CHAPTER =q=e Polarization sWe jas FiBL mooucnow TX MOI EL Wictference and diffraction phenomena proved that light = Nisa wave motion and enabled the determination of the > Preferential Direction in a Wave byavelength, However t However, they do not give any indication > Natural Lighe ; PD cexardingthecharacterof the waves Whetherihe ghee” Freduction of Lincarly Polarneg are longitudinal or transverse, or whether the vibrations are polsrizer and Analyser linear or circular cannot be deduced from the above two Calcite Crystal > = phenomena, as all kinds of waves under suitable conditions . Huygens’ Explanation of Double: exhibit interference and diffraction. In 1816 Arago and Refraction Fresnel showed that light waves vibrating in mutually > Huygens’ Construction of perpendicular planes do not interfere. In 1817 Thomas Young, Wavefronts > Electromagnetic Theory of Double Refraction > Phase Difference Between e-Ray and o-Ray Types of Polarised Light Retarders or Wave Plates Production of Elliptically Polarized Light Production of Circularly Polarized Light Analysis of Polarized Light Babinet Compensator Optical Activity Specific Rotation Laurent’s Half Shade Polarimete | Biquartz Lippich Polarimeter Artificial Double Refraction — explained the absence of interference by postulating that light vvy v vv vVvVVVVV Polarization - . 480 Scanned with CamScannerare transverse waves. About fifty years later, Maxwell developed electromagnetic theory and sted that light waves are electromagnetic waves, As electromagnetic waves are transverse jou that HHT Waves too are transverse waves. The concept of transverse nature Js to the concept of polarisation. Light coming fom Common Tight sources is unpolarized. The tion cannot be detected by unaided human eye. An understanding of polarisation is. tal for understahding the propagation of electromagnetic waves guided through wave-guides in liquid crystal displays (LCDs) which are widely used in Waves are basically of two types, namely tudinal. waves and transverse waves: A wave in shich particles of medium oscillate fo andro along the ection of wave propagation is called a longitudinal ine ‘Sound waves and waves produced on a spring a¢ examples of longitudinal waves. The longitudinal “¥aves consist of altemate compressions and rarefactions. Ihthese waves, particle displacement (vibration) and BEeeeeererereerrrrer ed 7 LBEEVEEEDED RESP EP Hi: Longitudinal wave. A.wave in which every particle of the medium oscillates up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation is called a transverse wave. Ripples on water surface and waves on a rope are examples of transverse waves. The wave propagation takes in the form of alternating crests and troughs. In a transverse wave, the direction of particle displacement occurs perpendicular to the wave propagation. Hence, the direction normal to the wave propagation is the preferential direction. ina transverse wave. The existence of a preferential direction leads to the characteristic phenomenon known as polarisation of transverse waves. Polarisation is not found with longitudinal waves as they do not possess-a directional property. Polarisation is specific to transverse waves. An optical je W W | propagation Plane of : ol polarization Fig. 20.1 ViAn electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave consisting of electric and magnetic fields Vibrating perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation. The. vibrating electric Vector E and the direction of wave propagation form a plane. In olden days this plane was called the ann the direc this plas Scanned with CamScanner Chapter: 20 : Polarization = 451Yr Eee 2 482m A Textbook of Optics ‘ yf polarisatig vibration. However, ithas become common now days to refer toit as. the plane of olarisatio te. as te plane, whi | : ae same notation and define the plane of polari easith 4 he optical vector E. dioction of prevas >POLARISED LIGHT | “~ Scattered beams ° tH Scattering center Unpolarized incident beam HH tt Fig. 20.7 5 =) POLARIZATION BY SELECTIVE ABSORPTION light pases nan centers mineral etal absorb ght selective Wien natural iAmuually pene Tet 8 tourmaline itis spit into two components, which are polarize parallel oa particular place heen ae eonely aborts ight that is polarized ina rect This differesces al but freely transmits the light component polarized ifi1 m. If the crystal is of i 1S of proper thickness, one of the ‘components is totally absorbed and a Scanned with CamScannerChapter 120: Polarization 487 omponent enmerging from the Fr tineasly polarized, Selective Unpolarized iy Pei niwcarated in Fig, 20.8. A incident wave Monto ; Bi example of dichroic erystal isa 1, : Hine cry rN ference in absonption in ai The difference in absorp Lb Absorbed Feat dizcctions: may be understood Fe ihe electron theory. When the pene ofthe incident ht waves " pif to the natural Frequency oF tHe Pichyojg Fijgiron cloud, the Hight waves are crystal Jybed strongly. Crystals that exhibit Jative absorption are anisotropic, The sighly oN Gilad splits the incident wave into two jes. Ifthe light wave frequency is pic to the natural frequency of the Mig. 008 iron cloud, then the component hing ils vibrations perpendicular to the caxcipal planc of the crystal gets absorbed. Thee if transmitted. The transinitted light is linearly pplirised. However, the difficulty is that the sas cannot be grown to sufficiently bigger sie. — POLARIZATION BY DOUBLE REFRACTION ‘The double refraction phenomenon was Hiscovered in 1669 by Erasmus Bartholinus loring his studies on calcite (CaCO,) crystals, hich are known more as Iceland spar. When ghtis incident on a calcite crystal, itis split into oreffacted rays (see Fig, 20. differing in their fovetties. The phenomenon of causing two tracted rays by a crystal is called birefringence ‘double refraction. The crystals ae said to be elringent. =| wave ‘. attenuated linearly polarised wave Unpolarized’ fight Calcite e-Ray SET ' UThe two rays produced in ‘tions One ofthe rays obeys a 4y The other ray does not ob oun sonordinary - raordinary ray or e-ray. Hence, t - oo -_ Scanned with CamScanner488_m_A Textbook of Optics bea any polarised ight. BEA rovanzer AND ANALYSER | A polarizer is an optical device that transfo Fig. 20.10). it produces lineatly polarised Tight. is associated witha specific direction called he tranemicsion ati of the polanize. nats incident ona linear potarizer only that vibration that sparse! to the transmission ats is. through the polarizer while the vibration that isin a perpendicular direction is ttally Blocked analyser is a Jevice, whichis used to ideatfy the direction of vtratign of lineal polarised rolreetand an ataliseraebicstl ike me ss) odbc eons cist light — Unpolarized Prane-polarized beam ‘beam ~ OO A polarizer transforms unpolarized light ito polsrized light Fig. 20.10 ig the < fpeo rays with their directic and the angle x2 o-ray is completely ‘with direction of vibr i) Polaroid sheets: 1 red. a methed of 2 s to cbtain large pola Polaroii 20.6.1. FABRICATION OF LINEAR POLARIZER Practical linear polarizers are — fabricated using birefringent crystals or, dichroic crystals. Out of the polarisers based ‘on double refraction, Nicol prism is the Widely used one: Polarizer sheets made using dichroism are known as Poluoid sheets. We describe here the preparation of Nicol prism and Polappid sheets. ) Nicol Prism: A Nicol prism is rade from calcite crystaf-Trwas designed, by William: Nicol in 1820. A rhomb of \ a cakite crystal about three times as long as itis thick, ij obtained by cleavage from the crisis’ crystal. The ends of the rhombohedron are ground until ihey make an angle of 68° instead of 71° ‘with the longitudinal edges. This piece is then cut into two along a plane perpendicular both wie principal axis and to the new ehd surfaces. The fwo parts of thé crystal are then cemented together with canada balsam, whose refractive index lies between the refractive indices of calcite for co-ray and e-tay.fl,=1.66, j1=1.486 and ft ..5 raran=1-35} The position ofthe optic axis AB shown in Fig. 20.11. The refractive index for e-ray depends upon the direction in which e-r2y 34 propagating in the crystal. The difference i ‘o-ray and that for e-3j4f SsSequently, the ight tr ‘goes on increasing with the angle between the two rays in the crystal. When this angle is 90°, ff “Belecular chains, The ifference is a maximum. Thus, for a fixed valve for y.,, the has its maximum or minimum vai}] "8S of the Polaroid she: in perpendicular direction. Inthe above case jt, = 1.486 represents the minimum value. ‘original length. During ressthe PVA rcolecules ag the direction of strete Ene vapour. The iodit KExcelves to the straight cules and consequ: lel conducting chain A sheet fabricatet ‘When natural ligh atoms induces ¢ Scanned with CamScannersasmitted While theacray is internally reflected, re balsam |; dba the o-ay is completetpabgorbed. Then we get only ee -ray is incid lent is blackened SNicol with directi Storie : nly the linea f Nicol with direction of vibratiOh as showin nthe Fig, 20.11 Se 19 coming out of ‘a pn Ti © The Nicol prisin isthe most widely used polarizing dev ae Nico works po sgyare expensive and have alimittd field of view oFabout age °°" 800d polarizers © Por studying the optical properties of ger andthe otir sana ‘ransparent substances, two Nicol are used - one ay (ii) Polaroid sheets: In 1928 E. H. Brvvened a method of aligning small gatals to obtain large’ polarising sheets. fe sheets are called Polaroid sheets. They fe fabricated as follows. A éléar plastic et of long chain molecules of PVA lyvinyl alcohol) is-heatéd and then ziched ina given direction tq many times original length. During the stretching Ineess the PVA molecules become aligned ing the direction of stretching, The sheet ihen laminated to a rigid sheet of plastic stabilise its size’ It is then exposed to fine vapour. The iodine atoms attach i elves to the straight long chain PVA Polaroid sheet. lecules and consequently form long pel “conducting chains. The conduction ‘electrons associated with iodine can move along the | ins. A sheet fabricated according to this process is known as H-sheet | When natural light is incident on the sheet, the component that i parallel tothe chains of ‘iine atoms induces current in the conducting chains and is therefore strongly absorbed. Crasequently, the light transmitted contains onl the component thats perpendicular 0 the direction Sitolecularchains The direction of E-vectorin the transmitted beam correspondstothe transmis100 1s ofthe Polaroid sheet, These sheet polarisers are inexpensive and can be male in large siz Scanned with CamScanner490 _m_A Textbook of Optics Polaroid sheets are widely used in sunglasses, camera filters ete to eliminate the unwanted from objects. They are used respectively as polarisers and analysers to produce pol: to examine the state of polarisation of light. Svorking: . _ Nicol prisms and Polaroid sheets are widely used for the production and detection of lin polarised light. These components are appropriately mounted in metal ring structures such th larised light transmission axis can be rotated and the amount of rotation may be read from the graduations ma on the ring. ~ POLARIZER P ANALYSER A, 5 v o . P A 7 : 4 t } ‘ : t . v Ny. : . ° a ° aq 3 0) f z Fig. 20.12 . 5 : = ‘When two Nicol prisms P and A are placed adjacent to each other as shown in Fig. 20.12, o0€ of them acts as a polarizer and the other acts as an analyser. If an unpolarized ray of light isi on the Nicol prism P, a linearly polarised e-ray emerges from P with-its vibration direction lying; the principal section of P. The state of the polarisation of the light emerging from polariser P canbe examined with another polarizer A, which for convenience is called an analyser. Let now this raybe incident on the second Nicol prism A, whose principal section is parallel to that to P. The vibration direction of the ray will be in the principal section of A and hence it is transmitted unhindered through the analyser A. If the Nicol prism A is gradually rotated, the intensity of the e-ray decreases in accordance with Malus law (See § 20.6.3). When its principal section becomes perpendicular to that ofthe! Nicol prism P, the vibrations of the ray, emerging from P and cident on A, Will be perpemdicutarto the principal section of A. In this poSition the ray behaves as,0-ray inside the prism A and is totaly internally reflected by the canada balsam layer. Hence no light is transmitted by the prism A. Inthis configuration, thé two Nicol prisms P and A are said to be crossed. If the Nicol prism A is fui rotated through another 90°; the intensity of light emerging from A will go on increasing. The intent will become a maximum when its principal section is again parallel to that of the prism P. Thus, prism P produces linearly polarised light while the prism A detects it. Hence the prism P is calle polarizer and the prism A an analyser. — Fig. 20.13 shows the Polaroid sheets in three different configurations. When the transmiss axis of the analyser A is parallel to that of polarizer P, the light passes unhindered through ® Scanned with CamScannerShapter : 20: Polarization m 491 own in Fig. 20.13 (a).If the PAE: sion axes are at an angle 0, light P A Bae sjly transmitted (Fig. 20.13b). yb aroia 3 \dicular to 1 I BEE inc axes are perpendicular to each C ; Hho light is transmitted (Ftg. 20.13c). “ cereraan Full @FFECT OF POLARIZER (a) Transparent ON NATURAL LIGHT — Pp : A P when unpolarized light passes He te ‘pa polarizer, the intensity of the rT Fed light will be exactly half that, See eat Hohl ; Fegincident light. We can prove this as Partial transmission is . H Let E, be the amplitude of vibration ts A + Jone of the waves of the unpolarized x : ppincident on the polarizet.Let E, make Cea fart. E, may be resolved into its — © ae jar components E, and By as Side view Raa sion in Fig. 20.14. ne Polarizer sheets with transmission axes—(a) Parallel polarizer blocks the allowing transmission of light, (b) Oriented at an cgaponent E, and transmits the angle, allowing partial transmission, (c) Crossed & aponent E,. The intensity of the (90°) causing extinction of light ») faismitted light is then Fig. 20.13 x 4 “ At I= B?, (cos 0) = E”, cos? 0 =1, cos? 0 (206) {38 In unpolarized light, all values of 0 starting from 0 to 2n are equally probable. 4."¢,,'¢ © 1=1, (cos) \ (20.7) rt ~ Transmitted ve 1% ransmitte » tte = feos*ade component |¥ fons an ° ‘Plane-polarized light seen Ib iC + 20) ao» head-on an. gl .2 ; L 99)? . fo | an , {sin 29} . =) + | =tfor +P a ; 4 t anor ‘Action of a polarizing sheet on a linearly polarized | ave oriented at an angle @ w.ct the transmission I axis, The component E, is absorbed and £, component thus, itunpolarized light of intensity -i® transmitted. incident ona polarizer, the intensity of fransmitted through the polarizer is Fig. 20.14 Sérecr OF ANALYSER ON PLANE POLARIZED LIGHT — MALUS' LAW ‘When natural (unpolarized) light is incident on a polarizer, the transmitted light is linearly - Scanned with CamScanner| aa AON = AH. 492 m_A Textbook of Optics polarized, Ifthis light further passes through an analyser, the intensit d the transmissioy f the polarizer and analyser. Malus stud formulated the law that bears his name. It states that the intensity of the polarized light trans through the analyser is proportional to cosine square of the angle between the plane of transmiseh with the angle befy ‘of the analyser and the plane of trav “mission of the polarizer, This mas Malus’ lavi} Con oe en ne coe This is van Unpolarized > incident wave “hg ie - ay é & Ley Analyzer Fig. 20.15 If unpolarized light of intensity J, is incident on a polarizer, plane polarized light of inten 1,2 transmitted by it Let us denote [2 by 1, This plane polarized light then passes through | analyser. Let E be the amplitude of vibration and 0 be the angle that this vibration makes with | axis of the analyser. E can be resolved into two rectangular components: (i) By, parallel tothe pla of transmission of the analyser and (ii) E,, perpendicular to the plane of analyser. It is only — parallel component £, that is transmitted by the analyser. : E, = Ecos6 ‘The intensity corresponding to this component is T= E* cos?@ = 1, cos? 0 =(I,/2) cos” @ * Case (i): 18 = 0° axes parallel . I=], Case (ii): If 0 = 90° axes perpendicular 1=0 Case-{i): If @ = 180° axes parallel q Case (i): If 8 = 270°— axes perpendicular 0 ‘Thus, we obtain two positions of maximum int intensil we rotate the axis of the analyser with respect to that of the polarizer. EREA ANISOTROPIC CRYSTALS ( gniLy DEF INAT:ION) When a light beam is incident on arf isotropic’ medium such as a glass slab, it refracts a8 single ray. An optically isotropic material is one in Which the index of refraction is the same in directions. Glass, water and air are-examples of isotropic materials. The atoms in_a.crystal ifferent direct Scanned with CamScannerChapte 20 : Polarization m 493 Cintas eelatization m 493 ropie. In such anisotropic erystalg the f force Of interaction between the electron ¢ cloud and the ropic i Ht ctystallographie dire lons. The natur, — Tikewise dependent on the direction in which the el f okt wave. This results in different al frequency of the lectron "Ss are caused to vibrate by the : ion teteMt Velocities in i tions and the i rent in different directions within the crystay, 7 See eens within th index of refraction ivided into lectroy fferent dire, ple of uniaxi: ial crystals jj -. Calcite crystals are thombohedral 281. OPTIC AxIs~ e a se are all ‘he optic.axis is the direction ina — reset: tl erystal along which the e-ray and the ay travel with the same speed and ~ ye i ce ently double refraction deve not take : Fig 2026 : “along this dizection, The corresponding Eisctive index is thes theefractive index for Binary light, say Ay. a me Scanned with CamScanner494 ™ A Textbook of Optics 20.8.2. PRINCIPAL SECTION A plane containing the opttc axis and perpendicular to a pair of opposite faces of the c is called the principal section of the crystal for that pair of faces. Thus, there are three princip sections passing through any point within the crystal, one corresponding to each pair of oppesi es. A principal section always cuts surfaces of calcite crystal in a parallelogram having angle 71° and 109° (sce Fig. 20.172). Fig. 20.17 (b) shows a face of the crystal in which the end-viewe the principal section AB (of Fig. 20.17a) is shown by the dotted line AB. The lines parallel to represent the end-views of other principal sections parallel to AB with in the crystal When the calcite crystal is rotated around the o-ray, -ray describes a right circular cone around it. Fig, 20.17 . 3 Defining principal section is not enough to unde7Mand the directions of vibrations for he o-ray and e-rays. Hence, two more planes are defined as principal plane for the o-ray and principal plane for the e-ray. The plane containing the optic axis and the o-ray is called the principal, plane of the o-ray and the plane containing the optic axis and the e-ray is called the principal plane, of the e-ray. The directions of vibrations in the o-ray and e-ray can be understood with reference 1 = these planes. f Be ’ ei DOUBLE REFRACTION x 1a Fig. 20.17 (a) shows a principal section of calcite crystal. A ray of light is incident on the face ‘AB of the crystal and it travels along the principal section. The ray is split into, two rays. ner ‘o- and e-rays. The o-ray travels through the crystal without deviation while the e-ray is refracted at some angle. As the opposite faces of the crystal are parallel, the “rays emerge out parallel to the incident ray. Within the crystal the o-ray always lies inthe plane of incidence whereas e-ray does nat lie in the plane of incidence. e- ray lies in the plane of incidence only when the plane of incidences | arprincipal section. If'a mark-(dot-or-cross) is made-on-e paper and then the calcite crystal (AB face) is placed on it, two images are seen through the crystal, as illustrated in Fig. 20.17 (b). The imiages are prod! by the o-ray and e-ray. The intensities ofthe images are lesser than that ofthe original mark. The line | joining them lies inthe principal section. If now the crystal is rotated slowly about an axis passing through the o-image, the e-image moves round in a circle while the o-image remains stationary. It shows that the velocity of propagation of o-ray is the same in all directions, while tbat of ex*Y , changes with direction, 3 ‘The e-ray and o-ray are linearly polarised. The e-ray has its vibrations (i.e, the optical vector) ‘parallel \o the principal section whereas the vibrations (optical vector) in o-ray are perpendicular to he principal section, as indicated in Fig. 20.9. The vibration directions can be established by examining rays through a polarizer. As the polarizer is held in the path of the rays and rotated slowly, the intensity of one of the images, say the o-image, increase while that ofthe e-image decreases. In one position, the Scanned with CamScanneree ee sant #tecaaton of a eipse wb mj ais nd min xa once with. ad cine axes. Therefore. when he two plane placed waves ae ou of phate by 0. thet rest isan eliptically polarised wave. m ee aan 4. In the particular case, when & = n/2 and E, = E, = B,, equ.(20.39) reduces to vel R (204 the equation of a circle. Hence the resultant light is ciularly polarised. E,leads Eby: 2x Tn2 3nd Sud x Suit E/O0Q\000/ Eyleads E,by: 9 td Set 3n2 Th On ‘Various polarization configurations. —_ : Fig. 20.31 Fig, 2031 shows more generally how the E vector changes with time for various values of 20.14.1. SUPERPOSITION OF e-RAY AND 0-RAY ‘Now we are in a position to understand what happens when e-ray and o- ray overlap on exci other after emerging from an anisotropic erystal plate. It is obvious that they cannot product imerference fringes as in a double slit experiment. On the other hand, they combine 10 produce different states of polarisation depending upon their optical path difference. 1. When the optical path difference js 0 an even or odd multiple of 9/2, the resultant igh wave is linearly polarised. © . When the optical path difference is /4, the resultant light wave i 3. Inthe particular instance when the wave amplitudes are equal and the o is 4/4, the resultant light wave is circularly polarised Jiptically polarised. tical path difference TYPES OF POLARISED LIGHT _ ‘We can now sum up the various types of polarised Tight as follows. - 7 (@_ Unpolarized light, which consists of sequence of wave trains, all oriented at random, Itis considered — as the resultant of two optical vector components, which are thcoherent. - -(i)Linearly polarised light, which can be regarded ‘as a resultant of two coherent linearly polarised. a ' ? | Pata Schematic representation of 4 Partially polarised light, whith is a mixture of, rally plied Hight. linearly polarised light and unpolarised light. Pantally polarized light is represented as shown in Fig. 20.32 : Fig. 20.32. 1 Scanned with CamScanner(jv) * Elliptically polarised light, which amplitudes and a constant phase dite the resultant of two coher cof O0°(sce Fig. 20.3: changes with time and t polarised wave. If it rotates anti- clockwise, as we look back toward the source it is said to be a left-elliptically polarised wave. -Circularly polarised light, which is the resultant of two coherent waves having same amplitudes and a Constant ‘hase difference of 90°.A light wave is said to be circularly polarised. if. the magnitude of the electric vector E, stays Constant but the vector rotates about the direction of propagation such that it goes on sweeping a circular helix in space (sée'fig. 20.34). If we imagine that the wave is advancing Fig, 20.33 ent waves having different 3). Inelliptically polarized he vector K rotates about If we imagine that we are looking at the light wave advancing towards us, we would observe that the tip of the E vector traces an ellipse. If we look from sides, we would find that the tip of E sweeps a flattened helix in space. When we are looking back towards the source, if the rotation of E vector occurs clockwise, itis said to be a right-elliptically- Scanned with CamScannerocean aaleeianneaakonaeendiee, toward our eyes, we would find thatthe tip of the E vector ofthe wave traces aci the rotation ofthe tip of Bis clockwise, as seen by an observer looking back towards source, then the wave i said to be right-cireularly polarised, Ifthe tip of Frotates, clockwise, as scen by an observer looking back toward the source, the wave iss: + lefl-circularly polarised. Ear EFFECT OF POLARIZER ON TRANSMISSION OF POLARISED UGHT (Hunpotarized lightis incident on a polarizer, the transmitted light wil be linearly pola light. The intensity ofthe transmitted polarised light willbe half the intensity of unpola igh incident on the polarizer, The intensity ofthe transmitted light docs not change rotation of the polarizer. (GM partially polarised light is incident on a polarizer, the intensity ofthe transmitted will be dependent on the direction of the transmission axis of the polarizer. The inten of the transmitted light will vary from a maximum value I, t0 4 minimum value I, ‘one full rotation of the polarizer. Two positions of Ig, and two positions of I, occut one complete rotation, (ii) IF plane polarised light is incident on the polarizer, the intensity of transmitted i Varies from zero to a maximum value. Two positions of zero intensity and two positiog ‘of full intensity T occur in one complete rotation ofthe polarizer (i) When circularly polarised lights incident on a polarizer, the intensity ofthe transmit ight stays constant in any position of the polarizer. The circular vibrations may be resolved into wvo mutually perpendicular linea vibrations of equal amplitude. When the cieully Polarised lights incident on the polarizer, te vibrations parallel to its transmission ag ass through the polarizer while the perpendicular component is obstructed. When polarizer is rotated, there is always a component of constant intensity parallel to the ais ofthe polarizer, which is frely transmitted. Hence, the intensity ofthe transmitted light isthe same for all positions of the polarizer. (Incase of elliptcally polarised ight, the intensity ofthe light transmitted through te polarizer varies with the rotation of the polarizer from Jy. 0 Ipiy pag is Found When he polarizer axis coincides with the semi-major axis of the ellipse andl, occurs when he polarizer axis coincides with the semi ofthe ellipse. RETARDERS OR WAVE PLATES _ hange the state of polarization of an incident wave, The light is incident on a retarder, it splits the light into two plane polarized light waves and one of the-waves lags behind the other by'a known amount. Upon emerging from the retarder, the two waves superpose on each other to produce a wave, whi of a different state of polarizationtA ‘quarter ¥ plate and a half wave plate are two in calcite is brittle and difficult to handle in'the form of thin slices, it is not generally used to make retardation plates, Retarders are frequently made from quartz but more often ska they are made using the biaxial crystal mica, Scanned with CamScannerChapter : 20: Polarization m 511 “aren WAVE PLATE 7 isa thin plate of bitefringent crystal having the optic axis parallel to its art adjusted such that itintroch 7 fitfe and ils s adjusted such thatit € WaT ypath difference noe of 90”) between the e-ray and o-ray propagating through it Jarized Tight wave i refracting face, the wave Splits into e-wave and o-wa long put with different velocities. As a result, when they emerge from the rear face of ical path difference would be developed between them. Thus, for a quartz wave [A quarter wave plate introduces between and o-ray a phase difference 8 given by 8 = (2n/A)A = n/2 = 90” ‘A quarter-wave plate is used in producin, ically oF Cl circularly polarised lights. It sents prane pola Sa eam chp ae n citipticanty or pe cm rent eae ‘A quarter wave plate placed between & fare incident ight vector makes with the optic mirror and a polariing sheet creates cn ant sof the quarter wave plate. reflection fiter. GGion of quarter wave plate on elliptically and Luss! faolarly polarised light: k Linearly & : polarized light _ Quarter wave plate eseraben Elliptically polarized light ‘Action of a quarter wave plate. Lineaily polarized light is produced in either case of ellipt circularly polarized light incident on the plate, Fig. 20.35 Letus consider elliptically polarised light being incident on a quarter wave plate. Elliptically ised light imay be viewed as_made up of two coherent plane polarised waves of different litudes, and differing in phase by 90°. the quarter wave plate introduces an additional phase iTence of 90° leading to a total phase difference of 180° between the two component waves. Gan they emérge out of the plate, they combine to form linearly polarised wave, as shown ii Fig. '. The action of the quarter wave plate on circularly polarised light ‘ 'sed light inéident on a quarter wave plate is converted into lin Scanned with CamScanner512 _m A Textbook of Optics HALF WAVE PLATE refracting face: ss chosen such that it introduces a half ‘a phase difference of 180°) between e-ray and o-ray. ‘When a plane polanized it incident on a quartz cr 8 toits refrac ng faces it pits ino two waves o- and e-waves, The so waves nie long ea direction ingide the crystal but with different velocities. As a result, when they emerge from the red face of the crystal, aii optical path difference would be developed-between them. ~ (u.-n)a=4 eae =e 2(He-Ho) Ahalf wave plate introduces between e-ray and o-ray a phase difference 8 given by . B= QnAyd=n= 18027 Rotation of the plane of polarisation of linearly polarised light by a half wave plate: Now et a plane polarized light be incident normally on the half-wave plate. Let the el vector E make an angle with the optic axis of the half wave plate (sce Fig. 20.36). The ine wave splits into two waves, e- and o-waves. The waves progressively develop path differencda {hy travel through the crystal and they emerge with a phase difference of 180°. When the two wai combine, they yield a plane-polarised wave, which has its plane of polarization rotated throught angle 028. Therefor a.hafarave plat rotates the ization of the incident pl ‘ polarised light through an angle 28. The half wave plate will invert the handedness of elliptical circular polarised light, changing right to left and vice vers 4 4 . Half wave plate, Optic axis Linearly polarized light wy Linearly Polarized RODUCTION OF ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT ‘A quarter wave plate and a polarizer are the optical devices necessary to produce elliptical polarized light from unpolarized light. ~ a _ Unpolarized light is first converted to plane polarized light by allowing it to pass through: Polarizer (a polaroid sheet-or a Nicol prism). The plane polarized light is then made incident on uarter wave plate (see Fig. 20.37). The quarter wave plate or the polarizer is rotated such that Scanned with CamScannerChapter : 20 : Polarization = 513 tic axis Lapa | VW =| Etipticalty Polarizer owp Polarized Light Polarized light Fig. 20.37 ith the optic axis of the ve pinte. The incident ray divides into o: ie-ray or anh : ray divide ay and e-ray oF amplitudes E sin @ and rays travel along. the same direction in the cesta wir oteret veloc = The eee | Fiarived in orthogonal panes. They are ih phase at theron face byt prostessively petout of phase ey travel through the crystal. When they emerge out ofthe crystal they will have a path difference /4 ora phase difference of 90°. When they combine, they produce elliptically polarized | “7.18.1, DETECTION OF ELLIPTICALLY POLARIZED LIGHT fe 5 is allow © _. The tight beam is allowed to pass through an analyser (a polaroid sheet or a Nicol prism). 1f pnrotating the analysing polaroid sheet or Nicol, the intensity of the emerging beam varies from a | qaximum to a minimum value, but is never zero, then the incident light is elliptically polarized. A ilar resulLw obtained if the incident light is partially polarized. The two cases may be distinguished by inserting a quarter wave plate in the path of Tight before it falls on the analyser. If the original-Ii ight is elliptically polarized, it may be considered as resultant of two coherent plane Optic axis—t>] con Linearly 1 oe 2B f ccpenes Elliptically _ ne esut __ polarized Light ~ QW Analyzer . — * Fig. 20.38 [Polarized waves, that is e-ray and o-ray, which are out of phase by 90°. If the light passes through the ‘quarter wave plate, anradditional phase difference of 90” is intrOdiiced between the e-ray and o-ray. Therefore, the total phase difference becomes 180° between the e-ray and o-ray. On emerging from the quarter plate, the e-and o-rays combine to produce plane polarized light. If the light coming out Sr quarter wave plate is examined with an analyzer, light will be extinguished twice in one full fotation of the jolarizer as shown in Fig, 20.38. PRODUCTION OF CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT A quarter wave plate and a polarizer are the optical devices required for producing circularly arized light from unpolarized light. Unpotarized light is first Converted to plane polarized light by allowing it to pass through @ Scanned with CamScanner514 m A Textbook of Optics polarizer (a polaroid sheet or a Nicol prism). Plane polarized light is then made to be incident g quarter wave plate. The polarizer and the quarter wave plate are rotated such that the clectric vectbe E of the plane-polarized wave makes an angle of 45° with the optic axis of the quarter wave plalé ‘The plane polarized wave incident on the quarter wave plate splits into (wo rays, o-ray and e- equalamplitude (E, 5°) The two ra wut with different velocities(See Fig. 20.39). Tic two rays arein pascatt cof but progressively get Gut of phase as they travel through the crystal. As they emerge from the rea face of the crystal, they will have a path difference of 1/4 or phase difference of 90°. The two rays are linearly polarized in mutually perpendicular directions. When they combine, they produce’ circularly polarized Tight. a Fig. 20.39 20.194. DETECTION OF CIRCULARLY POLARIZED LIGHT 4 ‘The light beam is allowed to pass through an analyser (a polaroid sheet or a Nicol prism). If on rotating the analysing polaroid sheet or Nicol, the intensity of the emerging beam remains uniform, then the incident lights citeularly polarized & Similar result would be obtained if the incident light is ordinary unpolarized light. The two cases may be distinguished by inserting a quarter wave plate in the path of light-before it falls on the analyser_It'Ihe given light is circularly polarized, it may be considered as resultant of two coherent plane polarized waves, that is e-ray and o-ray, which are out of phase by 90° the light passes through the quarter wave plate, an additional phase difference of 90° is imroduced between the e-ray and o-ray. Therefore, the total phase difference becomes 180° | between the e-ray and o-ray. On emerging from the quarter plate, the e- and o-rays combine to produce ized i Te if The Tight coming out of quarter wave plate is examined with an analyser, light will be extinguished twice in one full rotation of the polarizer as shown in Fig. 20.40. » ee Optic'axis—t>] Circularly Uneasy a Cy . So ws . Polarized Light Polarized i - light Result wp Analyzer Fig. 20.40 Scanned with CamScannerease igh ay exhib any On ofthe tre types of paar b ried type. The unaided eye cannot distinguish eee = ret aan 9 a noweven ang a polari izer_and a quarter wave plate, the set een eae ener ne. The folowing SlepsaTEUSET Inthe anne Tso Polaization of a light beam can be B ysis ofthe type of polarization. Polarizer Polarization Plane Polarized Not known © Operation i Conclusion : Result (a) Pe ah Fig. 20.41 ~ (ii) Ifthe intensity of the transmitted light varies between amaximumanda minimum value but does not become extinguished in any posit - a ous ee n position of the polarizer, t of is either ellipticaly polarized or partially polarized. ns eient aht Snax fe ee Operation Trax polarized Result Conclusion | (b) | Fig. 20.41 (iii) If the intensity of the transmitted light remains constant on rotation of the polarizer, then the incident light is either circularly polarized or unpolarized, To distinguish between elliptically polarized and partially polarized or betw: ——polarized-and unpolarized tight, we-teke the help of a-quarter wave plate. made to be incident on the quarter wave plate and then it passes through the polarizer. * Ciftularly ‘ Polarization Polarized a \ Mo. a Not known Unpolarized a . \ 1 Operation Result Conclusion ih (©) e Fig. 20.41 i Scanned with CamScanner { i(iv) If the incident light is ellipticatt 0) —_____—_light is unpolarized __~ Analysis of polarized light. A polarizer and a quarter wave plate help in determining the type of plane polarized beam. When this Would be extinguished twice in one full rotation of the polarizer. en QWP_ Polarizor i rhs polarized Elliptically polarized Ellipticanly 7 ° Polarized i Operation Result. Conclusion (a) Fig. 2041 On the other hand, minimum without becoming zero, then the incident light is Partatly WP. Pk Irae polarized Partially or \ |, Polarized Elliptically a a polarized Operation trax Result Conclusion (e) Fig. 20.41 Y polarized, the quarter wave plate converts it int linearly polarized light passes through the polarize if the transmitted light intensity varies between a maximum and jally polarized. If the incident light is circularly polarized, the quarter wave plate converts it into plan polarized light. When this linearly plane polarized light passes through the polarizer, i would be completely extinguished twice in one full rotation of the polarizer. QWP Polarizer i Circularly polarized Unpolarized or Circularly polarized Operation Result Conclusion cy] Fig. 20.41 On the other hand, if the intensity of the transmitted light stays constant, then the incident QWP Polarizer Unpolarized or 1 (| Unpolarized ' 1 Result’ Conclusion Circularly polarized Operation (9) the polarization of light. Fig. 20.41 Scanned with CamScanner