Sensors and Actuators - 015412

DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
NAME: VICTOR MOSHI LUGAZA
REG No: 180630720480
CLASS: BENG 19 ETE1
MODULE TITLE: ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
MODULE CODE: ETU 08103
NTA LEVEL 8
ASSIGNMENT 1
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Advanced Industrial Electronics
Contents
Assignment 1...............................................................................................................................................6
LINEAR/ROTATIONAL SENSORS...............................................................................................................6
A. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT).................................................................................6
B: Rotational Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)......................................................................7
C. Optical Encoder...........................................................................................................................8
D. Electrical Tachometer....................................................................................................................10
DC Tachometer Generator....................................................................................................................11
AC Tachometer Generator.....................................................................................................................12
Drag Cup Rotor AC Generator............................................................................................................13
E. HALL EFFECT SENSOR.....................................................................................................................15
Position sensing.................................................................................................................................16
Direct-current (DC) transformers.......................................................................................................16
Automotive fuel-level indicator.........................................................................................................16
Keyboard switch................................................................................................................................16
F. CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER.............................................................................................................16
Applications of Capacitive Transducer................................................................................17
G. STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENTS............................................................................................................18
H. INTERFEROMETER.........................................................................................................................20
I. MAGNETIC PICK UP.........................................................................................................................21
J. GYROSCOPE....................................................................................................................................22
Applications.......................................................................................................................................23
K. INDUCTOSYN.................................................................................................................................24
2. ACCELERATION SENSOR.....................................................................................................................25
A. SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER.............................................................................................................25
B. PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER......................................................................................................26
3. FORCE TORQUE AND PRESSURE SENSOR...........................................................................................28
A. STRAIN GAUGE..............................................................................................................................28
B. DYNAMOMETERS/LOAD CELLS......................................................................................................31
C. PIEZOELECTRIC LOAD CELLS...........................................................................................................33
D. TACTILE SENSOR............................................................................................................................34
E. ULTRASONIC STRESS SENSOR........................................................................................................35
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4. FLOW SENSORS..................................................................................................................................37
A. PITOT TUBE....................................................................................................................................37
B. ORIFICE PLATE...............................................................................................................................37
C. FLOW NOZZLE, VENTURI TUBES.....................................................................................................38
D. ROTAMETER..................................................................................................................................39
E. ULTRASONIC TYPE..........................................................................................................................40
F. TURBINE FLOW METER..................................................................................................................41
F. ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER.................................................................................................43
5. TEMPERATURE SENSORS...................................................................................................................44
A. THERMOCOUPLES.........................................................................................................................44
B. THERMISTORS................................................................................................................................45
C. THERMODIODES, THERMO TRANSISTORS.....................................................................................47
D. RTD—RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR..............................................................................48
E. INFRARED TYPE..............................................................................................................................49
F. INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY..........................................................................................................50
6. PROXIMITY SENSORS.........................................................................................................................52
A. INDUCTANCE.................................................................................................................................52
B. EDDY CURRENT..............................................................................................................................53
C. HALL EFFECT..................................................................................................................................54
D. PHOTOELECTRIC............................................................................................................................55
E. CAPACITANCE................................................................................................................................58
7. LIGHT SENSORS..................................................................................................................................59
A. PHOTORESISTORS, PHOTODIODES, PHOTO TRANSISTORS, PHOTO CONDUCTORS.....................59
B: CHARGE-COUPLED DIODE..............................................................................................................62
8. SMART MATERIAL SENSORS..............................................................................................................63
A. OPTICAL FIBER (AS STRAIN SENSOR).............................................................................................63
B. OPTICAL FIBER (AS LEVEL SENSOR)................................................................................................63
C. OPTICAL FIBER (AS FORCE SENSOR)...............................................................................................64
D. OPTICAL FIBER (AS TEMPERATURE SENSOR).................................................................................64
E. PIEZOELECTRIC (AS STRAIN SENSOR).............................................................................................66
F. PIEZOELECTRIC (AS FORCE SENSOR)..............................................................................................66
G. PIEZOELECTRIC (AS ACCELEROMETER)..........................................................................................67
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H. MAGNETOSTRICTIVE (AS FORCE SENSORS)...................................................................................68
I. MAGNETOSTRICTIVE (AS TORQUE SENSOR)...................................................................................68
9. MICRO- AND NANOSENSORS.............................................................................................................69
A. MICRO CCD IMAGE SENSOR..........................................................................................................69
B. FIBERSCOPE...................................................................................................................................70
C. MICRO-ULTRASONIC SENSOR........................................................................................................72
D. MICRO-TACTILE SENSOR................................................................................................................72
ASSIGNMENT 2..........................................................................................................................................74
ASSIGNMENT 3: ACTUATORS.....................................................................................................................77
1. ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR.................................................................................................................77
A. DIODES.......................................................................................................................................77
B. THYRISTOR.................................................................................................................................78
C. BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR....................................................................................................................79
D. TRIACS...........................................................................................................................................80
E. DIACS.............................................................................................................................................82
F. POWER MOSFET............................................................................................................................83
G. SOLID STATE RELAY.......................................................................................................................84
A. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD (SEPARATELY EXCITED)...................................................................86
B. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD -SHUNT...........................................................................................86
C. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD -SERIES............................................................................................87
D. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD –COMPOUND..................................................................................88
E. DC MOTOR PERMANENT MAGNET- CONVENTIONAL PM MOTOR............................................89
F. DC MOTOR PERMANENT MAGNET- MOVING-COIL PM MOTOR...............................................90
G. DC MOTOR PERMANENT MAGNET TORQUE MOTOR................................................................91
H. DC MOTOR ELECTRONIC COMMUTATION (BRUSHLESS MOTOR)..............................................92
I. AC MOTOR- INDUCTION MOTOR...............................................................................................93
J. AC MOTOR- SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR........................................................................................94
K. UNIVERSAL MOTOR...................................................................................................................95
L. STEPPER MOTOR- HYBRID.........................................................................................................96
M. VARIABLE RELUCTANCE.........................................................................................................98
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC...........................................................................................................................99
A. SOLENOID TYPE DEVICES...........................................................................................................99
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B. ELECTROMAGNETS..................................................................................................................102
C. RELAY.......................................................................................................................................103
4. HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC..........................................................................................................105
A. CYLINDER.................................................................................................................................105
B. HYDRAULIC MOTOR -GEAR TYPE.............................................................................................106
C. HYDRAULIC MOTOR - VANE TYPE............................................................................................107
D. HYDRAULIC MOTOR - PISTON TYPE.........................................................................................108
E. AIR MOTOR ROTARY TYPE.......................................................................................................108
F. AIR MOTOR RECIPROCATING...................................................................................................109
B. VALVES- PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES.....................................................................................111
C. VALVES -PROCESS CONTROL VALVES.......................................................................................112
5. SMART MATERIAL ACTUATORS.......................................................................................................113
A. PIEZOELECTRIC.........................................................................................................................113
B. ELECTROSTRICTIVE...................................................................................................................114
C. MAGNETOSTRICTIVE................................................................................................................114
D. SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY...........................................................................................................115
E. ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS................................................................................................116
6. MICRO- AND NANOACTUATORS......................................................................................................118
A. MICROMOTORS.......................................................................................................................118
B. MICROVALVES.........................................................................................................................118
C. MICROPUMPS..........................................................................................................................120
Assignment: 4..........................................................................................................................................122
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Assignment 1
Below are the various types of sensor with their descriptions based on principle of
operation, application and specifications.
LINEAR/ROTATIONAL SENSORS
A. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Is an Electromechanical type Inductive Transducer that converts rectilinear
displacement into the AC Electrical Signal.
 A mechanical displacement transducer.
 Gives an A.C. voltage output proportional to the distance of the transformer core
to the windings.
 It is a mutual-inductance device with three coils and a core
 It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube.
 The central coil is primary coil and the other two are secondary coils.
 Secondary coils are connected in series in such a way that their outputs oppose
each other.
 A magnetic core attached to the element of which displacement is to be
monitored is placed inside the insulated tube.
 Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for
measurement of linear displacement with an input range of about ± 2 to ± 400
mm in general.
 It has non-linearity error ± 0.25% of full range.
 Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating
electromagnetic forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils.
 When the magnetic core is centrally placed with its half portion in each of the
secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero.
Specifications
• Range: +/- 10 mm
• Resolution: 0.1 mm
• Analogue o/p: 200 mV
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Advantages of LVDT:
• LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility.
• It is generally used as an absolute position sensor. Since there is no contact or
sliding between the constituent elements of the sensor, it is highly reliable.
• These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in Servomechanisms,
automated measurement in machine tools.
• LVDT Provides Less friction, Low hysteresis, and Low power consumption device
Disadvantages of LVDT:
• Very high displacement is required for generating high voltages.
• Shielding is required since it is sensitive to magnetic field.
• The performance of the transducer gets affected by vibrations.
• It is greatly affected by temperature changes.
Applications
• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valve applications,
• To provide displacement feedback for hydraulic cylinders,
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills,
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch,
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding
process,
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detection system,
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by an ATM.
B: Rotational Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)
Is an electro-mechanical transducer that provides a variable AC output voltage that is

proportional to the angular displacement of its input shaft. As RVDT is an AC-controlled
device, so there is no electronics component inside it. Also, the electrical output of
RVDT is obtained by the difference in secondary voltages of the transformer, so it is
also called a Differential Transformer.
Working principle
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The working principle of RVDT and LVDT both are the same and based on the mutual
induction principle. When AC excitation of 5-15V at a frequency of 50-400 Hz is applied
to the primary windings of RVDT then a magnetic field is produced inside the core. This
magnetic field induces a mutual current in secondary windings. Then due to
transformer action, the induced voltages in secondary windings (S1 and S2) are Es1
and Es2 respectively. Hence the net output voltage will be the difference between both
the induced secondary voltages.
Hence Output will be E0 = Es1 – Es2.
Specifications
 Measurement range: 0° to 120°; ±60° ·
 Output signal: mV/V 0 – 10 VDC; ±3.75 – ±7.5 VDC
 Accuracy: ≤ ±0.1%; ≤ ±0.25%
 Input voltage: +/-15VDC ±10%
 Input current: 25mA maximum
 Output current 5mA
 Output impedance: 1 Ω maximum
 Frequency response: 500Hz @ -3dB
Applications of RVDT
RVDT is most commonly is used as a sensor nowadays, also it doesn't experience any
functional problem due to its contactless structure. Hence the main applications of
RVDT include the following.
 Actuators for controlling flight as well as engine.
 Fuel valve as well as hydraulics.
 Brake with a cable system.
 Modern machine tools.
 Nose wheel steering systems.
 Weapon and Torpedo system.
 Engine fuel control system.
 Aircraft and avionics.
 Engines bleed air systems.
 Robotics
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C. Optical Encoder
Is a motion sensing device that uses light shone through a coded disk to track the
movement of a shaft
The graphic below outlines the basic construction of an optical incremental rotary
encoder.
Principle of operation
The following are the steps through which the optical encoder provides motion
feedback information.
1. A beam of light emitted from an LED pass through a Code Disk, a transparent
disk patterned with opaque lines (much like the spokes on a bike wheel).
2. The light beam is picked up by a Photodetector Assembly, also called a
photodiode array or a photosensor.
3. The Photodetector Assembly responds to the light beam, producing a sinusoidal
wave form, which is transformed into a square wave or pulse train.
4. This pulse signal is simple:
light = on
no light = off
5. The pulse signal is then sent to the counter or controller through the Electronics
Board.
6. The counter or controller (not pictured) then sends the signal to produce the
proper function (stop, go, rotate, etc.).
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Mechanism
• Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. •

These are widely used in the Servo motors to measure the rotation of shafts. • It
comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of equally spaced holes. • Three light
sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the holes. • These sensors
produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the mechanical element
e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. • The inner track has just one hole
which is used locate the ‘home’ position of the disc. • The holes on the middle track
offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. • This
arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be determined. • When the disc
rotates in clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in
counter clockwise direction they lag behind. • The resolution can be determined by the
number of holes on disc. With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution would be
360/100 = 3.6 degree
Specifications
The following are the specifications of an optical encoder.
 Length range: 50 mm
 Resolution: 1 µm
 Accuracy: 2.1 µm
 Output pulse: 250 pulse/ mm
 Maximum traversing speed: 36 m/min
 Reference signal: A reference pulse every 25 mm
 Grating period: 0.02 mm
 Maximum vibration: 30 m/sec2 (3G)
 Moving force: ≤ 5 N
 Working ambient temperature: 0°C to 45°C
 Cable length: 3 m
 Supply voltage: 5 V ±5%, 150 mA
 Protective design grade: Equivalent to IP 53
 Digital output signal: A and B in quadrature, reference Z with their inverse signal
(TTL signal)
Applications of optical encoders
Low-cost motion detection for motors used in:
 Factory automation
 Packaging and printing products
 Office equipment and computer peripherals
 Robotic tape storage and retrieval
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 Semiconductor handling and insertion machines
 Industrial automation
 Computer controlled embroidery machines
 Positioning tables
 Machine tool
D. Electrical Tachometer
Is a sensor device used to measure the rotation speed of an object such as the engine
shaft in a car, and is usually restricted to mechanical or electrical instruments. This
device indicates the revolutions per minute (RPM) performed by the object.
Principle of working
Depends on the natures of the induced voltage the electrical tachometer is categorized
into two types.
 AC Tachometer Generator
 DC Tachometer Generator
DC Tachometer Generator
Permanent magnet, armature, commutator, brushes, variable resistor, and the moving
coil voltmeter are the main parts of the DC tachometer generator. The machine whose
speed is to be measured is coupled with the shaft of the DC tachometer generator.
The DC tachometer works on the principle that when the closed conductor moves in the
magnetic field, EMF induces in the conductor. The magnitude of the induces emf
depends on the flux link with the conductor and the speed of the shaft.
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The armature of the DC generator revolves between the constant field of the
permanent magnet. The rotation induces the emf in the coil. The magnitude of the
induced emf is proportional to the shaft speed.
The commutator converts the alternating current of the armature coil to the direct
current with the help of the brushes. The moving coil voltmeter measures the induced
emf. The polarity of the induces voltage determines the direction of motion of the shaft.
The resistance is connected in series with the voltmeter for controlling the heavy
current of the armature.
The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as
Where, E – generated voltage

Φ – flux per poles in Weber
P- number of poles
N – speed in revolution per minutes
Z – the number of the conductor in armature windings.
a – number of the parallel path in the armature windings.
AC Tachometer Generator
The DC tachometer generator uses the commutator and brushes which have many
disadvantages. The AC tachometer generator designs for reducing the problems. The
AC tachometer has stationary armature and rotating magnetic field. Thus, the
commutator and brushes are absent in AC tachometer generator.
The rotating magnetic field induces the EMF in the stationary coil of the stator. The
amplitude and frequency of the induced emf are equivalent to the speed of the shaft.
Thus, either amplitude or frequency is used for measuring the angular velocity.
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The below mention circuit is used for measuring the speed of the rotor by considering
the amplitude of the induced voltage. The induces voltages are rectified and then
passes to the capacitor filter for smoothening the ripples of rectified voltages.
Drag Cup Rotor AC Generator
The drag cup type A.C tachometer is shown in the figure below.
The stator of the generator consists two windings, i.e., the reference and quadrature
winding. Both the windings are mounted 90° apart from each other. The rotor of the
tachometer is made with thin aluminium cup, and it is placed between the field
structure.
The rotor is made of the highly inductive material which has low inertia. The input is
provided to the reference winding, and the output is obtained from the quadrature
winding. The rotation of rotor between the magnetic field induces the voltage in the
sensing winding. The induces voltage is proportional to the speed of the rotation.
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Specifications of electrical tachometer
 Range
RPM RANGE
1 RPM to 99999 RPM

Optical (non-
contact)
Contact (Fluke 1 RPM to 19999 RPM

931)
 Accuracy ±0.02 % of reading ±1 digit

 Sensing Distance (optical) 500 mm (20 inches)
 Battery Type 2x AA 1.5 V IEC LR6 (Alkaline)
 Battery Life Fluke 930 approximately 35 hours
 Fluke 931 approximately 40 hours
 Operating Temperature 0 ºC to +50 ºC (32 ºF to 122 ºF)
 Storage Temperature -20 ºC to +70 ºC (0 ºF to 160 ºF)
 Operating Humidity 10 %-90 % RH (non-condensing)
 Operating Altitude 2000 m
Applications of Electrical Tachometer
Tachometers can be used in a wide variety of applications across a range of industries

and environments. Typical applications could include:
 Vehicles and automotive
 Boats and marine vehicles
 Machinery and mechanical systems
 Research and development
 Laboratories test and measurement
 Maintenance and routine industrial operation
 Cars
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Tachometers used within vehicles allow the driver to choose the most
suitable gear and throttle settings for the current conditions. They are
beneficial for optimizing performance and protecting the engine from
overheating, insufficient lubrication, and causing unnecessary wear and
tear to components within the system.
 Boats
Tachometers can also be used with boats to measure the RPM of the vessel’s
engine. They can also be used to monitor engine speed and inform decisions
surrounding performance and fuel consumption. Boat tachometers can be
used with a range of different boat and engine types, including inboard or
outboard motors and diesel engines.
E. HALL EFFECT SENSOR
Is a type of sensor which detects the presence and magnitude of a magnetic field using

the Hall effect. The output voltage of a Hall sensor is directly proportional to the
strength of the field. It is named for the American physicist Edwin Hall.
Working principle
Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes
through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is deflected
from its straight line path.
• Thus, one side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side will be of
positive charge.
• This charge separation generates a potential difference which is the measure of

distance of magnetic field from the disc carrying current.
Specifications of a hall sensor
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 Operating Voltage: 5V DC
 Digital Output 0V or 5V direct interface to a microcontroller with LED indication
 Sensor: Allegro A3144 Hall-effect switch
 LM393 comparator with threshold preset
 PCB Size: 32x12mm
 Detector type: Magnetic Sensing Hall effect
 Detecting range: 7 mm LM393 based design
Applications of a hall effect sensor
• The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level in a
container. The container comprises of a float with a permanent magnet attached at its
top. An electric circuit with a current carrying disc is mounted in the casing. When the
fluid level increases, the magnet will come close to the disc and a potential difference
generates. This voltage triggers a switch to stop the fluid to come inside the container.
These sensors are used for the measurement of displacement and the detection of
position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary signal conditioning circuitry.
They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their non-contact nature of operation, good
immunity to environment contaminants and ability to sustain in severe conditions make
them quite popular in industrial automation.
Position sensing
One of the most common industrial applications of Hall sensors used as binary switches
is in position sensing. Hall sensors are also used in brushless DC motors to sense the
position of the rotor and to switch the transistors in the right sequence. Another
example of a Hall effect position sensor is the sensor used to detect whether a
smartphone's cover is closed.
Direct-current (DC) transformers
Hall sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of direct current in current

transformers. In such a case the Hall sensor is mounted in a gap in the magnetic core
around the current conductor. As a result, the DC magnetic flux can be measured, and
the DC current in the conductor can be calculated.
Automotive fuel-level indicator
Hall sensors are used in some automotive fuel-level indicators. The sensor is used to
detect the position of a floating element within the fuel tank.
Keyboard switch
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Hall effect switches for computer keyboards were developed in the late 1960s by
Everett A. Vorthmann and Joseph T. Maupin at Honeywell. Due to high manufacturing
costs these keyboards were often reserved for high-reliability applications such as
aerospace and military. As mass-production costs have declined, an increasing number
of consumer models have become available.
F. CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER
Are passive transducers that determine the quantities like displacement, pressure and

temperature etc. by measuring the variation in the capacitance of a capacitor.
Principles of operation of a capacitive transducer
The capacitive transducer contains two parallel metal plates. These plates are separated
by the dielectric medium which is either air, material, gas or liquid. In the normal
capacitor the distance between the plates is fixed, but in capacitive transducer the
distance between them is varied.
The capacitive transducer uses the electrical quantity of capacitance for converting the
mechanical movement into an electrical signal. The input quantity causes the change of
the capacitance which is directly measured by the capacitive transducer.
The capacitors measure both the static and dynamic changes. The displacement is also
measured directly by connecting the measurable devices to the movable plate of the
capacitor. It works on with both the contacting and non-contacting modes.
Specifications of a capacitive transducer
 Sensitivity
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance (d0) between the electrode
of MM-0004 and the test specimen
Typically: 0.9 V RMS d0 = 0.5 mm and peak-to-peak displacement 0.1 mm
 Frequency range
20 Hz to 200 kHz
 Capacitance
Inversely proportional to d0 Typically: 1.5 pF at d0 = 0.5 mm
 Static force
Inversely proportional to the square of d0. Typically: 56 µN at d0 = 0.5 mm
 Working temperature (continuous)
Max. 250C (480F)
 Distortion
Inversely proportional to d0 Therefore d0 should be more than 10 times the
maximum displacement and not less than 0.5 mm to keep distortion below 5%
 Polarization voltage
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200 V
 Electrode area
0.78 cm2 (0.121 in2)
 Weight (excl. Cable)
46.9 g (1.66 oz)
Applications of Capacitive Transducer
 As these transducers are able to measure both linear and angular

displacements with great sensitivity. Hence used to determine distances
up to around 30 m.
 Not only the displacement but also force and pressure can be detected.
These first changes the force into displacement and with the change in
displacement, the capacitance is allowed to vary.
 Also, humidity can be measured by a capacitive transducer. As with the
variation in humidity, the permittivity also varies and this resultantly changes
the capacitance of the capacitor.
 With the help of mechanical modifiers density, volume and weight can
also be measured.
G. STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENTS
is a sensor whose measured electrical resistance varies with changes in strain. Strain is
the deformation or displacement of material that results from an applied stress. Stress
is the force applied to a material, divided by the material’s cross-sectional area.
Working principle
A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and

its dependence on the conductor's geometry. When an electrical conductor is stretched
within the limits of its elasticity such that it does not break or permanently deform, it
will become narrower and longer, which increases its electrical resistance end-to-end.
Conversely, when a conductor is compressed such that it does not buckle, it will
broaden and shorten, which decreases its electrical resistance end-to-end. From the
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measured electrical resistance of the strain gauge, the amount of induced stress may
be inferred.
A typical strain gauge arranges a long, thin conductive strip in a zig-zag pattern of
parallel lines. This does not increase the sensitivity, since the percentage change in
resistance for a given strain for the entire zig-zag is the same as for any single trace. A
single linear trace would have to be extremely thin, hence liable to overheating (which
would change its resistance and cause it to expand), or would need to be operated at a
much lower voltage, making it difficult to measure resistance changes accurately
Specifications of a strain gauge
Type Vibrating Wire

Range ± 1500 μ strain
Sensitivity 1 μ strain
Active gage length 140 mm
Total length 190 mm
Accuracy ± 1 % fsd (combined effect of non-linearity + hysteresis + repeatability)
Temperature limit -10 to 80°C
Operational
Compensated 0 to 55°C
Over range limit 125 % of the range
Over range effect ± 0.1% fsd up to 120%
Insulation resistance 500 M Ohm
Coil resistance 120-140 Ohm
Enclosure Stainless steel
Protection IP-68 (NEMA 6)
Sealing Hermetically sealed by electron beam welding with a vacuum of 0.001 Torr. in
Vibration limit 2g, 20-500 Hz
Humidity limit 100% RH
Readout Portable strain indicator
Thermistor YSI 44005 or equivalent (3,000 Ohm at 25°C)
Cable connection Glass to metal seal solder pin connector
Applications of strain gauge
Aerospace Applications – strain gauges are bonded to load-bearing components

within air crafts to measure any strain and stress which takes place within various areas
during flight. Strain gauges can monitor the wing deflection or deformation during flight
to ensure it is safe. They also monitor various on-board units and power supplies.
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Rail applications – strain gauges can be bonded to the railway lines themselves to
monitor and measure the stress the lines are under. The readings they produce can
alert personnel if the railways become under too much stress or strain. This ensures the
railway line stays safe to use and allows repairs and maintenance to be carried out
before any visible signs of strain or stress show.
Use within Load Cells – strain gauges are used within load cells, the measure the
strain and stress the load cell is under to determine weight and quantities. They can
also be incorporated into other sensors including pressure transducers to help with
pressure measuring.
Measuring stress on circuit boards – some very small strain gauges can measure
stress on electric circuit boards and other confined spaces.
Residual Stress monitoring – this is a very broad term and can refer to monitoring
stress in casting, welding and formation processes during manufacturing. This is a
common application for strain gauges. They can also be used to monitor stress during
high-speed drilling applications.
Other applications;
 Testing ships hulls

 Vehicle testing applications
 Structural component testing
 Construction applications
H. INTERFEROMETER
Are devices that extract information from interference. They are widely used in science
and industry for the measurement of microscopic displacements.
Working principle
Interferometer makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves in a way
that will cause the result of their combination to have some meaningful property that is
diagnostic of the original state of the waves. This works because when two waves with
the same frequency combine, the resulting intensity pattern is determined by
the phase difference between the two waves—waves that are in phase will undergo
constructive interference while waves that are out of phase will undergo destructive
interference. Waves which are not completely in phase nor completely out of phase will
have an intermediate intensity pattern, which can be used to determine their relative
phase difference. Most interferometers use light or some other form of electromagnetic
wave.
Specifications
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number of 3
sensor axes
working distance 5000 mm (depending on sensor head)
sensor resolution 1
[pm]
sensor 2 nm (at 10 mm working distance in vacuum conditions)
repeatability
max. target 2
velocity [m/s]
Applications of interferometer
 Biology and medicine

 Engineering and applied science
 Physics and astronomy
I. MAGNETIC PICK UP
Magnetic pickup (MPU) sensors are devices which can be used in conjunction with
electronic control modules for monitoring of parameters such as speed, direction of
rotation and a variety of alarm conditions.
They are constructed of a magnetic pickup coil that is wound around a magnetized
probe; magnetic pickup sensors method of operation is simple in principle. Mechanical
components such as camshafts, crankshafts, gears etc. can be detected when they pass
through a magnetic pickup sensors field. This motion causes the magnetic field of the
sensor to oscillate inducing a voltage in the sensors coil that can be used to trigger a
response from the control system.
Specifications
P/N Description
5/8 – 18 UNF Threaded

MSP674 3” w/o Mating Half Connector / High Output
MSP675 3” w 7” Leads
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MSP677 3” w/o Mating Half Connector
MSP678* 5” w/o Mating Half Connector
MSP679* 3” Mating Half Connector / Weather Boot
MSP6710* 5” Mating Half Connector / Weather Boot
MSP6719 2.375” w 6” Leads
MSP6721 3” w Automotive Connector
MSP6721C 3″ w Automotive Connector / Mating Half Connector
MSP6728 3″ Length / Packard Connector
MSP6728C 3” Length / Packard Connector / Mating Half Connector
MSP6732 3” Length / Dual Output / Dual Packard Connectors
MSP6732C 3” Length / Dual Output / Dual Packard Connectors / Mating Half Connector
Applications of magnetic pick up

 Magnetic pickup sensors are devices which can be used in conjunction with
electronic control modules for monitoring of parameters such as speed,
direction of rotation and a variety of alarm conditions
 Magnetic pickups are located near a flywheel, camshaft or other type of
gear with rotation relative to engine speed
J. GYROSCOPE
Is a device that can measure and maintain the orientation and angular velocity of an
object. These are more advanced than accelerometers. These can measure the tilt and
lateral orientation of the object whereas accelerometer can only measure the linear
motion.
The concept of Coriolis force is used in Gyroscope sensors. In this sensor to measure
the angular rate, the rotation rate of the sensor is converted into an electrical signal.
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Working principle of Gyroscope sensor can be understood by observing the working of
Vibration Gyroscope sensor.
This sensor consists of an internal vibrating element made up of crystal material in the
shape of a double – T- structure. This structure comprises a stationary part in the
center with ‘Sensing Arm’ attached to it and ‘Drive Arm’ on both sides.
This double-T-structure is symmetrical. When an alternating vibration electrical field is

applied to the drive arms, continuous lateral vibrations are produced. As Drive arms are
symmetrical, when one arm moves to left the other moves to the right, thus canceling
out the leaking vibrations. This keeps the stationary part at the center and sensing arm
remains static.
When the external rotational force is applied to the sensor vertical vibrations are caused
on Drive arms. This leads to the vibration of the Drive arms in the upward and
downward directions due to which a rotational force acts on the stationary part in the
center.
Rotation of the stationary part leads to the vertical vibrations in sensing arms. These
vibrations caused in the sensing arm are measured as a change in electrical charge.
This change is used to measure the external rotational force applied to the sensor as
Angular rotation.
Specifications of Gyroscope
Analog Voltage Devices produce analog DC voltage outputs such as ±5 V, 0 -
10 V,
Current Loop Devices produce current loop outputs such as 0 - 20mA, 4 -20
mA, 10 - 50mA,
Temperature The total range of values an instrument is capable of
Range measuring. For a standard thermometer this is 0 to 100°C.
Applications
 Gyroscope Sensors are used for versatile applications. Ring laser Gyros are used
in Aircraft and Source shuttles whereas Fiber optic Gyros are used in racecars
and motorboats.
 Vibration Gyroscope sensors are used in the car navigation systems, electronic
stability control systems of vehicles, motion sensing for mobile games, camera-
shake detection systems in digital cameras, radio-controlled helicopters, Robotic
systems
 The main functions of the Gyroscope Sensor for all the applications are Angular
velocity sensing, angle sensing, and control mechanisms. Image blurring in
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cameras can be compensated by using Gyroscope Sensor-based optical image
stabilization system
K. INDUCTOSYN
The inductosyn is a control element which is manufactured in rotary and linear forms.
In its rotary form it is capable of indicating angular position to an accuracy of 5 seconds
of arc with a repeatability of 1 second of arc whilst in its linear form it is capable of a
positional accuracy better than 0.0001 in.
Precision circuit patterns are etched in copper bonded to the surface of

Inductosyn elements. For rotary Inductosyn, the printed circuit pattern comprises
hairpin radial turns which repeat on the flat surface of a disk. For linear Inductosyn,
the printed circuit pattern comprises parallel hairpin turns which repeat along the
surface of a flat bar. The length of one complete cycle of the hairpin pattern is called
the pitch (P). See Figure 1A.
Inductive coupling between windings on a rotary or linear pair of elements is used to

measure displacement. The inductosyn elements are attached to the fixed and
moveable machine parts with the elements aligned so that their winding patterns are
mutually parallel and separated by a small air gap.
Specifications of inductosyn
PARAMETER UNITS VALUE
FREQUENCY Hz Programmable from 400 to

10k
OUTPUT
Voltage V rms 7 ±1% for 2.5 V PA input
Current mA rms 190 mA rms max
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REFERENCE
Voltage V rms 2.5 ±10%
Current mA rms continuous current 3mA rms
REF +90°
Voltage V rms 2.5 ±10%
Current mA rms continuous current 3mA rms

max 2.5 ±10% continuous
current 3mA rms max.
Momentary short circuit and
transient proof
POWER SUPPLIES
Voltage V dc ±15 ±5%
Current mA 20 max plus current load
Max Voltage without V dc ±18

damage
Applications of inductosyn
 Aerospace
 Industrial
 Défense
 Oil & Gas
 Marine
2. ACCELERATION SENSOR
A. SEISMIC ACCELEROMETER
This is the type of a sensor which is used for measurement of extremely low level
vibrations.
1. The accelerometer is fitted on to the structure whose acceleration is to be

measured.
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2. Due the acceleration, the seismic mass experience a displacement and
this displacement of the mass is proportional to the acceleration.
3. As the mass is connected to an electric displacement transducer, the
output of the transducer depends on the extent – to which the mass is
displaced.
4. Hence the output of the transducer is calibrated to give a direct indication
of the acceleration characteristics of the structure.
Specifications of a seismic accelerometer
PARAMETER VALUE
Sensor output Dynamic vibration (IEPE)
Sensitivity 10 V/g
Sensitivity tolerance ±10 %
Frequency response 0.05 Hz - 450 Hz
Mounting Thread 3/8-16 tapped hole
Connector style MIL-C-5015, 2-pin
Connector orientation Top exit
Full-scale range 0.5 g peak
Resonance frequency 750 Hz
Temperature range -10°C to +65°C
Weight 775 grams
Hazardous area approvals Non-approved
Applications of seismic accelerometer
 Earthquake‐related measurements
 Aircraft and automobiles
 Structure monitoring
 Seismic isolation and stabilization platforms
 Homeland security
 Mineral exploration
B. PIEZOELECTRIC ACCELEROMETER
Is an accelerometer that employs the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to
measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables (e.g., acceleration, vibration, and
mechanical shock).
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When pressure or acceleration is applied to the PZT material, an equivalent amount of
electrical charge gets generated across the crystal faces. Electrical charge will be
proportional to the applied pressure. Piezoelectric sensor cannot be used to measure
static pressure. At the constant pressure, the output signal will be zero. Working of a
Piezoelectric Sensor can be summarized as,
a. In a piezoelectric crystal the charges are exactly balanced in unsymmetrical

arrangement also.
b. The effect of the charges cancels out with each other and hence no net charge
will be found on the crystal faces.
c. When the crystal is squeezed, the charge in the crystal becomes unbalanced.
d. Hence, from now on the effect of charge does not cancel with each other which
make net positive and negative charge to appear on the opposite faces of the
crystal.
e. Therefore, by squeezing the crystal, voltage is produced across the opposite
face and this is known as piezoelectricity.
Specifications of piezoelectric accelerometer
Resonance frequency > 35,000 Hz

Frequency range fc* to 10,000 Hz ±1 dB
Charge sensitivity 1.5 pC/ (m/s2) ±20%
Capacitance 950 pF
Maximum allowable acceleration 20,000 m/s2
Operating temperature range -30 to ＋150 °C
Cable connection Sidewise 10-32 threaded connector

Weight 9g
Case material Aluminum (A2017B)
Applications of Piezoelectric Sensors:
 Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
When a force is applied to the piezoelectric diaphragm, it generates electric charge

across the crystal faces. The output is measured as voltage which is proportional to the
applied pressure.
 Ultrasound Transducer and Piezoelectric Crystals:
Ultrasound sensors generate ultrasonic waves. When transducer is held on one hand,
its position is kept varying such that the ultrasound wave passes through the body parts
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to be analyzed and visualized. Sound waves are sent through the body tissue. The
waves are reflected back to create the image of the tissue. This is the working principle
of an Ultrasound Imaging System. In this, piezoelectric crystals are attached to the
front of the transducer, which helps to generate ultrasonic waves. Electrodes act as
connecting node between crystals and machine. When electric signal is applied to
crystal, due to vibration it generates ultrasound wave of frequencies between 1.5 and 8
MHz
 In Industrial Applications piezoelectric sensor is used in engine knock sensors,

pressure sensors, Sonar Equipment, etc.
 Piezoelectric actuators are applied in Diesel fuel injectors, optical adjustment,
Ultrasonic cleaning and welding.
 Sensor is used in electrical appliances like dot matrix printer, inkjet printer, Piezo
speaker, buzzers, humidifiers, etc.
 In musical instruments like Instrument pickups and microphone
3. FORCE TORQUE AND PRESSURE SENSOR
A. STRAIN GAUGE
Are devices that are commonly used by engineers to measure the effect of external
forces on an object. They measure strain directly, which can be used to indirectly
determine stress, torque, pressure, deflection, and many other measurements.
Strain is a dimensionless measurement that is a ratio of the change in length to the

original length of an object. Therefore, a positive strain is the result of stretching a
material and negative strain is the result of compression. Stress is a measurement of
the force applied divided by the initial cross-sectional area of an object, or the internal
resisting capacity of an object.
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Figure 1. Left: Composition of a strain gauge (source) Right: Example of a strain
gauge (source)
Each strain gauge is composed of a metal foil insulated by a flexible substrate, as
shown in the figure above. The two leads pass a current through the gauge, and as the
surface of the object being measured stretches or contracts, the change in resistance is
measured. This change in resistance is proportional to the change in length on the
surface of the object being tested, as shown in the equation below. Strain gauges work
by measuring the change in electrical resistance across a thin conductive foil. The
gauge factor (or “gage factor”) is the sensitivity of the strain gauge (usually 2). It
converts the change in resistance to the change in length.
Figure 2. Compression and tension as experienced on a strain gauge (source).

As a strain gauge experience bending, stretching, or twisting, the change in resistance
across the metal foil is measured by a Wheatstone bridge. The change in resistance
that is measured is proportional to the strain experienced by the object. A user can
determine the stress experienced by an object using Hooke’s law (equation shown
below) by knowing the material’s modulus of elasticity.
Equation 2: Hooke’s law equation.
Specifications of strain gauge

Type Vibrating Wire
Range ± 1500 μ strain
Sensitivity 1 μ strain
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Active gage length 140 mm
Total length 190 mm
Accuracy ± 1 % fsd (combined effect of non-linearity + hysteresis +

repeatability)
Temperature limit -10 to 80°C

Operational
Compensated 0 to 55°C
Over range limit 125 % of the range
Over range effect ± 0.1% fsd up to 120%
Insulation resistance 500 M Ohm
Coil resistance 120-140 Ohm
Enclosure Stainless steel
Protection IP-68 (NEMA 6)
Sealing Hermetically sealed by electron beam welding with a vacuum of

0.001 Torr. inside it
Vibration limit 2g, 20-500 Hz
Humidity limit 100% RH
Readout Portable strain indicator
Thermistor YSI 44005 or equivalent (3,000 Ohm at 25°C)
Cable connection Glass to metal seal solder pin connector
Strain Gauge applications
 Aerospace Applications – strain gauges are bonded to load-bearing

components within air crafts to measure any strain and stress which takes place
within various areas during flight. Strain gauges can monitor the wing deflection
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or deformation during flight to ensure it is safe. They also monitor various on-
board units and power supplies.
 Rail applications – strain gauges can be bonded to the railway lines

themselves to monitor and measure the stress the lines are under. The readings
they produce can alert personnel if the railways become under too much stress
or strain. This ensures the railway line stays safe to use and allows repairs and
maintenance to be carried out before any visible signs of strain or stress show.
 Use within Load Cells – strain gauges are used within load cells, the measure
the strain and stress the load cell is under to determine weight and quantities.
They can also be incorporated into other sensors including pressure transducers
to help with pressure measuring.
 Measuring stress on circuit boards – some very small strain gauges can
measure stress on electric circuit boards and other confined spaces.
 Residual Stress monitoring – this is a very broad term and can refer to
monitoring stress in casting, welding and formation processes during
manufacturing. This is a common application for strain gauges. They can also be
used to monitor stress during high-speed drilling applications.
Other applications
 Testing ships hulls

 Vehicle testing applications
 Structural component testing
 Construction applications
B. DYNAMOMETERS/LOAD CELLS
Is a device for simultaneously measuring the torque and rotational speed (RPM) of

an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover so that its instantaneous power may be
calculated, and usually displayed by the dynamometer itself as kW or bhp.
The best explanation of how a dynamometer works is to envision a spring in a two-part

mounting. One end of the spring is anchored to a base with the other end connected to
the force to be measured. As the spring is stretched by the force, a reading registers on
a scale. This simplistic representation of a dynamometer is very similar to a spring
balance but provides readings in units of force or Newtons (N).
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Though this simple example can provide a reading, it does not have the strength to
measure the power of a 250 hp engine. A more sophisticated and technical device is
required for that type of job, which is much larger and resembles an electric motor or
gas engine.
A large dynamometer is a variable load that is attached to the drive of an engine or

motor. As the motor powers up, the dynamometer absorbs the power being produced
to provide data on the torque and power of the motor. As the power is absorbed, the
dynamometer dissipates the massive amount of power generated through
electromagnetism.
Specifications of a dynamometer
Default calibration (N) slope: 176.8325
intercept: –19.5057
Default calibration (kg) slope: 18.0320
Default calibration (lbs) slope: 39.7536
Accuracy ±0.6 N
12-bit resolution 0.2159 N
Power 7 mA @ 5VDC
Safety range (maximum force without 0 to 900 N

damage to the sensor)
Operational range: 0 to 600 N
Applications of dynamometer
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 General purpose
 Automotive
 Aircraft or aerospace
 Chain or belt drives
 Gearboxes
 Fluid power systems
 Gas or diesel engines
 Industrial
 Marine
 Transmissions
 Turbines
C. PIEZOELECTRIC LOAD CELLS
is a force transducer for precisely measuring tensile and compression forces in highest
resolution and in the narrowest spaces
Piezoelectric load cells work on the same principle of deformation as the strain gauge
load cells, but a voltage output is generated by the basic piezoelectric material –
proportional to the deformation of load cell. Useful for dynamic/frequent measurements
of force. Most applications for piezo-based load cells are in the dynamic loading
conditions, where strain gauge load cells can fail with high dynamic loading cycles. The
piezoelectric effect is dynamic, that is, the electrical output of a gauge is an impulse
function and is not static. The voltage output is only useful when the strain is changing
and does not measure static values.
However, depending on conditioning system used, "quasi static" operation can be done.
Using a charge amplifier with a long time constant allows accurate measurement lasting
many minutes for small loads up to many hours for large loads. Another advantage of
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Piezoelectric load cells conditioned with a charge amplifier is the wide measuring range
that can be achieved. Users can choose a load cell with a range of hundreds of
kilonewtons and use it for measuring few newtons of force with the same signal-to-
noise ratio; again this is possible only with the use of a charge amplifier for
conditioning.
Specifications of piezoelectric load cell
Range (kN) 5000, 6000, 7500,10000 & 12500
Rated output 1.5 mV/V ± 10 %
Over range capacity 120 % with a maximum up to 14000 kN
Temperature limit -20o to 80o C
Cable Four-core shielded 5 m long; specify
Calibration accuracy ± 0.25 % fs
Non-linearity ± 1 % fs
Applications of piezoelectric load cell
1. To determine the load in rock bolts, tiebacks, foundation anchors, cables or struts.
2. Proof testing and long-term performance monitoring of different kinds of anchor
systems.
3. Used extensively for correlating data obtained from borehole extensometers.
4. To determine the load in experimental research, pile testing and measurement of
the thrust of rocks.
5. Load testing in piles.
6. Determination of roof convergence in underground mines.
D. TACTILE SENSOR
Is a device that measures information arising from physical interaction with its
environment. Tactile sensors are generally modeled after the biological sense
of cutaneous touch which is capable of detecting stimuli resulting from mechanical
stimulation, temperature, and pain (although pain sensing is not common in artificial
tactile sensors)
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Touch sensors—called tactile sensors by engineers—are part of many devices that we

use every day. Tactile sensors are sensitive to touch, force or pressure, and are made
using light (optical), electricity or magnetism. The stimulus-to-response pathways seen
in electronic touch sensor operation mimics the human body process that involves our
skin, signal transmission via the nervous system, and brain
Specifications of a tactile sensor
FEATURE DESCRIPTION
Maximum Pressure 48kPa
Number of Tactels 1936
Tactels density 62 Tactels/cm^2
Temperature Range -40°C to +60°C
Maximum height 55.9mm
Maximum width 55.9mm
Thickness 0.102mm
Applications of tactile sensor
Tactile sensors are used in robotics, computer hardware and security systems. A

common application of tactile sensors is in touchscreen devices on mobile
phones and computing.
E. ULTRASONIC STRESS SENSOR
Is contact sensor that responds to the forces produced by mechanical contact.
Working principle
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Ultrasonic stress measurement techniques are based on the relationship of wave speed
in various directions with stress. Figure 1 shows elements of a bar under tension where
the wave propagates in three perpendicular directions. The first index in the velocities
represents the propagation direction for the wave and the second represents the
direction of the movement of the particles. In (a) the wave propagates parallel to the
load and V11 represents the velocity of the particles in the same direction (longitudinal
wave), meanwhile V12 and V13 represents the velocity in a perpendicular plane (shear
waves). In (b) and (c) the waves propagate in the other directions and the velocities
are also shown. The sensitivity of these waves to the strain is shown in the Figure 2 for
rail steel. The most significant variation in travel-time with the strain was found for
longitudinal waves, followed by the shear waves when the particles vibrate in the
direction of the load. The other waves do not show significant sensitivity to the
deformation.
Specifications
Material Load L21 L23 L22 L11 L12

Aluminum Compressive -2.0 +0.6
Aluminum (Tanala, et al, 1995) Tension - RD +0.46 +0.68 -2.7
Aluminum (Tanala, et al.,1995) Tension - TD +0.93 -3.1
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Ductile Cast Iron Compressive -2.15
As-cast Compressive -3.89
Annealed Compressive -3.92
Normalized Compressive -2.98
Q&T
Rail Steel (1080) Tension -1.5 +0.09 +0.27 -2.38 -0.15

Compressive -2.45
4140 Steel (Tang and Bray, 1996) Tension (2.25 MHz) -2.2
Tension (5 MHz) -2.36
316L Stainless Steel (Tanala, et al., 1995) Tension -1.5 -1.2 ~0 -2.1
Clear acrylic, aircraft grade Tension -2.14
Applications
 Preload Assessment on Already Tightened Bolts

 Railroad applications
4. FLOW SENSORS
A. PITOT TUBE
Is a flow measurement device used to measure fluid flow velocity
The basic pitot tube consists of a tube pointing directly into the fluid flow. As this tube
contains fluid, a pressure can be measured; the moving fluid is brought to rest
(stagnates) as there is no outlet to allow flow to continue. This pressure is the
stagnation pressure of the fluid, also known as the total pressure or (particularly in
aviation) the pitot pressure.
The measured stagnation pressure cannot itself be used to determine the fluid flow
velocity (airspeed in aviation). It is obtained through Bernoulli's equation.
Specifications of a pitot tube

Magnification Factor 0.997 ±0.001 (Approximated to 1 in most
cases)
Standard Sizes Ø2.3mm, Ø4.00mm, Ø8.00mm, Ø9.50mm
Lengths: 200mm – 3m
Temperature Range Ø8.00mm, Ø9.50mm – 680°C continuously
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(800°C intermittently)
Ø2.3mm, Ø4.00mm – up to 550°C
Materials Fully stainless steel (Silver brazed joints on
Ø2.3mm & Ø4.00mm only)
Applications of Pitot Tube

 It is used to measure speed of an aircraft
 It is used to measure speed of a boat
 It is used to measure fluid flows in different industries
 It is used to measure flow profile in a duct or channel
B. ORIFICE PLATE
Is a thin plate with a hole in it, which is usually placed in a pipe.
When a fluid (whether liquid or gaseous) passes through the orifice, its pressure builds
up slightly upstream of the orifice but as the fluid is forced to converge to pass through
the hole, the velocity increases and the fluid pressure decreases. A little downstream of
the orifice the flow reaches its point of maximum convergence, the vena contracta
where the velocity reaches its maximum and the pressure reaches its minimum. Beyond
that, the flow expands, the velocity falls and the pressure increase. By measuring the
difference in fluid pressure across tapping upstream and downstream of the plate, the
flow rate can be obtained from Bernoulli's equation using coefficients established from
extensive research
Specifications of an orifice plate

Pair of weld neck flanges Minimum size: 300# ANSI rating for line
size 2″ and above
Flange taps sizes up to 12
D-D/2 taps Line sizes: 14
Pipe Reynold’s no Below 10000
Beta Ratio <0.6
bore diameter is > 25 mm.
Applications of the orifice plate

 It is used to measure the flow rate of fluids in their single state (i.e., gaseous
state or liquid state).
 It can also be used to measure the flow rate of fluids in a mixed state (both
gaseous and liquid states) such as, wet steam, or natural gas with water.
It is utilized in the following industries:
 Water treatment plants
 Natural gas industries
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 Refineries
 Petrochemical plants
C. FLOW NOZZLE, VENTURI TUBES
Is an engineered primary flow element for non-viscous and erosive fluids under high
velocity and pressure, which would wear or damage orifice plates.
When a flow nozzle is placed in a pipe carrying fluid whose rate of flow is to be
measured, the flow nozzle causes a pressure drop which varies with the flow rate.
This pressure drop is measured using a differential pressure sensor and when calibrated
this pressure becomes a measure of flow rate.
 The fluid whose flow rate is to be measured enters the nozzle smoothly to the
section called throat where the area is minimum.
 Before entering the nozzle, the fluid pressure in the pipe is p1. As the fluid enters
the nozzle, the fluid converges and due to this its pressure keeps on reducing
until it reaches the minimum cross section area called throat. This minimum
pressure p2 at the throat of the nozzle is maintained in the fluid for a small
length after being discharged in the down-stream also.
 The differential pressure sensor attached between points 1 and 2 records the
pressure difference (p1-p2) between these two points which becomes an
indication of the flow rate of the fluid through the pipe when calibrated.
Specifications of a flow nozzle
Applications of Flow Nozzle

 It is used to measure flow rates of the liquid discharged into the atmosphere.
 It is usually used in situation where suspended solids have the property of
settling.
 Is widely used for high pressure and temperature steam flows.
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D. ROTAMETER
is a device that measures the volumetric flow rate of fluid in a closed tube.
When a rotameter is used with a liquid the float rises because of a combination of the
velocity head of the fluid and the buoyancy of the liquid.
With a gas the buoyancy is negligible and the float moves in the most part due to the
velocity head of the gas. In both cases, the greater the flow then the higher up the
tube the float moves. The float moves up and down the tapered tube in proportion to
the flow rate and the annular area between the float and the tapered tube wall. As the
float moves up through the tube because of its tapered nature the annular opening
increases. As this increases the differential pressure across the float decreases. The
float stabilises when the weight of the float is in equilibrium with the upward force
being exerted by the fluid or gas.
The float can then be compared to a calibrated scale either printed onto the tube itself
or placed next to the tube on the outside of the flow meter. The calibrated scale will
commonly give a volumetric flow reading, for example litres per minute (LPM).
Specifications
Range Ability 10-100% or 10 to 1%
Tube Body IMPORTED TRANSPARENT ACRYLIC

Construction
Float Material SS304/SS316/PP/PTFE
Temperature 70 DEG,C
Ratings
Temp Max 70-80 DEG,C
Scale Length 200 MM
Application Industrial
Maximum 70 DEG,C
Temperatures
Connection 1/8" TO 4"
Available In 1 WEEKS
Operating Pressure 0.5 TO 10 BARS
Shape ROUND /SQUIRE BOTH
Available Sizes 1/2" to 4"
End Connector SCREW END, FLANGE END, TC END
Temperature Limit 80 DEG, C
Applications
 The rotameter is used in process industries.
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 It is used for monitoring gas and water flow in plants or labs.
 It is used for monitoring filtration loading.
E. ULTRASONIC TYPE
Is a type of flow meter that measures the velocity of a fluid with ultrasound to calculate
volume flow.
The working principle of ultrasonic flow meter is, it uses sound waves to resolve the
velocity of a liquid within a pipe. There are two conditions in the pipe like no flow and
flowing. In the first condition, the frequencies of ultrasonic waves are transmitted into a
pipe & its indications from the fluid are similar. In the second condition, the reflected
wave’s frequency is dissimilar because of the Doppler Effect.
Whenever the liquid flows in the pipe quickly, then the frequency shift can be increased
linearly. The transmitter processes the signals from the wave & its reflections determine
the flow rate. Transit time meters transmit & receive ultrasonic waves in both the
directions within the pipe. At no-flow condition, the time taken to flow in between
upstream & downstream in between the transducers is the same.
Under these two flowing conditions, the wave at upstream will flow with less speed
than the downstream wave. As the liquid flows faster, the distinction between the up &
downstream times raises. The times of the upstream & downstream processed by the
transmitter to decide the flow rate.
Specifications
Flow Range 0.01-20m/sec (Bi-Directional)
Accuracy ±0.5-3% of reading
Repeatability Typically, ±0.5%
Pipe Size 12.7-7600mm
Operating
Temperature
Transducers -40°C to +200°C
Transmitter -10°C to 50°C
Datalogging Typically, >100,000 data points, time stamped
Output 4-20mA, pulse
Power Built-in battery with external 12v input, 8-36 hours
operation
Dimensions Typically, 250 x 150 x 40mm
Weight (Control Unit) Typically, 3-5lbs (1-2kg)
Applications
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 To measure the velocity of liquids that allow ultrasonic waves to pass, such as
water, molten sulfur, cryogenic liquids, and chemicals. Transit time designs are
also available to measure gas and vapor flow.
 The industries in order of higher to lower are oil and gas, water and wastewater,
power, chemical, food and beverage, pharmaceutical, metals and mining, and
pulp and paper.
F. TURBINE FLOW METER
Is a volumetric measuring turbine type which utilize the Pelton turbine wheel concept,
which uses a miniature turbine wheel supported on a very small sapphire shaft held in
position by two sapphire bearings. Because the wheel and shaft are extremely
lightweight, the turbine wheel virtually floats in the liquid passing through, relieving the
force on the shaft and bearings and eliminating wear.
Simple to install, operate and manage, turbine flow meters leverage mechanical energy
from the flow sample to rotate the wheel in the flow stream. As liquid/gas samples pass
through the flow meter, it is directed to the small teeth of the turbine wheel via a
precision-machined nozzle (sized according to the flow range of the unit). The rotational
speed of the turbine wheel increases proportionally to the volumetric flow rate.
Specifications
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Applications
 Turbine flow meters are used to measure clean, dry gases and liquids such as
hydrocarbons, chemicals, gases and vapors, fuels and other types of liquids with
lower viscosity, and for applications requiring highly accurate and precise
measurements.
 Typically, their applications are found across various industries such as

petroleum, automotive, laboratory and water treatment. In some cases,
applications are also found in the beverage and chemical industry as well.
 A few examples of applications include:
 Particle cleanliness testing

 Water treatment
 Monitoring input flow to an analyzer
 Dispensing chemicals in a laboratory
F. ELECTROMAGNETIC FLOW METER
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Is an induction type flow instrument often used to measure the volumetric flowrate of a
conductive medium
Magnetic flow meters work based on Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction.
According to this principle, when a conductive medium passes through a magnetic field
B, a voltage E is generated which is proportional to the velocity v of the medium, the
density of the magnetic field and the length of the conductor.
In a magnetic flow meter, a current is applied to wire coils mounted within or outside
the meter body to generate a magnetic field. The liquid flowing through the pipe acts
as the conductor and this induces a voltage which is proportional to the average flow
velocity.
This voltage is detected by sensing electrodes mounted in the Magnetic flow meter
body and sent to a transmitter which calculates the volumetric flow rate based on the
pipe dimensions.
Specifications
Applications
 Magnetic flowmeters are used in water treatment plants to measure treated and
untreated sewage, process water, water and chemicals. Mining and mineral
process industry applications include process water and process slurry flows and
heavy media flows.
 Industries where it is used
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In order of usage, water/wastewater industry, chemical, food and beverage, oil
and gas (although not for oil and gas fluids but in support of the processes),
power, pulp and paper, metals and mining, and pharmaceutical.
5. TEMPERATURE SENSORS
A. THERMOCOUPLES
Is a sensor that measures temperature. It consists of two different types of metals,

joined together at one end. When the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled, a
voltage is created that can be correlated back to the temperature.
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the
ends is heated, there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit.
If this circuit is broken at the center, the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeeck
voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and the composition of the two
metals. Which means that when the junction of the two metals is heated or cooled a
voltage is produced that can be correlated back to the temperature.
Specifications
Calibration Type Temperature Range Tolerances1

(whichever is greater)
°C °F Standard Special
Thermocouple Wire Type
B 870 to 1700 1598 to 3092 ±0.5%

E 0 to 900 32 to 1652 ±1.7ºC or ±0.5% ±1.0ºC or
J 0 to 750 32 to 1382 ±2.2ºC or ±0.75% ±0.4%
K 0 to 1250 32 to 2282 ±2.2ºC or ±0.75% ±1.1ºC or
N 0 to 1250 32 to 2282 ±2.2ºC or ±0.75% ±0.4%
R or S 0 to 1450 32 to 2642 ±1.5ºC or ±0.25% ±1.1ºC or
T 0 to 350 32 to 662 ±1.0ºC or ±0.75% ±0.4%
±1.1ºC or
±0.4%
±0.6ºC or
±0.1%
±0.5ºC or
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±0.4%
Extension Wire Type
EX 0 to 200 32 to 392 ±1.7ºC ±1.0ºC

JX 0 to 200 32 to 392 ±2.2ºC ±1.1ºC
KX 0 to 200 32 to 392 ±2.2ºC ±1.1ºC
NX 0 to 200 32 to 392 ±2.2ºC ±1.1ºC
TX 0 to 100 32 to 212 ±1.0ºC ±0.5ºC
Compensating Extension Wire Type
BX2 0 to 200 32 to 3925 ±3.7ºC

CX3 0 to 870 32 to 16005 ±6.8ºC
RX, SX4 0 to 200 32 to 3925 ±5ºC
Cryogenic Range Wire Type
E6 -200 to 0 -328 to 32 ±1.7ºC or ±1% 7

K6 -200 to 0 -328 to 32 ±2.2ºC or ±2%
T6 -200 to 0 -328 to 32 ±1.0ºC or ±1.5%
Applications
Applications include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel
engines, and other industrial processes. Thermocouples are also used in homes, offices
and businesses as the temperature sensors in thermostats, and also as flame sensors in
safety devices for gas-powered appliances
B. THERMISTORS
Is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor whose resistance is dependent on

temperature. The term is a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”. It is made of
metallic oxides, pressed into a bead, disk, or cylindrical shape and then encapsulated
with an impermeable material such as epoxy or glass.
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A thermistor does not actually “read” anything, instead the resistance of a thermistor
changes with temperature. How much the resistance changes depend on the type of
material used in the thermistor.
Unlike other sensors, thermistors are nonlinear, meaning the points on a graph
representing the relationship between resistance and temperature will not form a
straight line. The location of the line and how much it changes is determined by the
construction of the thermistor.
Specifications
Applications
 Thermistors are very common and you may be surprised to know the number of
appliances within a home environment which use thermistors to monitor and
measure temperature. Some of these applications are;
 Microwaves/ Boilers - thermistors monitor the internal temperature and ensure it

doesn't become too hot
 Circuit protector - thermistors control surges of power and ensure the correct
amount is being pushed through device which are plugged in
 Digital thermometers - thermometers often use thermistors as the temperature

sensing element as they have a fast response and are accurate.
Thermistor Applications - Commercial

 Vehicle cabin heat - to ensure the vehicle stays at the correct temperature
thermistors are often used
 Manufacturing - thermistors are used as a “circuit breaker” in manufacturing

facilities; if the temperature becomes dangerously high the thermistor will cause
the circuit to break.
 HVAC refrigeration applications - thermistors are used to measure building and

control processes. This increases control and efficiency.
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 3d printers - thermistors are used to regulate temperatures as they must be
controlled precisely
 Medical applications - when precise temperature monitoring is essential, a

thermistor is used as it is highly sensitive and will detect if the temperature
changes just a tiny amount. They are used for catheters, patient monitoring and
dialysis equipment
 Food & Beverage Industry - thermistors can be used to monitor the

temperatures within the environments of the handling and processing of food/
beverage to ensure it is kept at the correct temperature.
C. THERMODIODES, THERMO TRANSISTORS
Is a device whose thermal resistance is different for heat flow in one direction than for
heat flow in the other direction.
This application of thermal diode is based on the property of electrical diodes to change
voltage across it linearly according to temperature. As the temperature increases,
diodes' forward voltage decreases. Microprocessors having high clock rate encounter
high thermal loads. To monitor the temperature limits thermal diodes are used. They
are usually placed in that part of the processor core where highest temperature is
encountered. Voltage developed across it varies with the temperature of the diode
Specifications
a) Optical:
CW output power: 120 watt ± 10 watts
Center Wavelength @25°C: 808 nm
Center Wavelength Tolerance: ±10 nm
Spectral Width (FWHM): ≤20 nm
Wavelength Shift (∆λ/∆T): <0.3 nm/°C
b) Fiber Connection data:
Fiber Core Diameter: 200 µm
Numerical Aperture: ≤0.22
Fiber-optic connector: SMA
c) Electrical Parameters:
Threshold Current: ≤10 Amp
Operating Current: ≤80 Amp
Operating Voltage: ~6 V
Slope Efficiency: ≥2 W/A
Overall Efficiency: ≥35%
Hook-up wire: As per standard
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d) Thermal Parameters:
Thermal Resistance (typical): <0.8 °C/W
Normal diode heat shink temperature: 25°C
Operating Case Temperature: 15-35°C
Minimum Heat shink capacity: 300 W
Chiller water flow: 5 liter / min
Water pressure: 4 bar
Case storage Temperature: 5-60°C
Humidity: Non-condensing
Applications
Thermal diodes are used for their property to change the voltage across according to
temperature. Diverse applications include heat engines, refrigeration, and thermal
regulation. They monitor the temperature limits of microprocessors with high thermal
loads. Further studies involve the construction of microscopic solid-state thermal diodes,
the application of the thermal diode concept for the utilization of solar energy, and the
efficient conversion of heat to electricity at lower temperatures, among other things.
D. RTD—RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR
Is an electronic device used to determine the temperature by measuring the resistance

of an electrical wire
An RTD consists of a resistance element and insulated copper wires. The most common
number of wires is 2; however, some RTDs have 3 or 4 wires. The resistive element is
the temperature sensing element of the RTD. It is usually platinum because as a
material it is highly stable over time, it has a wide temperature range, it offers an
almost linear relationship between temperature and resistance and it has a chemical
inertness. Nickle or copper are also other popular choices of material for the resistive
element.
An RTD works by using a basic principle; as the temperature of a metal increases, so
does the resistance to the flow of electricity. An electrical current is passed through the
sensor, the resistance element is used to measure the resistance of the current being
passed through it. As the temperature of the resistance element increases the electrical
resistance also increases. The electrical resistance is measured in Ohms. The resistance
value can then be converted into temperature based on the characteristics of the
element. Typical response time for an RTD is between 0.5 and 5 seconds making them
suitable to applications where an immediate response is not required.
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SENSOR PARAMETERS
1/8″ 3/16″ 1/4″

inch mm Inch mm inch mm
Diameter 0.125 3.18 0.188 4.78 0.250 6.35
Temp. Sensitive Length 1.1 28.0 1.1 28.0 1.1 28.0
Bending 2.1 53.3 2.1 53.3 2.1 53.3
Restriction, Distance from
tip to be left straight
Minimum Bending 0.5 12.7 0.75 19.0 1.0 25.4
Radius
Maximum Length 700 ft 213 m 300 ft 91 m 175 ft 53 m
Minimum Length 4 102 4 102 4 102
Constantan 3-Wire 0.061 0.025 0.015
Leads, Resistance in Ω/in
each wire
Applications
 RTD sensor is used in automotive to measure the engine temperature, an oil
level sensor, intake air temperature sensors. In communication and
instrumentation for sensing the over the temperature of amplifiers, transistor
gain stabilizers
 RTD is used in power electronics, computer, consumer electronics, food handling
and processing, industrial electronics, medical electronics, military, and
aerospace.
E. INFRARED TYPE
Is an electronic device, that emits the light in order to sense some object of the
surrounding
The emitter is simply an IR LED (Light Emitting Diode) and the detector is simply an IR
photodiode. Photodiode is sensitive to IR light of the same wavelength which is emitted
by the IR LED. When IR light falls on the photodiode, the resistances and the output
voltages will change in proportion to the magnitude of the IR light received.
Specifications
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The main specifications and features of the IR sensor module include the following.
 The operating voltage is 5VDC
 I/O pins – 3.3V & 5V
 Mounting hole
 The range is up to 20 centimeters
 The supply current is 20mA
 The range of sensing is adjustable
 Fixed ambient light sensor
Applications of Infrared Sensors

Used in
 Climatology
 Meteorology
 Photobiomodulation
 Flame Monitors
 Gas detectors
 Water analysis
 Moisture Analyzers
 Anesthesiology testing
 Petroleum exploration
 Rail safety
 Gas Analyzers
F. INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY
Is the technique that uses an infrared imaging and measurement camera to “see” and
“measure” invisible infrared energy being emitted from an object.
The principle of infrared thermography is based on the physical phenomenon that any
body of a temperature above absolute zero (-273.15 °C) emits electromagnetic
radiation. There is clear correlation between the surface of a body and the intensity and
spectral composition of its emitted radiation. By determining its radiation intensity the
temperature of an object can thereby be determined in a non-contact way.
Specifications
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Type H2640 H2630 (discontinued)
Measuring range -40 to 500°C -40 to 500°C
Range1: -20 to 60°C Range1: -40 to 120°C
Range2: -40 to 120°C Range2: 0 to 500°C
Range3: 0 to 500°C Range3: 200 to 2000°C optional
Range4: 200 to 2000°C (Display 0 to 2000°C)
optional
(Display 0 to 2000°C)
Resolution Range1: 0.06°C or better (at Range1: 0.08°C or better (at
30°C, 30Hz) 30°C, 30Hz)
0.03°C or better (at 30°C, 0.04°C or better (at 30°C, Σ16)
Σ64) Range2: 0.12°C or better (at
Range2: 0.08°C or better (at 30°C, 30Hz)
30°C, 30Hz)
Range3: 0.12°C or better (at
30°C, 30Hz)
Accuracy ±2°C or ±2% of reading, whichever is greater
Detector Uncooled focal plane array (microbolometer)
Spectral range 8 to 13μm
I.F.O.V 0.6mrad
Focusing range 30cm to infinity
Field of view 21.7°(H)x16.4°(V)
Frame time 30 frames/sec *
Display View finder & 5.6-inch movable color LCD
Thermal image pixels 640(H)x480(V) pixels
A/D resolution 14bits
Focus system Auto and manual focus (mechanical/motorized)
Alarm Screen display and alarm sound (ON/OFF)
S/N improvement Σ2, Σ8, Σ16, Σ32, Σ64 Σ2, Σ8, Σ16
Real-time memory Multi-speed to max. 30fps* continuous shooting up to 832
(H2640 only) images
Applications
Infrared thermography is commonly used in a variety of industries and applications
including:
 Machine condition monitoring
 Building diagnostics like moisture, roof and energy-loss inspections
 Medical imaging including peripheral vascular disease, thyroid abnormalities, and
metabolic and inflammatory condition monitoring
 Chemical imaging
 Earth science imaging
 Electrical system monitoring
 Fluid system monitoring
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6. PROXIMITY SENSORS
A. INDUCTANCE
Is a device that uses the principle of electromagnetic induction to detect or measure

objects.
Inductive sensors use currents induced by magnetic fields to detect nearby metal
objects. The inductive sensor uses an oscillator to generate a high frequency as shown
in below. If there is a metal object near the changing magnetic field, current will flow in
the object.
This resulting current flow sets up a new magnetic field that opposes the original
magnetic field. The net effect is that it changes the inductance of the coil in the
inductive sensor.
Specifications
Type GXL-8 type
Front sensing Top sensing
Standard Model No. GXL-8FU GXL-8HU
CE marking directive EMC Directive, RoHS Directive
compliance
Max. operation distance 2.5 mm 0.098 in ± 20%
(Note 3)
Stable sensing range (Note 0 to 1.8 mm 0 to 0.071 in
3)
Standard sensing object Iron sheet 15 x 15 x t 1 mm
0.591 x 0.591 x t 0.039 in
Hysteresis 20 % or less of operation distance
(with standard sensing object)
Repeatability Along sensing axis, perpendicular to sensing axis: 0.04
mm 0.002 in or less
Supply voltage 12 to 24 V DC ± 10 % Ripple P-P 10 % or less
Current consumption (Note 0.8 mA or less
4)
Output Non-contact DC 2-wire type
・Load current: 3 to 70 mA (Note 5)
・Residual voltage: 3 V or less (Note 6)
Applications
1. Position Detection on a Mechanical Moving Part
The process of inserting items into packages or cartons using metal flags fitted on
conveyor chains is relatively simple. At the same time, it is also an extremely precision-
driven function. The responsiveness and reliable detection qualities of inductive
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proximity sensors ensures consistent alignment and follow-through functions. That
results in less waste and fewer system interruptions.
2. Gear Tooth Detection for Motion Monitoring

Reliable, repeatable results are also critical when monitoring the position of chain
guides or flexors, which drives other components of conveyor system. With SICK’s ASIC
chip technology, a packager can be assured that inductive proximity sensor’s high
repeatability mitigate these variations. This ultimately produces more consistent and
synchronized detection.
3. Valve Position Control during Processing

Most high-hygienic processes such as dairy or yogurt production utilize valves to switch
system feeds from ingredients to cleaning solutions, then back when sanitation process
is complete. Because a well-manufactured inductive proximity sensor is more resistant
to wear than mechanical limit switches, processors have greater assurance of long-
term, consistent valve operation.
4. Foil Seal Detection Inside Plastic Caps

Is a cap’s foil seal there, or isn’t it? With a wider range of foil seal material now being
used, certain colors and textures may be missed by photoelectric sensors. This can
result in false readings. Because an inductive proximity sensor looks merely for the
presence of metal, the seal material’s qualities are irrelevant.
The Inductive Proximity Sensors with ASIC technology are useful in machine
packaging5. Can Position Detection on a Beverage Line
The metal detection qualities of a SICK inductive proximity sensor with advanced ASIC
technology are valuable on packaging lines for beverages and canned products. The
reliability of the ASIC sensor’s programmed range, and the highest repeatability allows
machine builders to incorporate a consistent space between the sensor and its targets.
This prevents potential damage while preserving seamless operation.
B. EDDY CURRENT
Is generally called gap sensor. It generates high-frequency magnetic field by flowing

high-frequency current to a coil inside a sensor head.
Eddy Current Sensors work in magnetic fields. The driver creates an alternating current
in a sensing coil at the end of a probe. The alternating current then creates an
alternating magnetic field which induces smaller currents within the target material,
these currents are referred to as Eddy Currents. The Eddy Currents then create an
opposing magnetic field which resists the field being generated by the probe coil. The
distance between the probe and the target will determine the interaction of the
magnetic field.
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The distance between the probe and the target can then be determined by the change
in the field interaction and an output is produced proportional to the change in the
distance.
Specifications
Weight: 88g
Dimensions: 88.6 mm x 1.0 mm x 13.4 mm
Probe tip material: Polyamide-imide
Sleeve material: Stainless steel 303 or 316
Chemical compatibility: Specified to customer request
Cable length: Up to 3 meters
Temperature minimum: -10° C
Temperature maximum: +100° C
Applications
Eddy Current sensors are a type of position measuring device and are useful in the
following applications
 Automation requiring precise location
 Machine tool monitoring
 Final assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives
 Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating
element,
 Drive shaft monitoring
 Vibration measurements
C. HALL EFFECT
Is a type of sensor which detects the presence and magnitude of a magnetic field using
the Hall effect.
In a Hall sensor, a current is applied to a thin strip of metal. In the presence of a
magnetic field perpendicular to the direction of the current, the charge carriers are
deflected by the Lorentz force, producing a difference in electric potential (voltage)
between the two sides of the strip. This voltage difference (the Hall voltage) is
proportional to the strength of the magnetic field.
Hall effect sensors respond to static (non-changing) magnetic fields. This is a key
difference from inductive sensors, which respond only to changes in fields.
Specifications
 Operating Voltage: 5V DC
 Digital Output 0V or 5V direct interface to a microcontroller with LED indication
 Sensor: Allegro A3144 Hall-effect switch
 LM393 comparator with threshold preset
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 PCB Size: 32x12mm
 Detector type: Magnetic Sensing Hall effect
 Detecting range: 7 mm LM393 based design
Applications
 Position sensing
One of the most common industrial applications of Hall sensors used as binary
switches is in position sensing. Hall sensors are also used in brushless DC motors
to sense the position of the rotor and to switch the transistors in the right
sequence. Another example of a Hall effect position sensor is the sensor used to
detect whether a smartphone's cover is closed. See Galaxy S4 accessories.
 Direct-current (DC) transformers

Hall sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of direct current in
current transformers. In such a case the Hall sensor is mounted in a gap in the
magnetic core around the current conductor. As a result, the DC magnetic flux
can be measured, and the DC current in the conductor can be calculated.
 Automotive fuel-level indicator

Hall sensors are used in some automotive fuel-level indicators. The sensor is
used to detect the position of a floating element within the fuel tank.
 Keyboard switch
Hall effect switches for computer keyboards were developed in the late 1960s by
Everett A. Vorthmann and Joseph T. Maupin at Honeywell. Due to high
manufacturing costs these keyboards were often reserved for high-reliability
applications such as aerospace and military. As mass-production costs have
declined, an increasing number of consumer models have become available.
D. PHOTOELECTRIC
Is a device used to determine the distance, absence, or presence of an object by using

a light transmitter, often infrared, and a photoelectric receiver.
Photoelectric Sensors detect objects, changes in surface conditions, and other items
through a variety of optical properties.
A Photoelectric Sensor consists primarily of an Emitter for emitting light and a Receiver
for receiving light. When emitted light is interrupted or reflected by the sensing object,
it changes the amount of light that arrives at the Receiver. The Receiver detects this
change and converts it to an electrical output. The light source for the majority of
Photoelectric Sensors is infrared or visible light (generally red, or green/blue for
identifying colors).
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Specifications
Sensing distance 20 m 15 m 0.1 to 4 m 0 to 500
(with E39- mm
R1S) (with E39-
R1S)
Spot diameter —
(reference
value)
Standard sensing object Opaque: 7 mm dia.min. Opaque: 75 mm dia.min.
Differential travel —
Directional angle 2° min.
Light source Red LED (624 Infrared LED Red LED (624 nm)
(wavelength) nm) (850 nm)
Power supply voltage 10 to 30 VDC (include voltage ripple of 10%(p-p) max.)
Current consumption 40 mA max. 25 mA max.
(Emitter 25 mA max. Receiver 15
mA max.)
Control output NPN/PNP (open collector)
Load current: 100 mA max. (Residual voltage: 3 V max.),
Load power supply voltage:
30 VDC max.
Operation mode Light-ON/Dark-ON selectable by wiring
Indicator Operation indicator (orange)
Stability indicator (green)
Power indicator (green): only Emitter of Through-beam
Protection circuits Power supply reverse polarity protection, Output short-circuit
protection, and
Output reverse polarity protection
Response time 0.5 ms
Sensitivity adjustment One-turn adjuster
Ambient illumination Incandescent lamp: 3,000 lx max./Sunlight: 10,000 lx max.
(Receiver side)
Ambient temperature Operating: -25 to 55°C/ Storage: -40 to 70°C (with no icing
range or condensation)
Ambient humidity range Operating: 35 to 85%/Storage: 35 to 95% (with no
condensation)
Insulation resistance 20 MΩ min. at 500 VDC
Dielectric strength 1,000VAC at 50/60 Hz for 1 min. between current-carrying
parts and case
Vibration resistance Destruction: 10 to 55 Hz, 1.5 mm double amplitude for 2
hours each in X, Y and Z
directions
Shock resistance Destruction: 500 m/s2 3 times each in X, Y and Z directions
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Degree of protection IEC: IP67, DIN 40050-9: IP69K *
Weight Pre-wired E3FA: Approx. 110 g/Approx. 50 E3FA: Approx. 60
(packed cable g, g/Approx. 50 g,
state/ (2M) respectively, E3FB: Approx. 95
only E3FB: Approx. 175 g/Approx. 65 g/Approx. 65 g
sensor) g,
respectively
Connector E3FA: Approx. 30 g/Approx. 10 g, E3FA: Approx. 20
respectively, g/Approx. 10 g,
E3FB: Approx. 85 g/Approx. 20 g, E3FB: Approx. 50
respectively g/Approx. 20 g
Material Case E3FA: ABS, E3FB: Nickel-brass
Lens and PMMA
Display
Adjuster POM
Nut E3FA: POM, E3FB: Nickel-brass
Accessories Instruction sheet Instruction sheet
M18 nuts (4 pcs) M18 nuts (2 pcs)
Applications
The full applications list for photoelectric sensors is too long to list off in one article, so
we’ve chosen seven fitting examples.
 Checking objects on production lines or conveyors:

Photoelectric sensors can detect items’ sizes to spot any errors, or simply spot
their absence, as well as picking up problems like misaligned caps on bottles.
They are widely used in the food and pharmaceutical industries, and in
packaging plants.
 Counting small objects:

In some production environments, small items will fall from a vibrating conveyor
belt into a packaging system or bag – and a photoelectric sensor can count
them.
 Detecting colors:
By scanning independently in red, green and blue light, with applications in
multiple processes in the printing and packaging sectors.
 Monitoring bigger areas for objects with light grids

Instead of using multiple sensors, a ‘light grid’ uses parallel beams of light to
cover a two-dimensional area.
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 Measuring distance
With multiple sensors, a triangulation process compares reflected laser beams
and can be used to accurately determine position and distance, for example, to
check the location of manufacturing systems, or in automated transport
applications.
 Logistics and materials handling

Automated warehouses with robotic pickers or trucks rely on position and object
sensing to operate efficiently and safely.
 Automatic doors
In buildings or public transport, photoelectric sensors detect when someone is
standing by a door.
E. CAPACITANCE
Are non-contact devices that can detect the presence or absence of virtually any object
regardless of material.
A capacitive sensor acts like a simple capacitor. A metal plate in the sensing face of the
sensor is electrically connected to an internal oscillator circuit and the target to be
sensed acts as the second plate of the capacitor. Unlike an inductive sensor that
produces an electromagnetic field a capacitive sensor produces an electrostatic field.
The external capacitance between the target and the internal sensor plate forms a part
of the feedback capacitance in the oscillator circuit. As the target approaches the
sensors face the oscillations increase until they reach a threshold level and activate the
output.
Specifications
 resolutions range from 0.1 nm (0.004 pin) to 50 nm (2 pin)
 Operating ranges are normally less than 3 mm (1/8 inch)
Applications
Capacitive sensing technology is often used in other sensing technologies such as:
 Flow
 Pressure
 Liquid level
 spacing
 Thickness
 Ice detection
 Shaft angle or linear position
 Dimmer switches
 Key switches
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 x-y tablet
 Accelerometers
7. LIGHT SENSORS
A. PHOTORESISTORS, PHOTODIODES, PHOTO TRANSISTORS,

PHOTO CONDUCTORS
PHOTORESISTORS
Are electronic components that are used to detect light & change the operation of a
circuit dependent upon the light levels.
When light falls on the photosensitive material (or on the Photoresistor), the valence
electrons absorb the light energy and break free from the nucleus to become free
electrons. These electrons lead to flow of current when an external force like an electric
field is applied.
Specifications
PARAMETER EXAMPLE FIGURES
Max power dissipation 200mW
Max voltage @ 0 lux 200V
Peak wavelength 600nm
Min. resistance @ 10lux 1.8kΩ
Max. resistance @ 10lux 4.5kΩ
Typ. resistance @ 100lux 0.7kΩ
Dark resistance after 1 sec 0.03MΩ
Dark resistance after 5 sec 0.25MΩ
Applications
 Most common application in the circuits of automatic street lights, and other
consumer items like light meter, light sensor
 Photoresistors are found in many different applications and can be seen in many
different electronic circuit designs. They have a very simple structure and they
are low cost and rugged devices. They are widely used in many different items of
electronic equipment and circuit designs including photographic light meters, fire
or smoke alarms as well as burglar alarms, and they also find uses as lighting
controls for street lamps.
 Extrinsic photoresistors are provide sensitivity for longer wavelengths and as a

result they are popular in various electronic circuit designs as info-red
photodetectors. Photoresistors can also be used to detect nuclear radiation
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PHOTODIODE
is a semiconductor p-n junction device that converts light into an electrical current. The
current is generated when photons are absorbed in the photodiode.
A photodiode is a PIN structure or p–n junction. When a photon of sufficient energy
strikes the diode, it creates an electron–hole pair. This mechanism is also known as the
inner photoelectric effect. If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, or
one diffusion length away from it, these carriers are swept from the junction by the
built-in electric field of the depletion region. Thus, holes move toward the anode, and
electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced. The total current
through the photodiode is the sum of the dark current (current that is generated in the
absence of light) and the photocurrent, so the dark current must be minimized to
maximize the sensitivity of the device
To first order, for a given spectral distribution, the photocurrent is linearly proportional
to the irradiance
Specifications
 Wavelength Sensitivity (λP): 940nm
 Open Circuit Voltage: 0.39V
 Reverse breakdown voltage: 32V
 Reverse Light current: 40μA
 Reverse Dark current: 5nA
 Rise Time/ Fall Time: 45/45nS
 View Angle: 80 deg
 Package: 5mm
Applications
 Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric isolation. When two
isolated circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers are used to couple the
circuit optically. Optocouplers are faster compared to conventional devices.
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
 Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in
instruments that analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also
used in blood gas monitors.
 Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
 Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in the object detection circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
 Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light
in science and industry.
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 Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diode and
hence are frequently used for lighting regulation and optical communication.
PHOTOTRANSISTORS
Are a form of bipolar transistor that is sensitive to light - having the gain of a transistor
they are much more sensitive than photodiodes.
The working principle of a phototransistor is similar to a photodiode including an
amplifying transistor. The light falls on the base terminal of a phototransistor then it will
induce a little current then the current amplified through the action of a normal
transistor, which results in an extensively large. Generally, as compared with a related
photodiode, a phototransistor generates 50 – 100 times of a photodiode current.
The phototransistor is fabricated with a semiconductor material. Once the light falls on
the material then the charge carriers like holes or electrons of the semiconductor
material can cause the current to supply within the base area. The base region of this
can be used for transistor biasing.
The light penetrates the base terminal of the transistor to produce the pairs of electron-
hole in the reverse biasing. The flow of electrons in the pressure of the electric field can
cause the current within the base region. This current can be injected with the electrons
within the emitter area. The main disadvantage of this transistor is the low-
frequency response.
Specifications
 Peak wavelength: 940 nm
 Package: Round 5 mm (T-1 3/4)
 Lens type: dark plastic to cut visible light
 Viewing angle: 20 degrees
 Voltage - Collector Emitter Breakdown (Max): 30 V
 Current - Collector (Ic) (Max): 3.12 mA
 Current - Dark (Id) (Max): 100 nA
 Power - Max: 100 mW
Applications
Often the applications are where a light beam is interrupted, but sometimes they can
be used for light level detection.
 Encoders where a rotating disc with light and dark stripes rotates - this gives
speed and direction or rotation.
 Card readers.
 Security systems
 Infra-red detectors.
 Lighting control.
 Opto-couplers
 Counting systems - a light or IR beam is interrupted for each item counted.
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PHOTOCONDUCTORS
Are a type of photodetectors which are based on photoconductive semiconductor
materials. Here, the absorption of incident light creates non-equilibrium electrical
carriers, and that reduces the electrical resistance across two electrodes.
When a photoconductive material is connected as part of a circuit, it functions as a
resistor whose resistance depends on the light intensity. In this context, the material is
called a photoresistor (also called light-dependent resistor or photoconductor). The
most common application of photoresistors is as photodetectors, i.e., devices that
measure light intensity.
Specifications
 Dimensions are in inches (1 inch = 25.4 mm).
 Pin diameters are 0.018 ± 0.002" unless otherwise specified.
 Tolerances
 General: 0.XX ±0.01" 0.XXX ±0.005"
 Chip Centering: ±0.010"
 Dimension ‘A’: ±0.015"
Applications
• Pulse Detectors
• Optical Communications
• Bar Code Readers
• Optical Remote Control
• Medical Equipment
• High Speed Photometry
B: CHARGE-COUPLED DIODE
Is an integrated circuit containing an array of linked, or coupled capacitors.
The photoelectric light sensor of a CCD is an isolated cable made of a semiconductor
surrounded by ring electrodes. The low amount of free charge carriers, plus the finite
polarization of the insulator and the semiconductor, only weakly disturb the electric field
generated by the electrodes. Free carriers in the semiconductor cannot pass the
insulator: they are said to be confined transversely. The ring-shaped electrodes are
used to produce a sine-curve-shaped potential along the cable. Electrons drift to the
potential hills, and holes drift to the valleys: they are said to be confined longitudinally.
An alternating electric field on the electrodes makes the valleys and hills move along
the cable, carrying the charge carriers with them.
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8. SMART MATERIAL SENSORS
A. OPTICAL FIBER (AS STRAIN SENSOR)
To create the actual strain sensor, the optical fiber is inscribed during production with a
so-called Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG). This is basically a pattern of material
interferences, which reflects the light differently from the rest of the fiber. For better
understanding, you can visualize the fiber as a cylindrical length of transparent material,
with a number of thin slices in it. When the light from the laser hits this pattern, certain
wavelengths are reflected, while others pass through.
The material interferences—the “slices” —are placed at certain intervals. When the fiber
is stretched or compressed—and is therefore subjected to positive or negative strain—
these intervals change. When the fiber is stretched, it lengthens and the spaces get
bigger and vice versa.
Not only does the reflected light take a little longer or shorter to travel back when the
FBG is under strain, but the wavelength that is reflected also changes. In scientific
terms, the FBG has a certain refractive index. The refractive index of a material
describes how much light is bent or refracted when passing through the material. When
the grating changes shape due to strain, its refractive index changes as well.
Specifications
 Strain Relief Region Length 20 150 - 175 cm
 Sensor Diameter 155 195 µm
 Maximum Operating Temperature Sensing Region 220 200 °C
 Minimum Operating Temperature Sensing Region -40 -40 °C
Applications
 Used to measure the strain data accurately
B. OPTICAL FIBER (AS LEVEL SENSOR)
Working principle
A liquid-level sensor, consisting of three optical fibers, is described. A light is projected
onto an oil surface through a transmitting fiber. A receiving fiber picks up the light
reflected from the oil surface. A reference fiber transmits the light from a light-emitting
diode back and forth along the same path as that of the transmitting fiber and the
receiving fiber. Division is accomplished by using the reflected signal and the reference
signal, so it becomes possible to eliminate apparent distance variations that are due to
the variations in light intensity, which may be caused by external forces and
temperature changes
Specification
The distance range is 100 mm.
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Applications
Used primarily in the manufacturing and automotive industries, but they can be found
in many household appliances as well, such as ice makers in refrigerators.
C. OPTICAL FIBER (AS FORCE SENSOR)
Force sensor is a type of transducer, specifically a force transducer. It converts an input

mechanical force such as load, weight, tension, compression or pressure into another
physical variable
Fiber Optic Force Sensors are all based on the latest White Light Polarization technology
(WLPI). Their measuring method is based on optical interferometry, the phase
modulation of light, the most sensitive method for fiber optic sensing.
Specifications
 Actuation force as low as 0.2N
 Sensitivity ranges up to 20N
 Cost effective
 Ultra-thin
 Life: 10 million
 Simple and easy to integrate
 Operating temperature: -40ºC to +85ºC
 Non actuated Resistance: 10M Ω
 Device rise time: < 3 Micro second
 Bend Resistance Range: 100K to 1K Ohms (depending on force)
Applications
 Robotics
 Detect motion or position
 Medical Devices
 Find center of force
 Detect pressure
 Detect liquid blockage
D. OPTICAL FIBER (AS TEMPERATURE SENSOR)
Is a device made of optical fiber that measures the temperature of its environment and
converts the input data into electronic data to record, monitor, or signal temperature
change
Working principle
Fiber-optic temperature sensors are based on the light absorption/ transmission
properties of gallium arsenide (GaAs). The effects of temperature variations on this
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semiconducting crystal are well known and predictable. At the measurement end of the
fiber-optic temperature sensor (see Figure 1) is a GaAs crystal. As the crystal’s
temperature increases, its transmission spectrum (i.e., the light that is not absorbed)
shifts to higher wavelengths. At any given temperature, transmission jumps from
essentially 0% to 100% at a specific wavelength. This jump is called the absorption
shift (see Figure 2). The relationship between the temperature and the specific
wavelength at which the absorption shift takes place is very predictable.
Specifications
 Measurement range. 20°C to 45°C. -40°C to 250°C. -40°C to 120°C.
 Technology. WLPI. OEM. SCBG (gaAs)
 Resolution. 0.01°C. 0.05°C. 0.1°C. <35 dB below NFT.
 Accuracy. ±0.15°C. ±1.0°C. ±0.3°C. ±0.8°C. ±1.5°C.
Applications
 Motors
There are many different aspects of motors and most of these require
temperature measurement to ensure the motor itself does not overheat.
 Surface plates
Ring terminal temperature sensors are often used on surface plates as they can
be mounted onto a flat surface and measure temperature effectively.
 Home appliances
Kettles, toasters, washing machines, dishwashers and coffee machines will all
contain temperature sensors.
 Computers
Within computers there are temperature sensors to ensure the system does not
overheat
 Industrial equipment
Temperature sensors used within these applications will need to be robust as the
environment can be very demanding.
 Warming Electrical Radiators
NTC thermistors are used to control the heat on electric radiators.
 Exhaust Gas Monitoring on Motorsport Vehicles
Motorsport temperature sensors need to be highly reliable and durable to ensure
performance is not compromised in this harsh environment.
 Food Production
3D printed chocolates – temperature sensors are used to monitor the
temperature of the melted chocolate for 3D printing.
 Alcohol breathalyzer
Thermistors are used within alcohol breathalyzers to measure the temperature of
the subject's breath.
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E. PIEZOELECTRIC (AS STRAIN SENSOR)
Are versatile tools for the measurement of various processes.
Piezoelectric sensors comprise two crystal disks with an electrode foil mounted in
between. When applying strain, this results in an electrical charge that can be
measured using a charge amplifier. The charge is proportional to the applied strain.
Specifications
Piezoelectric force sensors should display a 5-volt full display signal. Piezoelectric force
sensors should have an operating temperature range from -50 to 350 ºC and should
have sensitivity of approximately 105 pC/N. Piezoelectric pressure sensors should have
rise-time less than 2.0 micro seconds.
Applications
 They are used for quality assurance, process control, and for research and
development in many industries.
 Industrial sensing applications
F. PIEZOELECTRIC (AS FORCE SENSOR)
The piezoelectric force sensor, also known as a load washer or measurement washer, is
the classic piezoelectric measurement element for the measurement of force along a
single axis. It describes either a compression or tensile force Fz or a shear force Fx,y.
Working principle
Piezoelectric sensors comprise two crystal disks with an electrode foil mounted in
between. When applying strain, this results in an electrical charge that can be
measured using a charge amplifier. The charge is proportional to the applied strain.
Specifications
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Applications
Piezoelectric force sensors are used in various applications, for example
 In mounting technology
 In spotwelding or in presses
 During the measurement of impact resistance
 Cutting forces and forming forces or in force plates
 Weigh In Motion systems
 In crash-test setups.
G. PIEZOELECTRIC (AS ACCELEROMETER)
Is an accelerometer that employs the piezoelectric effect of certain materials to

measure dynamic changes in mechanical variables (e.g., acceleration, vibration, and
mechanical shock).
A piezoelectric accelerometer consists of a mass attached to a piezoelectric crystal
which is mounted on a case. When the accelerometer body is subjected to vibration,
the mass on the crystal remains undisturbed in space due to inertia. As a result, the
mass compresses and stretches the piezoelectric crystal. This force is proportional to
acceleration in accordance with Newton’s second law, F = ma, and generates a charge.
The charge output is then converted into low impedance voltage output with the help of
electronics
Specifications
Resonance > 35,000 Hz
frequency
Frequency range fc* to 10,000 Hz ±1 Db
Charge sensitivity 1.5 pC/ (m/s2) ±20%
Capacitance 950 pF
Maximum allowable 20,000 m/s2
acceleration
Operating -30 to ＋150 °C
temperature range
Cable connection Sidewise 10-32 threaded
connector
Weight 9g
Case material Aluminum (A2017B)
Applications
Major applications of piezoelectric accelerometers include:
 Engine testing - Combustion and dynamic stressing
 Ballistics - Combustion, explosion, and detonation
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 Industrial/factory - Machining systems, metal cutting, and machine health
monitoring
 Original equipment manufacturer - Transportation systems, rockets,
machine tools, engines, flexible structures, and shock/vibration testers
 Engineering - Dynamic response testing, shock and vibration isolation, auto
chassis structural testing, structural analysis, reactors, control systems and
materials evaluation
 Aerospace - Ejection systems, rocketry, landing gear hydraulics, shock tube
instrumentation, wind tunnel and modal testing.
H. MAGNETOSTRICTIVE (AS FORCE SENSORS)
The magnetostriction of ferromagnetic materials manifests itself in shape and

volume changes during magnetization and, is the reason for elastomechanical
stressing of a magnetic body leading to reversible changes of the
magnetization curves. In other words: The loading
applied on the magnetoelastic element of a force transducer modifies the
properties of its magnetic circuit.
Permeability of the material between holes (μX) does not vary because
of the holes shielding effect, but it is variable on the force direction (μY).
Permeability decreases along the applied direction of the compression force,
magnetic flux increases in the transverse plane and therefore increases the
induced voltage in secondary winding. A reverse phenomenon occurs when
applying tensile force.
Specifications
 Elongation 0.1% 0.2 % 5%
 Energy density 2.5 kJ/m³ 20 J/m³ 1 J/m³ *
 Bandwidth 100 kHz 10 kHz 0.5 kHz
 Hysteresis 10% 2% 30%
 Costs as reference 200 $ / cm³ 400 $ / cm³ 200 $ / cm³
Applications
Magnetostrictive transducers are used for position measurement. The sensors are
especially used to measure the stroke of hydraulic cylinders. Their cylindrical design
predestines magnetostrictive transducers for industrial application and the
installation in hydraulic cylinders. Magnetostrictive hydraulic sensors are used in
packing machines, plastic machines, steel rolls or in beverage bottling plants.
I. MAGNETOSTRICTIVE (AS TORQUE SENSOR)
Working principle
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A magnetostrictive torque sensor which can be installed in an automobile transmission
to measure torque has been developed. The sensor shaft consists of two grooved
sections. An ac bridge circuit formed by two coils surrounding the grooved sections and
two fixed resistors is used to detect torque.
Specifications
Applications
The applications of a torque sensor in the powertrain are numerous both for engine
and driveline control as well as improved diagnostics capabilities. Access to a reliable
torque signal opens up for a completely new approach to powertrain control improving
drive ability and performance of the vehicle throughout its lifetime.
9. MICRO- AND NANOSENSORS
A. MICRO CCD IMAGE SENSOR
Are complex electronic components that consist of multiple arrays of light sensitive
semiconductor elements. Each element represents a photo detector, a pixel that
converts incoming photons into electrons.
A charge-coupled device (CCD) image sensor has an array of capacitors, each carrying
an electric charge corresponding to the light intensity of a pixel. A control circuit causes
each capacitor to transfer its contents to its neighbor, and the last capacitor in the array
dumps its charge into a charge amplifier.
By operating the matrix of switches, the pixel signals can be accessed directly and
sequentially, and at a much higher speed than a CCD sensor. Having an amplifier for
each pixel also gives another advantage: it reduces the noise that occurs when reading
the electrical signals converted from captured light
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Specifications
Applications
 Used in various microscopes and imaging systems, one of the big
application areas is the life science and medical fields
 Some specific examples include the ability to take images of cells with
contrasting enhancements applied, the ability to collect image samples which
have been doped with fluorophores (which cause the sample to fluoresce), and it
is used in advanced X-ray tomography systems to image bone structures
and soft tissue samples.
B. FIBERSCOPE
Is a flexible optical fiber bundle with an eyepiece on one end and a lens on the other
that is used to examine and inspect small, difficult-to-reach places such as the insides
of machines, locks, and the human body.
In fiberscopes (also called flexible borescopes) the transmission of images and light
takes place via image bundles. Image bundles consist of individual fibers which have
the same relative position to each other at the input and output. Each fiber transmits a
pixel from the objective to the ocular. The quality of the image depends on the number
of pixels and the size of each individual fiber. The image bundle systems ensure the
flexibility and movability of the probe.
Specifications
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Display 2.4"
Display resolution 320 x 240 Pixel
Lens resolution 640 x 480 Pixel
White balance automatic
Luminous exposure automatic
Light source 4 LEDs (white)
Power Supply 4 x 1.5 AA batteries
Power consumption max. 400 mA
Surrounding / Operation temperature 0 ... 45 °C
Gross length of device 117 cm ±2
Length of cable 100 cm ±2
Minimum radius after bending cable 4.5 cm
Diameter of camera head 10 mm
Field/angle of vision 54 °
Focus for shorter distance 3 ... 6 cm
Weight without additional equipment approx. 562 g
Protection Class IP 67
Diameter of the cable 7 mm
Applications
Fiberscopes are used in the medical field as a tool to help doctors and surgeons
examine problems in a patient’s body without having to make large incisions. This
procedure is called an endoscopy. Doctors use this when they suspect that a patient’s
organ is infected, damaged, or cancerous. There are numerous types based on the
area of the body being examined. They include:
 Arthroscopy – Joints
 Bronchoscopy – Lungs
 Colonoscopy – Colon
 Cystoscopy – Bladder
 Enteroscopy – Small Intestine
 Hysteroscopy – Uterus
 Laparoscopy – Abdomen/Pelvis
 Laryngoscopy – Larynx (voice box)
 Mediastinoscopy – Area between lungs
 Upper Gastrointestinal Endoscopy – Esophagus and upper intestinal tract
Although any medical technique has its potential risks, using a fiberscope for endoscopy
has a very low risk of causing infection and blood loss.
Other applications
 Although the fiberscope is mainly used for medical purposes, it is also used for
other purposes. Locksmiths use them to check the position of pins; technicians
and inspectors use them to look at the inside of machines; they can be used
to check beneath doors or otherwise perform surveillance.
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C. MICRO-ULTRASONIC SENSOR
This is the type of ultrasonic sensor that is very small and is used to detect objects at
higher distance with clear visibility.
Ultrasonic sensors work by emitting sound waves at a frequency too high for humans to
hear. They then wait for the sound to be reflected back, calculating distance based on
the time required. This is similar to how radar measures the time it takes a radio wave
to return after hitting an object.
Specifications
# Nature Data
1 Resonant Frequency 40 kHz
2 Input Voltage 120 V
3 S.P.L. ≥ 100dB
4 Sensitivity ≥-60dB
5 Operating temperature -40℃ to 80℃
6 Size 10mm
Applications
 industrial automation technology
 ultrasonic dual sheet control systems
 Label sensors that use special teach-in methods to be able to detect even critical
labels
 splices at high transport speeds
 ultrasonic proximity switches with switching frequencies of up to 250 Hz.
D. MICRO-TACTILE SENSOR
Is very small tactile sensor that measures information arising from physical interaction
with its environment.
The tactile sensors are developed to provide tactile sensing abilities for tele-operational
manipulators and intelligent robots. Tactile sensors can identify a normal force applied
to the tactile pixels for mesmerizing the force control and the tactile images and to
generate object recognition. However, to obtain tactile images and normal forces, the
information of tangential is critical for force control and slide prevention, which is
mesmerizing to task success – thus the three-dimensional tactile sensors are required.
Specifications
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Output sensitivity: 0.5-1.0mV/V(3-5kg) 1.0-1.5mV/V(10-30kg)
Input resistance: 350±10Ω
Output resistance: 350±3Ω
Insulation resistance: ≥2000MQ/100VDC
Excitation voltage: 5V
Maximum excitation voltage: 12V
Temperature compensation range: -10~60°C
Operating temperature range: -20~80°C
Protection level: P66
Cable size: 2*3000mm
Applications
 Robotic skin
 artificial skin
 microsurgical
 endoscopic tools
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ASSIGNMENT 2
Below are the typical factors to be considered in selecting a suitable sensor.
a. Environment
We must be aware of environmental conditions while selecting a sensor. Numerous
sensors can be affected by the environmental conditions (such as temperature
variation, gas, humidity, chemicals, etc.)
b. Flexibility
While selecting a sensor, we need to check if it can provide flexibility, like features that
can adapt to changing the products.
c. The field of view and range

The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For
example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of
25-225 °C.
d. Accuracy and Precision
Precision and Accuracy does not mean the same thing, though they are often
related. Accuracy is the quality or state of being correct or while the precision ability of
the devices to notice small changes (As an example, a temperature sensor that
measures the normal body as 35.999°C has high precision but low accuracy.) The
Accuracy and precision and one of a given product should be appropriate. Too high
precision can give a wrong indication that the value is too accurate. Similarly, a sensor
with good accuracy will be expensive. The error can affect both precision and accuracy.
e. repeatability and resolution

Repeatability specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full
range output:
[ maxⅈmum−minimum ]
Repeatability = x 100 %
Full Range
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f. Responsiveness in the target-domain
Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of
the measurand. It is always specified with an indication of input step and the output
range for which the response time is defined.
g. power consumption
The amount of power which will be used must be taken into account to ensure that the
power consumption conditions are met. Mostly it is advised to use the sensors with low
power consumption to avoid heating effect and maximum requirement of power during
system operation.
h. hardware reliability
This is a statement of the ability of hardware to perform its functions for some period of
time. The sensor being selected must have high ability to perform its function over a
long period of time.
i. size
The size of a sensor must be considered during selection based on the specific
application required for that sensor. Some places require very small sized sensors to be
fixed into the system. The size must be portable based on the system requirement.
j. Resolution
Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal. Resolution can be expressed either as a proportion of the
full-scale reading or in absolute terms.
Example: if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up to 20 mm and it provides an

output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the sensor device is 0.2
mm.
Before selecting a sensor, you must identify the smallest change of input parameter
which will be measured by your system.
k. Sensitivity
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This is the ratio of change in output to a unit change of the input. For example, a
general-purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41 μV/°C.Before selecting a
sensor, you must identify the sensitivity required by the system that is to be designed.
l. Zero offset
This is a non-zero value output for no input
m. Linearity
This is a percentage of deviation from the best-fit linear calibration curve
n. Zero Drift
This is the departure of output from zero value over a period of time for no input
o. Bandwidth
You must identify the Frequency at which the output magnitude drops by 3 dB
p. Resonance
This is the frequency at which the output magnitude peak occurs
q. Operating temperature
The range in which the sensor performs as specified
r. Deadband
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which
there is no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.
s. Signal-to-noise ratio
This is the ratio between the magnitudes of the signal and the noise at the output.
Unfortunately, the world is full of non-ideal realities in sensors. Electrical noise is always
present, often more so on production floors, and can cause erroneous readings. Signal
conditioners and other protection circuits can provide some protection from these
effects before conversion. Sometimes these are useful, but other times it is possible or
preferred to process the signals after conversion, so the use of conditioners must be
evaluated during the instrumentation design process.
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ASSIGNMENT 3: ACTUATORS
Below are the descriptions of the actuators based on the principal of operation,
application and specifications.
1. ELECTRICAL ACTUATOR
A. DIODES
Is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one direction

(asymmetric conductance)
The way that a diode operates can be difficult to understand as it involves fairly
advanced quantum mechanics. However, at the simplest level the operation of a diode
can be understood by looking at the flow of positive charges (or "holes") and the
negative charges (the electrons). Technically, a semiconductor diode is referred to as a
p-n junction. These p-n junctions are important in the operation of a photovoltaic cell as
well. Having the diode work properly requires a process known as doping.
Semiconductors can be doped with materials so that they have an excess of easily
displaced electrons - generally referred to as a negative or n-type region. As well, they
can be doped with elements that create an excess of holes that easily absorb these
electrons - generally referred to as a positive or p-type region. The negative and
positive regions of the diode are also the component's cathode and anode respectively
The differences between these two materials and their interactions over very short
distances (less than a millimeter) result in a diode when the two types are joined.
Joining these two types creates the p-n junction, and the region between the two sides
is called the depletion region, as electrons from the n-type region diffuse and fill some
of the holes in the p-type region. This creates negative ions in the p-type region and
leaves behind positive ions in the n-type region. This responds to electric fields
differently depending on the direction of the electric field. This leads to useful electronic
behaviour depending on which way the voltage (or electric field) is applied, this is called
biasing.
Specifications
CHARACTERISTIC TYPICAL UNIT DETAILS
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VALUE
Max DC Blocking Voltage, Vr 70 V
Max forward continuous current, 15 mA
Ifm
Reverse breakdown voltage, 70 V @ Reverse current of
V(BR)R 10µA
Reverse leakage current, IR 200 µA At VR=50V
Forward voltage drop, VF 0.41 V at IF = 1.0 mA
1.00 IF=15mA
Junction capacitance, Cj 2.0 pF VR = 0V, f=1MHz
Reverse recovery time, trr 1 nS
Applications
We have some of the important Applications of Diodes. These include Rectifiers,
Clippers, Clampers, Voltage Multipliers, Logic Gates, Solar Panels, Reverse Polarity
Protection and Voltage Spike Suppression.
B. THYRISTOR
Is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating P- and N-type

materials. It acts exclusively as a bistable switch, conducting when the gate receives a
current trigger, and continuing to conduct until the voltage across the device is
reversed biased, or until the voltage is removed (by some other means).
A Thyristor acts like a diode. It has two layers of semiconductors namely p-type and n-
type sandwiched together to form a junction. The anode is connected to the outer p-
layer, cathode to the outer n-layer and gate to the internal p-layer. It has 3 junctions
namely J1, J2, J3 as shown in the Figure 2 below.
When the anode is at positive potential with respect to cathode, no voltage is applied to
the gate. The junctions J1, J3 is forward biased and J2 is reverse biased. So, no
conduction takes place here.
Now, when the positive potential is increased beyond the breakdown voltage,
breakdown of junction J2 takes place and it starts conducting. Once the breakdown has
occurred, it continues to conduct irrespective of the gate voltage, until the potential at
the anode is removed or current through the device is made less than the holding
current.
Now when a positive potential is applied at the gate terminal with respect to cathode,
the breakdown of junction J2 takes place. To switch on the Thyristor quickly, an
appropriate potential value has to be selected.
The gate acts as a controlling electrode. When a small voltage known as gate pulse is
applied to its gate, the device is triggered into conduction state. This continues until the
voltage across the device is reversed or removed.
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The gate trigger current varies inversely with the gate voltage and a minimum gate
charge is required to trigger it. Thus, the switching of Thyristors can be controlled
through its gate pulse.
Specifications
 Solid State Thyristor – Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
 Forward Voltage: 100V
 On-State Current: 1.6A (RMS)
 Peak Surge current: 15A max
 Gate Voltage: 6V
 Gate threshold current: 200uA
Applications
 Mainly used in variable speed motor drives.
 Used in controlling high power electrical application.
 Used mainly in AC motors, lights, welding machines etc.
 Used in fault current limiter and circuit breaker.
 Fast switching speed and low conduction
 Used as light dimmers in television, movie theatres.
 Used in photography for flashes.
 Can be used in burglar alarms.
 Used in electric fan speed control.
 Used in car ignition switches
C. BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR
Is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and electron holes as charge carriers.
For an NPN transistor, it consists of a layer of P-doped semiconductor between two
layers of N-doped material, where electrons are passed from the emitter to the collector
instead. The emitter then “emits” electrons into the base, with the base controlling the
no. of electrons the emitter emits. The emitted electrons are finally collected by the
collector and sent to the following part of a circuit.
Whereas for a PNP transistor, it consists of a layer of N-doped semiconductor between
two layers of P-doped material, where the base current entering into the collector is
amplified. Essentially, current flow is still controlled by the base but flows in the
opposite direction. Additionally, instead of emitting electrons, the emitter in a PNP emits
“holes” (a conceptual absence of electrons), which are then collected by the collector.
Specifications
 The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) has small signal current gain, α (hfb).
 Maximum collector current Ic (max).
 Maximum collector to emitter voltage, VCE (max).
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 Collector to emitter breakdown voltage, BVCBO.
 Collector cut off current, ICEO.
 Maximum collector dissipation, PD.
 D.C. current gain β (hFE).
 Collector saturation voltage, VCE (sat).
 Collector to emitter cut off voltage, VCEO.
 Base emitter saturation voltage, VBE (sat).
 Collector base cut off current, ICBO.
Applications
The applications of the bipolar junction transistor are as follows:
1) These are the transistors that are preferred in the logic circuits.
2) It is used in the circuits of amplification.
3) These are preferred in the oscillation circuits.
4) These are preferred in the multi-vibrator circuits.
5) In the clipping circuits, these are preferred for wave shaping circuits.
6) It used in the circuits of the timer and the circuits of the time delay.
7) These are used in the circuits of switching.
8) Used in the circuits of detector or as demodulation.
D. TRIACS
Is a three terminal electronic component that conducts current in either direction when
triggered.
The TRIAC is a semiconductor switch and the switch is turned ON by using the
triggering pin. Once the semiconductor switch is turned ON, then the current drops
lower than the hold-on value.
By delaying the turn-on point for some time after the voltage crosses zero volts – the
zero-cross point – the voltage can be adjusted although it is no longer sinusoidal.
Specifications
SPEC TRIAC
SPECIFICATION /
PARAMETER
DETAILS
VDRM / Repetitive peak off- This parameter is the maximum peak voltage that
VRRM state voltage is allowed across the TRIAC. This parameter should
not be exceeded even instantaneously otherwise
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the device may fail. It is also always good to leave
sufficient margin to allow for transients. This
parameter is specified for conditions up to the
maximum junction temperature. Also leakage
currents (IDRM / IRRM) are also normally defined
under this datasheet specification.
IT(RMS) RMS on-state current This Triac specification is the maximum allowed
RMS current through the device. It is specified for a
given temperature. Different datasheet
specifications may quote ambient temperature, Ta,
case temperature, Tc, or even the lead
temperature, Tl. The method used for quoting the
temperature normally depends upon the type of
case used for the triac.
dI/dt Maximum rise of on- There is a maximum rate of rise specification for
state current the on-state current during turn on for the triac. If
this rate is exceeded then the device can be
damaged.
I2t Overcurrent protection The I2t parameter indicates the fuse that is required
for protection of the triac and its circuit. It is
typically for the 10ms overcurrent duration, but this
will be stated in the datasheet.
IT(AV) Average on-state This parameter is different to the RMS current as it
current defines the average current rather then the RMS.
RMS will give the true heating effect of the current.
ITSM Non-repetitive surge As the name implies this datasheet parameter for
on-state current thyristors defines the maximum peak current in the
device under pulse conditions. It is necessary to
look at the exact conditions for the manufacturer in
question, but it is often defined for a half sine
wave. The duration is specified for 50 Hz (10ms
duration) and 60Hz (8.3ms duration). It is required
because a surge current exceeding the maximum
may cause failure of the device.
IGT Gate trigger current This parameter is the current required in the triac
gate circuit to enables the triac to be triggered and
to latch in its on-state provided there is sufficient
anode cathode current to maintain the current flow.
IGM Peak gate current This specification parameter is the maximum level
of gate current for the triac.
VGT Gate trigger voltage This specification reflects the voltage that needs to
be applied to the Triac gate to enable the gate
trigger current to be reached
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Applications
TRIACs are used in numerous applications such as light dimmers, speed controls for
electric fans and other electric motors, and in the modern computerized control circuits
of numerous household small and major appliances. They can be used both in AC and
DC circuits however the original design was to replace the utilization of two SCRs in AC
circuits. There are two families of TRIACs, which are mainly used for application
purposes, they are BT136, BT139.
E. DIACS
Is a bi-directional semiconductor switch that can be turned on in both forward and

reverse polarities above a certain voltage: it is often used to provide defined switching
for a triac.
DIAC circuits use the fact that a DIAC only conducts current only after a certain
breakdown voltage has been exceeded. The actual breakdown voltage will depend upon
the specification for the particular component type.
When the DIAC breakdown voltage occurs, the resistance of the component decreases
abruptly and this leads to a sharp decrease in the voltage drop across the DIAC, and a
corresponding increase in current. The DIAC will remain in its conducing state until the
current flow through it drops below a particular value known as the holding current.
When the current falls below the holding current, the DIAC switches back to its high
resistance, or non-conducting state.
Specifications
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Applications
One of the major uses of DIACs within TRIAC circuits. TRIACs do not fire symmetrically
as a result of slight differences between the two halves of the device.
The non-symmetrical firing and resulting waveforms give rise to the generation of
unwanted harmonics – the less symmetrical the waveform the greater the level of
harmonic generation.
F. POWER MOSFET
Is a specific type of metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET)

designed to handle significant power levels.
The main principle of the MOSFET device is to be able to control the voltage and
current flow between the source and drain terminals. It works almost like a switch and
the functionality of the device is based on the MOS capacitor. The MOS capacitor is the
main part of MOSFET. The semiconductor surface at the below oxide layer which is
located between the source and drain terminal can be inverted from p-type to n-type by
the application of either a positive or negative gate voltage respectively. When we
apply a repulsive force for the positive gate voltage, then the holes present beneath the
oxide layer are pushed downward with the substrate.
The depletion region populated by the bound negative charges which are associated
with the acceptor atoms. When electrons are reached, a channel is developed. The
positive voltage also attracts electrons from the n+ source and drain regions into the
channel. Now, if a voltage is applied between the drain and source, the current flows
freely between the source and drain and the gate voltage controls the electrons in the
channel. Instead of the positive voltage, if we apply a negative voltage, a hole channel
will be formed under the oxide layer.
Specifications
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Applications
 Amplifiers made of MOSFET are extremely employed in extensive frequency
applications
 The regulation for DC motors are provided by these devices
 As because these have enhanced switching speeds, it acts as perfect for the
construction of chopper amplifiers
 Functions as a passive component for various electronic elements.
G. SOLID STATE RELAY
Is an electronic switching device that switches on or off when an external voltage (AC
or DC) is applied across its control terminal
The principle of solid-state relays can be simply described as: for the NO-SSR, when the
appropriate control signal is applied to the Input Terminal (IN) of the solid-state relay,
the Output Terminal (OUT) will be switched from the off state to the on state; if the
control signal is cancelled, the Output Terminal (OUT) will be restored to the off-state.
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In this process, the solid state relays realize non-contact control of switch states of the
load power supply which is connected to output terminals.
Specifications
4,000 V optical isolation, input to output
• Zero voltage turn-on
• Zero-current turn-off
• Turn-on time: 0.5 cycle maximum
• Turn-off time: 0.5 cycle maximum
• Operating temperature: –40 °C to 100 °C
• Operating frequency: 25 to 65 Hz
(operates at 400 Hz with six times off-state leakage)
• Coupling capacitance, input to output: 8 pF maximum
• Hermetically sealed
• DV/DT Off-state: 200 volts per microsecond
• DV/DT commutating: snubbed for rated current at 0.5 power
Factor
Applications
The most common application of the solid-state relay is the load switching of AC load. A
number of household circuits have solid state relays for AC load switching. Solid state
relays have different applications with the power control, moreover, different solid state
relay are used for heater controls.
Examples
 Furnaces (e.g., Baking furnaces)

 Robots
 Machine tools
 Molding machines
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1. ELECTROMECHANICAL
A. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD (SEPARATELY EXCITED)
As the name presents, in the case of a separately excited DC motor, the main supply is
given separately to the armature and field windings.
Working principle
A schematic cross-section across a two-pole DC motor is presented in the next figure,
including the fixed stator S and the cylindrical rotor, introduced as armature A. Once
rotor and pole shoes are always connected in order to decrease the iron wastes caused
by the varying magnetic flux, the rest of the stator is laminated just in huge machines,
when the device is needed to perform with fast varying torque and speed or once a
static power converter with greatly distorted currents and voltages is used as the power
supply.
The basic poles (M and P) are connected with the field windings, moving the field
current ie which runs the main flux across the rotor and stator. A closed armature coil is
set in the axial slots of the rotor and combined with the commutator bars; it is provided
by the brushes and the commutator produces the armature current ia. This generates a
distributed ampere-turn (mmf) wave, fixed in the space and rotated in the direction of
the quadrature axis, orthogonal to the basic axis, so that maximum output torque for
the armature current can be created.
Specifications
 Type Separately excited DC motor
 Power 300kW
 Armature voltage 500 volts DC+/- 5%
 Field Voltage 220 volts DC +/-5%
 Filed Current 14.4 Amps
 Base Speed 1125 RPM
Applications
A separately excited DC motor has industrial applications. It is typically used as an
actuator. This form of motors is employed in trains and for automatic traction aims.
B. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD -SHUNT
When the armature and field windings are connected in parallel, the motor is referred
to as a “shunt wound” DC motor. (In electrical parlance, a parallel circuit is referred to
as a shunt.) The parallel connection between the windings means the current supplied
to the motor is divided between the armature and the field (Itotal= Ia+ If). The shunt
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(field) windings have a high resistance, preventing them from drawing high current at
startup. But unlike series motors, shunt motors provide very good speed regulation.
The initial effect of an increased load on a shunt motor is the same as for a series
wound motor: speed decreases, reducing back EMF and increasing net voltage. But in a
shunt wound motor, the increased net voltage causes the armature current to increase.
In a shunt motor, torque is proportional to armature current, so torque increases. This
additional torque increases the motor speed to compensate for decrease that occurred
when the load was applied. All of this happens instantaneously, making DC shunt
motors essentially constant speed devices, regardless of load.
Specifications
Armature & excitation 0~220VDC
voltage:
Max. armature current: 0.9A
Max. excitation current: 0.13A
Max. output power: 123W
Max. rotate speed: 1500rpm
Shaft height: 63mm
Applications
Because the shunt motor tends to run at a relatively constant speed, it has traditionally
been used in such applications as fans, blowers, conveyer belts, and machine
tools.
C. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD -SERIES
Is a type of induction motor where the rotor windings are connected through slip rings
to external resistance.
DC Wound-field motors use an electromagnet called the field winding to generate the
magnetic field. The only other way to generate a magnetic field is with permanent
magnets, The speed of wound-field motors is controlled by varying the voltage to the
armature or field windings. When the motor is unloaded, it will go faster than the rated
speed.
Specifications
These motors are designed to run at 90 Vdc because 90 V is about what a practical
rectifier circuit can produce from standard 120 Vac.
Applications
The speed-torque curve of the series-wound motor is highly nonlinear. The unusually
high-stall torque is a desirable quality for many workhorse applications such as cranes,
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portable power tools and automobile starter motors. Series motors are less
desirable in control applications.
D. DC MOTOR WOUND FIELD –COMPOUND
Is a type of self-excited motor, and is made up of both series the field coils S1 S2 and
shunt field coils F1 F2 connected to the armature winding as shown in the figure below.
Both the field coils provide for the required amount of magnetic flux, that links with the
armature coil and brings about the torque necessary to facilitate rotation at the desired
speed. As we can understand, a compound wound DC motor is basically formed by the
amalgamation of a shunt wound DC motor and series-wound DC motor to achieve the
better off properties of both these types. Like a shunt wound DC motor is bestowed
with an extremely efficient speed regulation characteristic, whereas the DC series motor
has high starting torque.
Specifications
Armature voltage: 0~220VDC
Excitation voltage: 220VDC
Max. armature current: 0.9A
Excitation current: 0.13A
Max. output power: 123W
Max. rotate speed: 1500rpm
Applications
Because of the capabilities of the compound motors to provide high starting torque and
also speed regulation and control it has many applications in different areas. Below we
listed some of the applications of a compound DC motor:
 Compound motors due to their ability to perform better on heavy load changes
are used in elevators.
 Due to their high starting torque and better speed control for pressure variations,
they are used in shears and punches.
 This kind of motors because of the high starting torque and heavy-duty load is
used in steel rolling mills.
 Again, due to the capacity of driving heavy loads, they are used in the printing
press and cutting machines.
 They are also used in stamping presses to provide high starting torque.
 Their good speed control and high starting torque make them a great choice to
be used in mixers.
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E. DC MOTOR PERMANENT MAGNET- CONVENTIONAL PM MOTOR
Is a motor which includes a permanent magnet pole
Working Principle
In this motor, a permanent magnetic field can be generated with the permanent
magnets which communicate by the perpendicular field stimulated by the flow of
currents within the rotor windings; therefore, a mechanical torque can be created.
When the rotor rotates in response to the created torque, then the position among the
stator as well as rotor fields can be reduced, and the torque would be reversed in a 90-
degree rotation. To maintain the torque performing on the rotor, PMDC motors include
a commutator, set to the rotor shaft.
The commutator activates the current supply toward the stator thus as to continue a
steady angle = 90, among two fields. As the flow of current is frequently activated
among windings like the rotor twists, then the current within every stator winding is
truly exchanging at a frequency comparative to the number of motor magnetic poles as
well as the speed.
Specifications
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Applications
The PMDC motors are used in various applications ranging from fractions to several
horsepower. They are developed up to about 200 kW for use in various industries.
The following applications are given below.
 PMDC motors are mainly used in automobiles to operate windshield wipers

and washers, to raise the lower windows, to drive blowers for heaters
and air conditioners etc.
 They are also used in computer drives.
 These types of motors are also used in toy industries.
 PMDC motors are used in electric toothbrushes, portable vacuum
cleaners, food mixers.
 Used in a portable electric tool such as drilling machines, hedge trimmers
etc.
F. DC MOTOR PERMANENT MAGNET- MOVING-COIL PM MOTOR
Is an instrument that allows you to measure the current through a coil by observing the
coil’s angular deflection in a uniform magnetic field.
A PMMC meter places a coil of wire (i.e., a conductor) in-between two permanent
magnets in order to create stationary magnetic field. According to Faraday’s Laws of
electromagnetic induction, a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field will
experience a force in the direction determined by Fleming’s left-hand rule.
When the torques are balanced the moving coil will stop, and its angular deflection can
be measured by the scale. If the permanent magnet field is uniform and the spring
linear, then the pointer deflection is also linear. Hence, we can use this linear
relationship to determine the amount of electrical current passing through the wire.
Specifications
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Applications
PMMC instruments (i.e., D’Arsonval meters) are only used for measuring the Direct
Current (DC) current.
1) Ammeter:
When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a minimum current range, the moving
coil is connected across a suitable low resistance shunt so that only a small part of the
main current flows through the coil.
The shunt consists of several thin plates made up of alloy metal, which is usually
magnetic and has a low-temperature coefficient of resistance, fixed between two
massive blocks of copper. A resistor of the same alloy is also placed in series with the
coil to reduce errors due to temperature variation.
2) Voltmeter:
When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in series with high resistance.
The rest of the function is the same as above. The same moving coil can be used as an
ammeter or voltmeter to interchange the above arrangement.
3) Galvanometer:
The galvanometer is used to measure a small value of current along with its direction
and strength. It is mainly used on board to detect and compare different circuits in a
system.
4) Ohm Meter:
The ohmmeter is used to measure the resistance of the electric circuit by applying a
voltage to resistance with the help of a battery. A galvanometer is used to determine
the flow of current through the resistance. The galvanometer scale is marked in ohms,
and as the resistance varies since the voltage is fixed, the current through the meter
will also vary.
G. DC MOTOR PERMANENT MAGNET TORQUE MOTOR
Is a continuous-rotation electromagnetic actuator which can be directly coupled to its

load
Working principle
The PM motor consists of an angular brush ring assembly, a permanent magnet stator
ring and a laminated wound rotor. It is particularly suitable for servo systems where
size, weight, power and response times must be minimized and where high position and
rate accuracies are required.
The response times for PM motors are very fast and the torque increases directly with
the input current, independently of the speed or the angular position. Multiple-pole
machines maximize the output torque per watt of rotor power.
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Specifications
Rated voltage: 12V
Rated voltage: 12V
Weight: 340g
Applications
 Washer
 Windshield wiper
 Automobiles as a starter motor
 Personal computer disc drives
 Toys
 Wheelchairs
 Blowers in heater and air conditioners.
H. DC MOTOR ELECTRONIC COMMUTATION (BRUSHLESS MOTOR)
Is a synchronous motor using a direct current (DC) electric power supply. It uses an
electronic closed loop controller to switch DC currents to the motor windings producing
magnetic fields which effectively rotate in space and which the permanent magnet rotor
follows.
Working principle
In a brushed DC motor, the rotor spins 180-degrees when an electric current is run to
the armature. To go any further, the poles of the electromagnet must flip. The brushes,
as the rotor spins, make contact with the stator, flipping the magnetic field and allowing
the rotor to spin a full 360-degrees.
A brushless DC motor is essentially flipped inside out, eliminating the need for brushes
to flip the electromagnetic field. In brushless DC motors, the permanent magnets are
on the rotor, and the electromagnets are on the stator. A computer then charges the
electromagnets in the stator to rotate the rotor a full 360-degrees.
Specifications
Number of phases 3 phases
Rated voltage Volt 24 24 24 36
Rated speed RPM 3000 3000 3000 3000
Rated torque Oz-in 28.3 56.6 85 115
Nm 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Rated current A 4 8 12 15
Rated power Watt 63 125 188 250
Peak torque Oz-in 85 170 255 343
Nm 0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4
Peak current A 12 23.5 36 45
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Back E.M.F V/KRPM 6.23 6.3 6.3 6.3
Rotor inertia g.c㎡ 120 170 220 270
Body length Mm 59 80 101 122
Applications
As the brushless motor does not have any brushes, it has high efficiency, high speed
and electronic control. Mostly this motor uses in the,
 Hand held power tools
 Consumer electronics
 Heating and ventilation
 for small cooling fans
 Transport
 Vehicles ranging from aircrafts to automobiles
 For gramophone record in direct drive turntables
 In computer peripherals like disk drives, printers
I. AC MOTOR- INDUCTION MOTOR
Is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to produce
torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator
winding
Working principle
The motor which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the
induction motor. The electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon in which the
electromotive force induces across the electrical conductor when it is placed in a
rotating magnetic field. When the three-phase supply is given to the stator, the rotating
magnetic field produced on it.
The polarities of the magnetic field vary by concerning the positive and negative half
cycle of the supply. The change in polarities makes the magnetic field rotates.
The conductors of the rotor are stationary. This stationary conductor cut the rotating
magnetic field of the stator, and because of the electromagnetic induction, the EMF
induces in the rotor. This EMF is known as the rotor induced EMF, and it is because of
the electromagnetic induction phenomenon.
Specifications
Voltage, Frequency 1/2 ～ 5 HP: 220/380 V 50 Hz
7.5 ～30 HP: 380/415 V 50Hz
40 HP～ : 200/380/415 V 50Hz
Number of Cable ～5 HP 6 WIRES (Direct starting 220 V or 380 V)
7.5 HP ～ 6 WIRES (Star Delta Starting)
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2 pole 30 HP ～ 12 Wires (Star Delta Starting)
4 pole 40 HP ～
6 pole 50 HP ～
Color Rigail gray (MUNSAELL 8.9Y5.1/0.3)
Transmission 2 pole 15 HP ～DIRECT CONPLING
2 pole ～10 HP and 4 pole ～
Rotation CCW (VIEW FROM MOTOR DRIVE END)
Environ ment Temperature -30 ～ 40°C
Humidity Enclosed type MAX 95% RH
Altitude MAX 1,000 m
Establishment [IP44]IN DOOR, [IP44, IP55]OUT DOOR
Atmosphere NO CORROSIVE GAS, NO EXPLOSIVE GAS
NO STEAM, NO DEW, LITTLE DUST
Applications
 Pumps
 Compressors
 Small fans
 Mixers
 Toys
 High speed vacuum cleaners
 Electric shavers
 Drilling machines
J. AC MOTOR- SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Is an AC electric motor in which, at steady state, the rotation of the shaft is

synchronized with the frequency of the supply current; the rotation period is exactly
equal to an integral number of AC cycles.
Working principle
The principle of operation of a synchronous motor can be understood by considering
the stator windings to be connected to a three-phase alternating-current supply. The
effect of the stator current is to establish a magnetic field rotating at 120 f/p revolutions
per minute for a frequency of f hertz and for p poles. A direct current in a p-pole field
winding on the rotor will also produce a magnetic field rotating at rotor speed. If the
rotor speed is made equal to that of the stator field and there is no load torque, these
two magnetic fields will tend to align with each other. As mechanical load is applied, the
rotor slips back a number of degrees with respect to the rotating field of the stator,
developing torque and continuing to be drawn around by this rotating field. The angle
between the fields increases as load torque is increased. The maximum available torque
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is achieved when the angle by which the rotor field lags the stator field is 90°.
Application of more load torque will stall the motor.
Specifications
 Base speed of motor (rpm) 600
 Absorbed power (W) 3
 Usable Power (W) 0,16
 Starting/running torque (mNm) 2,5
 Stall torque (mNm) 3,3
 Temperature rise (o C) 55
 Ambient temperature (°C) -5 →+60
 Maximum inertial load that can be moved (g.cm2 ) 4,6
 Number of offload starts 106 10
 Max. reverse rotation angle (o) 360
 Insulation resistance (MΩ) 75 x 103
 Breakdown voltage (V-50 Hz) 1800 - 1 s
 Weight (g) 110
 Wires length mm (approximately) 250
 Protection rating IP30
Applications
The applications of synchronous motors include:
 A synchronous motor having no load connected to its shaft is used for power
factor improvement. Owing to its characteristics to behave at any electrical
power factor, it is used in power systems in situations where static capacitors are
expensive.
 Synchronous motor finds applications where operating speed is less (around 500
rpm) and high power is required. For power requirements from 35 kW to 2500
KW, the size, weight and cost of the corresponding three-phase induction motor
are very high. Hence these motors are preferably used. Ex- Reciprocating
pump, compressor, rolling mills etc.
K. UNIVERSAL MOTOR
Is a type of electric motor that can operate on either AC or DC power and uses an
electromagnet as its stator to create its magnetic field.
Working principle
A universal motor works on either DC or single-phase AC supply. When the universal
motor is fed with a DC supply, it works as a DC series motor. When current flows in the
field winding, it produces a magnetic field. The same current also flows from the
armature conductors. When a current carrying conductor is placed in an
electromagnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force. Due to this mechanical force,
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or torque, the rotor starts to rotate. The direction of this force is given by Fleming’s left-
hand rule.
Specifications
Frame Size Outside Max Stack Length B/T Power
Diameter Length Bearings
(max hp |
(in | mm) (in | mm) (in | mm) watts)
UM6200* 2.44 | 61.8 2| 50.8 4.69 | 119.1 .25 | 186

UM7300 2.88 | 73.1 2.25 | 57.2 5.06 | 128.4 .4 | 298
UM8100* 3.19 | 81.1 2.63 | 66.7 5.95 | 151.1 .89 | 652
UM9400* 3.69 | 93.7 3| 76.2 6.72 | 170.7 1.75 | 1305
UM11100* 4.38 | 111.2 3.25 | 82.6 7.56 | 192.1 2.5 | 1864
Application of Universal Motor:

 Universal motors find their use in various home appliances like vacuum cleaners,
drink and food mixers, domestic sewing machine etc.
 The higher rating universal motors are used in portable drills, blenders
L. STEPPER MOTOR- HYBRID
Is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a full rotation into a number of equal
steps.
Working principle
The basic working principle of the stepper motor is the following: By energizing one or
more of the stator phases, a magnetic field is generated by the current flowing in the
coil and the rotor aligns with this field. By supplying different phases in sequence, the
rotor can be rotated by a specific amount to reach the desired final position. Figure 2
shows a representation of the working principle. At the beginning, coil A is energized
and the rotor is aligned with the magnetic field it produces. When coil B is energized,
the rotor rotates clockwise by 60° to align with the new magnetic field. The same
happens when coil C is energized. In the pictures, the colors of the stator teeth indicate
the direction of the magnetic field generated by the stator winding.
Page 97 of 126
Specifications
Step angle: 1.8° full step

0.9° half-step
Phase/Windings: 4/2
Voltage & Current: 12V at 400 mA
Resistance per Phase: 30 ohms
Inductance per Phase: 23 mH
Holding Torque: 2000 g-cm
Detent Torque: 220 g-cm max
Weight: 0.24 kg (0.5 lbs.)
Max continuous power: 5W
Rotor Inertia: 22 g-cm2
Bearings: Ball
Leads: 18 in. 26 AWG UL 1007
Insulation resistance: >100 MΩ at 500VDC
Dielectric strength: 500V 50Hz/minute
Mounting hole space diagonal: 1.73 in.
Mounting screws: 3 mm dia.

0.5 mm pitch
Shaft diameter: 0.197 in. (5 mm)
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Motor footprint: 1.7 in. × 1.7 in.
Motor height: 1.5 in.
Ambient temperature: -10°C to +55°C
Applications
Stepper motors are diverse in their uses, but some of the most common include:
 3D printing equipment
 Textile machines
 Printing presses
 Gaming machines
 Medical imaging machinery
 Small robotics
 CNC milling machines
 Welding equipment
M. VARIABLE RELUCTANCE
Is an electromechanical energy conversion device that converts electrical energy to

mechanical energy.
Working principles
It works on the principle of reluctance, according to which magnetic flux always flows
through a minimum reluctance path. The stator poles are excited with three-phase or
single-phase supply and the rotor is either made of permanent magnets or excited with
single-phase supply to obtain the rotor magnetic field.
Specifications
Page 99 of 126
Applications
The applications of variable reluctance stepper motor include the following.
 As mentioned, due to its stepped rotation it has less number of applications.
Mostly these types of motors are used in toys, tape recorders, advanced clocks,
printing machines, etc.
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC
A. SOLENOID TYPE DEVICES
Is a device comprised of a coil of wire, the housing and a moveable plunger (armature).
When an electrical current is introduced, a magnetic field forms around the coil which
draws the plunger in. More simply, a solenoid converts electrical energy into mechanical
work.
Working principle
A solenoid valve is an electrically controlled valve. The valve features a solenoid, which
is an electric coil with a movable ferromagnetic core (plunger) in its center. In the rest
position, the plunger closes off a small orifice. An electric current through the coil
creates a magnetic field. The magnetic field exerts an upwards force on the plunger
opening the orifice. This is the basic principle that is used to open and close solenoid
valves.
Specifications
Specifications
Valve Type 2 Way, Normally Closed (NC)
Action Direct Acting
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Orifice 5.0mm
Operating Pressure Vacuum to 50PSI
Port Size (Tube Options: 3/8" OD Tube
OD) 3/8" Push-In Fitting
3/8" Female NPT
Wetted Surfaces Valve Body: Delrin Plastic (can be customized to any type of
plastic)
Seals: NBR (Buna N), Silicone, Viton Double Seals (Fitting
Connection Only)
Armature Assembly: Stainless Steel
Coil Duty H Class, IP65, 100% ED Continuous Duty
Voltage Options: 12, 24 VDC; 24, 110/120 (50/60Hz), 220/240 VAC
(50/60Hz)
Voltage Tolerance +/-10% of Specified Voltage
Coil Power 20W
Electrical DIN43650A, Option: Molded Cable, ATEX Explosion Proof
Connections
Installation No Orientation (Optimum Position: Flow Horizontal &
Solenoid Vertical)
Service Air, Water, Liquid
Applications
Solenoids valves are used in a wide range of applications, from industrial machinery,
automobiles, to home appliances and systems. A pneumatic solenoid valve regulates
the passage of air in a circuit, while a liquid solenoid valve controls the flow of a liquid
medium.
 Manufacturing Systems
Solenoid valves are used in industries to control machines, dose, mix, or restrict
the flow of liquids or gases. As an example, solenoid valves are used in beverage
factories to measure the exact amount of drink to be poured into bottles.
The valves can also be used to mix different liquid substances using precise
volumes. In automatic systems, solenoid valves are utilized to control the flow of
fluid and produce movements.
 Agriculture
Most agricultural equipment contains solenoid valves to control a system. You
will find them in irrigation devices such as the automatic sprinkler, or motorized
farm machines to dose substances.
An irrigation solenoid valve basically controls the flow of water and can be used
to operate a sprinkler’s function autonomously.
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 Automotive Applications
A range of solenoid valves are used in motor vehicle systems. They are usually
used to regulate the flow of automotive fluids such as oil, anti-skid brake fluid or
even fuel.
 Vacuum Systems
Solenoid valves are widely used in vacuum applications. Direct and semi-direct
valve types are the most common. They need no minimal pressure levels, which
makes them best suited for these situations. A vacuum solenoid valve is usually
designed to be leak-free, a necessary requirement in such conditions.
 Home Heating Units
 Refrigeration Appliances and systems
 Car Washing Machines
Car washing equipment delivers high-pressure water and detergent to clean
motor vehicles. To mix and rise the water and cleaning solution, these pieces of
equipment use a series of automatic solenoid valves.
These valves are usually direct operated types. To protect the valves from the
corrosive chemicals in the cleaning solution, manufacturers use nickel-plated
brass.
 Air Compressor units
An air compressor takes in air and compresses it before taking it to the
compressed air reservoir. When air enters the tank, it has to kept under
pressure. This is achieved by the use of a solenoid valve.A compressed air
solenoid valve powers up to close the flow of fluid, in this case air, and allows
the built-up pressure to remain in the tank.
The compressed air pressure should not remain in the tank for long. When the
coil de-energizes, the valve opens and releases the air into the system.
 Hot Drink Dispensers
These are machines that dispense coffee, tea, and other beverages. They are
usually found in offices and commercial establishments, although some can be
used in private places. Hot drink dispensers usually utilize direct acting solenoid
valve systems. The valves open and close in sequence to allow fluids to move
through the system.
 Water Solenoid Valves
In places where sanitation is a strict requirement, solenoid valves are used to
automatically mix cold and hot water before it comes out of the tap or faucet.
Usually, the installations are fitted with a sensor to detect human presence. It
can be an infrared sensor or any other device.
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Behind the installation are two water solenoid valves. These open simultaneously
to let in hot and cold water. The types used are usually pilot operated solenoid
valves due to the high flows involved.
 Floor Washing Machines
A floor washing machine has to dispense water and cleaning solution at the
same time- and in the right amounts. To ensure that, an electromagnetic
solenoid valve is utilized for each function.
Because the fluids to be controlled are not under pressure, the valves used are
mostly the direct acting types.
 Water Metering Devices
These are mechanical devices that regulate the amount of water dispensed. They
are used in different places, such as food industries to measure exact water
quantities for mixtures. The solenoid valves used in these meters are usually the
pilot operated types.
These easily accommodate the high flow rates common in the installations.
When system pressures are low, these water solenoid valves incorporate an
assisted lift.
 Industrial Solenoid Valve
Solenoid valves are used in both industrial and home gas systems to open or
stop the flow of natural gas. A gas solenoid valve can also be found in the
installations that use pneumatic actuators for different functions. Natural gas
solenoid valves control the gas flow in domestic gas heating systems, directing
when the gas must light up to heat water and when to shut off.
B. ELECTROMAGNETS
Are devices that contain electromagnets. Examples of electromagnetic devices include

doorbells and any devices that have electric motors, such as electric fans.
Working principle
All electromagnets work on the principle that an electric current in a wire produces a
magnetic field. In fact, it is remarkably straightforward to make an electromagnet.
Simply coil a length of wire round a piece of iron, such as a long iron nail, and pass an
electric current through the wire. When the current flows a magnetic field is created
and the iron becomes magnetized.
Specifications
 Air gap Up to 109 mm (4.3 in)

 continuously variable
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 Up to 178 mm (7 in)
 continuously variable
 Coil resistance, nominal 0.25 Ω per coil
 (0.5 Ω total wired in series)
 Ω per coil
 (0.5 Ω total wired in parallel)
 Standard pole cap diameter 51 mm (2 in) 76 mm (3 in)
 Optional pole cap diameter 25 mm, 76 mm, 102 mm (1 in, 3 in, 4 in) 51 mm,
102 mm, 152 mm (2 in, 4 in, 6 in)
 Cooling water Tap water or closed cooling system
 Water flow rate 7.6 L/min (2 gal/min) 11.4 L/min (3 gal/min)
 Pressure drops 200 kPa (30 psi) 220 kPa (32 psi)
 Water chiller cooling capacity 2.5 kW (8,530 BTU/h) 5.0 kW (17,060 BTU/h)
 Water inlet temperature 15 °C to 25 °C (59 °F to 77 °F)
 Coil over temperature limit 45 °C (113 °F)
 Coil spacing, nominal 121 mm (4.75 in) 178 mm (7 in)
 Coil size-width, nominal 121 mm (4.75 in) 132 mm (5.2 in)
 Coil size-diameter, nominal 311 mm (12.25 in) 445 mm (17.5 in)
 Current
 (maximum continuous operating) ±70 A per coil ±50 A per coil
 Voltage, nominal ±35 V ±50 V
 Continuous input power, nominal 2.5 kVA 5 kVA
 Lake Shore power supply
 (suggested) Model 643 Model 648
Applications
 Generators, motors, and transformers

 Electric buzzers and bells
 Headphones and loudspeakers
 Relays and valves
 Data storage devices like VCRs, tape recorders, hard discs, etc.
 Induction cooker
 Magnetic locks
 MRI machines
 Particle accelerators
 Mass spectrometers
C. RELAY
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Is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a single or
multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch may have
any number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make contacts, break
contacts, or combinations thereof.
Working principle
 Relay works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.

 When the electromagnet is applied with some current it induces a magnetic field
around it.
 In the relay Copper coil and the iron core acts as electromagnet.
 When the coil is applied with DC current it starts attracting the contact as shown.
This is called energizing of relay.
 When the supply is removed it retrieves back to the original position. This is
called De energizing of relay.
Specifications
Standard Reed Type Reed Reed Reed Type A Type P

Relay Type S Type HV Type LT Type M (Armature) (Power
(standard) (High (low (Mercury) Armature)
Voltage) thermol)
Switched +/- 200 V +/- 1000 +/- 200 V +/- 400 V +/- 110 V +/- 380 V
Voltage Peak V peak peak peak peak RMS
Switched 0.5 Amps 1.0 Amps 0.5 Amps 1.0 Amps 1.0 Amps 8 Amps
Current
Switched 10 VA 60 VA 10 VA 50 VA 30 VA 2000 VA /
Power 150 W
Breakdown 300 V peak 1000 V 300 V 1000 V 750 V peak 1000 V
Voltage peak peak peak RMS
Carry 1.0 Amps 2.5 Amps 1.0 Amps 2.0 Amps 2.0 Amps 10 Amps
Current
Switch 1 ms 2 ms 1 ms 2 ms 5 ms 10 ms
Speed
Life > 100 500 > 100 > 100 100 Million 10 Million
Expectancy Million Million Million Million
(mechanical)
Life 100 Million 10 Million 100 100 Million 10 Million 100
Expectancy Milion Thousand
(Rated Load)
Voltage 20 uV 25 uV Les than More than Less than 5 NA
Offset 5 uV 25 uV uV
Minimum 100 pA 500 pA 50 pA 100 pa 10 uA 100 mA
Page 105 of 126

Current
Insulation 10e10 10e12 10e10 10e10 10e9 Ohms 10e9 Ohms
Resistance Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms
Power use 120 mW 190 mW 120 mW 190 mW 140 mW 240 mW
per relay
Applications
 Relays are used for isolating a low voltage circuit from high voltage circuit.
 They are used for controlling multiple circuits.
 They are also used as automatic change over.
 Microprocessors use relays to control a heavy electrical load.
 Overload relays are used for protection of motor from overload & electrical
failure.
4. HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
A. CYLINDER
Is a mechanical actuator that is used to give a unidirectional force through a

unidirectional stroke.
Working principle
The most commonly used fluid is mineral oil. To learn how hydraulics work, read this
blog post from us. The operation of hydraulic cylinder is based on Pascal’s principle.
According to Pascal’s principle, the pressure is equal to the force divided by the area on
which it acts. A pressure used on a piston produces an equal increase in pressure on
the second piston in the system. If the area is 10 times the first area, the force on the
second piston is 10 times greater, even the pressure is the same throughout the
cylinder. The hydraulic press creates this effect, based on Pascal’s principle. Pascal also
discovered that the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is the same in all directions; the
pressure would be the same on all planes passing through a specific point.
Let’s exlpain a bit more. In the example below, a small force F1 applied to a small
piston of area A1 causes an increase in the pressure in the fluid. According to Pascal’s
principle, this increase is transmitted to a larger piston of area A2 by exerting a force F2
on this piston.
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The pressure is the applied force over a surface as; P=F/A >> F is the used force and A
is the surface area.
Specifications
Applications
 Aerospace industry: Particularly for such devices as landing gears and wing flaps
 Aerial Work Platforms (AWP):
 Agricultural: Small spraying equipment as well as harvesters, loaders and tractors
 Automotive
 Civil Engineering: Bulldozers, excavators, trenchers as well as attachments
 Construction: Concrete pumps and paving applications
 Energy: Flow controls for water gates
 Food, production and manufacturing
 Forestry and logging
 Motorway repairs and maintenance
 Mining
 Materials handling: Single acting hydraulic cylinders for sale are commonly
employed in such equipment
 Mechanical engineering: Operation for feeding devices as well as automated
production lines, plastic forming machines and transportation devices
 Oil and gas industries
 Recycling plants: Compressing scrap metal and other materials
 Shipbuilding: Steering devices
B. HYDRAULIC MOTOR -GEAR TYPE
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Is the type of hydraulic motor which utilizes air pressure to produce motion by using
two rotating gears.
Working principle
Consists of two gears: the driven gear (attached to the output shaft by way of a key)
and the idler gear. High pressure oil is ported into one side of the gears, where it flows
around the periphery of the gears, between the gear tips and the wall housing, to the
outlet port. The gears then mesh, not allowing the oil from the outlet side to flow back
to the inlet side. For lubrication, the gear motor uses a small amount of oil from the
pressurized side of the gears, bleeds this through the (typically) hydrodynamic
bearings, and vents the same oil either to the low pressure side of the gears, or
through a dedicated drain port on the motor housing. One very important gear motor
feature is that catastrophic breakdown is a lot less common than in most other types of
hydraulic motors. This is because the gears gradually wear down the housing and/or
main bushings, gradually reducing the volumetric efficiency of the motor. The gear
motor can degrade to the point of near uselessness. This often happens long before
wear causes the unit to seize or break down.
Specifications
Applications
Most industrial gear motors are AC-powered, fixed-speed devices, although there are
fixed-gear-ratio, variable-speed motors that provide a greater degree of control. DC
gear motors are used primarily in automotive applications such as power winches on
trucks, windshield wiper motors and power seat or power window motors. Jacks,
cranes, lifts, clamping, robotics, conveyance, and mixing are just some of the
applications gearmotors are used for in industry.
C. HYDRAULIC MOTOR - VANE TYPE
Are hydraulic pumps that operate at very low noise levels. Hydraulic vane pumps
operate with much lower flow pulsation, i.e. constant flow
Page 108 of 126

Working principle
Vane pumps, also known as rotary vane or sliding vane pumps, operate via the positive
displacement principle. Positive displacement pumps essentially move the fluid by
trapping a fixed volume and forcing that trapped fluid into the discharge pipe.
As its name would suggest, vane pumps have rectangular shaped vanes mounted into
slots on a rotor that turns inside the asymmetrical pump casing. As the rotor turns, the
asymmetrical shape of the casing causes the vanes to move in and out of the slots to
touch the casing walls and trap the fluid between this and the rotor. This mechanism
draws the fluid round until it is forced out of the discharge port.
Specifications
- Maximum Pressure: 270 bar
- Maximum Displacement: 11-100 cm3 / rev. (003 - 031 GPM)
- Maximum Speed: 2650 rpm
Applications
Vane pumps are a popular and efficient solution for the transfer of clean, low to
medium viscosity fluids and fuels at a range of temperatures and relatively low
pressures. Rotary vanes pumps are a particularly good choice for the following
applications:
 Fuel and light oil transfer Sliding Vane Pump

 Lubrication
 Gasoline/petroleum
 LPG gas (propane)
 Chemical handling
 Alcohols and solvents
 Bitumen transfer
 High temperature fluids
 Liquefied gases
D. HYDRAULIC MOTOR - PISTON TYPE
Are positive displacement motors which can develop an output torque at the shaft by
allowing pressurised fluid to act on the pistons.
Working principle
The valveplate design utilizes a rotating barrel and piston assembly contained in the
front housing. Fluid is delivered to and from the barrel through ports in the back cover.
The barrel is keyed to the output shaft. Fluid pressure acts upon the pistons which slide
across the angled swashplate surface. Movement of the pistons causes the barrel to
rotate, transmitting torque and motion to the output shaft. Torque is
developed in proportion to the pressure differential across the motor. Fixed
displacement MF2000 Series motors have a fixed-angle cradle. Dual displacement
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motors provide two speeds. The cradle in these models is biased to full-stroke.
Energizing the solenoid valve de-strokes the motor to its lower displacement, providing
increased speed and lower torque
Specifications:
- Available with Aluminum & Cast Iron Body
- Displacement: 0.8 To 147.5 cc/rev, Pressure: 175 TO 275 bar,
- Torque: up to 466 Nm, Speed: 900 To 3000 rpm.
Applications
 Hydraulic piston motors are used to drive mobile and construction equipment,
winches, ship-cranes, and all kinds of heavy-duty hydraulic equipment for
offshore and onshore operations. Piston motors are hydraulic motors with a high
speed and displacement range that operate under maximum pressure of up to
450 bar. The largest axial piston motor has a displacement of 1 litre (1,000
ml/rev) and radial piston motors are available with well over 8 litres displacement
volume.
E. AIR MOTOR ROTARY TYPE
Is a type of motor which does mechanical work by expanding compressed air.

Working principle
uses air to produce rotational motion to a shaft. The rotating element is a slotted rotor
which is mounted on a drive shaft. Each slot of the rotor is fitted with a freely sliding
rectangular vane.[4] The vanes are extended to the housing walls using springs, cam
action, or air pressure, depending on the motor design. Air is pumped through the
motor input which pushes on the vanes creating the rotational motion of the central
shaft. Rotation speeds can vary between 100 and 25,000 rpm depending on several
factors which include the amount of air pressure at the motor inlet and the diameter of
the housing
Specifications
Power 0.25 hp - 27 hp
No Load Speed 50 - 3000 rpm
Running Torque Variable
Maximum Air Flow 10 - 800 cfm
Port Size 1/8" - 4"
Phase Air Operated
Applications
 Medical Technology
 Food Industry
 Shipbuilding / Underwater Use
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 Paper Industry
 Foundries, Smelters and Power Stations
 Machine Building
F. AIR MOTOR RECIPROCATING
Working principle
The air motor of this patent employs a constantly oscillating valve operator or shuttle
arrangement which is adapted to move a D valve between either of two positions to
supply the fluid pressure alternately to opposing sides of a reciprocating piston. In order
to ensure that the valve operator or shuttle assembly wili move rapidly to either of the
extreme positions, there is employed within the apparatus, an over-center, spring
toggle mechanism which urges the valve operator or shuttle away from the neutral
position.
Specifications
 Maximum Torque: 2.27Nm
 Drive: Inverter
 Operating Speed: 18000rpm
 Voltage: 380V/220V
 Cooling type: Air
 Frequency: 300Hz
 Speed: 18000 RPM
 Lubrication: Grease
Applications
 Operation of grease pumps from a compressed air supply.
 Pneumatic level control
 Air engine
 Switching device for reciprocating pumps
A. VALVES -DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

Are one of the most fundamental parts of hydraulic and pneumatic systems. DCVs allow
fluid flow (hydraulic oil, water or air) into different paths from one or more sources.
Working principle
The simplest directional control valve is the 2-way valve. A 2-way valve stops flow or
allows flow. A water faucet is a good example of a 2-way valve. A water faucet allows
flow or stops flow by manual control.
A single-acting cylinder needs supply to and exhaust from its port to operate. This
requires a 3-way valve. A 3-way valve allows fluid flow to an actuator in one position
and exhausts the fluid from it in the other position. Some 3-way valves have a third
position that blocks flow at all ports.
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A single-acting cylinder needs supply to and exhaust from its port to operate. This
requires a 3-way valve. A 3-way valve allows fluid flow to an actuator in one position
and exhausts the fluid from it in the other position. Some 3-way valves have a third
position that blocks flow at all ports.
Specifications
Applications
 Car carriers
 Machinery - Tractors
 Assembly lines
 Energy production
 Marine equipment
 Construction machines
 Mining machines
 Material handling cranes
 Trucks & Rigs
B. VALVES- PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Is a type of safety valve used to control or limit the pressure in a system; pressure
might otherwise build up and create a process upset, instrument or equipment failure,
or fire.
Working principle
These valves balance secondary-circuit pressure against the force exerted by an
adjustable spring which tries to open the valve. When pressure in the secondary circuit
drops, spring force opens the valve enough to increase pressure and keep a constant
reduced pressure in the secondary circuit.
Fixed pressure reducing valves supply a fixed amount of pressure reduction regardless
of the pressure in the main circuit. For instance, assume a valve is set to provide
reduction of 250 psi. If main system pressure is 2750 psi, reduced pressure will be 2500
psi; if main pressure is 2000 psi, reduced pressure will be 1750 psi.
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This valve operates by balancing the force exerted by the pressure in the main circuit
against the sum of the forces exerted by secondary circuit pressure and the spring.
Because the pressurized areas on both sides of the poppet are equal, the fixed
reduction is that exerted by the spring.
Specifications
 Valve Size: DN 40
 Quantity: 2 Nos.
 Fluid Service: GN2
 Type: Globe
 Operating Temp.: ~82K
 Maximum Temp.: ~310K
 Operating pressure: ~1.5 bar (a)
 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure (MAWP): 3.0 bar (a)
 Operating Mass flowrate: ~70 g/s
 Max. Mass Flow Rate: ~98 g/s
 Allowable pressure Drop: ~25 mbar
 Hydraulic Pressure test: ≥ 25 bar
 Signal: 4-20 mA
 Valve travel: 0-100% linear
 Air Supply: 5.5 – 6.0 bar(g)
 Leak tightness across body subassembly: ≤1x10 –6 mbar l/s (with helium gas at
 Room Temperature)
 Leak tightness across seat: ≤1x10 –4 mbar l/s (with helium gas at Room)
Applications
 Small jacketed pans.
 Tracer lines.
 Ironers.
 Small tanks.
 Acid baths.
 Small storage calorifiers.
 Unit heaters.
 Small heater batteries.
 OEM equipment.
C. VALVES -PROCESS CONTROL VALVES
Are the devices which are used to manage the flow rate of a liquid or a gas and in-turn
control the temperature, pressure or liquid level within a process.
Working principle
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The control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical
compounds, to compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process
variable as close as possible to the desired set point.
Control valves may be the most important, but sometimes the most neglected, part of a
control loop. The reason is usually the instrument engineer’s unfamiliarity with the
many facets, terminologies, and areas of engineering disciplines such as fluid
mechanics, metallurgy, noise control, and piping and vessel design that can be involved
depending on the severity of service conditions.
Any control loop usually consists of a sensor of the process condition, a transmitter and
a controller that compares the “process variable” received from the transmitter with the
“set point,” i.e., the desired process condition. The controller, in turn, sends a corrective
signal to the “final control element,” the last part of the loop and the “muscle” of the
process control system.
Specifications
Applications
Process control valves are a available in a wide variety of designs and sizes. They are
normally used in controlling things like pressure, liquid level, liquid flow or temperature
in given industrial applications.
5. SMART MATERIAL ACTUATORS
A. PIEZOELECTRIC
Are transducers that convert electrical energy into a mechanical displacement or stress
based on a piezoelectric effect, or vice versa.
Working principle
A piezoelectric actuator converts an electrical signal into a precisely controlled physical
displacement (stroke). If displacement is prevented, a useable force (blocking force) will
develop. The precise movement control afforded by piezoelectric actuators is used to
finely adjust machining tools, lenses, mirrors, or other equipment. A piezo actuator can
Page 114 of 126

be used to control hydraulic valves, act as a small-volume pump or special-purpose
motor, and in other applications requiring movement or force.
Specifications
1. Range: Manual Mechanical: 0.375"(9.53mm)
Piezo: 15.4μm(Min), 19.4 μm (Max)
2. Resolution: Mechanical: 1µm
Piezo: ~0.017μm for a 0.1 V Step
3. Load: 66.7 N
4. Adjusters: Manually Adjustable 100 TPI Screw with Integrated
Piezoelectric Element
5. Piezo Control Voltage: 0 to 150 V
6. Piezo Capacitance: 0.35 μF
7. Vacuum Compatibility: 10-5 Torr without Bake Out
Applications
 Precision positioning
 Tension control
 Liquid and gas injection
 Sound generation
 Vibration generators
 Ultrasonic motors
 Flow control valves
B. ELECTROSTRICTIVE
Are solid state actuators similar to PZT actuators. Although sometimes advertised as a
recent discovery, the material has been around for many years.
Working principle
Electrostrictive actuators are made of a lead-magnesium-niobate (PMN) ceramic
material. PMN is a non-poled ceramic with displacement proportional to the square of
the applied voltage. PMN unit cells are cantor-symmetric at zero volts. An electrical field
separates the positively and negatively charged ions, changing the Dimensions of the
cell and resulting in an expansion. Electrostrictive actuators are operated above the
Curie temperature which is typically very low when compared to Piezo materials.
Specifications
 Capacitance 3 MF Maximum of 5 at 40 deg C
 Diss. Factor 8 % Maximum of 10 at 10 deg C
 Frequency 100 Hz Loss of about 10% of max strain
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 Extension 12 UM 150 volts, see Figure 1
 Force 75 KG Loss of about 10% of max strain
 Hysteresis 2 % Diminishes to about 1% at 40C
 Creep 2 Maximum after 24 hours
 Use Temp. O—40C To hold 50% of strain
 TCE 1 ppm/C Over operating temperatures
 Modulus 16 million Young's modulus, 25 deg C
Applications
 Deformable mirrors
 Optical fiber polarization control device
 Linear and rotational motors
 AC interferometric dilatometer
 Vibration control and management
C. MAGNETOSTRICTIVE
Are solid state magnetic actuators.
Working principle
A current-driven coil surrounding the magnetostrictive rod generates the expansion of
the rod. Magnetostrictive actuators need a magnetic bias to present a linearized
response, which can perform either by a DC current in the coil or permanent magnets
Specifications
Applications
 Magnetostrictive Actuators are in strong competition with the standard piezo
electric actuators such as PPAs and APAs from CEDRAT TECHNOLOGIES.
They find applications as sound generators (sonars), proportional valves, high
forces generators or low voltage actuators (it can be less than 12V). They are
used in machine tools, gas & petroleum industry, and are considered for medical,
military and space industries
Page 116 of 126

D. SHAPE MEMORY ALLOY
Is an alloy that can be deformed when cold but returns to its pre-deformed
("remembered") shape when heated. It may also be called memory metal, memory
alloy, smart metal, smart alloy, or muscle wire
Working principle
Made up of copper, zinc and nickel or copper, zinc and aluminium.
When a shape memory alloy is in its martensitic form, it is easily deformed to a new
shape. However, when the alloy is heated through its transformation temperatures, it
reverts to austenite and recovers its previous shape with great force. This process is
known as shape memory.
The temperature at which the alloy remembers its high temperature form when heated
can be adjusted by slight changes in alloy composition and through heat treatment. In
the nickel titanium alloys, for instance, it can be changed from above +100 deg.C to
below -100 deg.C. The shape recovery process occurs over a range of just a few
degrees and the start or finish of the transformation can be controlled to within a
degree or two if necessary.
Specifications
Applications
 Field of robotics
 Marine applications
Page 117 of 126

 Automotive domain applications
 Aerospace applications
 Biomedical engineering
E. ELECTRORHEOLOGICAL FLUIDS
Are suspensions of extremely fine non-conducting but electrically active particles (up to
50 micrometers diameter) in an electrically insulating fluid
Working principle
The change in apparent viscosity is dependent on the applied electric field, i.e., the
potential divided by the distance between the plates. The change is not a simple
change in viscosity; hence these fluids are now known as ER fluids, rather than by the
older term Electro Viscous fluids. The effect is better described as an electric field
dependent shear yield stress. When activated an ER fluid behaves as a Bingham plastic
(a type of viscoelastic material), with a yield point which is determined by the electric
field strength. After the yield point is reached, the fluid shears as a fluid, i.e., the
incremental shear stress is proportional to the rate of shear (in a Newtonian fluid there
is no yield point and stress is directly proportional to shear). Hence the resistance to
motion of the fluid can be controlled by adjusting the applied electric field.
Specifications
Page 118 of 126

Applications
 The normal application of ER fluids is in fast acting hydraulic valves and

clutches, with the separation between plates being in the order of 1 mm and
the applied potential being in the order of 1 kV. In simple terms, when the
electric field is applied, an ER hydraulic valve is shut or the plates of an ER clutch
are locked together, when the electric field is removed the ER hydraulic valve is
open or the clutch plates are disengaged. Other common applications are in ER
brakes (think of a brake as a clutch with one side fixed) and shock absorbers
(which can be thought of as closed hydraulic systems where the shock is used to
try to pump fluid through a valve).
 There are many novels uses for these fluids. Potential uses are in accurate
abrasive polishing and as haptic controllers and tactile displays.
 ER fluid has also been proposed to have potential applications in flexible
electronics, with the fluid incorporated in elements such as rollable screens and
keypads, in which the viscosity-changing qualities of the fluid allowing the
rollable elements to become rigid for use, and flexible to roll and retract for
storing when not in use. Motorola filed a patent application for mobile device
applications in 2006.
6. MICRO- AND NANOACTUATORS
A. MICROMOTORS
Are very small particles (measured in microns) that can move themselves
The operation principle is based on the electrostatic rolling of the thin metallic film on
the ferroelectric film surface. This principle of electromechanical energy conversion
provides an energy output higher than the energy conversion using the reverse
piezoelectric effect. Micromotors created by means of microelectronic technology, such
as thermal, electromagnet or piezoelectric ones, usually have low efficiency, clock
frequency and energy output. At present, the most widely used micromotors are the
electrostatic micromotors with an air gap between the rotor and stator.
Specifications
Mounting Nut Mounting
Speed 6000 RPM
Current 101-200 mA
Torque <0.20 mNm
Phase Single Phase
Power <50 W
Page 119 of 126

Applications
 Automotive
 Medical Equipment
 Industrial Automation
 Aircraft
 Agricultural Equipment
 Construction & Mining Equipment
 3D Printing
B. MICROVALVES
Is microscale valve, i.e., a microfluidic two-port component that regulates the flow
between two fluidic ports.
Just as in the world of larger solenoid valves, microvalves are also divided into pure
switching valves and true proportional valves. A 2-way microvalve only opens and
closes a fluid channel completely, while a micro-proportional valve also can open or
close a fluid channel partially and thus can precisely meter a gas or fluid. In particular,
fast-switching and long-life microvalves capable of switching below one millisecond can
also be used for so-called quasi-proportional control and replace real proportional
valves. The service life requirements for these applications are typically well over 1
billion operations.
Specifications
Page 120 of 126

Applications
 Gas Microvalves
Controlling a gas flow with MEMS microvalves has the following general benefits: the
integration of the actuation mechanism with the other microvalve components allows
component miniaturization; and the small scale of the component results in a rapid
response time and a low-power consumption. However, despite the potential for cost-
efficient batch fabrication offered by microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
technologies, gas microvalves have so far failed to reach the critical cost-per-
performance ratio needed for a wide adoption of this technology.[7]
 Check valves
Most check valves, are incorporated in inlets and outlets of reciprocal displacement
micropumps, where they provide the liquid rectification needed for the valve to have a
net pump flow in one direction.
C. MICROPUMPS
Page 121 of 126

Are devices that can control and manipulate small fluid volumes.
Working principle
A diaphragm micropump uses the repeated actuation of a diaphragm to drive a fluid.
The membrane is positioned above a main pump valve, which is centered between inlet
and outlet microvalves. When the membrane is deflected upwards through some driving
force, fluid is pulled into the inlet valve into the main pump valve. The membrane is
then lowered, expelling the fluid through the outlet valve. This process is repeated to
pump fluid continuously
Specifications
Applications
 Aerospace and Aircraft

 Automotive
 Biotechnology
 Chemical Processing
 Clinical and Analytical Lab
 Electronics
 Energy/Fuel
 Environmental
 Food and Beverage
 General Industry
 Medical Equipment and Devices
 Paints and Inks
 Pharmaceutical and Cosmetics
Page 122 of 126

Assignment: 4
Below are some performance parameters must be addressed before choosing an
actuator for a specific need
a. Motion profile control
Page 123 of 126

Users of actuator-driven machinery and equipment demand greater control over
position, velocity or force throughout the range of motion. Fluid-driven actuators cannot
provide this easily. It is difficult for them to achieve the slow, controlled speeds that
may be needed in many applications. To some extent, fluid-based actuators can gain
control using external systems such as proportional regulators, valves and encoders,
but this adds cost and further complexity.
b. Impact on cleanliness and safety

In addition to limiting control over the motion profile, fluids make for a grimier,
potentially dangerous work environment. For example, hydraulic fluids must be
transported and stored. Ever-present leaks must be cleaned and can contribute to slip-
and-fall accidents on the plant floor. Various filtration methods must be used to reduce
contaminants. When the fluid has fully degraded, it must be changed and disposed of
carefully. Pneumatic actuators present similar issues due to the presence of oil and
other impurities in compressed air supplies. The exhausted air must be filtered to
remove impurities before it is released into the environment.
c. Durability and maintenance

Just avoiding the grime and contamination of fluids reduces pressure on maintenance
resources, but the greatest contributor to the maintenance workload is the complexity
of fluid-based systems.
Routine, break/fix-style maintenance is essential for fluid-based systems. Oil loses
efficacy and must be checked. Gaskets and seals are subject to damage and wear.
Infrastructure components must be monitored and replaced as needed. However,
electromechanical actuators run longer with no maintenance intervention, providing
consistent performance for the entire actuator lifetime.
d. Ambient noise
Noise is a significant issue with both hydraulic and pneumatic actuators. A hydraulic
system consists of an electric motor, bearings, rotor/stator assembly and a fan. The
motor drives a pump, which pressurizes hydraulic fluid in the cylinder via a valve. The
fluid is transmitted through a system of tubing, hoses and fittings.
To maintain the pressure, this system must be kept idling continually, which produces
additional baseline noise that often can be heard throughout the plant, adding to
ambient environmental noise levels. This is such a concern that products offering noise
mitigation on hydraulic systems are an industry in itself.
With pneumatic actuators, noise is mostly the result of air leaks, which are frequently
present. Pressure losses and impurities found in compressed air supplies impact
pneumatic actuators, causing increased energy usage and noise levels.
Page 124 of 126

By contrast, the design of electromechanical actuators makes their operation quiet. This
technology is continuously advancing to achieve quieter operation for use in
applications not possible for the other media actuators. For example, there is an
electromechanical actuator on the market that operates with a sound level of less than
45 dB — about the same as a typical library.
e. Energy efficiency
Fluid actuators use energy very inefficiently because they go through a two-step energy
conversion process. Hydraulic systems have the advantage of being able to hold
constant pressure without having to apply additional amounts of energy, but this
requires keeping a pump running continuously, even when the actuator is not
performing any work. With pneumatic actuators, escaping air through leaks increases
energy usage and ambient noise levels.
In contrast, electromechanical technology uses energy only when doing work, and does
so with high efficiency. More than 90% of the energy applied to an electromechanical
ball-and-roller screw assembly is converted to work. An electromechanical device also
can hold a load in place without expending additional energy or complex system
assemblies.
f. Space efficiency
The fact that everything in an electromechanical actuator can be self-contained in a

compact unit means that OEMs can make smaller machines. This size reduction helps
end users add automation to smaller spaces, improving efficiencies for both operation
and space utilization (see Figure 3). Certain manufacturers have gone one step further
in making actuators with a single-mount capability, making it easier for OEMs to deliver
smaller systems.
g. Integration with other applications
As industrial systems become smarter and more connected, opportunities to optimize

production to new levels of quality, efficiency and cost control are emerging. Many of
these involve exchanging operational data across workplaces via the cloud. Fluid
actuators are not as equipped to play in those applications, as additional hardware
often is required to provide what is integrated in electric actuators. This additional
technology requirement makes integrating fluid actuators into process optimization or
modernization strategies more costly and difficult at times. Electromechanical actuators
connect to networks with only a few wires, making it easier for them to exchange
performance information among actuation devices as well as with optimization
software.
Page 125 of 126

h. Total cost of operations
While each selection criteria discussed thus far translates into end user value to some
degree, an electromechanical actuator’s greatest contribution is most likely its role in
reducing total cost of operations. Greater control over the motion profile means there is
no need to buy complex add-on components, servo valves or other components to
control operations.
Cleaner operation and reduced maintenance contribute to the bottom line by reducing
the labor otherwise needed to monitor and repair systems. Using electromechanical
actuators eliminates the expense of hydraulic oil associated with traditional hydraulic
systems.
Because electromechanical actuators run longer without needed maintenance,

manufacturers save on replacement purchases and inventory management. The ability
for electromechanical actuators to convert 90% of energy to work allows a plant to
save thousands in energy costs. In energy intensive industries, energy cost savings can
justify upgrades to electromechanical actuators with system paybacks as quickly as one
year.
More efficient space utilization can have a significant financial benefit, especially in
areas where real estate values are high or on offshore and remote operations. Going
forward, it may be that the greatest financial benefit of using electromechanical
actuators is in their readiness for integration into the digital age. Companies are making
gains by pulling device data into asset management software, enabling greater
predictive management of processes and assets.
Page 126 of 126


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DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION

NAME: VICTOR MOSHI LUGAZA

REG No: 180630720480

CLASS: BENG 19 ETE1

MODULE TITLE: ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS

MODULE CODE: ETU 08103

A. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

B: Rotational Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

Is an electro-mechanical transducer that provides a variable AC output voltage that is

Hence Output will be E0 = Es1 – Es2.

• Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement. •

The following are the specifications of an optical encoder.

Applications of optical encoders

Low-cost motion detection for motors used in:

The emf induces in the dc tachometer generator is given as

Where, E – generated voltage

Drag Cup Rotor AC Generator

1 RPM to 99999 RPM

Contact (Fluke 1 RPM to 19999 RPM

 Accuracy ±0.02 % of reading ±1 digit

Applications of Electrical Tachometer

Tachometers can be used in a wide variety of applications across a range of industries

 Vehicles and automotive

 Boats and marine vehicles

 Machinery and mechanical systems

 Research and development

 Laboratories test and measurement

 Maintenance and routine industrial operation

E. HALL EFFECT SENSOR

Is a type of sensor which detects the presence and magnitude of a magnetic field using

• This charge separation generates a potential difference which is the measure of

Specifications of a hall sensor

Applications of a hall effect sensor

Direct-current (DC) transformers

Hall sensors may be utilized for contactless measurements of direct current in current

Automotive fuel-level indicator

Are passive transducers that determine the quantities like displacement, pressure and

Specifications of a capacitive transducer

Applications of Capacitive Transducer

 As these transducers are able to measure both linear and angular

G. STRAIN GAUGE ELEMENTS

A strain gauge takes advantage of the physical property of electrical conductance and

Specifications of a strain gauge

Type Vibrating Wire

Cable connection Glass to metal seal solder pin connector

Applications of strain gauge

Aerospace Applications – strain gauges are bonded to load-bearing components

 Testing ships hulls

 Biology and medicine

5/8 – 18 UNF Threaded

MSP676 5” w 12” Leads

MSP678* 5” w/o Mating Half Connector

MSP679* 3” Mating Half Connector / Weather Boot

MSP6710* 5” Mating Half Connector / Weather Boot

MSP6719 2.375” w 6” Leads

MSP6721 3” w Automotive Connector

MSP6721C 3″ w Automotive Connector / Mating Half Connector

MSP6728 3″ Length / Packard Connector

MSP6728C 3” Length / Packard Connector / Mating Half Connector

MSP6732 3” Length / Dual Output / Dual Packard Connectors

Applications of magnetic pick up