Design:

To design is either to formulate a plan for the satisfaction of a specified need or to solve a
problem. If the plan results in the creation of something having a physical reality, then the
product must be functional, safe, reliable, competitive, usable, manufacturable, and
marketable.
Design is an innovative and highly iterative process. It is also a decision-making process.
Decisions sometimes have to be made with too little information, occasionally with just the
right amount of information, or with an excess of partially contradictory information.

Engineering Design:
The process of applying the various techniques scientific principles for the purpose of
defining a device, a process or a system in sufficient detail to permit its realization”

Machine:
Machine can be defined as an apparatus consisting of inter-related parts. It is a device that
modifies forces or motions.

Machine Design:
Machine Design deals with the creation of machinery that works safely, reliably and well.

Phases and Interactions of the Design Process:

The complete design process, from start to finish, is often outlined as in Fig. The process
begins with an identification of a need and a decision to do something about it. After much
iteration, the process ends with the presentation of the plans for satisfying the need.
Depending on the nature of the design task, several design phases may be repeated
throughout the life of the product, from inception to termination. In the next several
subsections, we shall examine these steps in the design process in detail.
Identification of need:
Identification of need generally starts the design process. Recognition of the need and
phrasing the need often constitute a highly creative act, because the need may be only a
vague discontent, a feeling of uneasiness, or a sensing that something is not right. The need is
often not evident at all; recognition is usually triggered by a particular adverse circumstance
or a set of random circumstances that arises almost simultaneously. For example, the need to
do something about a food-packaging machine may be indicated by the noise level, by a
variation in package weight, and by slight but perceptible variations in the quality of the
packaging or wrap.

Definition of Problem:
The definition of problem is more specific and must include all the specifications for the
object that is to be designed. The specifications are the input and output quantities, the
characteristics and dimensions of the space the object must occupy, and all the limitations on
these quantities. We can regard the object to be designed as something in a black box. In this
case we must specify the inputs and outputs of the box, together with their characteristics and
limitations. The specifications define the cost, the number to be manufactured, the expected
life, the range, the operating temperature, and the reliability. Specified characteristics can
include the speeds, feeds, temperature limitations, maximum range, expected variations in the
variables, dimensional and weight limitations, etc.

Synthesis:
The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system elements is sometimes called the
invention of the concept or concept design. This is the first and most important step in the
synthesis task. Various schemes must be proposed, investigated, and quantified in terms of
established metrics.1 As the fleshing out of the scheme progresses, analyses must be
performed to assess whether the system performance is satisfactory or better, and, if
satisfactory, just how well it will perform. System schemes that do not survive analysis are
revised, improved, or discarded. Those with potential are optimized to determine the best
performance of which the scheme is capable. Competing schemes are compared so that the
path leading to the most competitive product can be chosen.
We have noted, and we emphasize, that design is an iterative process in which we proceed
through several steps, evaluate the results, and then return to an earlier phase of the
procedure. Thus, we may synthesize several components of a system, analyze and optimize
them, and return to synthesis to see what effect this has on the remaining parts of the system.

Analysis:
The ultimate goal in machine design is to size and shape the parts (machine elements) and
choose appropriate material and manufacturing process so that the resulting machine can be
expected to perform its intended function without failure. This requires that the engineer be
able to calculate and predict the mode and conditions of failure for each element and then
design it to prevent failure. This in turn requires that a stress and deflection analysis be done
for each part. Since stresses are function of the applied and inertial loads, and of the part’s
geometry, an analysis of the forces, moments, torques, and the dynamics of the system must
be done before the stress and deflection analysis can be completely calculated.
Both analysis and optimization require that we construct or devise abstract models of the
system that will admit some form of mathematical analysis. We call these models
mathematical models. In creating them it is our hope that we can find one that will simulate
the real physical system very well.

Testing:
Evaluation is a significant phase of the total design process. Evaluation is the final proof of a
successful design and usually involves the testing of a prototype in the laboratory. Here we
wish to discover if the design really satisfies the needs. Is it reliable? Will it compete
successfully with similar products? Is it economical to manufacture and to use? Is it easily
maintained and adjusted? Can a profit be made from its sale or use? How likely is it to result
in product-liability lawsuits? And is insurance easily and cheaply obtained? Is it likely that
recalls will be needed to replace defective parts or systems?

Presentation:
Communicating the design to others is the final, vital presentation step in the design process.
Undoubtedly, many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to posterity
simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to
others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to
administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them
that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort
spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted. When designers sell a new idea,
they also sell themselves. If they are repeatedly successful in selling ideas, designs, and new
solutions to management, they begin to receive salary increases and promotions; in fact, this
is how anyone succeeds in his or her profession.

Design Considerations
Sometimes the strength required of an element in a system is an important factor in the
determination of the geometry and the dimensions of the element. In such a situation we say
that strength is an important design consideration. When we use the expression design
consideration, we are referring to some characteristic that influences the design of the
element or, perhaps, the entire system. Usually quite a number of such characteristics must be
considered and prioritized in a given design situation. Many of the important ones are as
follows (not necessarily in order of importance):

1 Functionality 14 Noise
2 Strength/stress 15 Styling
3 Distortion/deflection/stiffness 16 Shape
4 Wear 17 Size
5 Corrosion 18 Control
6 Safety 19 Thermal properties
7 Reliability 20 Surface
8 Manufacturability 21 Lubrication
9 Utility 22 Marketability
10 Cost 23 Maintenance
11 Friction 24 Volume
12 Weight 25 Liability
13 Life 26 Remanufacturing/resource recovery
Standards and Codes:
A standard is a set of specifications for parts, materials, or processes intended to achieve
uniformity, efficiency, and a specified quality. One of the important purposes of a standard is
to place a limit on the number of items in the specifications so as to provide a reasonable
inventory of tooling, sizes, shapes, and varieties.
A code is a set of specifications for the analysis, design, manufacture, and construction of
something. The purpose of a code is to achieve a specified degree of safety, efficiency, and
performance or quality. It is important to observe that safety codes do not imply absolute
safety. In fact, absolute safety is impossible to obtain. Sometimes the unexpected event really
does happen.
All of the organizations and societies listed below have established specifications for
standards and safety or design codes. The name of the organization provides a clue to the
nature of the standard or code. Some of the standards and codes, as well as addresses, can be
obtained in most technical libraries. The organizations of interest to mechanical engineers
are:
Aluminium Association (AA)
American Gear Manufacturers Association (AGMA)
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC)
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ASM International
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)
American Welding Society (AWS)
American Bearing Manufacturers Association (ABMA)
British Standards Institution (BSI)
Industrial Fasteners Institute (IFI)
Institution of Mechanical Engineers (I. Mech. E.)
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM)
International Standards Organization (ISO)
National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST)
Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)

Factor of Safety:
Factor of safety can be expressed in many ways like
N= Strength/Stress
N= Critical Load/ Applied Load
N= Load to fail part/ expected service overload
N= maximum cycles/applied cycles
N= Maximum speed/operating speed
Thus a machine component may have more than one factor of safety and least one would be
of most concern because if failure would occur it would occur due to this least one more
likely. A factor of safety is always unitless. A design is safe if factor of safety is greater than
one. If factor of safety of a design is less than one then design is not a safe design. To make
design safe factor of safety should be greater than one. Factor of safety can be increased in
following two ways
• Decrease stresses (for given load application change the shape or geometry of
component to decrease stresses).
 • Choose material of larger strength.

Why we need Factor of Safety?

In design process we have uncertainties and to cover these uncertainties we use factor of
safety. Uncertainty of
• Analysis
• Material Properties
• Surrounding conditions

Uncertainty of Analysis:
Include all errors due to load analysis, approximations, precision or accuracy level of
measures, instrumentation errors, manipulation errors, and errors due to inexperienced
designer.

Uncertainty of Material Properties:

Include errors in material strength due to variation in size, shape and surface finish of the
element as compared to the measures for the specimen for which initially tests were
conducted for literature data. These uncertainties of material also include the flaws and
defects of the material like point defect, line defect, volume defect etc.

Uncertainty of Surrounding Conditions:

Include uncontrolled parameters of surroundings like wind velocity, temperature, humidity,
intensity of light, earth quake, possible way and measure of external loads applied due to
surroundings during operation.

Choosing a suitable Factor of Safety:

Choice of a suitable factor of safety depends upon the level of confidence of following
• Confidence upon load analysis and optimization of initial shape selected
• Confidence upon the stress analysis and calculations along with the rule and scientific
techniques used.
• Confidence upon the literature data regarding the material properties.
• Confidence upon the surrounding conditions.

Depending upon these all following may be just guidelines for a suitable factor of safety. In
actual codes and standards are there to guide about the selection of suitable factor of safety.
1. If designer is confident about analysis and material available is well reputed and
surrounding conditions are within control satisfactorily the least value of factor of
safety should be applied like 1.2-1.5
2. If designer is confident upon the analysis and average material with controlled
surrounding conditions is there then factor of safety should be 1.5-2
3. If designer is not too much confident and material is not reliable but surrounding
conditions are within control then factor of safety may be 2-2.5
4. If nothing is reliable like designer is inexperienced, material is less tested and
surroundings are also out of control then factor of safety may be up to 4.
Above is just guideline about the selection actual values would be selected using some
standards
STRESS:

CARTESIAN STRESS COMPONENTS:

The Cartesian stress components are established by defining three mutually orthogonal
surfaces at a point within the body. The normals to each surface will establish the x, y, z
Cartesian axes. In general, each surface will have a normal and shear stress. In general, each
surface will have a normal and shear stress. The shear stress may have components along two
Cartesian axes. For example, Fig. shows an infinitesimal surface area isolation at a point Q
within a body where the surface normal is the x direction. The normal stress is labeled σx .
The symbol σ indicates a normal stress and the subscript x indicates the direction of the
surface normal. The net shear stress acting on the surface is (τx )net which can be resolved
into components in the y and z directions, labeled as τxy and τxz , respectively. Note that
double subscripts are necessary for the shear. The first subscript indicates the direction of the
surface normal whereas the second subscript is the direction of the shear stress.

the stresses on the hidden faces become equal and opposite to those on the opposing visible
faces. Thus, in general, a complete state of stress is defined by nine stress components, σx , σy
, σz, τxy , τxz, τyx , τyz, τzx , and τzy . For equilibrium, in most cases, “cross-shears” are equal,
hence
τyx = τxy τzy = τyz τxz = τzx
This reduces the number of stress components for most three-dimensional states of stress
from nine to six quantities, σx , σy , σz, τxy , τyz, and τzx .
Suppose the dx dy dz element of Fig. below is cut by an oblique plane with a normal n at an
arbitrary angle φ counter clockwise from the x axis. This section is concerned with the
stresses σ and τ that act upon this oblique plane. By summing the forces caused by all the
stress components to zero, the stresses σ and τ are found to be

Differentiating normal stress equation with respect to φ and putting equal to zero we have

2𝜏𝑥𝑦
tan 2φ =
𝜎𝑥 – 𝜎𝑦

Above Equation defines two particular values for the angle 2φp, one of which defines the
maximum normal stress σ1 and the other, the minimum normal stress σ2. These two stresses
are called the principal stresses, and their corresponding directions, the principal directions.
The angle between the principal directions is 90°. It is important to note that the Eq. can be
written in the form

Comparing this with shear stress equation we see that τ = 0, meaning that the surfaces
containing principal stresses have zero shear stresses.
In a similar manner, we differentiate shear stress equation, set the result equal to zero, and
obtain

This Equation defines the two values of 2φs at which the shear stress τ reaches an extreme
value. The angle between the surfaces containing the maximum shear stresses is 90°. Above
equation can also be written as
Substituting into normal stress equation

Equation tells us that the two surfaces containing the maximum shear stresses also contain
equal normal stresses
Thus we determined two planes for planar stress distribution on which shear stress is
maximum and two planes on which normal stress in maximum.

Principal Stress Planes:

Planes on which stresses are maximum are known as principal planes and are of two types

Principal Normal Stress Planes:

Planes on which the normal stress would be maximum and shear stress is zero are known as
principal normal stress planes. These planes are at right angle to each other. The stresses on
such planes are known as principal normal stresses. On one plane the value of principal
normal stress would be maximum and on other it would be minimum.

Principal Shear Stress Planes:

Planes on which the shear stress is maximum are known as principal shear stress planes and
stress in known as principal shear stress. These planes are at 45 degree to the principal
normal stress planes. On principal shear stress planes normal stresses are not zero.

Formula to calculate two principal normal stresse is given as

In a similar manner the two extreme-value shear stresses are found to be

Thus while designing we must take into account the maximum possible stresses that is
principal stresses because these are the maximum possible stresses that may occur on
particular planes (principal planes) and may cause of failure. So if material is safe at a point
for these maximum stresses then it would be safe for all other stresses on all other planes
passing through the point.

Uniformly Distributed Stresses:

The assumption of a uniform distribution of stress is frequently made in design. The result is
then often called pure tension, pure compression, or pure shear, depending upon how the
external load is applied to the body under study. The word simple is sometimes used instead
of pure to indicate that there are no other complicating effects. The tension rod is typical.
Here a tension load F is applied through pins at the ends of the bar. The assumption of
uniform stress means that if we cut the bar at a section remote from the ends and remove one
piece, we can replace its effect by applying a uniformly distributed force of magnitude σA to
the cut end. So the stress σ is said to be uniformly distributed. It is calculated from the
equation
σ =F/A
This assumption of uniform stress distribution requires that:
• The bar be straight and of a homogeneous material
• The line of action of the force contains the centroid of the section
• The section be taken remote from the ends and from any discontinuity or abrupt change in
cross section

Normal Stresses for Beams in Bending

The equations for the normal bending stresses in straight beams are based on the following
assumptions:
1) The beam is subjected to pure bending. This means that the shear force is zero, and that no
torsion or axial loads are present.
2) The material is isotropic and homogeneous.
3) The material obeys Hooke’s law.
4) The beam is initially straight with a cross section that is constant throughout the beam
length.
5) The beam has an axis of symmetry in the plane of bending.
6) The proportions of the beam are such that it would fail by bending rather than by crushing,
wrinkling, or sidewise buckling.
7) Plane cross sections of the beam remain plane during bending.
In Fig. 3–13 we visualize a portion of a straight beam acted upon by a positive bending
moment M shown by the curved arrow showing the physical action of the moment together
with a straight arrow indicating the moment vector. The x axis is coincident with the neutral
axis of the section, and the xz plane, which contains the neutral axes of all cross sections, is
called the neutral plane. Elements of the beam coincident with this plane have zero stress.
The location of the neutral axis with respect to the cross section is coincident with the
centroidal axis of the cross-section

The bending stress varies linearly with the distance from the neutral axis, y, and is given by

where I is the second moment of area about the z axis. That is

The maximum magnitude of the bending stress will occur where y has the greatest
magnitude. Designating σmax as the maximum magnitude of the bending stress, and c as the
maximum magnitude of y

Can also be written as

Where Z is section modulus.

Shear Stresses for Beams in Bending:

Most beams have both shear forces and bending moments present. It is only
occasionally that we encounter beams subjected to pure bending, that is to say ,
beams having zero shear force. The flexure formula is developed on the assumption of
pure bending. This is done, however, to eliminate the complicating effects of shear
force in the development. For engineering purposes, the flexure formula is valid no
matter whether a shear force is present or not. In Fig. below we show a beam segment
of constant cross section subjected to a shear force V and a bending moment M at x.
Because of external loading and V, the shear force and bending moment change with
respect to x. At x + dx the shear force and bending moment are V + dV and M + dM,
respectively.

Considering forces in the x direction only, Fig. below shows the stress distribution σx due to
the bending moments. If dM is positive, with the bending moment increasing, the stresses on
the right face, for a given value of y, are larger in magnitude than the stresses on the left face.

If we further isolate the element by making a slice at y = y1 (as shown in above fig.), the net
force in the x direction will be directed to the left with a value of
as shown in the rotated view of Fig. (Below). For equilibrium, a shear force on the bottom
face, directed to the right, is required. This shear force gives rise to a shear stress τ, where, if
assumed uniform, the force is τb dx.

Thus

The term dM/I can be removed from within the integral and b dx placed on the right side of
the equation; then, from Eq. with V = dM/dx. Above equation becomes

In this equation, the integral is the first moment of the area A′ with respect to the neutral axis.
This integral is usually designated as Q. Thus

With this, shear stress equation can be written as

Where
V is shear Load
Q is first moment of area
I is second moment of area or moment of inertia
B is the width of element under discussion
Formula for maximum shear stress due to bending in standard cross-sections

Torsion:
Any moment vector that is collinear with an axis of a mechanical element is called a torque
vector, because the moment causes the element to be twisted about that axis. A bar subjected
to such a moment is also said to be in torsion.
As shown in Fig. below, the torque T applied to a bar can be designated by drawing arrows
on the surface of the bar to indicate direction or by drawing torque-vector arrows along the
axes of twist of the bar. Torque vectors are the hollow arrows shown on the x axis in Fig.
Note that they conform to the right-hand rule for vectors.
The angle of twist, in radians, for a solid round bar is

where
T = torque
l = length
G = modulus of rigidity
J = polar second moment of area
Shear stresses develop throughout the cross section. For a round bar in torsion, these stresses
are proportional to the radius

The assumptions used in the analysis are:

• The bar is acted upon by a pure torque, and the sections under consideration are remote
from the point of application of the load and from a change in diameter.
• Adjacent cross sections originally plane and parallel remain plane and parallel after
twisting, and any radial line remains straight.
• The material obeys Hooke’s law.
Equation applies only to circular sections. For a solid round section,

For hollow shaft

Combined Stresses:
In many machine elements the member would be under combined effect of loading. Thus
there would be normal stresses due to tensile or compressive load; there may be shear due to
bending or torsion.

If member is under tensile or axial loading along with a bending load and a toque is also
applied then it is a combined load and it will produce various types of stresses like

Normal stresses would be produced due to simple tension or compression load (axial load)
and will be given as
σ = F/A
Where
F = Applied axial or normal load
A = Area perpendicular to the applied load

Along with this normal stress produced in element under combined loading, normal stresses
due to bending would also be there as under

Thus total normal stress produced due to this combined load would be

σ = ±(F/A) ±(My/I)

Similarly
Shear stress produced in such type of loading would be due to bending and due to torque
applied
Due to bending load shear stress produced would be

And due to torsion the shear stress produced would be

𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐽

Thus total shear stress at a point within the element would be

𝑉𝑄 𝑇𝑟
𝜏= ± ±
𝐼𝐵 𝐽

Note: Solve example 4-9 from Norton and also solve the problem sheet related to stress
analysis
Stress Concentration:

In the development of the basic stress equations for tension, compression, bending, and
torsion, it was assumed that no geometric irregularities occurred in the member under
consideration. But it is quite difficult to design a machine without permitting some changes in
the cross sections of the members. Rotating shafts must have shoulders designed on them so
that the bearings can be properly seated and so that they will take thrust loads; and the shafts
must have key slots machined into them for securing pulleys and gears. A bolt has a head on
one end and screw threads on the other end, both of which account for abrupt changes in the
cross section. Other parts require holes, oil grooves, and notches of various kinds. Any
discontinuity in a machine part alters the stress distribution in the neighbourhood of the
discontinuity so that the elementary stress equations no longer describe the state of stress in
the part at these locations. Such discontinuities are called stress raisers, and the regions in
which they occur are called areas of stress concentration.
The distribution of elastic stress across a section of a member may be uniform as in a bar in
tension, linear as a beam in bending, or even rapid and curvaceous as in a sharply curved
beam. Stress concentrations can arise from some irregularity not inherent in the member,
such as tool marks, holes, notches, grooves, or threads. The nominal stress is said to exist if
the member is free of the stress raiser. This definition is not always honored, so check the
definition on the stress-concentration chart or table you are using.
A theoretical, or geometric, stress-concentration factor Kt or Kts is used to relate the actual
maximum stress at the discontinuity to the nominal stress. The factors are defined by the
equations

The subscript t in Kt means that this stress-concentration factor depends for its value only on
the geometry of the part. That is, the particular material used has no effect on the value of Kt.
This is why it is called a theoretical stress-concentration factor.
The analysis of geometric shapes to determine stress-concentration factors is a difficult
problem, and not many solutions can be found. Most stress-concentration factors are found
by using experimental techniques. Though the finite-element method has been used, the fact
that the elements are indeed finite prevents finding the true maximum stress. Experimental
approaches generally used include photo elasticity, grid methods, brittle-coating methods,
and electrical strain-gauge methods. Of course, the grid and strain-gauge methods both suffer
from the same drawback as the finite-element method.
Stress-concentration factors for a variety of geometries may be found in following Figures
and Tables
Bar in tension or simple compression with a transverse hole.
σ0 = F/A, where A = (w − d )t and t is the thickness.

Rectangular bar with a transverse hole in bending. σ0 = Mc/I,

where I = (w − d )h3 /12.
 Notched rectangular bar in tension or simple compression. σ0 = F/A,
where A = dt and t is the thickness.

Rectangular filleted bar in tension or simple compression. σ0 = F/A, where

A = dt and t is the thickness.

These are a few example of particular shape under specific type of loading. Thus for different
shapes corresponding to different type of loading will have different charts available to find
out the value of theoretical stress concentration factor.
In the same way charts are also available to determine stress concentration factor and are
given below a few for reference.
Approximate Stress- Concentration Factor Kt for Bending of a Round Bar or
Tube with a Transverse Round Hole.
Approximate Stress-Concentration Factors Kts for a Round Bar or Tube Having a Transverse
Round Hole and
Loaded in Torsion
 Consider a filleted rectangular bar as depicted in Fig. A–15–5, where the cross-section
area of the small shank is 1 in2. If the material is ductile, with a yield point of 40 kpsi, and
the theoretical stress-concentration factor (SCF) Kt is 2,
• A load of 20 kip induces a nominal tensile stress of 20 kpsi in the shank as depicted at point
A in Figure. At the critical location in the fillet the stress is 40 kpsi, and the SCF is
𝜎
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥⁄𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 40⁄20 = 2.
• A load of 30 kip induces a nominal tensile stress of 30 kpsi in the shank at point B. The
𝜎 𝑆
fillet stress is still 40 kpsi (point D), and the SCF 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥⁄𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 40⁄30 = 𝑦⁄𝜎 = 1.33.
• At a load of 40 kip the induced tensile stress (point C) is 40 kpsi in the shank.
At the critical location in the fillet, the stress (at point E) is 40 kpsi. The SCF
𝜎 𝑆
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥⁄𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚 = 40⁄40 = 𝑦⁄𝜎 = 1..

Figure: An idealized stress-strain curve. The dashed line depicts a strain-strengthening

material.

For materials that strain-strengthen, the critical location in the notch has a higher Sy. The
shank area is at a stress level a little below 40 kpsi, is carrying load, and is very near its
failure-by-general-yielding condition. This is the reason designers do not apply Kt in static
loading of a ductile material loaded elastically, instead setting Kt = 1.
Static Failure theories:

Ideally, in designing any machine element, the engineer should have available the results of a
great many strength tests of the particular material chosen. These tests should be made on
specimens having the same heat treatment, surface finish, and size as the element the
engineer proposes to design; and the tests should be made under exactly the same loading
conditions as the part will experience in service.
The cost of gathering such extensive data prior to design is justified if failure of the part may
endanger human life or if the part is manufactured in sufficiently large quantities.
The generally accepted failure theories are:

Ductile materials (yield criteria)

• Maximum shear stress (MSS)
• Distortion energy (DE)
• Ductile Coulomb-Mohr (DCM)

Brittle materials (fracture criteria)

• Maximum normal stress (MNS)
• Brittle Coulomb-Mohr (BCM)
• Modified Mohr (MM)
It would be inviting if we had one universally accepted theory for each material type, but for
one reason or another, they are all used.

Maximum normal stress (MNS)

Since the maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in tension or
compression and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not
used for ductile materials. However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear
but weak in tension or compression, this theory is generally used.

Maximum-Shear-Stress Theory for Ductile Materials

The maximum-shear-stress theory predicts that yielding begins whenever the maximum shear
stress in any element equals or exceeds the maximum shear stress in a tension test specimen
of the same material when that specimen begins to yield. The MSS theory is also referred to
as the Tresca or Guest theory.

Recall that for simple tensile stress, σ = P/A, and the maximum shear stress occurs on a
surface 45° from the tensile surface with a magnitude of τmax = σ/2. So the maximum shear
stress at yield is τmax = Sy/2. For a general state of stress, three principal stresses can be
determined and ordered such that σ1 ≥ σ2 ≥ σ3. The maximum shear stress is then τmax = (σ1
− σ3)/2 (see Fig. 3–12). Thus, for a general state of stress, the maximum-shear-stress theory
predicts yielding when τmax =(σ1 − σ3)/2 ≥Sy/2
or σ1 − σ3 ≥ Sy
Note that this implies that the yield strength in shear is given by
Ssy = 0.5Sy
which, as we will see later is about 15 percent low (conservative). For design purposes, Eq.
can be modified to incorporate a factor of safety, n.
Thus,
τmax =Sy/2n
or σ1 − σ3 =Sy/n

Distortion-Energy Theory for Ductile Materials:

The distortion-energy theory predicts that yielding occurs when the distortion strain energy
per unit volume reaches or exceeds the distortion strain energy per unit volume for yield in
simple tension or compression of the same material. The distortion-energy (DE) theory
originated from the observation that ductile materials stressed hydrostatically exhibited yield
strengths greatly in excess of the values given by the simple tension test. Therefore it was
postulated that yielding was not a simple tensile or compressive phenomenon at all, but,
rather, that it was related somehow to the angular distortion of the stressed element.
This effective stress is usually called the von Mises stress, σ′, named after Dr. R. von Mises,
who contributed to the theory. Thus for yield, can be written as
σ′ ≥ Sy
Where σ′ (effective stress or equivalent stress)= [σx2+σy2- σxσy+3τxy]1/2

The distortion-energy theory is also called:

• The von Mises or von Mises–Hencky theory
• The shear-energy theory
• The octahedral-shear-stress theory
The distortion-energy theory predicts no failure under hydrostatic stress and agrees well with
all data for ductile behaviour. Hence, it is the most widely used theory for ductile materials
and is recommended for design problems unless otherwise specified. One final note concerns
the shear yield strength. Consider a case of pure shear τxy ,
Where for plane stress σx = σy = 0. For yield,

τxy =Sy /√3 = 0.577Sy

Thus, the shear yield strength predicted by the distortion-energy theory is
Ssy = 0.577Sy
This is about 15 percent greater than the 0.5 Sy predicted by the MSS theory.
Characterizing Fluctuating Stresses:

Fluctuating stresses in machinery often take the form of a sinusoidal pattern because of the
nature of some rotating machinery. However, other patterns, some quite irregular, do occur. It
has been found that in periodic patterns exhibiting a single maximum and a single minimum
of force, the shape of the wave is not important, but the peaks on both the high side
(maximum) and the low side (minimum) are important. Thus Fmax and Fmin in a cycle of
force can be used to characterize the force pattern. It is also true that ranging above and
below some baseline can be equally effective in characterizing the force pattern. If the largest
force is Fmax and the smallest force is Fmin, then a steady component and an alternating
component can be constructed as follows:

Where Fm is the midrange steady component of force, and Fa is the amplitude of the
alternating component of force.
Some stress-time relations: (a) fluctuating stress with high frequency ripple; (b and c) no
sinusoidal fluctuating stress; (d) sinusoidal fluctuating stress; (e) repeated stress; (f )
completely reversed sinusoidal stress.
Where
σmin = minimum stress
σm = mean component
σmax = maximum stress
σa = variable or alternating stress

Reversed Stress:
A stress that varies its nature from one to another (tension to compression and compression to
tension) with same magnitude is known as reversed stress. Like if stress goes to a maximum
value in tension then comes to zero and zero to maximum value in compression and again
goes to zero.

Fluctuating Stress:
A stress in which stress produced varies from maximum to minimum value but minimum
value is not zero instead more than zero in same nature of stress is known as fluctuating load.

Repeated Stress:
A stress that varies from a maximum value to minimum value while changing its nature from
one nature to another (Tension to compression or compression to tension) is known as
repeated stress.

Alternating Stress:
A stress which varies from one nature to another but with opposite nature is known as
alternating stress

Endurance Limit:
Fatigue strength or endurance limit is the strength of the material to bear a cyclic load for 107
cycles. We know that cyclic load reduces the load bearing capacity of the material. The new
decreased strength of the material for cyclic load is known as endurance limit. Endurance
limit is approximately half of the ultimate strength of the material.

Dynamic Failure Theories:

Following are various approaches to use for dynamic failures

 Various failure criteria for dynamic failure
Gerber Approach:

It defines that if we draw an arc following by a parabolic line. When on axis there is
alternating stress on ordinate and steady stress on abscissa then the parabolic line joining the
endurance limit to the ultimate strength defines the safe region enclosed by parabolic line and
both axis. The point if it is within the region bounded by arc and axis is a safe point according
to this theory and all points lying out of this enclosure may face failure so are not safe points.
Following is the governing equation for Gerber Method

If we know the alternating and mean stress components then y using above equation we can
determine the factor of safety. If the value of factor of safety is less than one the two ways
would we have to make it greater than one. One we may decrease the stresses by altering the
geometry or shape; second we may change the material and may choose some material of
larger strength. Adopting any one we may have a value of factor of safety greater than one
which will ensure that our design is safe design.

Gough Method:

Gough method is also known as ASME or elliptical method which defines an elliptical line to join the
endurance limit of a material with the yield strength of that material when both strengths are
represented on ordinate and abscissa respectively.
All points within the enclosure are considered to be safe and points out of the enclosure are
considered to be failure points.
Following is the governing equation for ASME method
Way of application of this governing equation would be same as mentioned above for Gerber method.
Another way to apply the governing equation is to apply the equation for defined factor of safety and
strengths of the material and calculate the stresses. From these known components of alternating and
mean stresses, shape or geometry can be determined.

Modified Goodman Method:

Modified Goodman approach separates safe and unsafe region for combined loading of mean
and alternating stresses with a straight line. This method joins endurance limit to the ultimate
strength of the material. It is a conservative approach as compared to the Gerber and Gough
Method.
All points for stress combination which lie inside the enclosure made by alternating strength,
ultimate strength and line joining these two points are considered safe and all other
combinations of the alternating stress and mean stress which lie out of this region are
considered failure points.
Governing equation of this approach is given as under

Apply this equation and determine factor of safety. By changing geometry for given material
stresses can be adjusted to get desired value of factor of safety,

Soderberg Method:

This is the most conservative approach that deals with a straight line joining endurance limit
with the yield strength of the material. This gives the least area for safe points. All points
within the region bounded by endurance limit on ordinate, yield strength on abscissa and
straight line joining these two strengths are considered safe points and out of this region
failure occurs for all possible combinations of the stresses.
Governing equation for this method is as under

Using above equation determine factor of safety and adjust stress components by changing
geometry to make factor of safety required.