◈ BIG PICTURE ◈

Weeks 4-6

At the end of the unit, you are expected to learn and make use of the basic ethical theories which serve
as frameworks in making moral decisions. You must be able to:

a. classify and articulate one of the major the ethical theories – Teleological Ethics

b. classify and articulate another major ethical theory – Deontological Ethics

c. classify and articulate Virtue Ethics

BIG PICTURE in Focus

h. classify and articulate one of the major the ethical theories – Teleological Ethics

◈ METALANGUAGE ◈

Teleological Ethics – from the Greek root telos which means ends, morality is based upon the action’s
ends or consequences

Utilitarianism – the principle that above all else considers the greatest good for the greatest number of
people

Hedonism – sees pleasure as the highest good in life

◈ ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ◈

Bentham’s Utilitarianism is influenced by the movement that started in Renaissance towards the
Modern Period, the golden age of science and technology which is widely known as the Enlightenment
or the Age of Reason. “Known as the Classical Utilitarians, Bentham and Mill, were concerned with legal
and social reform.” (SEP: The History of Utilitarianism) Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) was an English
philosopher known for his political and ethical theories. Bentham’s father was a subscriber to the ideas
of enlightenment rationalist. (IEP: Bentham)

Utilitarianism advocates for the consideration of individual or social experiences over the reigning
absolute moral standard imposed on individual persons or society. The theory teaches that an action has
no intrinsic and absolute moral worth. Clearly, this movement is a movement away from dominion of
authorities (feudal lords, kings and Church of the medieval ages) towards respecting individual choice,
from ideal or universal to experiential or particular. Instead, for instance, of following the rules of the
authorities which are absolute, one may also have to start with individual human experience. It is one
thing to follow a rule “Thou shall not kill” and it is another thing to ask “Why one has to be euthanized?
or Why a specific girl has to abort her pregnancy?” In other words, Utilitarian gives us another way of
being moral apart from the rules and scriptural prescriptions. Thus, reason alone gives us an edge to be
moral while actions and laws are to be made in accordance with their circumstantial advantages rather
than in their intrinsic nature.

Utilitarianism has various forms but in general the doctrine holds that the morality of human action is
determined by its usefulness, for this theory the best action is the one that maximizes utility. Bentham
describes utility as “…the property of something whereby it tends to produce benefit, advantage,
pleasure, good, or happiness or to prevent the happening of mischief pain, evil, or unhappiness to the
party whose interest is considered.” (Bentham 1823, Chap 1, 3) Mill adds, “…the Greatest Happiness
Principle holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they
tend to produce the reverse of happiness. (Mill 1863, Chap 2)

Utilitarianism and Consequentialism

Clearly, by emphasizing the outcome rather than the action qualifies Utilitarianism to be classified as
consequentialist. Unlike Christian morality which is based on absolute and universal rules, Utilitarianism
mainly based its moral judgment on the result of the action and its rules are not absolute for they should
be altered whenever the circumstances change.

As consequentialist, Utilitarianism does not classify any action or law as good or bad apart from its
outcome or result. Killing, for instance, is not classified as evil or bad, and helping is not classified as
good unlike the traditional conventional notions that believes the intrinsic moral worth of an action.
Human actions (and laws such as legal abortion), for Utilitarian, do not have moral worth. It is the
consequence that determines whether one’s action or law is good or bad.

The Hedonist Aspect of Bentham’s Utilitarianism

In the beginning of his book Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation, Bentham writes:
“Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure.”
(Bentham 1823, Chap 1, 1) Clearly, Bentham subscribes to the teaching of Hedonism at some degree.
Hedonism comes from the Greek word ἡδονή (hēdonē) for pleasure. Epicurus was arguably the most
notable hedonist in the Ancient Greeks and “For him, happiness was the complete absence of bodily
and especially mental pains, including fear of the Gods and desires for anything other than the bare
necessities of life.” (Weijers, Hedonism)
Following the doctrine of Hedonism, Benthan believes that the consequence of our action should
produce more pleasures than pains in order to be judged as good, if it produces more pains than
pleasures, then it should be judged as bad. Since the only intrinsic good is pleasure and the intrinsic bad
is pain.

Hedonic Calculus

When an individual (or government) has to make a moral decision one measures the value of action (or
law) according to the metric Hedonic Calculus. Hedonic Calculus, also known as felicific calculus, is
introduced by Bentham. The result of the equation will determine the morality of the decision or law.
Seven criteria are involved in such a measuring device, in Bentham’s very own words they are as follows:

(1) its intensity. (How intense is the pleasure or pain?)

(2) its duration. (How long does the pleasure or pain last?)

(3) its certainty or uncertainty. (How probable is the occurrence of pleasure or pain)

(4) its nearness or remoteness. (Also known as Propinquity: How far off is the pleasure or pain?)

(5) its fecundity, i.e. its chance of being followed by sensations of the same kind (pleasure by
pleasure, pain by pain)

(6) its purity, i.e. its chance of not being followed by sensations of the opposite kind (pleasure by
pain, pain by pleasure).

(7) its extent, i.e. the number of persons to whom it extends or (in other words) who are affected
by it.

“Bentham does not recommend that they figure into every act of moral deliberation because of the
efficiency costs which need to be considered.” (SEP: The History of Utilitarianism) We should also learn
from experience and consider obvious facts. The Utilitarian Principle does not only apply to human
actions alone; Laws can also be crafted if it could produce more pleasures than pains for the people.
However, unlike the Divine Laws and Kant’s Imperatives that are absolute, Bentham’s is mutable. Thus,
the law should be changed if the social conditions change or if the law no longer produces more
pleasures than pains.

The Greatest Happiness Principle

Unlike other consequentialist ethical theories such as Egoism, Bentham and Mill concern themselves
with the well-being and happiness of all people (or at least the majority). For Mill, the Utilitarian
Standard…“is not the agent’s own greatest happiness, but the greatest amount of happiness
altogether…” (Mill 1863, Chap 2) A girl may abort her pregnancy but it must not only for her own
pleasure but for many over one embryo. A dying ninety two years old grandfather might be euthanized
for the welfare of the entire family for if not doing so may result into miseries of all family members in
the near future. Sacrifice one for the many but never sacrifice the many for one.

◈ SELF HELP ◈

You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand the lesson.

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The History of Utilitarianism

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/

Crash Course Philosophy, Utilitarianism

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-a739VjqdSI

◈ LET’S CHECK ◈

True or False: Write (T) if your answer is True or (F) if it were False. (1 point each item)

1. _____ ‘Hedon’ is a Greek word for pleasure.

2. _____ Bentham is hedonist.

3. _____ Bentham is not consequentialist.

4. _____ Mill is utilitarian.

5. _____ Utilitarian argues that killing is bad in itself.

6. _____ A hedonist necessarily considers the outcome of the act rather than the act.

7. _____ Mill rejects every notion of Bentham’s utilitarianism.

8. _____ Bentham and Mill are advocates of democracy.

9. _____ Bentham and Mill are both modern philosophers.

10. _____ Utilitarian believes that the purpose of human action is happiness.

Fill-in the blanks:

1. _____________________ is the ethical doctrine that teaches that the moral worth of an action
depends solely on the pleasure or pain that one may get from its outcome.

2. Bentham formulated a mathematical device to measure the pain and pleasure of consequence
of human action known as ______________________________.

3. Bentham is for quantity while Mill is for ______________________ of pleasure.

4. Utilitarian believes that no action is ___________________ good or bad.

5. According to Bentham, mankind is under the governance of two sovereign masters,

___________________ and

6. ___________________.

7. Mill says it is better to be __________________ dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.

8. _______________________ is a doctrine adopted by utilitarianism that teaches that the most

important is the outcome and not the human act in judging the moral worth.

9. For utilitarianism the __________ justifies the means.

10. Bentham founded his doctrine of utilitarianism on the teachings of hedonism and
_____________________.

◈ LET’S ANALYZE ◈

The country is alarmed with the recent spread of the novel Coronavirus. In its earliest stage where only
one Filipino was confirmed positive. To kill such patient could save many Filipino lives. Once the patient
is protected at all costs, it is likely that more Filipinos would get infected (as it is now, apparently), and
this third-world country with poor healthcare system would suffer in epic proportions, resulting in far
greater loss of life. One can easily compare the number of lives that will be lost (only one, that of the
patient’s), versus the number of lives that could be spared if the contagion is stopped in its earliest
stage. In the light of Bentham and Mill’s Utilitarianism, what must you do?
Bentham’s Act Utilitarianism

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Mill’s Utilitarianism

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◈ Q & A List ◈

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

◈ KEYWORD INDEX ◈

 Teleological Ethics

 Consequentialism

 Utilitarianism

 utility

 Hedonism

 Egoism

 Hedonic Calculus

 Greatest Happiness principle

BIG PICTURE in Focus

i. classify and articulate another major ethical theory – Deontological Ethics

◈ METALANGUAGE ◈

Deontological Ethics – from the Greek root deon which means duty or obligation, morality is based upon
the doer’s obligation

◈ ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ◈

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) is the most influential thinker of the modern philosophy, he synthetized the
early modern rationalism and empiricism. Like most other modern thinkers, he advocates for the
importance of the self or individuals over the imposed rules and external commands. As product or part
of the epoch known as the age of enlightenment or also known as age of reason that leads to the advent
of the modern age, Kant invites people to go back to the self since just like the authorities we are fully
capable of using our reason. This is what he means with ‘enlightenment’. Enlightened people do not
only roll over on command, they use their intellect. Central to the works of Kant is his contributions to
the fields of epistemology, ethics and aesthetics. These represent the truth, the good and the beautiful
which long had been discussed by Plato.

Knowledge of the principles of morality is ‘A Priori’

Kant identifies two types of knowledge, the knowledge acquired ‘A Posteriori’ (after experience). and
the knowledge acquired ‘A Priori’ (Before experience).

All scientific knowledge are examples of knowledge acquired ‘A Posteriori’. We acquire those
knowledges using our senses or through experience. But there are also knowledges that can be acquired
even prior to experience or “A Priori’, i.e., knowledge we could know even without being taught or even
without seeing them but by virtue of pure reason devoid of any experience. This includes the knowledge
of the principles of morality. Kant argues that “…all moral concepts have their seat and origin completely
‘a priori’ in reason…They cannot be abstracted from any empirical, and hence merely contingent,
cognition.” (Grounding, 411) This simply means that we could know that lying, not keeping promises and
the likes to be morally wrong by virtue of priori principles. On the other hand, we would know that
helping people in need is morally good even no one told us about it.

Good Will

In his book “Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals” Kant says, “There is no possibility of thinking of
anything at all in the world, or even out of it, which can be regarded as good without qualification,
except a good will.” (Grounding 393)

Anything that is bad for Kant is bad, but some actions we consider to be good may not really be good
and has to be qualified. Saving a person from drowning may not really be good if were tainted with
other motives. The only thing in this world which is good in itself is the ‘good will’. Internal it is that Kant
is concern with and not the external ones. The good will is something internal to us and it is the most
important to determine the moral worth of an action. He says, “For when moral value is being
considered, the concern is not with the actions, which are seen, but rather with their inner principles,
which are not seen.” (Grounding 407) The highest good then is none other than the ‘good will’, not
happiness. Do the good even if it does not make you happy or even if it will give you unpleasant
outcomes.

Autonomy of the Will

Since every rational could possess the knowledge of the principles of morals a priori, then it follows that
human beings deserve to exercise their autonomy of the will. They don’t have to be told what to do or
what is right and wrong since by virtue of their being human they have internal capacity to know the
good even without being. Thus, human does not need anyone’s law or dictate in order to know and do
the good. “Autonomy of the Will” it is when one does good actions by virtue of its own will and free
from any dictates of external influences such as command and rewards.

If anyone’s ‘will’ is not free from any dictate or external influences or external motive, the will is called
by Kant as “Heteronomy of the Will”, e.g. if one’s will tend to choose some act for a corresponding
reward. Thus, any external command or external motive (reward or punishment) make the ‘Will’
heteronomous.

Categorical Imperative

Since the principles of morality could be known ‘a priori’, Kant argues that we should craft our own
imperative for ourselves and we should not allow others to craft and imposed their laws on us. The
former is called categorical imperative and the latter is hypothetical imperative. The law we may craft
that is influenced by reward is, like God’s Command, external to the person must also be considered as
Hypothetical Imperative. (See also Grounding 414)

Categorical Imperative is the only source of authentic morality, the Hypothetical Imperative, on the
other hand, is the source of fake or unscrupulous morality.

Universal Validity of Maxim

As we have discussed already, Kant urges us to craft our own imperatives free from dictates of any
external influence, such as command or rewards. However, we should not only craft any imperative
without considering its universal validity. Kant says, “Act as if the maxim of your action were to become
through your will a universal law of nature.” (Grounding, 421)

Consider, for instance, the following maxims; 1.) I should not keep promises. 2.) I should not murder 3. I
should lie. Then, after making these maxims, you need to make some sort of ‘thought experiments’ to
know whether these could become universal laws. You have to think the scenario by which every human
person follows the same maxim as you, i.e., like you, they also don’t keep their promises. Then, not
keeping promises becomes a universal law and becomes our moral obligation or duty. Kant found this to
be self-defeating; if every human person follows the same imperative, then no one will believe on
promises at all. Thus, this sort of imperative cannot become your moral rule since it cannot be
universalized.
On the other hand, if you make the same thought experiment with the maxim “I should not murder”,
everyone would certainly find it easy to craft the same law for them. Thus, the maxim “I should not
murder” could become a universal law.

Morality is a Duty

Among many questions in Ethics, asking the question “Why one should do good” is of equal importance
with the rests. Kant directly or indirectly disagrees with Virtue Ethics, Natural Law, Divine Command and
Utilitarianism. For him it is our duty to do good. We do good for goodness sake and nothing else, not for
happiness, not because it is our inclination, not because of a reward and not because of any external
influence.

Kant says, “…this duty, prior to all experience, is contained as duty in general in the idea of a reason that
determines the will by means of a priori grounds.” (Grounding 408)

Do good and avoid evil even if it does not make you happy or even if it were harmful to you, we do good
because it is what we ought to do, it is our duty.

Treat humanity as ends and never as means

It is observable that Kant gives emphasis on the self over others into becoming authentic moral person.
However, it doesn’t mean that Kant gives no regards for others. Others possess similar rational capacity
and moral ascendancy; thus, they must be treated with dignity, they are objects of respect, they are
ends and not means.

In Kant’s words: “Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the
person of another, always at the same time as an end and never simply as a means.” (Grounding: 429)

In other words, others must be the purpose of things we do and they should not be utilized to meet our
ends, i.e., one should not inflict pain to any person even for the pleasure of majority.

◈ SELF HELP ◈

You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand the lesson.

Kant, Immanuel, Grounding for the Metaphysics of Morals with On a Supposed Right to Lie because of
Philanthropic Concerns, 1785 (Translated by James W. Ellington, Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.,
Indianapolis/Cambridge, Third Edition, 1993)

Crash Course Philosophy, Kant & Categorical Imperatives

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8bIys6JoEDw

◈ LET’S CHECK ◈

True or False: Write (T) if your answer is True or (F) if it were False. (1 point each item)

1. ___ Kant belongs to the modern period.

2. ___ What is important for Kant in judging the morality of the human action is not the

thing that we see but that thing we can’t see, i.e., the metaphysical.

3. ___ For Kant, we can treat some people as means for a greater good of society.

4. ___ According to Kant, the principle of morality could be known ‘a posteriori’.

5. ___ A religious person who help other in need because it is what God commands is a

good example of a good person in the perspective of Kant.

6. ___ To say that the motive is more important than the act of helping is Kantian.

7. ___ For Kant, do good even if it gives you no benefit at all.

8. ___ Kant argues that the maxim ‘I should lie’ can universally be accepted.

9. ___ Happiness is the highest good in Kant’s doctrine.

10. ___ If some terrorists came to your house to kill your father and ask where he is, Kant

will suggests, you should tell the truth and never lie.

Fill-in the Blanks:

1. A posteriori knowledge is a knowledge _________ experience.

2. A priori knowledge is a knowledge _________ experience.

3. Kant believes that our knowledge of the principles of morals is ________.

4. An Imperative crafted from a good motive is classified by Kant as ___________.

5. __________ is Greek word for duty.

6. When the ‘Will’ is free from any dictate of external influences or motive it is called _____.

7. For Kant, the highest good is the ________.

8. ________ is when the “Will’ is influenced by external influence or motive.

9. ________ is the only thing that is good without qualification.

10. For Kant, between duty and happiness, you should choose _______.

◈ LET’S ANALYZE ◈

Your father confides to you that he has committed a particular crime, and you promised never to tell
anyone.

Discovering that an innocent person has been accused, you plead with your father to give himself up. He
refuses and he reminds you of your promise. From a Kantian view, what must you do?

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◈ Q & A List ◈
Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

◈ KEYWORD INDEX ◈

 A priori

 A posteriori

 Deontological Ethics

 Universality

 Good Will

 Categorical Imperative

BIG PICTURE in Focus

j. classify and articulate classify and articulate Virtue Ethics

◈ METALANGUAGE ◈

Virtue Ethics – morality is based upon the doer’s character

◈ ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE ◈

Virtue Ethics is a theory of morality formulated somehow as early as the Ancient Greece. But the widely
known and the most influential theory of which is that of Aristotle.

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.) made a lot of contributions on many areas of knowledge and transformed
most of the areas he touched. He made contributions to Ethics, Theory on Politics, Metaphysics,
Agriculture, Mathematics, Medicine, Dance, Theatre and pioneered the study of Logic, Physics and
Biology. In his lifetime, Aristotle wrote 200 treatises, of which only 31 survive. The surviving works were
not in fact intended for public readings but mere lecture notes and draft manuscripts. (IEP: Aristotle)
Aristotle was a son of Nicomachus, a court physician of the King Philip II of Macedonia, the father of
Alexander the Great. Aristotle later on became a mentor to the Great Alexander.

Aristotle’s notion of virtue, like his teacher Plato, is highly related to his idea of happiness since he
claims completeness in virtue is required in happiness. (See NE: Book 1, 1100a, 4-5). He says that
“Happiness is some kind of activity of the soul in conformity with virtue”. (NE: Book 1, 1099b, 26)

Happiness

Long before Aristotle, it had been the obsessions of many thinkers to unveil the purpose or end of
human existence. Aristotle teaches that the purpose of thing lies in its proper function. The proper
function of ceiling fan is to be placed in the ceiling in order to rotate and circulate the air to give us
comfort. We call it proper function since a ceiling fan could still have many other functions such as, it
could be placed in the floor and still in order to circulate the air or it could be used as weapon against an
intruder or thieves. However, none of those is the proper function of a ceiling fun. The same thing with
human being, we have a lot of functions, an army, a doctor, a teacher, a preacher, a parent and many
others but human being has a proper function and according to Aristotle, it is happiness. (See NE: Book
1, 1097b 24)

Furthermore, Aristotle believes that “…every action and choice, seem to aim at some good.” (NE: Book
1, 1094, 1-3) He also identifies two types of end, namely, the end which is pursued for the sake of
something else and the end which is not pursued for the sake of something else.

In the first type of end, Aristotle also observes that the good which is the purpose of our particular
action could be utilized to get another end which is also perceived to be good. Thus, some good we get
from our actions may only be utilized to pursue another end, and in the same way, the other good we
get may only be used as means for another end and so on and so forth. For instance, your goal is to pass
the subject because you perceive it to be good, but passing is not yet your ultimate end, you will only
use it to pursue another end by which you think to be good, to graduate probably, but graduating is only
for getting a good job or having a better status, by getting a good job is to get a good salary and later
your money is only to be utilized for something else and something more and more. In these
descriptions, none of these ends can be the purpose of human existence. If human life has a purpose, it
has to be an end which is not pursued for the sake of something else, an end in itself and final in an
unqualified sense. Aristotle names it as the end of all ends, the final end, the highest good etc. this end
he calls as “eudaimonia” which is commonly translated into English as happiness or living well or doing
well. The Highest good is happiness since no one choses it for the sake of something else. We do not
choose happiness to get another thing or end because happiness cannot be utilized and is not to be
used to get anything else. When you are happy, you need nothing else. The final and perfect good is
nothing but happiness.
Virtue as Requirement for Happiness

Long before the teaching of Christianity about heaven and eternal happiness and that one needs to be a
good person or virtuous in order to be in heaven, Aristotle already taught that Happiness requires virtue
(NE: 1098a, 16), one should be virtuous in order to be happy. Aristotle teaches that Happiness is an
activity of the soul in conformity with virtue.

First it is an activity, and thus happy are only those who participate in this sort of activity. (NE: 1099a, 5)
Happiness, then, is what a human being does, it needs active participation. You cannot simply wait for
happiness without doing anything. To be happy you have to get involve, you have to be active and not
passive spectator. Doing no evil does not always make one a virtuous or good person. A virtuous person
does good and does the right thing.

Second, happiness is in conformity with virtue. A happy person then must be a good person and no bad
person is happy. Happiness, as I understand Aristotle, is an activity of the soul of a virtuous person. One
can never be happy unless one is good. Immoral people, regardless of wealth and fame are unhappy in
Aristotle’s understanding.

Virtue as Moderation

Virtue, for Aristotle, like hitting a target while excesses and deficiency of action and emotion is missing
the proper mark or target. (See.NE: Book 2, 1106b, 25) Virtue is the mean, as it aims at the median (NE:
Book 2, 1106b, 25)

Aristotle says, “…the man who shuns and fears everything and never stands his ground becomes a
coward, whereas, a man who knows no fear at all and goes to meet every danger becomes reckless.”
(NE: Book 2, 1104a, 20, p.36) Being coward and being reckless are two extremes of the mean “Courage”.
Indeed, everything that is too much is evil.

In the given example courage is the virtue and the two others are vices. It requires reason to know
which among the three is the mean or the virtuous one. A courageous man knows when to attack and
when to retreat depending on circumstances. Thus, morality is an attribute that belongs to the rational
alone.

In Book IV of Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle lists down various examples of virtues in relation to each
two extremes, to name a few:

Deficiency (Vice) Mean (Virtue) Excess (Vice)

Pettiness

(one who underestimates himself) High-Minded

(When one thinks he deserves great things and actually deserves them) Vanity
(When one thinks he deserves great things but actually does not deserve them)

Short Temper Gentleness Apathy

Grouchiness Friendliness Obsequinousness

Stinginess Generosity Extravagance

There are types or virtues in Aristotle’s notion, namely, the virtue of the mind or intellectual virtue and
the moral virtue. The two are highly interrelated; in fact, one needs to be intelligent or prudent in order
to be virtuous.

Virtue, Happiness and Rationality

As already been stated above, Happiness requires virtue (NE: 1098a16), and rational principle (NE:
1098a7). To choose the mean requires reason since it needs rational capacity to find out which is the
mean in relation to two extremes and the mean may vary from different people and different
circumstances. This is why, Intellectual Virtue (Prudence) is highly intertwined with Moral Virtue.

Human being is superior above all other on the basis of human rational capacity. This rationality gives us
the capacity to know and thus choose for we only choose what we know as good as we always tend to
choose the good; (see Book I, 1094a, 5, p.3) in fact it is the end of all our choices. (see Book I, 1094a, 20,
p.4) Reason then is the sole ground why human is happy, thus, without reason no one can be happy.
Therefore, happiness is an activity that is reserved for human alone since only human is rational.
Aristotle concludes, “We are right, then, when we call neither a horse or an ox nor any other animals
happy, for none of them is capable of participating in an activity of this kind.” (NE: Book I, 1100, 5)

Virtue as a Character

Aristotle says, “Moral Virtue is formed by habit.” (NE: Book 2, 15) His concept of morality focuses on the
character of the person rather than on the action. Virtue is a habit or excellence. In this sense we judge
people not solely by virtue of what they do at particular circumstances but what they regularly or most
likely do in a given circumstance. Aristotle’s concern is not mainly on what you do but what sort of
person you are. A reckless person will always fight in times of danger the coward will always run but the
virtuous will do the most reasonable action to be taken, i.e., courage.

◈ SELF HELP ◈

You can also refer to the source/s below to help you further understand the lesson.

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Aristotle

https://iep.utm.edu/aristotl/

◈ LET’S CHECK ◈

Fill in the blanks.

1. _________ is moral theory that teaches moderation in everything we do.

2. Aristotle defines man as a rational ________.

3. According to Aristotle, every action and choice seem to aim at some _______.

4. ________ is the ultimate purpose of human existence in the teaching of Aristotle.

5. ________ is a book credited to Aristotle dedicated to his teaching on morality.

6. ________ is described by Aristotle as the highest good.

7. In Aristotelian teaching, happiness requires ________.

8. In Aristotle’s teaching ________ is the end which is ‘not’ used to attain another end.

9. What sets human apart from all living things including brute animals is ________.

10. Deficiency and excesses are both classified by Aristotle as _________.

True or False: Write (T) if your answer True or (F) if it were False. (1 point each item)

1. ____ Virtue is the same as happiness.

2. ____ Virtue is a character.

3. ____ Aristotle is a Medieval Philosopher.

4. ____ Happiness requires virtue.

5. ____ A happy person is a good person.

6. ____ No bad person can be happy in Aristotle’s tenet.

7. ____ ‘Eudaimonia’ is a Latin word for happiness.

8. ____ Happiness is an activity of the soul.

9. ____ A man’s feeling after winning P15 Million in a lottery is a good example of happiness.
10. ____ Aristotle was a teacher of Plato.

◈ LET’S ANALYZE ◈

Evaluate the merits and weaknesses of Aristotle’s Golden Mean.

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◈ Q & A List ◈

Students’ Questions / Issues Professor’s Answers

◈ KEYWORD INDEX ◈

 Virtue Ethics

 Virtue

 Happiness

 Mean

 Excess

 Eudaimonia

 moderation