c2 z + d 2
where a1 d1 − b1 c1 6= 0 with c1 6= 0, a2 d2 − b2 c2 6= 0 with c2 6= 0. Then
 
a2 z+b2
a1 c2 z+d2 + b1 az + b
(T1 ◦ T2 )(z) = T1 (T2 (z)) =   =
c1 ac22z+d
z+b2
+ d1 cz + d
2

where

a = a1 a2 + b 1 c 2 ,
b = a1 b 2 + b 1 d 2 ,
c = c1 a2 + d1 c2 ,
d = c1 b 2 + d 1 d 2 .

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Observe that
ad − bc = (a1 d1 − b1 c1 )(a2 d2 − b2 c2 ) 6= 0 .
Case 2:
Let
a1 z + b 1
T1 (z) = and T2 (z) = a2 z + b2 ,
c1 z + d 1
where a1 d1 − b1 c1 6= 0 with c1 6= 0 and a2 6= 0. Then
a1 (a2 z + b2 ) + b1 az + b
(T1 ◦ T2 )(z) = T1 (T2 (z)) = =
c1 (a2 z + b2 ) + d1 cz + d
where

a = a1 a2 ,
b = a1 b 2 + b 1 ,
c = c 1 a2 ,
d = c 1 b2 + d 1 .

Observe that
ad − bc = a2 (a1 d1 − b1 c1 ) 6= 0 .
Case 3:
Let
a2 z + b 2
T1 (z) = a1 z + b1 and T2 (z) = ,
c2 z + d 2
where a2 d2 − b2 c2 6= 0 with c2 6= 0 and a1 6= 0. Then
 
a2 z + b 2 az + b
(T1 ◦ T2 )(z) = T1 (T2 (z)) = a1 + b1 =
c2 z + d 2 cz + d
where

a = a1 a2 + b 1 c 2 ,
b = a1 b 2 + b 1 d 2 ,
c = c2 ,
d = d2 .

Observe that
ad − bc = a1 (a2 d2 − b2 c2 ) 6= 0 .
This completes the proof of the theorem.

Note: The set of all Mobius maps form a group under compositions. Find all abelian
subgroups of this group of Mobius maps.

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Theorem 8.2.5. A Mobius tranfromation can have atmost two fixed points in C,
b unless
T (z) = z for all z.
Proof.
Case I:
Let
az + b
T (z) = ,
cz + d
where ad − bc 6= 0 with c 6= 0.
Then
az + b az + b − cz 2 − dz
T (z) − z = −z = =0
cz + d cz + d
if and only if
cz 2 + (d − a)z − b = 0
if and only if
p p
(a − d) + (d − a)2 + 4bc (a − d) − (d − a)2 + 4bc
z= and z= .
2c 2c
In this case, T (z) has atmost two fixed points in C.

Case II:
Let
T (z) = az + b ,
where a 6= 0 and b 6= 0.
Then
T (z) − z = az + b − z = (a − 1)z + b = 0
if and only if
−b
z= if a 6= 1 .
(a − 1)
Note that T (∞) = ∞.
Therefore in this case, T (z) has two fixed points, namely, z = −b/(a − 1) and z = ∞ in C.
b

If a = 1, then T (z) = z + b which gives that T (z) − z = z + b − z = b 6= 0 for all

z ∈ C. Note that T (∞) = ∞, if T (z) = z − b.
Therefore in this case, T (z) has only one fixed point, namely, z = ∞ in C.
b

Thus, in all cases, a Mobius map T (z) can have atmost two fixed points in C.
b

Exercises:
1. Show that a Mobius transformation has 0 and ∞ as its only fixed points if and only
if it is a dilation.

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2. Show that a Mobius transformation has ∞ as its only fixed point if and only if it is
a translation.

3. Let T be a Mobius transformation with fixed points z1 and z2 . Let S be a Mobius

transformation. Show that the Mobius transformation M (z) = S −1 (T (S(z))) has
fixed points S −1 (z1 ) and S −1 (z2 ).

4. Let T be a Mobius transformation and T is not the identity map. Show that a
Mobius transformation S commutes with T if S and T have the same fixed points.
(Hint: If S and T have two common fixed points z1 and z2 say, then consider a Mobius
map M (z) such that M (z1 ) = 0 and M (z2 ) = ∞. If S and T have only one common
fixed point z1 say, then consider a Mobius map M (z) such that M (z1 ) = ∞. Then,
consider the fixed points of M T M −1 and M SM −1 and use above three exercises.)

5. Show that a Mobius transformation T satisfies T (0) = ∞ and T (∞) = 0 if and only
if T (z) = a/z for some a ∈ C.

Theorem 8.2.6. Every Mobius transformation is a composition of translations, dilations,

rotations and inversions. (Some of these may not be present).

Proof.
Case I: c 6= 0
az + b
Let T (z) = be a Mobius tranformation where ad − bc 6= 0 with c 6= 0.
cz + d
Define

d
Translation: S1 (z) = z +
c
1
Inversion: S2 (z) =
z
 
bc − ad
Dilation and Rotation: S3 (z) = z
c2
a
Translation: S4 (z) = z +
c
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Then,
 
d
S4 ◦ S3 ◦ S2 ◦ S1 (z) = S4 ◦ S3 ◦ S2 z +
c
 
1
= S4 ◦ S3
z + (d/c)
  
bc − ad 1
= S4
c2 z + (d/c)
(bc − ad) a
= +
c(cz + d) c
bc − ad + acz + ad
=
c(cz + d)
c(az + b)
=
c(cz + d)
= T (z)

Therefore
T (z) = S4 ◦ S3 ◦ S2 ◦ S1 (z) for all z ∈ C
b.

Case II: c = 0
a b
Let T (z) = z + where ad 6= 0.
d d
Define
a
Dilation and Rotation: S1 (z) = z
d  
b
Translation: S2 (z) = z +
d

Then,
 a  
S2 ◦ S1 (z) = S2 z
d
a  b
= z +
d d
= T (z)

Therefore
T (z) = S2 ◦ S1 (z) for all z ∈ C
b.

Therefore, the Mobius transformation T (z) is a composition of translations, dilations,

rotations and inversions. Of course, some of these may not be present.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

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Theorem 8.2.7. Every Mobius transformation is a conformal mapping of the extended

complex plane onto itself.
Proof.
b where a 6= 0 then T (z) is analytic in C and T 0 (z) 6= 0 for all
If T (z) = az + b for all z ∈ C
z ∈ C and hence T is conformal in C.
It can be shown that T is conformal at z = ∞ also.

If T (z) = (az + b)/(cz + d), then T (z) is analytic in C \ {−d/c} and T 0 (z) 6= 0 for all
z ∈ C \ {−d/c} and hence T is conformal in C \ {−d/c}.
It can be shown that T is conformal at z = −d/c and also at z = ∞.

For more details, See Pages 62-63, “Introductory Complex Anlaysis” by R. A. Silverman,
Dover, 1972.

Theorem 8.2.8. (Implicit Formula):

Given any three distinct points z1 , z2 , z3 in the extended complex plane, and any given three
distinct values (points) w1 , w2 , w3 in the extended complex plane, there is a unique Mobius
transformation w = T (z) such that w1 = T (z1 ), w2 = T (z2 ), w3 = T (z3 ). This unique
Mobius tranformation is given by solving for w the following equation (implicit formula)
       
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 z2 − z3
= . (8.1)
w1 − w2 w3 − w z1 − z2 z3 − z

Proof. Let
az + b
T (z) = for all z ∈ C
b,
cz + d
where ad − bc 6= 0.
Since T (z) is non-constant, either a 6= 0 or c 6= 0. Therefore T (z) can be rewritten as
z + (b/a) (a/c)z + (b/c)
T (z) = if a 6= 0 or T (z) = if c 6= 0 .
(c/a)z + (d/a) z + (d/c)
This permits us to uniquely determine T (z) if three distinct image values T (z1 ) = w1 ,
T (z2 ) = w2 and T (z3 ) = w3 are specified.

Equation (8.1) can be algebraically mainpulated and we can solve for w in terms of z.
If we put z = z1 and w = w1 in Eqution (8.1), then both sides of the equation are zero.
This shows that w1 is the image of z1 .
If we put z = z2 and w = w2 in Eqution (8.1), then both sides of the equation take the
value 1 . This shows that w2 is the image of z2 .
Taking reciprocals in Eqution (8.1), we get
       
w1 − w2 w3 − w z1 − z2 z3 − z
= .
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 z2 − z3

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

If we put z = z3 and w = w3 in the above equation then both sides of the equation are
zero. This shows that w3 is the image of z3 .
Thus, we have shown that the transformation has the required mapping properties.

Uniquness:
Suppse T (z) and S(z) are two Mobius transformations with the mapping properties of

T (zi ) = wi and S(zi ) = wi for i = 1, 2, 3 .

Consider the Mobius transformation

M (z) = S −1 (T (z)) for all z ∈ C

b.

Then M (z) has three fixed points, namely, M (zi ) = zi , i = 1, 2, 3.

Therefore M (z) = z for all z ∈ C.
b
This gives that
S −1 ◦ T ≡ I ,
where I is the identity transformation. Consequently, it gives that

T ≡S.

This completes the proof of the theorem.

Remark 8.2.9. When one of the points in either plane is the point at infinity, the quotient
of the factors involving that point in Equation (8.1) is to be replaced by −1 if that point is
appearing after the minus sign, otherwise to be replaced by 1.
For example, if z2 = ∞ then the factor (z1 − z2 ) is to be replaced by −1 (since z2 is
appearing after the minus sign) and the factor (z2 − z3 ) is to be replaced by 1. Then, the
expression will become
       
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 1
=
w1 − w2 w3 − w −1 z3 − z

and it will be solved for w.

Remark 8.2.10. One can show that the Mobius transformation taking zi to wi where zi
and wi are in C can be expressed in the determinant form as
 
1 z w zw 
 
1 z1 w1 z1 w1 
1 z2 w2 z2 w2  = 0 .
 
 
1 z3 w3 z3 w3 

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Example 1: Find the Mobius transformation that maps 0, 1, 2 to −1, 0, 4 respectively.

Set z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = 2, w1 = −1, w2 = 0, w3 = 4. To find the Mobius transformation
w = T (z) such that T (zi ) = wi for i = 1, 2, 3, We use the following formula
       
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 z2 − z3
= .
w1 − w2 w3 − w z1 − z2 z3 − z

Substituting the values of z1 , z2 , z3 , w1 , w2 and w3 , we get

       
w − (−1) 0−4 z−0 1−2
=
(−1) − 0 4−w 0−1 2−z
−4w − 4 z
=
w−4 2−z
(2 − z)(−4w − 4) = z(w − 4)
8z − 8
w =
−3z + 8
8z − 8
Therefore, the required Mobius transformation is T (z) = .
−3z + 8

Example 2: Find the Mobius transformation that maps 0, 1, ∞ to 1, i, −i respectively.

Set z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = ∞, w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = −1. To find the Mobius transformation
w = T (z) such that T (zi ) = wi for i = 1, 2, 3, We use the following formula
       
w − w1 w2 − w3 z − z1 z2 − z3
= .
w1 − w2 w3 − w z1 − z2 z3 − z

Substituting the values of z1 , z2 , z3 , w1 , w2 and

w3 , we get
       
w−1 i − (−1) z−0 1−∞
=
1−i (−1) − w 0−1 ∞−z
(w − 1)(i + 1) z × (−1)
=
(1 − i)(−1 − w) (−1) × 1
(w − 1)(i + 1) = z(1 − i)(−1 − w)
wz − iwz + w + iw = −z + zi + 1 + i
z(−1 + i) + (1 + i)
w =
z(1 − i) + (1 + i)

z(−1 + i) + (1 + i)
Therefore, the required Mobius transformation is T (z) = .
z(1 − i) + (1 + i)

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Example 3: Find the bilinear transformation which takes the points −1, ∞, i into the
points ∞, i, 1.
zi + (2 + i)
Answer: T (z) = .
z+1

Let z2 , z3 and z4 be three distinct points in C.

b
Define S : Cb→C b by

(z − z2 )(z3 − z4 )
S(z) = if z2 , z3 , z4 ∈ C ,
(z2 − z3 )(z4 − z)
(z3 − z4 )
S(z) = if z2 = ∞ ,
(z − z4 )
(z − z2 )
S(z) = if z3 = ∞ ,
(z − z4 )
(z − z2 )
S(z) = if z4 = ∞ .
(z3 − z2 )

In all the above cases,

S(z2 ) = 0, S(z3 ) = 1, S(z4 ) = ∞ ,

and S is the only transformation having this property.

If z1 ∈ C
b then the image S(z1 ) of z1 under the above given Mobius transformation S is
called the cross ratio of z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 and it is denoted by (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ). That is,

(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = S(z1 ) .

Definition 8.2.11. Let z2 , z3 and z4 be three distinct points in C. b Let z1 ∈ C. b Then the
cross ratio of z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 , which is denoted by (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ), is defined as the image
of z1 under the Mobius transformation which takes z2 to 0, z3 to 1 and z4 to ∞.

Result 1: Let Γ be a circle passing through the points z2 , z3 and z4 . Then, the point z1
is on Γ if and only if the cross ratio (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) is a real number.

Result 2: The cross ratio of four points (z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) is invariant under any Mobius
transformations. That is, if T is a Mobius transformation, then

(z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = (T z1 , T z2 , T z3 , T z4 ) .

Let Γ be a circle through three distinct points z2 , z3 , z4 . The points z and z ∗ in C

b are said
to be symmetric with respect to Γ if

(z ∗ , z2 , z3 , z4 ) = (z, z2 , z3 , z4 ) .

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Equivalently, we can say that the points z and z ∗ in C b are symmetric with respect to Γ
if every circle passing through z and z ∗ intersects Γ orthogonally. It appears that the
definition of symmetric points not only depends on the circle but also on the points z2 , z3 ,
z4 , but it is not true. The definition of symmetric points does not depend on the choice of
points z2 , z3 , z4 .
Symmetry Principle: If a Mobius transformation T maps a circle Γ1 onto the circle Γ2
then any pair of points symmetric with respect to Γ1 are mapped by T onto a pair of points
symmetric with respect to Γ2 .

Note: Recall that a circle in the extended complex plane passing through ∞ corresponds
to a straight line in C. Hence, hereafter, the word ‘circles’ include the ‘straight lines’ also.

Theorem 8.2.12. A Mobius transformaion maps circles onto circles.

Proof.
The equation of any member of the family of circles or straight lines is of the form
Azz + Bz + B z + C = 0 ,
where A and C are real numbers and B is a complex number such that B B ≥ AC.
Now we will show that its image under any Mobius transformation is again a circle.
az + b −dw + b
w= =⇒ z= .
cz + d cw − a
Putting the expression of z in the equation of given circle, we get
      
−dw + b −dw + b −dw + b −dw + b
A + B + B +C = 0.
cw − a cw − a cw − a cw − a

A(−dw+b)(−dw+b) + B(−dw+b)(cw−a) + B (−dw+b)(cw−a) + C (cw−a)(cw−a) = 0 .

The above equation is simplified and it is brought to the following form
α ww + βw + βw + γ = 0 ,
where
α = Add − B dc − B dc + C cc ,
β = −A b d + B a d + B b c − C c a ,
γ = Abb − B ba − B ba + C aa .
Note that α and γ are real numbers and β is a complex number.
β β − α γ = (BB − AC)(bc − ad)(bc − ad) = (BB − AC)|bc − ad|2 ≥ 0 .
Thus, the equation αww + βw + βw + γ = 0 represents a circle or a straight line.
This completes the proof of the theorem.

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Theorem 8.2.13. For any given circles Γ and Γ∗ in C, b there is a Mobius transformation
T such that T (Γ) = Γ∗ . Furhtermore, we can specify that T take any three points on Γ
onto any three points of Γ∗ . If we specify the points then T is unique.

Orientation Determined by 3 Distinct Points on the Circle/ Straight Line:

If Γ is a circle (including straight lines) then an orientation for Γ is an ordered triple of
points (z1 , z2 , z3 ) such that each zj is in Γ. These three points not only determine the
circle Γ uniquely but also give a direction (without any ambiguity) to Γ, by proceeding
through the points z1 , z2 , z3 in succession. If you start walking on the circle from z1 to z2 ,
then z2 to z3 and then z3 to z1 (via ∞ in case of straight lines), it gives an orientation to
the circle. Further while walking in this manner on the circle, the region comes on the left
hand sideis called the left region and the region comes on the right hand side is called the
right region.

Orientation Principle of Mobius Maps:

Theorem 8.2.14. Orientation Principle: Let Γ1 and Γ2 be two circles in C b and let T be
a Mobius transformation which maps Γ1 onto Γ2 . Let (z1 , z2 , z3 ) be the orientation for Γ1
and (T (z1 ), T (z2 ), T (z3 )) be the orientation for Γ2 = T (Γ1 ). Then
• T maps the right region of Γ1 onto the right region of Γ2 .
• T maps the left region of Γ1 onto the left region of Γ2 .

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Example 4: Find the Mobius transformation that maps 0, 1, ∞ to 1, i, −i respectively.

Also find the image of the upper half plane {z ∈ C : =(z) > 0} under this Mobius
transformation.
In Example 2, we have computed the required Mobius transformation as
z(−1 + i) + (1 + i)
T (z) = .
z(1 − i) + (1 + i)
Now, the points z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = ∞ lie on the line L (say), namely, the real axis of the
z-plane. According to the orientation induced by these points z1 = 0, z2 = 1, z3 = ∞, the
left side region of the real axis of the z-plane is the upper half plane {z ∈ C : =(z) > 0}.
Now, the points w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = −1 lie on the circle C (say) centered at the origin
and radius 1 (that is, unit circle |w| = 1) in the w-plane. According to the orientation
induced by these points w1 = 1, w2 = i, w3 = −1, the left side region of the unit circle C
is |w| < 1 which is the interior of the unit cicle |w| = 1 in the w-plane.
By the orientation principle, the Mobius transformation T (z) maps the left region of
the line L onto the left region of the circle C. Therefore, we conclude that T (z) maps the
upper half plane {z ∈ C : =(z) > 0} onto the region |w| < 1.
Again by the orientation principle, the Mobius transformation T (z) maps the right
region of the line L onto the right region of the circle C. Therefore, we conclude that T (z)
maps the lower half plane {z ∈ C : =(z) < 0} onto |w| > 1.
Further, any pair of points symmetric with respect to the real axis L are mapped by T
onto a pair of points symmetric with respect to the unit circle C.

Example 5: Determine all Mobius transformations that map the upper half plane Im(z) >
0 on to the unit open disk |w| < 1.
OR
Determine the most general (form of) Mobius transformation that maps the upper half
plane Im(z) > 0 on to the unit open disk |w| < 1.
Answer:
Note that a Mobius transformation maps boundary points into boundary points. That is,
it will map Im(z) = 0 onto |w| = 1.
Idea: Select three distinct points on Im(z) = 0 and impose conditions that they should be
mapped onto points on the unit circle |w| = 1 by Mobius transformations.

Step 1: Choose 3 distinct points on the boundary of the domin in the z plane
Choose three points as z = 0, z = 1 and z = ∞ on Im(z) = 0.
Let
az + b
w = T (z) = (ad − bc 6= 0) .
cz + d

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Step 2: Imposing the image of z = 0 lies on |w| = 1

 
b b
T (0) = =⇒ |T (0)| =   = 1 =⇒ |b| = |d| =
6 0.
d d

Step 3: Imposing the image of z = ∞ lies on |w| = 1

Since T (∞) 6= ∞, we conclude that c 6= 0 in T (z) = az+b
cz+d
.
a a
T (∞) = =⇒ |T (∞)| =   = 1 =⇒ |a| = |c| =
6 0.
 
c c

Step 4: Rewriting T (z)

az + b  a  z + (b/a)
T (z) = =
cz + d c z + (d/c)
Observer that |b/d| = 1 and |a/c| = 1 gives that
       
 b  a b d
 = 
d =⇒   = 1 =   6= 0 .
c  a  c

Set
−b −d
z0 = and z1 = =⇒ |z0 | = |z1 | =
6 0.
a c
a z − z z − z0
0
T (z) = = eiα
c z − z1 z − z1
where α is a real number and |z0 | = |z1 | =
6 0.

Step 5: Imposing the image of z = 1 lies on |w| = 1

 
− z0
iα 1
 iα 1 − z0 
T (1) = e =⇒ |T (1)| = e =1
1 − z1 1 − z1 
=⇒ |1 − z0 | = |1 − z1 | =⇒ |1 − z0 |2 = |1 − z1 |2
=⇒ (1 − z0 )(1 − z0 ) = (1 − z1 )(1 − z1 ) =⇒ z0 + z0 = z1 + z1
=⇒ Re(z0 ) = Re(z1 ) =⇒ either z1 = z0 or z1 = z0
If z1 = z0 then T (z) = eiα which is a constant map and hence it is NOT possible. So,
z1 = z0 .

Step 6: Writing the final form of T

z − z0
T (z) = eiα
z − z0

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Since T (z0 ) = 0, we conclude that Im(z0 ) > 0. Note that α is a real number.
Thus, the required transformation is
z − z0
T (z) = eiα ,
z − z0
where z0 is a complex constant with Im(z0 ) > 0 and α is a real constant.

Step 7: Converse Part

It remains to show that, conversely, any Mobius transformation of the form
z − z0
w = ei α where α ∈ R and Im(z0 ) > 0
z − z0
maps Im(z) > 0 on to |w| < 1.
This can be checked by interpreting geometrically.
If z lies above the real axis, both z and the point z0 lie in the upper half plane and hence
 
 z − z0 
|z − z0 | < |z − z0 | =⇒ |w| =  <1.
z − z0 
If z lies below the real axis, both z and the point z0 lie in the lower half plane and hence
 
 z − z0 
|z − z0 | > |z − z0 | =⇒ |w| =  >1.
z − z0 
If z lies on the real axis,
 
 z − z0 
|z − z0 | = |z − z0 | =⇒ |w| =  =1.
z − z0 

Example 6: Find all Mobius transformations that map |z| < 1 onto |w| < 1.
Answer:
z − z0
Do it like in Example 5 and arrive the final answer as T (z) = eiθ where θ is a
z0 z − 1
real constant and z0 is a complex constant with |z0 | < 1.

Exercises:
z−i
1. Find the image of the interior of the unit circle |z| = 1 under the mapping w = .
1−iz
2. Find the image of the vertical lines Re(z) = a (constant) under the mapping w = 1/z.
z−1
3. Find the image of the vertical lines Re(z) = a (constant) under the mapping w = .
z+1
In electrical engineering, this map is used to display the range of impedance of an
electrical circuit. See: Impedance Smith Chart. This problem indicates constant
resistance contours.

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

8.3 Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation

This section is for knowing about an interesting conformal mapping (See: Brown &
Churchill, Chapter 11) and it will NOT be asked in the examinations of MA547.
Many applications involving conformal mappings require the construction of a one-to-one
conformal mapping from the upper half plane =(z) > 0 onto a domain G in the w-plane
where the boundary consists of straight line segments. One such construction of mapping
is the Schwarz-Christoffel transformation which is an analytic conformal mapping of the
upper half plane onto a polygon.

Figure 8.1: Schwarz-Christoffel Transformation

The key to understand the Schwarz-Christoffel mapping is the examination of the be-
haviour of the point f given by f (z) = A(z − x0 )β + B where x0 and β are real numbers,
0 < β < 2, and A and B are complex constants. Then, f 0 (z) = Aβ(z − x0 )α where
−1 < α = β − 1 < 1. We shall take the argument of (z − x0 ) to lie in (−π/2, 3π/2),
introducing a branch cut vertically downward from x0 . To begin, suppose z = x is real
and x > x0 . Then arg f 0 (x) = α × 0 + arg A, so the curve parametrized by f has a tangent
vector of constant slope, arg A, that is, it is a straight line segment. On the other hand,
if x < x0 , then arg f 0 (x) = απ + arg A, so f (x) lies on a straight line making an angle
απ + arg A with the positive real axis. Thus, we see that the mapping f carries the real
axis into a polygonal curve of only two pieces, and the pieces meet at B with angle of
πα = π(β − 1). This idea is continued, concentrating on f 0 instead of f since it is the value
of arg(f 0 ) that determines the slope of the various pieces of the image curve. Now we shall
apply this knowledge to the mapping of the upper half plane onto the interior of a given
polygon.
Let the polygon P have vertices at the consecutive points w1 , w2 , · · · , wn taken in
counterclockwise order, giving P a positive orientaion as in Figure 8.3. In traversing the
polygon we make a right turn at vertex wi through the angle αi . Thus each angle αi
lies in (−π, π) and a negative value of θi indicates a left turn. The net rotation of the
counterclockwise tour must be 2π radians to the left. That is, α1 + α2 + · · · + αn = −2π.

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

We begin by picking real points x1 , x2 , · · · , xn−1 as the preimages of the vertices w1 ,

w2 , · · · , wn−1 , and presume that both x = −∞ and x = ∞ are the preimages of wn
(See Figure). With an appropriate choices of the constants A and B, we can construct a
function
Z z
f (z) = A (ζ − x1 )α1 /π (ζ − x2 )α2 /π · · · (ζ − xn−1 )αn−1 /π dζ + B
0

which maps the real axis onto the perimeter of a given polygon P , with the correspondence
f (xi ) = wi for i = 1, 2, · · · , n − 1 and f (∞) = wn .
The whole story about Schwarz-Christoffel tranformations is given in the following
theorem.
Theorem (Schwarz-Christoffel transformation): Let P be a polygon in the w-plane
with vertices w1 , · · · , wn and corresponding right turn angles αk , where −π < αk < π
as shown in Figure 8.3. There exists a one-to-one conformal mapping w = f (z) from the
upper halfplane =(z) > 0 onto the interior of P that satisfies wk = f (xk ) for k = 1, 2,· · · ,
n − 1 and wn = f (∞) where x1 < x2 < x3 < · · · < xn−1 < ∞. The mapping function f (z)
is given by
Z z
f (z) = A (ζ − x1 )α1 /π (ζ − x2 )α2 /π · · · (ζ − xn−1 )αn−1 /π dζ + B
0

where A and B are suitably chosen constants.

Note: Recall that in constructing the map we have three degrees of freedom at our dis-
posal. Thus we can specify three points on the real axis to be the preimages of three of
the wj . However, we have already set f (∞) = wn , so we are free to choose only, say x1
and x2 , and the other xi are then determined.
To get a closed form expression for the mapping we must be able to compute the above
integral. Generally, it is not possible, even for smaller number of vertices. Numerical in-
tergraion, however, is always feasible.

Example: Determine the Schwarz-Christoffel transformation which maps the upper half
plane {z = x + iy ∈ C : −∞ < x < ∞ and y > 0} onto the semi-infinite strip
{w = u + iv ∈ C : −a < u < a and v > 0}.
Solution: To have the upper half plane map onto the interior of the strip, we choose the
orientaion indicated by the arrows in Figure ??. Left turns of π/2 at w1 = −a and w2 = a
can be accommodated by a mappying whose derivative is of the form

f 0 (z) = A(z − x1 )−1/2 (z − x2 )−1/2 .

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M.G.P. Prasad IIT Guwahati

Choosing x1 = −1 and x2 = 1 again, we compute

Z z
A z
Z
−1/2 −1/2 dζ
f (z) = A (ζ + 1) (ζ − 1) dζ + B = p +B
0 i 0 1 − ζ2
A −1
= sin (z) + B
i
Setting f (−1) = w1 = −a and f (1) = w2 = a, we have

−iA sin−1 (−1) + B = −a ,

−iA sin−1 (1) + B = a
2ai
which implies that B = 0 and A = π
. Hence, the required Schwarz-Christoffel transfor-
mation is
2a −1
f (z) = sin z .
π

26