The SAGE Encyclopedia of African

Cultural Heritage in North America

African Aesthetic, The

Contributors: Soul Shava

Book Title: The SAGE Encyclopedia of African Cultural Heritage in North America
Chapter Title: "African Aesthetic, The"
Pub. Date: 2015
Access Date: July 29, 2015
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks
Print ISBN: 9781452258218
Online ISBN: 9781483346373
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483346373.n11
Print pages: 11-17
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of the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483346373.n11
The term African aesthetic refers to the African perception and appreciation of the
nature, beauty, and value of artistic expressions or representations [p. 11 ↓ ] of African
origin. It is embedded in the plurality of African cultures and embodied in people’s
practices within their lived African societal contexts. It draws from and is directly related
to the diverse geographical, environmental, historical, cultural, religious, or spiritual
experiences of African peoples. It is therefore a significant component of African
people’s tangible and intangible cultural heritage that simultaneously affirms their
diversity and reinforces their cultural unity. It provides symbolic representations that
communicate what it is to be an African to future generations on the continent and in the
diaspora. Most Africans in the diaspora have retained some of their traditional aesthetic
elements, which are exhibited in their dress, hairstyles, ornamentation, music (song
and dance), and artworks. These various artifacts are symbolic elements defining and
sustaining their identity and origin.

Background: Contextualization of the

African Aesthetic
The essence of the African aesthetic is its representation as a construct of African
people on the continent and people of African descent in the diaspora that articulates
African culture, identity, and spirituality. It is how Africans consciously define their own
concept of beauty—that is, the African-derived standards of perceiving, appreciating,
appraising, or applying aesthetic values or knowledge of things African. The African
aesthetic is African centered, and it reveals the cultural bond between Africans in the
continent and abroad.

The African aesthetic embraces a rich variety of creative forms and styles peculiar to
people of African origin that incorporate a combination of practical, physical, material,
temporal, and spiritual aspects. It includes African artistic expressions— visual and
performative images, verbal arts (poetry, oratory performance), rhythm, music (song
and dance), dress, hairstyles, cosmetics, designs (African architecture and decorative
patterns), and crafts in and from Africa. It can be decorative and ceremonial as well as
serve a functional purpose.

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Music and Musical Instruments

Music is an important medium for conveying African tradition and culture. African music
is imbued with meaning. The primary function of music is to communicate and to convey
feeling or emotions (happiness, sadness, unity, love, praise). African music combines
rhythm, song, dance, and spirituality. The role of music in social entertainment is not
separated from its spiritual celebration in African contexts; music therefore carries
a mixture of the sacred and the secular. Music, song, and dance are key elements
of African ceremonies and accompany everyday activities. Music forms an integral
part of birth, death, rites of passage (initiation, puberty, etc.), religion, and livelihood
activities (work, sowing, weeding, harvesting, threshing, winnowing, hunting, gathering,
war). A large proportion of traditional music has been passed down from generation to
generation within African communal contexts, with very little emphasis on identifying or
glorifying the composers. This mode of intergenerational transfer has sustained African
traditional music forms.

Instruments used in producing music include drums; gourd instruments such as

rattles; the thumb pianos (plucked instruments) such as the sanza (Central Africa,
Mozambique, etc.), mbira (Southeast Africa, Zimbabwe), kembe (Central Africa), limba
(East, Central, and Southeast Africa), and marimba; blowing instruments such as flutes,
whistles, and horns; and string instruments such as the musical bow, the string fiddle,
and the kora. Modern forms of musical instruments have gradually been incorporated
and have at times replaced African traditional musical instruments.

A key identifier of African music is rhythm. African music is mostly polyrhythmic, made
up of many rhythms in one composition, revolving around the drum. An element
of collective participation is characteristic of African music forms. This includes the
collective playing of instruments, singing, and dancing, with a significant element of
[p. 12 ↓ ] audience participation—for example, clapping and stomping—as part of the
generative process of producing music. Musical forms emergent from Africa include
jazz, samba, merengue, and rumba music.

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Song and Dance

Singing accompanies almost every activity among African people, with one’s
movements simulating the music, creating an inherent sense of rhythm. Singing during
public functions is usually accompanied by the playing of musical instruments. African
songs follow the same rhythmic pattern as the musical instruments.

African dance forms are characterized by rhythm, intense energy, sexuality, and
spirituality. African dances signify an interrelationship between beauty and utility. African
dance employs a range of symbolic gestures, mime, props, masks, costumes, body
painting, and other visual devices. Dancing itself involves multiple movements and
coordination of different parts of the body. Like African music, the African dance form
blurs the distinction between spectators and participants.

Poetry and Narrative

Storytelling
As an oral society, the art of storytelling remains a distinctive aspect among African
people. African tales, fables, and myths form a distinctive way of entertaining as well
as educating the young about the world, combining both myth and reality and drawing
on the wisdom of the elders. In telling stories, the audience is intimately involved. For
example, when a Shona elder tells a story (ngano), the audience continually responds
to the storyteller’s interspaced pauses with the word dzefunde (“go on, we are listening”)
as an acknowledgment that they are digesting the contents, creating an engaging
discourse between the orator and the listener. Similarly, the saying “This is my story
which I have related. If it be sweet, or if it be not sweet, take some elsewhere, and
let some come back to me” was traditionally uttered to close the Ananse tales told by
Ashanti storytellers.

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Poetry
Praise poetry is a common practice among African communities. Praise accompanies
community leaders in ceremonial functions describing their prowess, such as the Nguni
izimbongi praise poetry for kings and chieftainships. Praise is also used to thank and to
appease other community members. The use of totemic praise is common among the
Shona tribe and is applied to both men and women as a greeting, gesture of respect, or
means of appreciation. It is applied in diverse contexts, from private bedrooms to public
occasions. Poetry is also a form of entertainment at Shona ceremonial gatherings,
whereby the poet, mudetembi (the Shona term for poet), will demonstrate his or her
creative oratory prowess in relation to the occasion through poetry interpolated with the
appropriate use of idioms and proverbs. Similarly, among West African peoples such as
the Ashanti and the Yoruba, poetry and proverbs formed the basis for logical argument
in personal relations, legal proceedings, and political negotiations.

Crafts
African crafts include pottery, weaving, and basketry, as well as wood, metal, and
stone sculpture. Most African craftsmen are from a family with a long tradition in that
particular craft, as craftsmanship is passed on from generation to generation. Emphasis
in African craft is on fine workmanship, mastery of the medium, and functionality of the
end product.

Basketry
Basket weaving is predominantly the domain of women. African traditional weaving
uses plantbased fiber materials such as reeds, grasses, sedges, and palms. African
basketry has intricate woven patterns that can be used to identify the geographical
origin of the basket products. Traditional dye materials used in dyeing the fibers are
obtained from natural sources. Most patterning is informed by nature, with patterns
being drawn from natural objects in the surrounding environment. Symmetry [p. 13 ↓ ]

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is a key element. Woven products include baskets, beer sieves, handbags, hats, and
reed mats.

Pottery
Pottery is also produced mainly by women. In pottery design, a lustrously smooth
surface is an important feature. Most pottery products also bear intricate design
patterns, which have symbolic value as well as provide the trademark stamp of the
potter. The wide range of pottery forms includes cooking pots, beer pots and water pots,
and food storage containers.

Woodcraft
Working with wood is traditionally the domain of men. Traditional woodcarvers employ
the use of the short-handled adze, or mbezo in Shona. Woodcraft ranges from making
household utensils (ladles, spoons, cooking sticks, cups, plates, and containers), chairs,
benches, stools, beds, tool handles, musical instruments, masks, and sculptures.

Metal Craft
Working with metal is done by male blacksmiths, who smelt using traditional clay
furnaces and bellows. The popular traditional metals worked with in Africa are iron,
copper, brass, and gold. Traditional African metal craft includes the making of tools,
equipment, weapons, sculptures, regalia, and other ornaments.

Architecture
Various architectural designs are distinctively African in origin. Different ethno-linguistic
groups employ distinctive styles of architecture, and structures are both functional and
decorative. Most African architecture uses materials that are readily available in the
natural environment, such as mud, wooden poles, grass thatch, cow dung, and stone.

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Traditional African housing designs vary from the dome or beehive-shaped huts of
the Khoi, San, Swati, and Zulu to circular walled huts made of poles and mud (dagga)
with conical (pole and grass-thatched) roofs such as those of the Shona and Ndebele
to quadrangular dwellings with flat or gabled roofs, such as those of the Igbo or the
Ashanti and other Akans. In West Africa, the compound house form predominates,
though the shapes of individual homes range from circular to conical to rectangular.

Distinctive and well-known African architectural design structures include the Great
Zimbabwe ruins (a city comprising a high stone wall enclosing the traditional circular
walled huts with conical roofs), the Great Mosque of Djenné in Mali, and the pyramids of
Egypt.

Paintings
Rock art, especially rock or cave paintings, are a significant feature of many African
communities, such as the Amazigh (Berbers) of North Africa, the Soninke and Dogon
of West Africa, and Khoi and San communities in southern Africa. Dating to ancient
times, they normally depict daily activities or ceremonies such as hunting. Most of these
paintings depicted the local people and animals, but in many cases, complex symbol
systems were used to provide a means of passing on knowledge to other shelter users
and to future generations.

Decorative Designs
African decorations are seen in various patterns and forms. Decorations are found on
walls and on craftware such as pottery, basketry, cloth, and beadwork.

Repetitive patterns and colors characterize many African decorations. In many cases,
decorative patterns actually represent language systems in which colors and patterns
convey specific meanings. In Zulu beadwork, for example, tiny glass beads are
woven into fabric and carry messages that regulate behavior between the sexes and
act as a substitute for speech, thus avoiding the discomfort or embarrassment of
direct discourse on sensitive topics involving courtship and marriage. Other African

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ideographic and pictographic decorative forms include Ashanti Adinkra patterns [p.
14 ↓ ] and the Senegambian Raampa writing system. Patterns may symbolize public
statuses and identities as well as convey specific or private messages or meanings.

Ornaments
Ornaments have played a significant part of cultural, ritual, and economic activities of
Africans, and ornamental decorative accessories form a significant part of African dress
attire. These include bracelets, bangles, arm bands, rings, earrings, headbands, nose
rings, necklaces, anklets, and waist bands.

Beads and Jewelry

Earrings, necklaces, and bracelets can be made of copper, brass, iron, bone, gold,
grass, and beads. Among the Shona in Zimbabwe, brass and copper armlets and
anklets were worn as a symbol of wealth and importance in a community. Shona spirit
mediums (vadzimu) can still be identified by bangles (ndarira) and anklets made of
brass, copper, and gold.

Beads are also used as an identifier within the community. Beads both symbolize
wealth and function as currency. Beads used in bracelets, necklaces, and anklets can
be of various types, including colored glass, seeds, cowry shells, ivory, ostrich shell,
and metal beads. Prior to the use of glass and carnelian beads introduced by Arab and
European traders, beads were made from clay, shells, and ivory. With the introduction
of glass beads, colored glass beads in blue, translucent blue, translucent green, red,
black, and white were the most common. Beads could also have spiritual connotations.
Among the Shona, spirit mediums can still be identified by their black and white beads
(chuma). Traditional healers wear beads of red, black, and white slung across their
chests or worn as a necklace. In many parts of West and Central Africa (e.g., Luba,
Yoruba, Dogon), women still wear rows of waist beads, called Jel-Jelli, Yomba, or Giri-
Giri, among other names. The meanings of the colors and shapes of the beads vary
across cultures, and their connotations range from symbols of purity, or alternately,
fertility and sexuality, to mechanisms of spiritual protection and healing.

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Dress
African dress forms play an important role as an expression of identity. Dress is
politically significant in its role as indicator of group identity and as a medium for
developing and strengthening ethnic, religious, or political cohesion and solidarity.
African clothing has distinctively colored fabrics and design patterns that are of cultural
significance. Different colors can signify status, fertility, vitality, spirituality, or the
type of ceremony being performed. Black is usually meant to convey mourning or
spirituality, while red signifies danger (blood or war). The color green often symbolizes
fruitfulness and productivity, while white embodies purity, yellow defines prosperity
and prominence, blue normally stands for dignity, and brown implies sobriety and
contemplativeness.

African Textiles
Men in many African societies have generally been assigned the task of weaving or at
least the use of particular looms; however, in other cases, both men and women have
been weavers, and among communities such as the Igbo of West Africa or the Amazigh
of the Sahara and North Africa, weaving is predominantly or entirely the domain of
women.

African textiles include weaves, tie-dyes, batiks, and machine prints. Rhythmic patterns
and multiple colors are emblematic of African design. Traditional African textiles include
the adire cloth of the Yoruba, the adinkra and kente cloths of the Ashanti, barkcloth
of Buganda, and the kitenge or chiteng/je cloth of East and Central Africa. Traditional
African dress has evolved from the use of traditional textile materials to the adoption of
Western materials into traditional dress forms and styles.

Dress costumes symbolize sex, age, social status, and ethnicity. African traditional
styles of clothing for men include wrap-around clothes, shirt tops and trouser bottoms,
and gowns, as well as matching head gear. For women, clothing includes [p. 15 ↓ ]
wrap-around clothes, full gown dresses, dress tops, and skirts as well as head wraps.

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Hairstyles
African communities present a wide variety of hairstyles. Symbolically, African
hairstyles signified various things, including age, ethnic identity, rank in the community,
socioeconomic status, marital status, religion, birth of a new baby, rites of passage
(initiation), or death. Many traditional priests or healers still wear dreadlocks as symbol
of identity that set them apart from other community members. In other cases, certain
hairstyles were restricted to royalty, elders, or practitioners of particular arts and
technologies.

Many modern African hairstyles are influenced by and have a historical connection to
traditional African cultures. African-inspired hairstyles include Afro or straightened hair,
dreadlocks, buns, knots, and plaited hair. Natural hair has been worn as statement
of African identity and pride; for example, the Afro hairstyle of the 1960s was an
expression of connection, power, revolution, and differentiation. It was a popular
hairstyle among artists, political activists, and youth. Braids also became popular during
this era among African Americans as a means of reconnection and identity with their
continent of origin. The dreadlocks culture was at first mainly embraced by Jamaican
and other Caribbean people of African descent as a symbol of identity and a signifier
of nonconformity to Western norms. This was largely related to the influence of the
Rastafarian movement and the teachings of the Jamaican political leader Marcus
Garvey, who encouraged the rejection of European standards of beauty.

Cosmetics
African women traditionally use a variety of cosmetics for decorative purposes as
well as to enhance skin health. These include oils, pigments, and ochre as well as
scarification and henna.

Face painting has been practiced for over 5,000 years throughout Africa. Henna is a
plant dye indigenous to Egypt that is used to make temporary tattoos. Mummies have
been found with henna in their hair. Traditional African designs are highly geometric
and often convey specific meanings. Among the Amazigh, many of the protective

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symbols woven into rugs, carpets, and textiles are also seen in henna designs. Ashanti
women draw designs on their arms with white clay to invoke mythical protection for
themselves and their babies after giving birth. White clay is also used to mark the
bodies of those undergoing rites of passage, such as ceremonies for baby naming,
puberty, and marriage. During puberty ceremonies, girls’ bodies were painted with
geometric designs. Wealthier women highlight their beauty and emphasize their status
by painting their faces with gold dust.

Facial scarification was used for identification of ethnic groups, families, individuals,
but also to express personal beauty. It was traditionally performed on girls to mark
important developmental stages of the life process, such as puberty and marriage.
Scars help make women more attractive to men, as the scars are regarded as
appealing both to touch and to look at, and also as evidence that women will be able
to withstand the pain of childbirth. Archaeological research attests to the antiquity of
scarification in Yoruba culture; a number of Ife terra cotta and copper sculptures (ca.
1100 CE) and Owo terra-cottas (ca. 1400 CE) depict elaborate scarification patterns,
some closely resembling 19th- and 20th-century Yoruba marks.

Today, although still used to mark ethnic affiliations, henna and face paints are also
used in Africa just as Western women use fingernail polish and makeup. Many Africans
also use natural plant oils for cosmetic purposes. The sap of the Cape aloe Aloe ferox
is used to treat skin infections and is part of many skin and hair care cosmetic products.
Shea oil and butter from the Vitellaria paradoxa tree from West Africa is popularly used
for skin and facial care and is now available commercially. Xhosa women in southern
Africa use a paste made from the dried bark of the onion wood, Cassipourea flanaganii,
mixed with water as a facial mask to remove blemishes and lighten their skin, a practice
that may be related to feelings of racial inferiority, yet like many other African women,
they also apply white ochre as a facial mask.

[p. 16 ↓ ] See alsoAfrican Hair Combs; African Influences on African American Art
and Artists; Beauty as a Concept; Gele (Head Wrap); Hairstyles, Traditional African;
Ideographic Writing; Quilts and Quilting

SoulShava

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http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483346373.n11
Further Readings

Bvocho, G. (2005). Ornaments as social and chronological icons: A case study of south-
eastern Zimbabwe . Journal of Social Archaeology , 5(3), 409–424.

Dold, T., & Cocks, M. (2005). Imbola yesiXhosa: Traditional Xhosa cosmetics . Veld and
Flora , 9(3), 123–125.

Douglas, R. (2007). African aesthetic . In M. K.Asante & A.Mazama (Eds.), An

encyclopedia of Black studies (pp. 6–8). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Groenewald, H. C. (2001). I control the idioms: Creativity in Ndebele praise poetry . Oral
Tradition , 16(1), 29–57.

Peterson-Lewis, S. (1993). Aesthetic practices amongst African American women . In

K.Welsh-Asante (Ed.), The African aesthetic: Keeper of the traditions (pp. 103–142.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Sherrow, V. (2006). Encyclopedia of hair: A cultural history . Westport, CT: Greenwood

Press.

Welsh-Asante, K. (1993). The African aesthetic: Keeper of the traditions . Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press.

Wood, M. (1996). Zulu treasures: Of kings and commoners: A celebration of the

material culture of the Zulu People . Durban, South Africa: KwaZulu Cultural Museum.

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