ACE Engineering Academy SINCE 1995 SINCE 1995 Hyderabad | New Delhi} Bengalueu | Bhubaneswar { Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai Power Systems (Theory with worked out Examples) PSC | PSUs - Electrical Engineering ACE is the leading institute for coaching in IES, GATE & PSU’s HO: 204, II Floor, Rahman Plaza, Opp. Methodist School, Abids, Hyderabad-500001, Ph: 040-24750242, 24750263, 24750437, 24752469. CONSISTENTLY TOP RANKS IN IES Ail INDIA 157 RANK 26 TIMES IN GATECopyright © ACE Engineering Academy 2014 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, digital, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Published at : ACE Engineering Academy 2nd Floor, Rahman Plaza, Opp. Methodist School, Near Taj Mahal Hotel, Abids, Hyderabad - 500 001 Phones : 040-24750242 / 24750263 www.aceenggacademy.com email : ace.gateguru@gmail.com Authors : Subject experts of ACE Engineering Academy, HyderabadS.No, Name of the Chapter Page No. 01 | Generating Stations | 1-13 02 | Transmission & Distribution | 14-62 a Rer-Unit system, symmetrical Components | 64 _ 95 ] 04 | Power System Stability 83-98 | 05 | Load Flow ae | 99- 105 | 06 | Economics of Power So 106 - 113 07 | Circuit Breakers 114 -127 | 08 | Protective Relays : 128 - 142 |COACHING OFFERED ¢ GATE e IES e PSUs > Class Room Coaching > Postal Coaching > Online Test Series > Postal Test Series > Interview GuidanceGenerating Stations Power Generation +, Non Conventional, Conventional Energy Sources Energy Sources Non Conventional Energy Sources Conventional Energy Sources 1. Smail capacity power Generation over al 1. Bulk capacity power Generation over a shorter interval of time Eg:- Wind, Solar,|. longer period. Eg:- Steam (or) Thermal, | Tidal, Geothermal, Diesel, Biomass and| . Hydro, Nuclear and Gas. |__MED, She |2. Most of the plants are located néar to | 2. Most of the plants are located at remote consumer premises i.e, there is no constraint | places i.e., these plants are set-up based on in setting up of these plants __geographical constraint 3. The operation of these plants are based on 3. There are no weather constraints while day-to-day weather constraints operating these plants. 4. Most of these plants having less fixed cost | 4. Most of these plants.are having high fixed and high running cost. cost and less running cost. 5. Suitable to meet peak load demands except | 5. Suitable to meet base load demand except Geothermal plants. Gas plants 6. Asynchronous Generators are employed — 6. Synchronous Generations are used Ex:- DC Generator, AC Generator and Induction Generator i 7. Distribution network is sufficient 7. Both the transmission and distribution networks are employed. | 8. Generated voltage will be at 1 KV. 8. Generated ‘voltage’ will be 33, 66, 11, 13.2and 18.2 kV. ‘A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy is known asa steam power station. 1. Selection of site for steam power stations: [ESE | New Dat Bengt | Bhbncorar | Viavada | Vikapatam | Tropa (a) The site should be nearest to the coal mines so that Transport cost of fuel is minimum. (b) Large quantity of cooling (for the condenser) water should be available. (©) The land should not be rocky and marshy. (@) The chimney of the plant, do not obstruct the flying aero planes, i.e, the site should be away from the airport, (©) The site should not be surrounded by residential building to avoid nuisance of smoke, noise etc. (® If the station is located, near the load center, the distribution cost reduces. (g) Facility for the disposal of ash.2, Schematic Arrangement of Steam Power Stations: Induced maater of t Ho air ‘@) T. Coal Cal = Handi Storage Plant | ee LH tinting storage] eat Foresd deat fon Bxcier Finure: Schematic diaaram of Steam Power stations 3. The main and auxiliary equipment in a thermal power plant are. (a) Coal and ash handling plant (b) Steam generator or Boiler (©) Super heater (d) Economizer (©) Airpreheater. (f) Steam Turbine (g) Condenser (h) Cooling towers () Feed water heater () A.C. Generator (or) Alternator (k Exciter () Electro static precipitator (a) Coal and Ash handling plant: ‘The coal is transported (o the power station by toad ‘or’ rail and is stored in the coal storage plant. “The coal is delivered to the coal handling plant. Where it is pulverized (ie., crushed into small pieces) in order to increase its surface exposure. Thus promoting rapid combustion without using large quantity of excess air. The pulverized coal is fed to the boiler by belt conveyors. Advantages of coal pulverization: 1. Gives more surface area for a given mass of coal. 2. Fast combustion as more area is exposed to heat and oxygen. Boiler can be started quickly. Fast response to load changes. ay (ES ct [mr Wo | Ventas [Tp Te |GACE sf Engineering Academy The coal is burnt in the boiler and the ash produced after the complete combustion of coal is removed (0 the ash handling plant and the delivered to the ash storage plant for disposal Indian coal has ash content of 20 to 40%. In thermal power plant bituminous coal is used because, it has low ash content. Eg: Semi — bituminous coal is more preferable. (b) Steam Generator (or) Boile Boiler is a device. Where in water is converted into steam by utilizing the heat of combustion This is two types: (i) Water tube boiler (ii) Fire tube boiler () Water tube boiler; ‘The waicr flows throxgh the tubes and hot combustion gases flow over these tube, water tube boiler are used universally for such plant, Features of water tube boiler. i) Method of water circulation ii) Improved method of heating iii) Easy removal of scale from inside the tube. (ii) Fire Tube Boil ‘The hot combustion gases flow through the tube. Water is surrounded by the fire tube, (c) Super Heater: A super heater is a device which raises the temperature of the steam~much above the boiling point of water. Super heater heat is taken from flue gases. Normal radiant type of heat transfer method is used. It is placed between boiler and turbine. It is improved efficiency of plant. ‘The use of Super heater: (@) Reduce the steam consumption per given output. (b) Reduce the condensation loss. (©) Eliminates the erosion of steam turbine blades due to the absence of moisture, (@) Improves the overall efficiency. Generating Stations (4) Economizer: Economizer mainly consists of closely spaced parallel tubes through which feed water on its way to boiler flows and the fuel gases flows outsides the tubes, Some of the heat energy of the fuel gases is recovered by heating the feed water hear saturation but, not converted into steam this results saving in fuel (10- 25%) and raising boiler efficiency. (© Air preheater: ‘An Airpreheater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal burning by deriving heat from fuel gases. Air is drawn from the atmosphere, By a forced draught fan and is passed through air preheated before supplying to the boiler furnace. Air pre heaters are placed in between economizer and chimney. The efficiency of boiler is increased. (f) Steam Turbine: A steam turbine may be defined as a rotating machine, which converts the energy contained in steam into mechanical energy ot rotary energy. Basically there are two types of Turbines i) Impulse Turbine ii) Reaction turbine iii) Impulse Reaction Turbine (this turbine is a combination of impulse and re: turbines) (i) Impulse Turbine: The steam expands completely in the stationary nozzles (or fixed blades), the pressure over the moving blades remaining constant, so the steam attains a high velocity and impinges against the moving blades this results in the impulsive force on the moving blades which sets the rotor rotating. tion Gi) Reaction turbine: The steam is partially expanded in the stationary nozzles, the remaining expansion takes place during its flow over the moving blades, and the result is that the momentum of the steam causes a reaction force on the moving blades which sets the rotor in motion. (Ea ea en | eT Vann | Vp Ta] |ACE ) ae Power Systems (g) Condenser: ‘A condenser is a device which condenses the steam at the exhaust of Turbine. It serves two important functions. (1) it ereates a very low pressure at the exhaust of Turbine, thus permitting expansion of the steam in the prime mover to a very low pressure. This helps in converting heat energy of steam ‘nto ‘Mechanical energy in the prime mover.(2) fhe condensed steam can be used as feed water to the boiler. It is improves power plant efficiency, (h) Cooling Towers: A condenser is a device in which exhaust steam from steam turbine is condensed and the heat energy given by the steam during condensation is taken up by the cooling tower. Different types of cooling Towers are: 1, Natural draught cooling towers 2, Forced draught cooling towers 3, Induced draught cooling towers. (i) Feed Water Heater: The steam coming out of the turbine is condensed and the condensate is fed back to the boiler as feed water. It is necessary to heat the feed water before feeding it to the boiler for the. following reasons: 1. Feed water heating'improves the overall efficiency of the plant. 2. The dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide are removed in the feed water heater. 3. The quantity of steam produced by the boiler is increased. 4, Thermal stresses due to cola water entering the boiler are eliminated, @ Generator: © Each altemator is coupled to a steam turbine and converts mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy. © Alternator used in thermal power plants are of usually 2 — pole (or 4 — pole) running at 3000 rpm (or 1500 rpm) for 90 Hz operation. (k) Exciter: * Exciters are nothing but the D.C. Generators their main function is to supply dc power to the field system (rotor). ‘+ Exciters are mounted on the same shaft of the alternator. © The capacity of the exciter is about 0.5% to 3% of the main altemator capacity. * In some cases a pilot exciter may be used to excite the main exciter itself. () Electvo static precipitator: The use of electrostatic precipitator is to remove fine, dust particles from flue gas, It is connected to high D.C. voltage about 30 kV. It is placed between combustion chamber and chimney 4, Advantages of Steam Power Plants: (a) Power stations can be located near the load centers, (b) It requires less: space as compared to the hydro — electrie power station. (©) Requires less transmission distribution, (@ Long summer will not affect the power generation like hydel power. and 5, Disadvantages of Steam Power Plants: @) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke and fumes (b) Its costlier in running cost as compared to hydro-electric plant. 6. Efficiency of Steam Power Station: The overall efficiency of a steam power is quite low (about 29%) due to mainly two reasons. (@) Huge amount of heat is lost in the condenser. (b) Heat losses occur at various stages of the plant, [GSE aetna | Now Dal | Benes | Bhubaneswar | Vanvorade | Woaapaam | Tia | Pune | ChenaACE Engineering Academy Thermal efficiency: The ratio of heat equivalent of mechanical energy transmitted to the turbine shaft to the heat of combustion of coal is known as thermal efficiency of steam power station. Thermal efficiency n thermal __ heat equivalentof mech energy transmitted oturbine shaft heat of coal combustion Overall efficiency: The ratio of heat equivalent of electrical output to the heat of combustion of coat is known as overall efficiency of steam power station, Overall efficiency __ heat equivalentof electrical output ~— heatof combustion of coal Overall efficiency efficiency thermal efficiency x electrical Generating Stations 1.2 Hydro Electric Power Station A generating station which utilizes the potential energy of water at a high level for the generation of electrical energy is known as a hydroelectric power station, 1, Selection of site for Hydro Electric Statio (a) Sufficient quantity of water at a reasonable head should be available. (b) Mote area is required for reservoir and dam, (©) It should allow strong foundation with low cost. (@) There should not be any leakage of water in future, (©) The selected site should have large catchments area, to maintain a certain water level. ( Distance of power station site from load centers must not be longer. This is to minimize to transmission cost (g) Construction materials shall be available very nearby. (i) Submergence area shall be minimum 2 Schematic Arrangement of Hydroelectric Power Station: Main elements in hydro plant 1) Hydraulic Structure 2) Water turbine 3) Altemator Generator Head Race Dam Trost] (EST saad | Ney Da | Benga | Biabancvar | Viera | Viskhapatars | Tipe | Pune | Obes Surge Tank Anchor block Tail Turbine Draft Tube® vnc Sots 1. Hydraulic Structure: Hydraulic structures in a hydro electric power station include as. (a) Water Reservoir (b) Dam (© Trash Rack (W) Fore bay (©) Surge tank (f) Penstock (g) Spill way (a) Water Reservoir: * It is a basic requirement of a hydro - electric plant. Its purpose is to store water which may be utilized to run the prime mover to produce electrical power. A reservoir stores water during the rainy season and supplies the same during the dry season. {b) Dam: ‘The function of dam is to provide a head of ‘water to be utilized in the water turbine. ‘© Ithelps to increase the working head of the power plant. Intake Structure: It is an arrangement to supply water into a water conductor system, {&) Trash Rac * The purpose of providing a trash rack is t0 prevent entering of debris which might damage the wicket gates and turbines runners. «Trash rack is made of steel bars and is placed across the intake at the beginning of water conductor system (ie, at the beginning of penstock). (@ Fore Bay: © It is an enlarged body of water just upstream of the penstocks. © The fore bay serves as a regulatory reservoir storing water temporarily when oad on the plant is reduced and to supply extra water required when load increases suddenly, (g) Spill Way Power Systems © It distributes river water to various penstocks. It is also known as head pond. (e) Surge Tank: © Surge tanks are large cylindrical tanks provided near the downstream end of the Jong penstock. ‘© Usually provided in high head and medium head plants, between dam and power house. Function of surge tank: + To provide better regulation of flow of water when the load on the system fluctuates. i.e., stores water when the load decreases suddenly and supplies extra water to the penstock when load increases suddenly, © Surge tank controls the pressure variations resulting from rapid variations in water flow in penstock and thereby prevents water — hammer effects. (0) Penstock: The pipe between surge tank and turbine is called penstock. © supplies water to the turbine from surge tank or fore bay. ‘* Its made of steel or concrete and designed as a pressure flow pipe. © Itis supported on anchor blocks «This may be considered as a safety valve for a dam. + A spill way serves to discharge excess water from the reservoir. 2, Water Turbines: ‘Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Classification based on direction of flow: 1. Axial flow 2. Tangential flow 3. Radial flow (not used) a ee ‘Bhubaneswar | Visjawada | Viakhapatam | Tiwpatl| Pune | Chennai. ACE. Generating Stations 4, Mixed Flow (or) radial in ward ow N,=(1 165) WP p.m, He! Axial flow turbine: In this turbine, flow is parallel | to the axis of rotation of the runner, Eg: Propeller and Kaplan turbines Tangential flow turbine: In this, flow is tangential to the path of rotation of the runner. Eg: Pelton turbine. Mixed Flow turbine: In this, water enters the runner at the outer periphery in the radial direction and leaves it at the centre in axial direction. Eg: Modern Francis turbine. Classification based on action of water: 1. Impulse turbine 2. Reaction turbine Impulse Turbine: In this turbine, all the available energy of water is converted into kinetic energy or velocity head by passing through a nozzle provided at the end of penstock. Eg: Pelton wheel turbine. Reaction turbine: In this turbine, available energy of water remains mostly as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner, the pressure energy gradually decreases. Therefore, the runner must be enclosed in an air tight casing. Eg; Francis, Propeller, kaplan turbines. Specific speed of turbines: It is defined as hypothetical speed of the turbine at which it produces 1 H.P of power under head of 1 meter. It is an important parameter in the design of turbines. Specific speed, NYP. Ht P. Where, N = Actual rotation speed in rpm, H=head in meters, P= power in HP(= 735.5 watts) Where P = power expressed in kW Selection of Turbines: It depends on head, specific speed, efficiency, part oad operation ‘Pelton | Francis | Propeller Wheel | and { _ Kaplan Slow speed | Medium | High speed (12-70) | speed (80-_| (310-1000) | 420) | Lowhead Less than | Propeller - im or Kaplan | Medium [15-10m | Kaplan or | ancis |Highhead [71-250m | Francis or pelton | | Very high | 250 mand_ | Pelton | | head above wheel Parts of a Francis Turbine: Spiral casing: The purpose of the casing is to provide an even distribution of water around the circumference of the turbine runner. + The cross-sectional area of the casing is gradually decreased to keep the velocity of water constant throughout its path. [GREET dated | New Det Benesura | Bhobaneswar | Visyaweda | Viakhapainam | Thupal | Pe | ChennaiACE, @ eta headeny 18: Power Systems Speed ring or Stay ring: The purpose of ring is to direct the water from the spiral casing to the guide vanes or wicket gates, Guide Vanes or Wieket Gates: The function isto | regulate the quantity of the water supplied to the | runner and to direct water on to the runner at an angle appropriate to the design. The Guide Vanes are operated by a Governor. Rumner: it consists of a series of curved vanes around the circumference to change he direction of flow of water when it passes through the runner. The runner is keyed to a shaft. Draft Tube: It is a pipe or passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area which connects the runner exit to the tail race. The tower end must be submerged below the level of water in the tail race. Function of Draft Tube: (It permits a negative ex suction head to be established at the runner exit, thus making it possible to install the turbine above the tail race level without loss of head. (i) It converts @ large proportion of velocity energy rejected from the runner into useful pressure energy i.e, it acts as a recuperation of pressure energy. GOVERNING OF TURBINES: The operation of regulation of speed of turbine runner is known as Governing of Turbines. It is done automatically by means of Governor. Runaway Speed : This is the maximum speed at which « turbine wheel would run under the worst conditions of operation with all gates open so as to allow all possible water inflow under maximum head 3. Alternator: Hydroelectric generators are low speed ‘machines of the salient pole type, having a large number of poles, a large diameter and a short rotor (in length). The speed of a hydroelectric generator depends on the speed of the turbine driving it, which in tum depends on the specific speed of the particular type of turbine. Generally, Generation of voltages:3.3 KV, 5 KV and 11 KV at 50 Hz 4. Classification of Hydro Electric Power Stations: . Classification based on load characteristics: 1. Base-load plants 2. Peak-load plants. B. Classific characteristics: 1. Run-off-tiver plants 2. Run-off river plants with pondage. 3. Storage plants 4, Pumped-storage plants Based on storage Classification based on head 1. Low head plants 2. Medium head plants 3. Hiigh head plants 4.Nery High Head Plants Classification based on plant capacity: 3. Small-Hiydel plants 4, Medium Capacity plants 5. High Capacity plants 6. Super Hydro plants . Classification based on load characteristics: 1. Base Load Plants: * {tis plant designed to take care of based foad of the grid + The plant operated on the large portion of the load curve, ‘It supplies continuous power to the grid through out the year. © Generally itis of large capacity, # Its load factor is high, EGRET ain [New Daj ener | Biber | Vinraveda | VeaBopatam | Tira | Pane | CheaACE 29: 2, Peak Load Plants: ‘© Itis a plant designed to take care of peak Joad of the grid system. ‘© It operates only during the period of peak load, Hence short period of total. operating time © Pumped storage plants are usually designed as peak load plants. B. On the basis of hydraulic or storage consideration: 1. Run - off the river plant: ‘+ The plant uses the water as it comes in the river. This type of power plants has no control over the river flow. It does. not store the water. ‘* During rainy season high water flow is available and if the power plant is not able to use this large ‘low of water some quantity of water is allowed to flow over dam spillways as waste. ‘© During dry season, the power produced by such plants will be low, due to low flow rates. The utility of these plants is very less compared to other plants due to uncertainty of power supply. 2. Run - off river plants with pondage: ‘The usefulness of the run — off river plant is increased by providing a pond (small storage) at the plant. The pond permits to store water during off peak hours and suses. during peak hours of the same day. To create pondage a barrage or a small dam may be constructed across the river. 3. Storage Plants: * A dam is constructed across the river to create a large reservoir for storing water during rainy season and the water is released when ever required. © The advantages of this plant is that the power generated by the plant during dry season will not be affected, Ex: Nagarjunasagar Hydro electric plant, Srisailam Hydro electric plant, Sileru Hydro plant ete. Generating Stations 4, Pumped storage plant: Pumped storage plant in combination with hydroelectric power plant is used for supplying the sudden peak load of short duration. During the off -peak period, water is pumped back to the head water pool from the tail water pool. During the peak demand the water is drawn from the head water pool to generate power to meet the peak demand. Pumped storage plant uses turbine called “reversible turbine” Eg: Nagarjunasagar v Hydro electric plant and Stisailam left bank power project. C. Classification based on Head: 1, Low head plants: * When the operating head is less than 15 meter the plant is named as low head plant. Run-off river plants are usually low head plants. © This type of plant uses Kaplan Turbine. 2, Medium head plants: © When the operating head of water is from 15 to 70 meter © This type of plant uses Francis turbine 3. High head plants: ‘* When the head of water from 71 to 250 meter the plant is known as high head power plant, ‘© This type of plant uses Francis or Pelton turbines. 4. Very High Head plants: ‘© When head is more than 250 meter. ‘* This type of plant uses Pelton turbines. Another classification Low head < 30m Medium head 30 ~250 m High head > 250m [ERR Ne To Waker | Vien | Vea | Tp [Re [ChaACE 1 @ruAG eae 210: Power Systems 5. Calculation of Hydro Electric Potential: Water head: The difference of water level is called the water head. Gross head: The total head difference between the water levels in head race (upstream side) and tailrace (downstream side) is called as gross head or total head. Net head or effective head: Gross head - Head loss in the Conveyor system from Head race to the entrance of turbine due to friction ‘* It is equal to the difference of total head at the point of entry and at the point of exit of the turbine. Rated head: Head utilized in doing work on the turbine is called the rated head. Rated head = Net head ~ Loss in guide passage and entrance of the turbine Water Power equation (ar) output equation: Output Power, P=w.Q. Hn kW where, w= specific weight of water 9.81 kim’, H.= net head of water in meter on the turbine Q= quantity of water in m’/see. ‘1 = over all efficiency of the system. Output Power, P= ain hp. where, w = specific weight of water 000 kg/m Hydrograph: It is a graph between discharge and time in chronological order. Mass curve: It is a plot of cumulative volume of ‘water that can be stored from stream flow versus time. Flow duration curve: it is a graph between the discharge and the percent of time the discharge equaled or exceeded. Power duration curve: The power ~ duration curve is similar to that of flow duration curve but it represents the power developed in KW or HP against the percentage of time. Advantages of Hydroelectric power stations: 1) No cost of fuel 2} Low maintenance cost 3) High plant efficiency 4) Plant is free from pollution 5) Used as multi-purpose projects (irrigation, flood control etc) 6) Cost per unit is less 7) Suitable for variable heads and to act as. peak load plant. Disadvantages of Hydroclectrie power station: 1. The area required is more 2. High initial cost. 3, Located in remote area and require more cost on Transmission lines, 13 Nuclear Power Plants NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS: A generating station in which nuclear energy is_—_converted into electrical energy is known as a nuclear power station. 1, Selection of site for nuclear power station: 1) Availability of Water: As sufficient water is required for cooling purposes. 2) Disposal of Waste: The waste produced by fission in a nuclear power station is generally radio active which must be disposed off properly 10 avoid health hazards. 3) Distance from populated areas: The site selected for a nuclear power station should be quite away from the populated areas as there is a danger of presence of radio activity in the atmosphere near the plant. (ERAN had Nev Dam | Ben | Bhar | Wierda | Visibpatom | Tropa] ane | CheaEngin ACE My ichematic arrangement of Nuclear Power Statio The Nuclear Power Station mainly consists of the following: 1. Nuclear Reactor 2. Heat Exchanger 3. Steam Turbine 4. Condenser 5. Alterator Generating Stations Cod metal NUCLEAR REACTOR: It is an apparatus in which nuclear fuel (U") is subjected to nuclear fission. It controls the chain reaction that starts once the fission is done. If the chain reaction is not controlled, the result will be an explosion due to the fast increase in the energy released. Classification of Reactors: Reactor of a nuclear power similar to the furnace of a steam power plant. The heat liberated in the reactor due to the nuclear fission of the fuel is taken up by the coolant circulating through the reactor core. The nuclear reactor mainly consists of Fuel, core, moderator shield, reflector, reactor vessel, control rods and coolant. @ Types of Fuel Used: (a) Natural Uranium: Natural uranium is used as fuel and heavy water or graphite is nsed as moderator. () Enriched Uranium: The uranium contains 5 to 10% of Uzss and ordinary water can be used as moderator. (i) Type of Moderator used : (a) Graphite reactors (b) Beryllium reactors (©) Water (ordinary or heavy water) reactors ii) Type of Coolant used : (a) Gas cooled reactors (Hydrogen, CO>, air) (b) Water (ordinary or heavy water) cooled reactors, (©) Liquid metal cooled reactors. (® Organic liquid cooled reactors. (iv) Types of Core: (a) Homogeneous: In this reactor fuel and moderator represent a uniform mixture such as an aqueous solution of uranium salt, (b) Heterogeneous Reactor: In such reactor fuel rods are inserted in moderator. The fuel elements are generally arranged in some regular order forming a lattice. ‘Moderator: Moderator slows down neutrons before they bombard the fuel rods. [ERR a 0c Now DAT He [Bhan | Vogal | Vialhapanan | Trap | Pune | Chena@ vet Ficsen 12: Power Systems Control rods: The control rods are of cadmium or | 2, HEAT EXCHANGER: The coolant gives up heat boron and are inserted into the reactor. Cadmium to the heat exchanger which is utilized in or Boron are strong neutron absorbers and thus raising the steam, After giving up heat, the regulates the supply of neutrons for fission. coolant is again fed to the reactor. Reflector: This completely surrounds the reactor core and helps to bounce escaping neutrons back | 3, sre,yj ryRpINE: The steam produced in the into the core. Reactor Core: This contains a number of fuel rods made of fissile material. ‘Types of Nuclear Reactors: _ Name of Cooient | [sn] ghameet, [ Moderator [ Soler | rust | pT) Advanced 1 | 82294 | Graphite | CO, | Uranium (AGR) — Pressurised | Fr 3 | water | Pressurised. | Presursed | [rncted reactor | water | water | Unio | ewe | Boing ~~ Ordinary | water | water” Ordinary 3 ‘Uranium reactor | water Bariched Oride | GWR) ast 4 | Breeder No. Liquid | Uns & | Reactor | modertor.| sodium | Ury | BR) | Fast Breeder Reactor: A fast breeder reactor is a small vessel in which the necessary quantity (corresponding to critical mass) of enriched uranium or plutonium is kept without moderator. The vessel is surrounded by a fairly thick blanket of depleted fertile uranium The fertile absorbs neutrons from the fissile material and gets converted into fissile material. .The reactor core is cooled by liquid metal. U2as can be converted to Punw, the latter can be used in other thermal or fast breeder reactor. Breeding ratio: Ratio of number of secondary fuel atoms formed to the number of primary fuel atoms consumed. Breeding ratio equal to or ‘greater than unity, heat exchanger is led to the steam turbine through a valve. After doing a useful work in the turbine, the steam is exhausted to condenser. 4, CONDENSER: The condenser condenses the steam which is fed to the heat exchanger through feed water pump. 5. ALTERNATOR: The steam turbine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy the output from the alternator is delivered to the bus~ bars through transformer, circuit breakers and isolators. 3. Fuels used 01690 + 10°C Boiling point 3000°C Electrical resistivity 18 © - cm. Fission: The breaking up of nuclear of heavy atoms into two nearly equal parts with release of hhuge amount of energy is known as nuclear fission, The release of huge amount of energy during fission is due to mass defect i., the mass of the: final product comes out to be less than initial product. This may defect is converted into heat energy according to Einstein relation of E = me’, Where, E = energy; m = mass considered (say 1 kg) ; c= velocity of light = 3 x 10° m/sec Fusion: The process of combination of two light nuclei to from a relatively heavier nucleus is known as fusion. The common between the two nuclear processes is that they release very large amounts of energy. But, there are many differences in the mechanism of the two processes. GSR TIN tad | Now Das | Benga | Bhabancovar | Viavada | Vnihapainan | Tiapt| Pe | CheamACE sb Girt Generating Stations sion involves breaking up of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei. Fusion, on the other hand, involves combining of two lighter nuclei into one heavy nucleus. The links of the fission process are neutrons while the licks of a fusion process are protons. Fission precedes best with thermal neutrons where thermal means room temperature, Fusion precedes best with thermal particles where thermal means temperatures of millions of °K, Advantages of Nuclear Power Plants: 1 The amount of fuel required is quite small. Therefore, there is a considerable the cost of fuel transportation. A nuclear power plant requires less space as compared to any other type of the same size. Hyderabad | NewD 3. Ithas low running charges as a small amount of fuel is used for producing bulk electrical energy. 4, Running costs are less. 5. Reliable and economical for bulk generation. Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plants: 1. Nuclear power plants are not suitable for varying loads, as reactors cannot be easily controlled. 2. Ibis difficult to make the casing of the reactor, such as high temperature, neutron vomibardment, saving in | 3. The disposal of the products which are radioactive is. a major_—_ problem. ‘Bengaluru | Bhubaneswar | Viiyamada | Veakhapamam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai> Transmission & Distribution 2.1 Basic Concepts and Line Constants in Transmission Necessity of Transmission Lines:~ Bulk amount of powers Generation could able to produce on economical basis by employing synchronous Generators at remote locations. The Bulk amount of power from the remote Generating station could able to be carried out to the load center by using suitable network and the network is called transmission network (or) transmission lines. Transmission line: It is a carier between the remote Generating station to the load center and it is made by conducting material (e.g. Al, Cu). load “Transmission -2 po -O- eat load i pen Tens ogg Level of voltages; Low voltage: 220V (1-phase,2-wire), 415V G-phase,4-wire). High Voltage : LIKV, 33kV. Extra High voltage: 66kV, 132kV, 220kV. Modem Extra High Voltage : 400kV. Ultra High voltage: 765kV and above. Most of power generation in India at LIKV. Maximum AC transmission Voltage in India is T65KV. (e.g, Sipat- Seoni 765KV line). Maximum DC transmission Voltage in India is S00KV (e.g. Talcher- Kolar Bipolar HVDC link). ‘Transmission - | Necessity of Extra High Voltages for transmission system: 1. The size of the conductor is reduced so that the cost of the conductor is reduced. 2. The transmission line loss will be reduced, 3. The transmission efficiency will increase n=1-k/vcosp I Selection of conductor size for different Voltage levels: Feeder: it is a conductor having constant current Density. The size of feeder designed based on current carrying capacity, Example for feeder is transmission line on which no tapping are taken to supply any local load, For V < 220 KV, selection of conductor done based on current carrying capacity For V > 220 kY, selection of conductor is done based on concept of corona (or) electric field Intensity. Distributor: It is a conductor having variable ccurreat density. Size of distributor designed based on voltage drop. a $220kV-- 400kV and above. - Conductors Bundle conductors ‘Types of conductors: 1. Solid Conductor: S Solid (®) High Cost i) High Tensile Strength (ii)Diffieut to string the conductors. (iv)High skin effect while using on ac systems SSSR) cada | New Deh | engtuns | Bhubaneswar | Vngawade | Veakhapamam | Tirupati | Pune | Cheam_ ACE, Engine Academy 215: ‘Transmission & Distribution 2. Stranded Conductor; It consists of two or ACSR: smaller cross sectional strands (or) filaments 1. Steel reinforced Aluminum conductor which are twisted together to get the required 2. Aluminum conductor and steel reinforced strength and running in parallel to increase the a current carrying capacity for the given The oves all Diameter of ACSR conductor will operating voltage. be D=(Qn-l)d n= no of layers in the stranded conductor. = diameter of each strand in em. aa “The number of strands in each layer will be Sin 1#6412 +18 +24 +30 436 Homogenous Stranded Conductor:~ It is made up of all the strands by one material | Epi: An ACSR conductor consists of 30 only ie., Aluminum, For AAC (All Aluminum Conductors): (i) Reduced Tensile strength due to strands when compared to solid conductor. (ii) Easy to string the conductors (iii)Reduced skin effect when compared to solid. But the cost of the conductor is not reduced to greater extent even though the strands are employed. Due to low tensile strength for conductor, mechanical sag increases and ground clearance of conductor reduces, safety of the system reduces. In order to improve the tensile strength and reduce the cost of transmission system composite stranded conductors are employed (.¢) two (or) more conducting materials used to make stranded conductor. 3. Composite Stranded Conductor: AL Fe In the composite stranded conductor the outer strands are baving high conductivity and low tensile strength ie; Aluminium and central strands are having low conductivity and high tensile strength i.e, steel are used which is known as ACSR conductor. Aluminum strands and 7 still strands will be represented as 30/7. In general for a given ACSR conductor the number of Al strands are more in number when compared to steel strands, he ACSR conductor represented as 1/6 It of one steel and six Aluminum strands. Eg3: An ACSR conductor consists of 7 steel strands and 54 Aluminum strands will be represented as 7/54, Skin effect: The non uniform distribution of current through the given cross sectional area of the conductor when it is operated on alternating current system is called skin effect. The main reason for the skin effect is non-uniform distribution of flux linkages. The skin effect will result in increased effective resistance (Rac) Vue In case of de system, there is no rate of change of current. So the current is uniformly distributed throughout the cross sectional area of the conductor. So the entire area will be considered while calculating the de resistance offered. Rat a 2g idea | New Deli | Beagalra | Bi rnc | Viayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupal | Pave | ChemistACE 16: Meeks se = Jn case of ac system, there is a rate of change of current. Whenever the switch is closed, the system. is under sub/transient behavior. So the flux produced in the outer strands will link with the inner strands due to low reluctance offered, where as the flux produced by inner strands could only link with those strands and not with the external strands. So the internal flux linkages increases which will increases the internal inductance. Inductance will oppose the flow of current, so that the most of the current will concentrated on outer strands and very less current will be allowed through the inner strands. While calculating the effective resistance, the area in which the’ current concentrated is more only considered than that of entire area of cross section of the conductor. So the ac (or) effective resistance Rg = 2! (al Rac [-. Rac = K Reci K= 1.6] In case of ACSR conductor, the current distribution is non-uniform and the materials are also non-uniform. So the entire area will be considered while calculating the effective resistance. a= Entire area of cross section (or) High current is concentrated on the surface. So the conductivity of aluminum is extracted effectively. Less current is concentrated at the inner strands. So the conductivity of steel will also be éffectively utilized. Hence the entire cross-sectional area will be considered, while calculating the ac resistance. + As the diameter (or) Area of cross section of the conductor increases the skin effect will increase i.e., Rye will increase. * As the permeability of the material will increase, the skin effect will increase i¢., Rec will increase. As the operating frequency will increases, the skin effect will increase ie, Ry will increase. But it is more effective in communication circuits than that of power circuits, because the operating frequency is only 50 Ha, Skin effect (Rex) 2 Apt Skin effect (Rye) o d? pf Bundle conductors: Whenever the operating voltages beyond 270ky, it is preferable to use more than one sub conductor / phase which is known as bundle conductor. Bundle conductor is one which consists of two (or) more sub conductor / phase which are running in parallel in which the spacing between sub conductors is very high when compared to radius of each sub conductor; where as the distance of separation between the two phases will be very high when compared to the spacing between sub conductors. The each sub conductor is again composite stranded conductor, R Lata em 7 ae rel.Sem G 8 sm"IP, y 206m hor 400 KV line: 7400 kV tine” Byndle conductor Single conductor ‘Due to sub conductors the mutual distance is same We) 8m, The self distance will increase. Advantages of Bundle Conductor system: G@ Voltage gradient (or) field intensity will v reduced g GMD GMR In| —— care GMD is same (mutual distance) GMR is increased (self distance) Hyderabad | ‘Benglurs | Bhubanesar | Viayawada | Viakapatam | Tipai | Pune | Chennai@ ACE aay 17 ‘Transmission & Distribution (i) Due to reduced field Intensity the critical disruptive voltage will increase, So the corona loss is reduced. The reduced corona loss will reduce the communication interference with the adjoining communication lines, (ii) (iv) Due to increased GMR, Inductance/phase will reduced and capacitance / phase will increase. (¥) Characteristic impedance will reduced. (vi) Characteristic impedance loading will increase. If the single conductor is converted in to number of sub conductors then the radius of each sub conductor will be calculated as follows. D=O0O-O y Bundle Conductor PEP te ate If all sub conductors are identical Pan Radius of each sub conductor, 7, =~). for 2—sub conductors, 7, | 5 for 3—sub conductors, 5, Selection of Insulation level: ‘* In modem EHV lines the level of Insulation is designed based on switched voltages. ‘© The intemal voltages (switched voltages) will bbe more severe to the Insulation. * The insulation will be designed for peak switched voltages. * Transmission line will be protected from lightning surges by placing a ground wire or shield wire or earth wire on top of the tower. * Power system network will be protected from switching surges with Surge diverter or Surge Arrester (Non- linear resistor). Geometric Mean Radius (GMR): The transmission line conductor having only one conductor per phase, the GMR is the distance between the center to the circumference i.e. it is equal to radius of the conductor. However due to intemal flux linkages it is equal to | @ Itis also known as self distance, GMR or self distance wsed to calculate L of transmission line Self GMD is same as GMR and it will be used as a replacement for GMR in multi conductor system, MR 7188 1 Geometric Mean Distance (GMD): If a forward conductor ‘p’ is surrounding to the ‘n’ number of return conductors then OO! aoa 2 P dp Forward : a: fad, nd, SOn GMD is used in Land C calculations. return Example 2.1: P ce Find GMD and GMR of the following systems. @ Soca RGAE A ert | New Des Bene | Bhubaneswar | Viwawada | ViaKiapatam | Tropa | Pane | CheamSol: (i) GMR =3/GMR, GMR, GMR, GMR, (All three conductors are identical) = = 0.7788 * 3 em = 2.34 cm GMD = yD,,D,.D, =V4x4x4=4m Gi) GMR = 1 = 0.7788 «3 GMD = YD,,.D,.D,, = V4x4x8=5.04 m Observation: GMD of unsymmetrical spacing is more compared to its equivalent symmetrical spacing, Example 2:2: Find GMD and Self GMD of the following Bundle conduetor system in which r; =2 em, $=20 em, all the three phases are identical to each other, b Sol: Self GMD = i{se//GMD, SelfGMD, SejGMD, = Self GMD, (Ce All three phases are identical) = rixs = 0.7788x2%20 = 5.58 cm GMD =4/6x6x12 =7.56 m (By neglecting conductors) spacing between sub Power Systems Example 2,3: Find Self. GMD of the following . stranded conductors @ i) : ste COO es AL: Each strand radius. is rem ® @00 Self GMD = al 2r ar) x (rx Br xr) x (Parr) = fe x(0.7788) xBxax8 (0.7788) x8x4x8 =175 rem ic) solo © 3 ‘The effect of steel strand will be neglected in self GMD calculation. Self GMD of all four strands is same, Self GMD, = 4f7'x 87 x4rxJ8r =r 0.778% V8 x4x VB = 0.7788 V8 x 4x8 =223 rem So, self GMD of conductor also. ‘Transposition of lines It is employed to eliminate the communication interference when transmission line is running close to the communication line. The communication interference is magnetic effect. Normally in transmission lines there are two conductor configurations, a ° b © ° ° (Symmetrical untransposed ) SRR a | New Dati Bengaars | Batanesrar | Visvavada | Veakapatnn [Tip | Pane | CheolACE i a b ¢ Oo 0 0 (Unsymmetrical untransposed) S| Line “J Inductan | Voltage | Interference | | No | Configu- | cephase | /phase | | ration_| __| Untransp [Same | Same | Does not exist | 1 | osed because 0. | symmetri \ cal fine | Untransp | Unequal | Unequa | Exists because 2 | osed 1 #0. symmetri cal line | ‘Transpos | Equal Equal | Eliminated 3 Je | [because @,=0. creme i | |__| trical tine [| ‘The concept of transposition of lines is considered if the load is balance. However it is @ old concept and not suitable for modem power system. The inductance/phase of untransposed unsymmetrical will be the average inductances of the three phases. Definition: It is defined as change in position of power conductor at regular intervals at equal distances throughout the line length, so that the original position of power conductor will be replaced by its successive power conductor. Untransposed unsymmetrical 3-6 transmission line R : R y YY Power network $5 communication network 4x20 + byZ120+ $m 224040 4, at circulating current = aR R = resistance of communication network ® Bagiazeag Academy 119: ‘Transmission & Distribution The circulating current will provide the noise in the communication network which is known as communication interference. w LB 1B po Ce y sa Xe inZi00 XC teZ120 p22 Ky 62240) 2240 r= Gy 20+ Gy 2120 + 2240+ by 20 + dy 2120 + by 2240+ by 20+ Gy 2120+ dx 2240 = 0. The transposition of lines means the shi position of power conductor by 120°, Example 2.1.42 Find GMD of each conductors and the system for the following conductors confignration without ‘Transposition and with Transposition. 8 b £ Os eO O. }-——6m = 6m——4 Sols (i) Without Transposition, GMD,= ¥6x12 =8.48 m GMD; = ¥6x6 =6m GMD, = J6x12 =8.48 m GMD,, = GMD, GMD, .GMD, =7.56m i) with transposition, GMD, = GMD, = GMD. = 4/6x6x12 GMD .,=7.56m Finderatad | New Deli | Beagalars | Bhubaneovar | Viayawada | Viakapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Chennai2) ACE 13 0: Power Systems ‘The Transmission line consists of a series combination of resistance, Inductance and a parallel combination of capacitance conductance. | abi 54 c= G In general the conductance of transmission line is assumed to be zero. The conductance is the one which will be offered for the flow of leakage current through the insulation to the ground. This is only possible at tower location. In between two towers there will not be any leakage. Resistance Calculation: Iti expressed as R=" ikem. a Tn case of transmission line, the distance is in kilometers, So the parameters will be calculated based on per km length, p= specific resistance (0. km) 1 = length (km) a=area of cross section (cm’); The resistance is independent on the distance between two wites and it depends on the size of the conductor. The resistance is also independent on symmetrical J unsymmetrical configuration, Inductance Calculation: Magnetic fluxlinkages Inductance: (Current through conductor Hkm It will produce magnetic field and the energy stored in the induetor Ey = pur. 2.2 Transmission Line Parameters Inductance of 1-9, 2- wire system: 1 ey The circuit cannot be closed unless there is second wire. The second wire is necessary to maintain potential difference and also closed path for current. System or loop or total or circuit Inductance Lota = La + Le Leotat = 214 (Both the conductors are similar in size) Inductance/conductor (Ls) = Lint + Lex d d= Distance of separation in m r= radius of conductor inom For external Inductance py = 1.0 and for internal Inductance p, > | except for Cu and Ai conductors ts Bal Sim 8x Qn \r L =0.05pr+0.2 wf ‘) mH/km In case of Cu or Al conductors p= 1.0 1,=02 (2) mE/km r!= imaginary (or) fictitious radius due to addition of internal linkages to external linkages r= 0.77881] If both conductors are identical then Leowt = 214 Lega = O.1pr+ 0.4 u(2) mH/km SERRE ec ctat Da Sn [Brabenr Viera | Vala | Tiss | Pe | hea® Engineering: ACE tens Ql: ‘Transmission & Distribution d Leu = 04 of i ntti, Induetance of 1-4, 1-wire system: Some times earth will also be considered as return conductor instead of conductor return. But there are certain disadvantages when it is used an a.c system. ail h eo Earth Inductance of conductor-a i 14=02 (8) miVkm r) Ly=0 , as the radius of earth is very large So Liat = La + Ly = La. Inductance of 3-phase 3-wire Transmission line: For any 3-phase conductor configuration with transposition, Inductance of each conductor will be same and Liph is L of any conductor. Liph = 0.2 uf on) mH/km, GMR Induetive reactance per phase, X;./ph = 2nfL./ ph Reactive power absorbed by line Q./ph=Px, /ph Q, 3~ph)=31?x, /ph Example 2.2.1: ‘A yo ‘conductor 1 - @ line operate at S0Mz. "The diameter of each conductor is 20 mm and the spacing between conductors is 3m: inductive reactance of each conductor. “OO OC FI L, ~oan() mH/km r 2n{—_3__| 0.788x10x107 ) = 1.19 mH/km Inductive reactance X, 374 Ohm 2nfl, Capacitance Calculatiot Capacitance= Hlectri The importance of capacitor is to develop static field and also to store the energy Be =" cv Capacitance of 1-phase 2-wire system (Isolated earth plane): The two-wires will act as two plates with a potential difference V or. the applied voltage between the two conduetors is V. a a a r b r d canbe Bi 4) r = 1.0 for surrounding dielectric medium (air) Fim , I= VoCw Alkm Capacitance of each conductor to neutral: There is a zero potential between the two wires at mid point so that each power conductor will act individually and deliver 50% of the total power. ma YY 2 a | oa | J 4 2 im | GRR) ert [New Det | Benga | Bhubaneswar | Vigawada | Visakhapatnam | Tiropat | Pane | GraneACE mn E c 122: Power Systems. Con = In case of the capacitance calculation, the actual radius of the conductor is considered, where as in case of inductance calculation imaginary radius is, used due to internal magnetic flux linkages. ire Transmission Line Capacitance of 1-6 2 with the effect of earth: Itcan be calculated by using Kelvin’s images law. b | ‘\ $ Beuintenta plan (=) LN istpeenaipie 1 va? +4n7 h a4 The electric flux lines which are terminated on infinite plane it will not induce any charge on the infinite plane. However if it is terminated on finite plane, it will induce a charge which is opposite to that of the original charge of the conductor. The no of electric flux lines which are eliminated from the surface of the conductor are equal to the amount of charge which is deposited. Each electric flux line will induce a partial amount of charge on the finite plane. So there is a uniform distribution of charges on the finite plane, It is very difficult to evaluate the capacitance due io uniform distribution of charges. The uniform distribution of charges are replaced by single equivalent charge. In order to make the earth as zero potential plane the equivalent charge is placed below the earth at a depth equal to the height of the conductor so that ce —— d ——. Sol: it will be a mirror image to the original power conductor. Qnty Cae ag =m : 2h In Example 2.2.2: What is the capacitance of neutraV/im of a1 = @ phase line composed of number 2 single strand conductor radius is 0.328 em, spaced 3 m apart and 7.5 m above the ground? Neglecting earth effect, (9)0.817 pF/km (b) 0.00817 wrk (©) 0.0212 wF/m (@) 0.516 wR/km With earth effect mere, Earth effect can be neglected, if d? <<(2h)’ ord << 2h +. Without earth effect 2mx8,854x10°? x1 3 In) 2 0.328x10 17 x 10°? Fim, = 0,00817 uF/km (EGS tN as [Het | tenn | Ward | Vipin |Top | Pe [Ge@ Bay ACE 298: ‘Transmission & Distribution Capacitance of 3-phase 3-wire Transmission | Sol: Inter line capacitances in 3 phase ling configuration connected in A to calculate For any conductor configuration if the conductors capacitance are each conductor to neutral it are transposed then capacitance of each conductor should be converted into “Y is same such that 2dr SoC =3. C/ph=—™0__ Fy m. aoe Cow in (2) In this problem Cy, = 0.004 ,F/km r ' S0, Cag = 0.012 pFrkm Capacitive reactance perphase 1 Example 2.2.4: Xe/ ph = Q-kn e e en Ciph ‘The inductive & capacitive reactance’s perphase of a 3.- 4, 100km length of line are 500 and Capacitive susceptance, B, / ph = @C/ ph mho- 10000 respectively. What will be the inductive : e and capacitive reactance of the same line with Charging current, 1, /ph = V,,@C/ph A/kin ee Reactive power delivered by transmission line Sol: Inductive reactance Xo ! Wo 1 Oh ph =(Vqs).9C/ ph Capacitive reactane Ke x Q.G- ph) = (Va, oC/ph 00km., X_ = 50Q, Xe =10002 1Okm, Xi, = 252, X 1000. Example 2.2.3: In. a. 3. phase * symmetrical _ configuration transmission line has inter line capacitance of 0.004,F/km, What is ‘the capacitance of each conductor to neutral S.No | Line Deseription | Rj L Xi ci Xe 1. | Length increases | Increases | Increases | Increases | Increases | Decreases [2 | Distance of No Increases | Increases | Decreases | Increases separation increases | change 3. _ | Radius of conductor | Decrease | Decreases | Decreases | nereases | Decreases increases s = _ 4, _ | Symmetrical Does not | Decreases | Decreases | Increases | Decreases spacing depend | 3. | Unsymmetrical | Does not | Increases | Increases | Decreases | Increases spacing __| depend _ 6. {Effect of earth is} No | No No change | Increases | Decreases __| taken into account | change | change Jo 7. [Height of the{ No [No No change | Decreases | Increases conductor increases | change _| change SRT) si | Nee Das | Dents | tubancavar | Vinawad | Viahapaam | Tirupad | Pe | Chemai® ‘Engineering, ne 124: Power Systems 2.3 Steady State Analysis of Transmission Lines There are two performance indices for any power apparatus ~ Power Efficiency 1. Efficiency { Energy Efficiency Voltage Regulation 2. Repsain| Speed Regulation The transmission line is & static device. So the performance of the transmission line is analysized by considering the power efficiency and voltage regulation. ‘Transmission line Sending end Receiving end (Ps, Qs, Vs, Is) (Pi, Qs Ver T) Power Efficiency: Efficiency = eet x 100% ut put + losses —__ 100% P+3PR The losses in transmission line generally very less. So the efficiency will be very high i.e. (95-99%). So there is no much concern about the efficiency. Voltage Regulation: It is defined as the change in magnitude of receiving end voltage from no load to full load while keeping the sending and voltage and the frequency of supply remains same. 8=|Veol - [Ve [Yeo] =[¥e|>100 %e= vi Vro= no load receiving voltage V;. = full load receiving voltage Regulation means voltage drop. Percentage regulation is having good meaning when compared to regulation. Regulation depends o the quantity of load placed at receiving end and powr factor of the load. Representation of transmission lines: The transmission can be represented based on the | length in which the power is carried out. A) short transmission lines:- less than 80 km. B) medium transmission line: 80 km to 160 km. C) long transmission line: Above 160 km, Short transmission line: Generally charging current is very less in short transmission line so capacitance can be removed from the network. So it will be represented as RL Jumped parameter model. Medium Transmission lines; As the length is ‘medium, charging is appreciable so capacitance will be considered in the network. So it will be represented as RLC lumped model. Load end Capacitance model: The total shunt capacitance is placed at the receiving end only. (or) the total charging current will be allowed till the end of transmission line Sending and Capacitance model: The total shunt capacitance is at the sending end. There is no charging current in the transmission line. Nominal — T model: The shunt capacitance is placed at the middle (or) the total charging current will be allowed upto middle of the transmission line. Nominal — m model: The shunt capacitance is placed on both sides with equal magnitudes (or) the charging current of 50 percent magnitude is allowed tll the end of transmission line, [EERE STEIN porting [New Dati | Bengaara | Bhubaneswar | Vijpawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pune | Obeanai_ ACE ® Engg heady 195: ‘Transmission & Distribution Long Transmission line: It will be represented in RLCG distributed parameter model. Uniform Distributed Parameters-These parameters are physical and electrically not separable. ‘Uniform distributed parameters are considered to evaluate the transient behavior of long transmission lines. ie. switch closed condition. Exact mathematical solution is considered to evaluate the sending end voltage and current. Lumped parameters are considered to evaluate the steady state behavior of long transmission. lines. ‘The two possible network configurations are, (i Equivalent -T Gi) Equivalent - x ‘The most and effective way of representing the transmission line is using. two port network configuration port means pair of terminals, ABCD parameters or Generalized circuit constants: Is I ree 8 t Vu Ve Oca : Vs, Is_ are dependent values Vr, I, are independent values The dependent values are expressed in terms of independent values. With certain parameters and those parameters are called Transmission parameters or ABCD parameters. V.= AV, + Bl, «... (1) 1, = CV; +Dk -...(2) V,) (A BYV, 1.) tc DJ, Equation (1) and (2) are standard transmission line equations, Parameters will be calculated by the following procedure. Cased: Open circuit at the receiving end (1,= 0) Vs=AVo, Is=CV 0. Reverse voltage gain under OC (unitless quantity) C==, transCet admittance under OC (mho) , OC input impedance (Zoc) Case 2: Short cireuit at the receiving end (V,=0) Vs= Bleoy “Ts=Didse , transfer impedance under SC (©) , Reverse current goin under SC(unitless quantity) 2 Fl D ZL: Seiaetimnedance Zc Characteristic impedance of transmission line & cD Fora symmetrical transmission line A= D For a reciprocal transmission line AD-BC = 1 Zeelea lay it % For symmetrical line Z, = £ (ER a [New Demi | Wecgatre | Bhabanevar | Viravac | Vana | Trap | Pane | CheolSol: The given equations can be expressed as Vv.) (A B *) 1) \c pj) v,\_(A BY'(V, iJ \c vp) Uy . D -BIY, AD-BC|-c A |, _[D -BIVs “[-c AU, The output impendence of transmission fine is v,__DV,-Bl, I, -CV,+Al, Transmission lines in series (or) Cascade (or) Tandem: 14 Bi pata v sa, F cD, vy Mo mn Ao Bo j Co Do VY [4 Bl (h (* Bo fe oe By] cy val |c, ville, D2) The resultant ABCD parameters of cascade combination of two networks is product of two ABCD vectors. a lose RTI eta | New Det | Bengal | Bhabancsvar | Viayawada | Viakhapatnam | Tirupati | Pu | Chea 6: Power Systems ‘Two Transmission lines in parallel:- a Ar Bi [ ettan to Az Bz C, Dr AB, + A,B, B+B, * (A-A)D; ~D,) =(6.26)+A-WO If two lines are identical transmission lines Ao=A, Bo=B/2, -Co=2C and Do=D Example 23.2: ‘Two identical lines having A = 093.2 8 ands Ae C= 10°29" and D = 093212 are connected in Parallel, The equivalent transmission Tine parameters@ ag CE ates ‘Transmission & Distribution Sol: The resultant combination A=D=093 21.2° B= 66272°ohm C= 2x10°290° mho ABCD of this parallel Short transmission line: Series combination of resistance and Inductance. x ke x] 10V, + Zk L=0.V, +101 AB) (IZ Ee Al + i) A=D, network is symmetrical AD—BC= I, network is reciprocal Regulation: Woul W009 al on no-load = sv Vs= AVey In case of short transmission line |A |= 1.0 [Vr0|=| Vs | IYAII¥L 199 IV, 1 The sending end voltage magnitude of short transmission line will be represented as [Wsl = [Vi] + Roos ty Xsing %e= PACE En “4° stands for lagging p.f ‘-* stands for leading p.f %e= %Reosd, + %Xsind, For lagging power regulation is positive For leading power factor the regulation will be either positive or negative or zero. ‘The regulation will be maximum (positive) at 4,-tan"! (4) R 4, = (impedance angle of transmission line) ‘© The regulation will be zero at leading power factor, factor always voltage Bs . ‘A distribution Sine having series impedance in per unit 0.08: + 40.05. What is the voltage regulation ‘witha’ load power factor of 0.8 Jagging at half pull load condition Sol: at FL, %Voltage regulation =%R cosh, + %Xsindy = (8x0.815%0,6)% =94% At Ys FL, %Voltage regulation = tx 9.4% a4T% Medium Transmission line Receiving end capacitor model: k Z i: T Vs ¥] Ve Pp Hirabed | New Delt | Bengdara | Bhubaneswar | Vinyowada | Veakhapatamn | Twpad | Pune | ChensalOved Fiore 228: Power Systems Ve\_(1 21 0) (ve Nominal - = model: I) \o i,y/2 UY I I, - | | A=1+ZY,B=Z, C=Y and D=1.0 ra Ly A#D, network is unsymmetrical AD ~ BC = | network is reciprocal Sending end capacitor model i = CG 005 A= 10, B=Z,C=Y and D=1+ZY A#D, network is unsymmetrical AD - BC = | network is reciprocal Nominal — T Network: ZI Z/2 PT ‘ Vs Ve M4 {Tt (i) rue Ve) (1 Z/21 OV zi2Vv, i) lo tty alo ihe ZY A=D, network is symmetrical (1% (1-24) Le AD - BC = 1, network is reciprocal. (4 By 2 Is (ut) ts 2 A=D, network is symmetrical AD BC= 1, network is reciprocal For all the networks the preferable voltage WA regulation formula is %e VV, ‘The Nominal T Network is a symmetric and reciprocal network. Sending end capacitance method is a uncompensated method. Receiving end capacitor method is a over compensated method. So the medium transmission lines are represented either by nominal ~ r (or) nominal = T methods. However the nominal ~ 1 is a preferred on according to load conditions. ‘A medium line with parameters A, B, C, D. ‘extended t ‘by ‘connecting ; ‘a short tine of impedance Zin ‘series. The overall, ABCD. genre of the: PRET cect | New Dati | Beneaurw | Bhubaneswar | Vieyavada | Viakbapaiam | Trpat | Pune | Chenal