Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Educational Leadership
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HMEF5023
EDUCATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
Assoc Prof Dr Yousof @ Saat Md Yasin
Dr Ashley Ng Yoon Mooi AMN
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" Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
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Table of Contents
Course Guide xiăxvi
INTRODUCTION
HMEF5023 Educational Leadership is one of the courses offered at Open
University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be
covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all learners taking the Master of Education. The main
aim of this course is to give you the theoretical foundation of educational
leadership and organisation to enable you to understand and utilise the
theoretical concepts in managing and administering your organisation or school
effectively with minimal obstacles.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.
Study
Study Activities
Hours
Briefly go through the course content and participate in initial discussion 3
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS ACCUMULATED 120
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the interpretation of leadership and its roles. This topic also
discusses the traits of leadership and changing perspectives on leadership. In this
topic, you will learn the differences between leadership in management and
power.
Topic 4 discusses the context of leadership and motivation. Here, you will be
exposed to McClellandÊs motivation theory, VroomÊs expectancy theory and
LathamÊs goal-setting theory.
Topic 5 examines the school as a social organisation. In this topic, you will learn
about Weberian bureaucracy and structures in school. Finally, you will also
discuss the role theory, the value theory and the decision-making theory.
Topic 6 describes the tactics for becoming an empowering leader. In this topic,
you will learn the definition of empowerment, its obstacles, its nature, its benefits
and also the key points in successful empowerment.
Topic 7 describes the factors that contribute to organisational politics. Here, you
will be exposed to standard performances, Machiavellian perspectives and
potential disagreement.
Topic 8 discusses creative problem solving. Here, you will learn the
characteristics of creative leaders, methods to enhance creativity and self-help
techniques to enhance creative problem solving.
Topic 9 examines the communication and skills in resolving conflicts. Here, you
will be exposed to inspirational and supportive communication. You will also
learn about cross-cultural communication and resolving conflicts.
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Bass, B. M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York,
NY: Free Press.
Hickman, C. R., & Silva, M. A. (1984). Creating excellence. New York, NY:
New American Library.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass.
INTRODUCTION
This is the first topic out of 10 prepared for the course entitled „Educational
Leadership‰ which will introduce you to the foundations of leadership and
organisation in general. Whenever applicable, the educational scene will be
focused on and used as an illustration. The theories and concepts will enable
learners for the Master of Education to understand the dynamics of education
which influence the development of a nation. The leader of any organisation plays
a very important role in determining its well-being. If the leader is effective, then
the vision and the objectives of the organisation will be achieved and the
organisation progresses further.
In a battle, if the leader is killed, the second person in command will automatically
take over the leadership, but if all leaders of the platoon were to die, the person
who provides some ideas and suggestions for their survival and well-being
usually will be accepted by the platoon as their natural leader. This person, who
assumes leadership indirectly not by choice but more so for the sake of his well-
being as well his friendsÊ survival, will rise above others in the group.
The other definition of leadership by some quarters included the criteria of making
a difference. A person will only be esteemed as a leader if what he exercises makes
a difference and this difference can facilitate positive changes. If an organisation is
in shambles when a person takes over the leadership of the organisation but after
a reasonable period of time he manages to turn the organisation around where it
becomes sound financially and positive vibes are present everywhere in the
organisation, then we can come to the conclusion that the person who caused the
positive changes was a leader.
As a summary, we could say that leadership has been defined in many different
ways. Du Brin (2001) cited that there were about 35,000 research articles, magazine
articles and books that have been written about leadership. Some of the definitions
given by him are as follows:
(b) The influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with
directions and orders.
(e) The principal dynamic force that motivates and coordinates the organisation
in the accomplishment of its objectives (Bass, 1990).
After reading the meaning of leadership in its various shades, we should move
deeper into the realm of leadership roles. The roles undertaken by a leader are
many faceted and if we look into them, it seems that every one of us has
undertaken a few of the roles if not all of them. Let us proceed.
Although leading and managing are conceived as different processes (Rost, 1991)
with Zaleznik (1977) adopting a narrower view that leaders and managers are
distinctly different types of people, there are writers (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2013;
Yukl, 2002) who argue that the functions of management are consistent with the
definition of leadership set forth in subtopic 1.1.
Table 1.1 shows that the functions of management and leadership are different in
scope but Kotter (1998) argued that both management and leadership are essential
if an organisation is to succeed. For example, an organisation which is strong in
management but has no leadership would have an outcome that is stifling and
bureaucratic. On the other hand, with strong leadership but weak management,
the outcome would be meaningless and lack direction. To be effective, an
organisation needs to be nourished by both competent management and
leadership. Both are two sides of the same coin (Schein, 1997).
Management Leadership
Emphasis on Order and Consistency Emphasis on Change and Movement
Planning and Budgeting: Establishing Direction:
Establishing agendas Creating a vision
Setting timetables Clarifying big picture
Allocating resources Setting strategies
Organising and Staffing: Aligning People:
Providing structure Communicating goals
Making job placements Seeking commitments
Establishing rules and procedures Building teams and coalitions
Controlling and Problem Solving: Motivating and Inspiring:
Developing incentives Inspiring and energising
Generating creative solutions Empowering subordinates
Taking corrective action Satisfying unmet needs
SELF-CHECK 1.1
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Explain what you understand by the following qualities of a leader
and a manager:
DuBurin (2001) claimed that researchers in this subject identified nine roles that
are played by leaders as shown in Figure 1.1. These roles are very important for
the survival of a leader in an organisation. If he does not take the lead in those
roles, others would have to take them and in the process it would erode the
leadership base and others would usurp them and the leader would be side-lined
and discarded.
1.3.1 Figurehead
The term here does not downgrade the role of a leader. Usually, before a person is
promoted into the leadership role, he would have gone through the mill. He would
have the experience of taking responsibilities of doing the difficult tasks when still
climbing the ladder of the organisation. When a person is appointed as the Chief
Executive Officer (CEO), he has already mastered the nitty-gritty of the
organisation and he does not have to do the job. He attends ceremonies just like
the Governor or the King in a constitutional monarchy.
1.3.2 Spokesperson
Another important role of leadership is to be the spokesperson of the organisation.
One of the criteria of promotion is oneÊs thorough knowledge of the organisation.
Therefore, it is most appropriate for the leader to be the representative of the
organisation.
1.3.3 Negotiator
A leader is judged by his ability to negotiate difficult bargaining situations
especially with trade unions or for bargaining the best deal from vendors or
business partners.
1.3.4 Coach
An effective leader would help subordinates by coaching them to be more
effective. Some of the coaching activities that leaders implement are related to tips
on human relations procedures and skills as well as communication skills.
1.3.8 Entrepreneur
An important aspect of leadership, especially in a private organisation, is the role
of an entrepreneur by contributing innovative ideas on how to attract more
students to enrol into courses offered by the institute.
After scrutinising all the mentioned roles, we may observe that a leader has to have
not only theoretical knowledge, but also have the right attitudes and the correct
skills. The leader has to be a good actor at first and in the process, absorb all the
traits that are required to be a successful role player in all the nine roles. A leader
who can adapt himself to the roles that are demanded out of him will be able to
bring together his staff to support him and the organisation.
SELF-CHECK 1.2
ACTIVITY 1.2
2. Select four of the leadership roles that you would consider to be the
most important and give reasons why.
(b) Listen and understand to the grouses and opinions of his subordinates;
(c) Empathise with whatever difficulties encountered by the staff and provide
means to ease them through cooperation;
(g) Say what he means and mean what he says. A leader should be straight
forward and not beat about the bush;
An effective leader does not necessarily have those characteristics at the optimum
level because it is very rare for a person to excel in everything he does. What is
needed is the awareness of the importance of all those traits and slowly
indoctrinating oneself into those traits and practising the kaizen philosophy where
continuous improvement is a sure way of improving oneself.
ACTIVITY 1.3
3. In your career you would have met and worked under various
leaders. Discuss one of these leaders using the characteristics of
leadership as points of reference, and give your verdict whether he
belongs to the effective group of leaders or leaders that need to go
through various leadership trainings and workshops.
ACTIVITY 1.4
(f) Has compelling visions that enables him to use this ability to venture into
unchartered territory; and
(g) Can articulate his visions and then make them happen.
The „envisioner‰ is an important trait for strategic planners for this ability would
enable the organisation to charter future plans accurately and in the process
minimise wastage in time as well as manpower. An organisation which can do this
will be able to withstand changes and uncertainties in the market place as well as
new challenges in the future.
SELF-CHECK 1.3
ACTIVITY 1.5
(k) Celebrates whenever successes are achieved for this will be a motivating
element for the students; and
(l) Spends time with students which will make the students feel that the
principal has an interest in their welfare.
SELF-CHECK 1.4
ACTIVITY 1.6
(b) Respects resisters which show that the leader knows how to handle difficult
and delicate situations in a change process;
(c) Is futuristic because a leader who designs change actions are usually forward
looking and has the ability to adapt his organisation earlier than the resisters;
(h) Procures resources to ensure that the change process would not be hindered;
(j) Does not only require his followers to change but he himself is willing to
change because a leader leads by example;
He knows how to plan for change as well as manage it well to ensure cooperation
from his staff. He knows that changing paradigms are difficult to begin with, and
therefore he anticipates there would be resisters and knows how to deal with them.
In time, the resisters will become supporters when they see the reasons and
rationale for the change.
SELF-CHECK 1.5
ACTIVITY 1.7
1. Where do you think is the best place for the „change master‰ to
serve in the Malaysian school system?
To build a culture takes time and effort. In the case of building a culture in a school
it takes at least a generation of students, which is approximately five years of
continuous effort. The effort must be sustained and the newly formed culture has
to be nourished and propagated. When new students enter the school, they must
be acculturated into the established culture of the school. The teachers and the
principal are the main participants through leadership by example where students
will emulate them. If a positive and nourishing culture is established, then it will
be easier for it to be sustained and improved upon from generation to generation.
SELF-CHECK 1.6
ACTIVITY 1.8
(d) Is a risk taker because by doing so he can make the organisation be in the
forefront of the industry;
(e) Asks for forgiveness rather than permission whenever he wants to begin a
new venture;
(g) Does not micromanage the teachers because he feels that teachers should be
given the freedom to do things their own way;
Original thinkers are usually outrageous and unconventional but they are able to
see things that others cannot. This trait is an advantage because he is prepared for
things to come, leaving others aghast when what he forecasted really happens. He
becomes an effective leader and would change the organisation that he is heading
into a better organisation when he leaves.
SELF-CHECK 1.7
ACTIVITY 1.9
1. What do you think will happen to the school if the principal has
only the characteristics of an „activator‰? Discuss.
A producer is driven by hard data. He will not waste his time and resources into
something that he does not know will have a chance of winning. This careful trait
ensures that the organisation does not spend time and effort in wasteful activities.
SELF-CHECK 1.8
ACTIVITY 1.10
Compare and contrast the „producer‰ with the „activator‰. Are they
compatible?
SELF-CHECK 1.9
ACTIVITY 1.11
The contributor pays attention to details and this trait ensures that nothing is
missing or misplaced. Costly mistakes can be avoided and his superiors can trust
this leader to deliver the goods on time and miscommunication will be minimised
because he double checks when there is any slightest doubt.
All the mentioned characteristics and traits of effective leaders will, no doubt,
bring about the desired results of any organisation. It seems that a combination of
the earlier traits, are found in various degrees in leaders who were later studied
under a different light using different criteria. The changing perspectives on
leadership studies bring about a new light of understanding of the leadership
types.
ACTIVITY 1.12
(b) Out of the nine roles discussed in this topic, name five of the more
important roles that a principal should have mastered in order to
be an effective leader. Discuss the rational for choosing them.
(c) In our education system, when do you think a leader plays the role
of:
(ii) An entrepreneur?
(iii) A figurehead?
(d) Developing positive traits takes time. Do you think leaders can be
trained to acquire the traits of effective leadership through training
courses and workshops? Discuss.
(e) Out of the ten traits of effective leadership, in your opinion, name
three of the most important ones. Give reasons for choosing them.
Yet, power has never been strongly featured in the study of leadership due to its
negative connotations of abusive and bad leadership. The study of leadership in
the absence of in-depth considerations of power and the power asymmetric in
leadership studies and practices has led to the false assumption of leadership as
inherently good and positive (Collinson, 2011; Gordon, 2011). Table 1.2 shows
three sources of power and their links to leadership.
Sources of
Description Link to Leadership
Power
Influence Process of producing an effect on An essential activity of a leader and
somebodyÊs behaviour, attitude, an active use of power to get
vales, etc. somebody or a group to achieve a
set goal.
Collinson (2011) echoes GordonÊs (2011, p. 185) view that the power relations
between the leader and the follower are „likely to be interdependent and
asymmetrical, ambiguous, frequently shifting, potentially contradictory and often
contested‰. This recognises that despite the asymmetrical power relationship,
followers are not entirely powerless (Schedlitzki & Edwards, 2014). Shared
leadership, or often known as distributed leadership, is practised when
subordinates are given the opportunities to make decisions that affect them in the
organisation.
It was originally developed and refined by John K. Hemphill and Alvin Coons in
1950, and in 1952 it was later refined by Andrew Halpin and B. J. Winter (Hoy &
Miskel 2001). There were four major findings that emerged from the Ohio State
University LBDQ studies (Halpin, 1966). Halpin summarised their findings in the
following words:
(b) Effective leader behaviour tends most often to be associated with frequent
behaviours on both dimensions.
(c) Superiors and subordinates tend to evaluate the contributions of the leader
behaviour dimensions oppositely in assessing effectiveness. Superiors tend
to emphasise initiating structure; subordinates are more concerned with
consideration.
(d) Only a slight relationship exists between how leaders say they should behave
and how subordinates describe that they do behave.
From the four major findings, we can observe that the common ground
between the leaders and their subordinates are limited and they have very little in
common to share. Leaders seemed to emphasise initiating the structure while the
subordinates are more concerned with consideration, and if both sides go different
ways then the relationship stops to function and the organisation breaks down. In
order for the organisation to run smoothly to achieve its objectives, the common
ground for both sides to interact actively must be broad enough so that both sides
would perceive that their interests were taken care of. Only then the leadership
becomes effective.
This pattern of leadership studies slowly began to change and, in the 1990s, a new
paradigm in leadership studies emerged. It was termed as „The New Leadership‰.
In the early 1990s, charismatic and transformational leadership theories provoked
a high level of interest among scholars and practitioners, and by the end of the
decade, dozens of research studies were conducted (Conger, 1999). This new
approach towards leadership was different from the traditional approach (Hoy &
Miskel, 2001). The following discussions on the new approach towards leadership
will provide a better picture and understanding of their positions.
From the examples given, we know that charisma does not differentiate between
good and evil (House & Howell, 1992) and these charismatic leaders emerged
during crisis. In the case of Hitler, there is very little disagreement that he was a
charismatic leader with negative and evil connotations.
On the other hand, if these charismatic leaders based their philosophy on false
notions and destructive philosophies, then the societies they lead would create
anarchy as what happened to Hitler of Germany during the Second World War
and Radovan Milosevic of Serbia after the break-up of Yugoslavia in 1990s.
House and Howell (1992) refined the personality traits of charismatic leadership
which were first constructed by House (1977). The refined personality traits
include the following:
(a) Achievement-oriented;
(d) Self-confident;
(e) Has a need for social influence with concern for the moral use of power;
(f) Takes high risk and has a deep work involvement; and
From these personality traits, we would envision that the charismatic leaders as
characterised by House and Howell (1992) are sought after leaders because those
traits are necessary ingredients for successful organisations. In an educational
context, we would be able to achieve better academic results, while the creative
and innovative traits of the principal would lead the way for the teachers and the
students to follow. Any paradigm shifts that were to be implemented would have
the least resistance from the followers. The leaderÊs deep involvement and
willingness to take risks would bring about intense support from the staff and the
possibility of achieving the objectives are very likely.
Shamir and Howell (1999) contended that charismatic leadership is more likely to
emerge and be effective in weak situations. In the case of Indonesia during the war
for independence from the Dutch, the country was unstable and weak. The country
may have disintegrated into small independent states along ethnic lines but
President Soekarno was able to forge a united Indonesia through his ability to
persuade the people of Indonesia to remain within the Republic.
His success in this area enabled him to have a large group of staunch followers all
over the country who were willing to listen to his lengthy speech for hours and
they emulated him in his oratory ability as well as his dressing. The people of
Indonesia still have warm regards for him and remember him as instrumental for
achieving independence and unity for Indonesia. The likelihood of having a
charismatic leader in a developed democracy is most unlikely, because people
have all the basic needs and have no threats within their society. Therefore, there
is no need for a charismatic leader to sway them to achieve grand visions or to
climb greater heights. They are already there!
Charismatic leaders seemed to become rarer at the turn of the 21st century due to
the globalised environment including third world countries. However, on a
smaller scale and in a more localised manner, it does occur from time to time. What
these leaders possess is not fully charisma but rather a combination of various
forms of characteristics and styles.
Leaders have become more „normal‰ and down-to-earth and they can easily be
accessed by their followers. As such, whatever charismatic qualities they have
seemed to dissipate and the real qualities become apparent to their followers. As
the result of this perception change, other types of leadership were coined to
describe the new changes in the leadership styles which are more suited to the new
democratic process as people become more educated worldwide.
In our school system, sometimes there exist schools that have a combination of
problems due to many factors. Sometimes the problems might be caused by
neglect by all sides ă the principal, teachers, parents and students as well as the
department of education. Where the neglect continues for a long period of time it
develops into a negative culture that can destroy the school. To rehabilitate the
school takes a lot of effort and time. Probably this is the time and place when the
services of a charismatic leader is needed.
SELF-CHECK 1.10
ACTIVITY 1.13
1. Some people contend that most charismatic leaders are ineffective.
Do you agree with them? Discuss.
2. Where do you think a charismatic principal would serve best? Give
reasons.
3. Is charismatic leadership acquired or inborn? Elaborate your
answer.
4. Can an individual who aspires to be a leader develop some
charismatic traits? If he can, how?
(d) Inspire followers to transcend their own interests to pursue higher order
goals;
(e) Change their organisation to accommodate their vision rather than work
within the existing one; and
(f) Mentor followers to take greater responsibility for their own development
and that of others.
These six actions that are taken up by transformational leaders are actually
qualities of effective leaders, which have been deliberated upon earlier, who are
open to paradigm shifts and innovations. Willingness to adopt new ways of doing
„other things‰ as well adopting innovations in doing the „traditional things‰ is a
sign of a transformational leadership.
Transformational leaders feel that there is a need for change in the organisation
and the needed change is defined in specific and measurable terms to ensure that
the process of ongoing evaluation could be implemented to measure the success
of the change process.
Bass (1998) and Avolio (1999) contend that transactional leadership forms the
basis of a sustainable leadership system. In any organisation the qualities of a
transactional leader enable the organisation to face dynamic challenges and help
them not to succumb to the onslaughts of globalisation. Instead, the process of
globalisation would transform the organisation into a desired vehicle to spread its
strategic plans and visions in difficult-to-access places.
In the context of the school, these transformational leaders should inspire the
teachers to believe in themselves through the process of strategic planning as well
as implementing the visions and sharing equally the successes of the change
strategy that they have achieved. The teachers would feel that they belong to the
successes as intensely as the leaders themselves. The leaders should have pride in
their followers and feel that they belong to the same community as the followers.
As society progresses, the style of leadership approaches also moves with the
changes in society. At the time when it was effective to use transactional
leadership, it was widely used in managing subordinates in organisations As
society progressed and workers were more educated than before, the transactional
leadership approach moved to a higher and more enlightened level into the
transformational leadership stage. Malaysian education, for example, is actively
involved in the reengineering process of the school system to prepare for 2020
when Malaysia will achieve its developed nation status.
Primary school teachers and headmasters are being retrained to higher education
so that by the year 2020 all of them will hold at least a bachelor degree which would
make them experts in their specialisation of teaching elementary students in
the primary schools. This process of change needs both transactional and
transformational leadership styles to ensure an everlasting change through
effective implementations of programmes to achieve the objectives of Vision 2020
in education.
Hallinger (1982) developed 10 job functions that reflect the areas of responsibility
of the principal as an instructional leader as shown in Figure 1.4.
SELF-CHECK 1.11
ACTIVITY 1.14
1. How would you explain why the transactional and transformational
leadership approaches are on the same continuum in the school
context?
2. Can all leaders acquire transformational leadership traits through
training? Explain.
3. Describe how a transformational leader executes the mission and
vision of a school that he leads to achieve the status of an „effective
school‰.
The proponents of moral leadership believe that leadership practice should not
only be considered legitimate if it is only based by secular authority, science and
deductive reasoning and logic which at present dominate management thinking.
That criterion is not wholesome due to other elements that guide human actions
and thinking. Therefore, it should also include sense experience, intuition, sacred
authority and emotion. In many societies, they form the basis of leadership actions
where secular authority is of utmost importance.
We should also ask the question, „What motivates and inspires leaders and
followers to work in extraordinary ways? Is it for the money?‰ The answer lies in
something else. It is connected with emotions, values and our connections with
other people which count a great deal but are downplayed as sources of
motivation.
When moral values become part of leadership, then leadership will become less
important and schools will be transformed from organisations into communities
where professionalism is viewed as statement of competence and as a virtue. When
this situation has become a tradition, every member of the community will be self-
motivated and the motivation is mostly driven by their moral intrinsic values.
Theoretically, the organisation would function well even though there is no
designated leader.
In modern secular societies moral values are relative and, as the result of this stand,
they tend to be overlooked and side-lined whenever major paradigm shifts have
to be implemented. It sometimes causes a breakdown in family and societal values
that can result in grave social problems. The same thing can occur in our education
system if we were to exclude moral values. Before we are able to inculcate moral
values among our students, the school leadership and the teachers should be the
prime examples of moral virtues.
SELF-CHECK 1.12
ACTIVITY 1.15
1. „If the administration of a school does not base itself on moral
values, it will face grave problems of indiscipline among students
as well as teachers‰. Do you agree? Explain.
2. Are Malaysian schools lacking in moral leadership? Give your views.
This topic looked into the leader from a solo perspective, based on the great
man theory, where leadership is seen to be practised by one person who
occupies the top position.
The idea of leadership as an influence process evolved from the solo leader
concept when leadership is viewed as charismatic, transformational and
transactional.
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INTRODUCTION
Knowledge about effective leadership behaviours and attitudes is vital especially
for leaders or would-be leaders so that they would know what personal qualities
to develop within themselves as well as management approaches utilised to
achieve the best possible cooperation from their subordinates, and in the end the
total achievement of the organisational objectives.
(a) Physical traits include being young to middle-aged, energetic, tall and
handsome.
(b) Social background traits include being educated at the „right‰ schools and
being socially prominent or upwardly mobile.
Trait theories identify traits to assist in selecting leaders since traits are related to
leadership effectiveness in many situations. The trait approach to understanding
leadership supports the use of tests and interviews in the selection of managers.
The interviewer typically attempts to match the traits and characteristics of the
applicant to the position. For example, most interviewers attempt to evaluate how
well the applicant can work with people.
Though trait theories were developed during the earlier part of the 20th century,
they are still useful to some extent in selection of personnel because they can
give an indication of the suitability of the candidates for the organisation. The
combination of these trait theories with other more recent leadership theories can
give us a thorough knowledge of the important leadership theories that would be
of great help to all leaders.
(a) Theory X
Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control by managers.
(i) The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will
avoid it if he can.
(b) Theory Y
Theory Y is the view that individual and organisational goals can be
integrated.
(i) The expenditures of physical and mental effort in work are as natural
as play or rest.
(ii) External control and the threat of punishment are not the only means
for bringing out effort toward organisational objectives.
(iv) The average human being learns, under proper conditions, not only to
accept but also to seek responsibility.
The researchers concluded that the two dimensions were separate and distinct and
therefore leadership behaviour was plotted on two separate axes (see Figure 2.1).
These studies led to the development of the Leadership Behaviour Description
Questionnaire (LBDQ), an assessment instrument for the identification of the
leadership orientation of the leader.
The Leadership Grid, although similar to the LBDQ that measured how leader
actions were perceived by others, is an attitudinal model for „portraying types of
leadership behaviour and their various potential combinations‰. Thus, it is a
measure of the predisposition of the leader.
The grid consists of two intersecting axes, the horizontal axis measuring concern
for people and the vertical axis measuring concern for production. Each dimension
was measured on a nine-point scale. Therefore, theoretically the ideal leader
would be measured at 9-9 on the scale, that is, high consideration and high
structure (team).
Concurrent with and complementing the Ohio State studies were the studies
conducted by the University Of Michigan Survey Research Centre. According to
Moorhead and Griffin (1998), the focus of these studies were to identify the
leadership characteristics that resulted in effective group performance.
These studies identified two basic forms of leadership behaviours that mirrored
those identified by the Ohio state studies. These were production or job-centred
leader behaviour and employee-centred leader behaviour. Summarising the
findings of the Michigan studies:
(a) More effective leaders tend to have relationships with their subordinates that
are supportive and enhance the followersÊ sense of self-esteem than do less
effective ones.
(b) More effective leaders use group rather than person-to-person methods of
supervision and decision making than do less effective ones.
(c) More effective leaders tend to set higher performance goals than do less
effective ones.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
1. Name the set of traits and characteristics that were identified as traits
that can assist in selecting the right people to become leaders.
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. „Leaders are born, not made‰. Do you agree? Discuss.
2. „Leaders with Theory Y orientation are more successful than
leaders with Theory X orientation.‰ Discuss.
3. Some people contend that „laissez-faire‰ style of leadership in
almost all situations is a disaster. Do you agree?
The contingency model of leadership behaviour, also known as the Least Preferred
Co-worker (LPC) theory is based on the instrument developed by Fiedler (1967) to
measure leader effectiveness. It is the most well-known and empirically tested of
the contextual or situational models. In this theory, leader effectiveness is viewed
as a function of leader behaviour and contextual factors. As noted by Hoy and
Miskel (1991), Fiedler was careful in underscoring the critical distinction between
leadership style and leadership behaviour.
The path-goal theory developed and refined by Martin Evans and House in the
1970s, also adopts the contingency conceptualisation of leadership. The theory
proposes that subordinatesÊ performances, perceptions of work goals, personal
goals and paths to goal attainment are influenced by leadership behaviours.
The model identifies four leadership behaviours. These are directive- and
achievement-oriented behaviours which represent the initiating structure
dimension of the Ohio State LBDQ studies, and participative and supportive
behaviours which find support in the consideration dimension. There has not been
much empirical support for this model and consequently, its utility value is
limited.
The other contingency theory model that created an impact on leadership theory
was Vroom and YettonÊs decision making model which was revised and expanded
by Vroom and Jago in 1974 and again in 1984, and recreated by Vroom and Jago in
1988 to address issues of validity. The model while similar to the path-goal theory,
in seeking to prescribe the most suitable leadership style to a given situation,
focuses on the extent to which subordinates should be involved in the decision-
making process. In this regard, it proposes that the degree to which subordinates
be allowed to participate in decision making should depend on the characteristics
of the situation. The goal of the model is to ensure quality decisions and acceptance
of these decisions by the subordinates.
According to Hersey and Blanchard (1982) and Hersey, Zigarmi and Zigarmi
(1987) depending on the level of maturity, the leader employed more directive or
more supportive behaviour. As can be seen in Figure 2.3, the theory identifies the
four leadership patterns or styles deemed appropriate for the four situations of
maturity, suggesting that as the group becomes more experienced, more willing
and able to take responsibility for the tasks, the style of leadership behaviours
changes from an emphasis on directing to the delegation of responsibility.
2.3.2 Conclusion
The challenge remains in identifying the leadership styles and behaviours that
maximise effectiveness-concern, for organisational tasks and efficiency-concern
for relationships. Almost all theorists acknowledge that success of the organisation
depends on both. This challenge is no different for the school as an organisation.
However, the challenge is even more acute because notwithstanding the various
conceptualisations and the political interpretations of effectiveness, using the
jargon of industry, the production methods of the school are individualised to the
different operators (teachers). Additionally, and adding to the challenge, the final
products are varied, individualised, often cannot be measured and even when
beneficial to the individual, sometimes are not what is appreciated by the wider
society.
It is in this milieu that the principal as designated leader functions. Yet, his role is
critical to the success of the school. Hoy and Miskel (1991), in citing Warren Bennis,
encapsulated this sentiment when they argued that the principal is responsible for
the effectiveness of the school, provides the anchor and guiding purpose especially
in times of change and upheaval, and play a key role in alleviating the publicÊs
concern about the schools.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
ACTIVITY 2.2
2. Discuss when you would use each of the four basic styles
(supporting, coaching, delegating and directing) in a school
situation.
At present, the focus of leadership is achievement of the objectives which has been
planned. The measure of success is usually in terms of studentsÊ achievement in
schools. The following literature review provides us with some findings on the
relationship between leadership styles and approaches and studentsÊ achievement
which can be used as a basis of our reflections on what we have done as leaders in
our own ways.
(a) At the secondary level, teacher and principal perceptions about how the
principal governs the school are strongly related to the manner in which
the principal is perceived to organise the schoolÊs programme and to the
principalÊs role in building a productive school climate.
(d) Jackson, Logsdon and Taylor (1983) concluded from their research of low-
income public schools in the District of Columbia that city schools could be
effective for low income African-American students. For this study, they
looked at four schools that were instructionally effective for poor students
and four schools of similar student population that were not effective. Unlike
what they observed in the ineffective schools, the principals of the effective
schools maintained firm and centralised control with a strong task and
academic orientation.
Their discipline codes were clear and strictly enforced. They monitored
achievement, were supportive of teachers and students and rewarded
achievement. Using EdmondsÊ (1979) analogy, these principals were
„tyrannical‰ in their expectations and demands for „achievement regardless
of student background‰. They insisted that all students be brought to a
minimum level of mastery of the basic skills.
(e) Andrews, Soder and Jacobson (1986) investigated the relationship between
perceptions of the principal as instructional leader and the average gain in
California Achievement Test Scores. They tested the hypothesis that children
who attended schools administered by principals who were strong
instructional leaders evidenced greater increases in NCE scores for total
reading and total mathematics than children who attended schools led by
those who were not strong instructional leaders.
From their analysis, they found that there were significant differences
in reading and mathematics between the schools in which the principals
received the highest ratings and the other two groups of schools. Based on
these results, they concluded that particularly for schools that catered to the
historically low achieving groups of students, teachersÊ perceptions of the
principal as a strong instructional leader were critical to student achievement
in reading and mathematics.
His results indicated that despite the effects of context variables such as
school size, type of school and teacher experience on student outcomes, these
variables „did not appear to influence the perceptions of the principalÊs
strategic interactions with teachers in the areas of governing the school,
building school culture/climate, and instructional organisation‰, areas that
have direct impact on student achievement.
(h) Cheng, (1994) using data from the large-scale research project „Education
Quality in Hong Kong Primary Schools‰ investigated the principalÊs
leadership as a critical factor for school performance. For this study, he
integrated Bolman and DealÊs (1991) four leadership orientations in
organisations: structural leadership, human resource leadership, political
leadership and symbolic leadership, and SergiovanniÊs (1984) five
component leadership model of the principal: technical leadership, human
leadership, educational leadership, symbolic leadership and cultural
leadership.
From the mentioned earlier, Cheng (1994) proposed the following five
dimensions of the principalÊs leadership:
(i) Structural leadership: the extent to which the principal thinks clearly
and logically, develops clear goals and policies and holds people
accountable for results.
(ii) Human leadership: the extent to which the principal is supportive and
fosters participation.
(iii) Political leadership: the extent to which the principal is persuasive and
effective in building alliances and support, and solving conflicts.
(i) Citing the limitations of using test scores as a measure of student outcomes,
Leithwood and Jantzi, (1999) also investigated the relationship between
transformational leadership and student outcomes not based on test scores,
but on student engagement with school.
2.4.2 Conclusion
From the mentioned review of the principal as leader, it is clear that he plays a
critical, even if often fuzzy, role in overall school effectiveness. The principal, in
many cases, did not seem to be really important in the academic process of the
school due to the fact that they did not participate directly in all activities that
contribute to the success of the school. But does it mean that the principal ship role
is unimportant? The answer to this question is obvious because a ship without its
captain will definitely not reach its destination.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
1. Cite the research studies that show the principal leadership styles
is significantly correlated with school achievement.
2. What makes students from low-income families perform well
academically?
3. Name the characteristics of the principals that are related to
academic achievement.
4. According to Andrews, Soder and Jacobson (1986), the number of
principals who are strong instructional leaders is significantly
related to greater increase in examination scores. Explain.
ACTIVITY 2.3
Schools, are by nature, ethical since they are directed to human improvement, yet
schools are also organisations for interaction between human beings and as such
they sometimes fall short of ethical standards. An ethical school is characterised
by an ethical culture. This means that the ethical nature of the core business of
schools, namely their devotion to the well-being of young people, remains at the
forefront and that ethical concerns embedded in schoolsÊ everyday activities are
explicit, accepted and openly acknowledged.
The concept of ethics in leadership centres not only the moral character of the
leader, but also on the ethical values inscribed in the leaderÊs personal portfolio of
goals, perceptions, expressions and actions. An ethical leader, in the end, is not
only able to maintain integrity within him but is adept at influencing others to act
ethically as well. Furthermore, the more ethical a leader is, the more likely he is to
exhibit superior job performance, exhibit a high level of concern for the students
and set a positive example.
Educational leaders are frequently forced to make decisions that place more value
on some morals than on others. Because of this, and the limited power of the
student voice in the overall conduct of educational leaders, the leaderÊs conduct
must be consciously moral and ethical. Hence to truly maintain status as an ethical
educational leader, the responsibility to promote ethical conduct must be rooted
not so much in technical expertise, but in basic human understanding.
Communities continually claim to want stronger school leaders with visions for
change that do not rest comfortably amid the status quo. They want leaders who
are not afraid of change and who understand that the ethical dilemmas of todayÊs
youth are far more extreme than in the past. The educational leadersÊ personal
ethical standards are therefore paramount in facilitating the creation of a thriving,
well-adjusted and morally grounded new millennium generation.
There are five principles that provide a foundation for the development of sound
ethical leadership. The origin of these five principles can be traced back to the times
of Aristotle and their importance has been discussed in various other disciplines
ranging from biomedics to business and from counselling psychology to
leadership in education.
2.5.2 Conclusion
A very important aspect of leadership is ethical administrative behaviour that is
usually correlated with effective management of schools. A principal with strong
ethical norms is a person with principles who can be trusted by all to deliver
results. An ethical principal will ensure that all his promises will be fulfilled. The
school is considered by society as the moral institution where ethics and moral
education is embedded in the curriculum, while teachers are supposed to be the
bastion of high ethical and moral values where society will look up to educate its
children in ethics and morality.
The question that is always playing in our minds as teachers and members of our
society is „Are the school ready to play its role in this matter effectively?‰ The
answer to this question differs from one another because of the different views
aired by various interested parties. What is more important is to ensure that our
schools have principals who are well-trained in managing their schools and have
strong moral and ethical values.
SELF-CHECK 2.4
ACTIVITY 2.3
3. What are the ethical norms of the classical world view and the
modern worldview? Discuss.
4. Discuss some of the ethical issues that school leaders must face
daily in schools.
This topic discussed both early trait theories and the more modern trait and
personality theories.
Various leadership styles are discussed and it is concluded that there are two
orientations in leadership ă either toward relationships or task completion.
The ethical practice of educational leadership is given emphasis and the focus
is on the central issues of ethics with those in the leadership role.
The topic concluded with a section on how leaders behave ethically ă are
respectful of others, are ready to server others, are just, are honest and build
community.
Andrews, R., & Soder, R. (1987). Principal leadership and student achievement.
Educational Leadership, 44 (6), 9ă11.
Andrews, R. L., Soder, R., & Jacob, D. (1986). Principal role, other school variables,
and academic achievement, by ethnicity and SES. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San
Francisco, California, USA.
Azumi, J. E., & Madhere, S. (1983). Professional, power and performance: The
relationship between administration control, teacher conformity and student
achievement. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada.
Beauchamp, T. L., & Bowie, N. E. (1988). Ethical theory and business (3rd ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1994). Looking for leadership: Another search partyÊs
report. Educational Administration Quaterly, 30 (1), 77ă96.
Edmonds, R., & Frederiksen, J. (1979). Search for effective school: The
identification and analysis of city school that are instructionally effective for
poor children. Cambridge, MA: Center for Urban Studies.
Fiedler, F. E. (1967). New approaches to effective leadership. New York, NY: John
Wiley.
Heck, R. H. (1993). School context, principal leadership and achievement: The case
of secondary school Singapore. The Urban Review, 25 (2), 151ă166.
Heck, R., Larsen, T., & Marcoulides, G. (1990). Principal leadership and school
achievement: The validation of a causal model. Educational Administration
Quarterly, 26 (2), 96ă145.
Hersey, P., Zigarmi, D., & Zigarmi, P. (1987). Leadership: Different folks.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
Lichtenberg, J. (1996). What are codes of ethics for? In M. Coady & S. Bloch (Eds.),
Codes of ethics and the professions (pp. 13ă27). Melbourne, Australia:
Melbourne University Press.
Longstaff, S. (1994). What is ethics education and training? Annandale, VA: The
Federation Press.
Longstaff, S. (1994). Ethics for the public sector. Annandale, VA: The Federation
Press.
McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Rebose, R. W. (2001). The ethics of educational leadership, Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Merill Prentice Hall.
Vroom, V. H., & Jago, A .G. (1980). An evaluation of two alternatives to the Vroom-
Yetton normative model. Academy of Management Journal, 23 (2), 347ă355.
INTRODUCTION
Effective leaders are always open to many options on leadership styles and
approaches to use when confronting problems and situations that need their
attention and participation. Different situations need different treatments to bring
about the intended results. A leader should be able to choose the right option, and
to be able to do this, his knowledge and experience become important guidelines
for him to proceed.
Sometimes a successful leadership approach for a similar situation might not work
in another setting or in a different time frame or era. The contingency theory is a
leader-match theory (Fiedler & Chemers, 1974) where it tries to match leaders to
appropriate situations. It is called contingency because the effectiveness of the
leader depends on how well his leadership style fits the context. The theories on
contingency and situational leadership in this topic were developed mostly in the
1960s but there are still some adherents to these theories who kept on developing
and using them until the present era. They are still applicable even though other
theories were formulated decades ago.
Leadership Theory and Research: Perspectives and Directions (1993) was a tribute
to Fred FiedlerÊs 40 year study of leadership and organisational effectiveness. The
editors, Chemers and Roya Ayman, write of FiedlerÊs contribution: „The
realisation that leadership effectiveness depends on the interaction of qualities of
the leader with demands of the situation in which the leader functions, made the
simplistic „one best way‰ approach of earlier eras obsolete‰.
FiedlerÊs contingency theory suggests that there is no best way for managers to
lead. Situations will create different leadership style requirements for a manager.
The solution to a managerial situation depends on the factors that influence the
situation. For example, in a highly routinised environment where repetitive tasks
are the norm, a certain leadership style may result in the best performance. The
same leadership style may not work in a very dynamic environment.
Fiedler looked at three situations that could define the condition of a managerial
task:
Based on FiedlerÊs contingency theory, leaders who are task motivated will
be effective in both, the very favourable when situations are going along
smoothly and also the least favourable when situations are chaotic and out
of control. Leaders who are relationship motivated are effective in
moderately favourable situations, where there is some degree of certainty but
where they are not completely under their control.
SELF-CHECK 3.1
ACTIVITY 3.1
Based on assumptions from the expectancy theory (Vroom, 1964), this model
explains how the behaviour of the leader causes expectancies or motivations in the
subordinate, creating effort and satisfaction. The rationale is that followers will
perform better if they think they are capable, and if they perceive the work will get
results and be worth the effort.
(d) In directive leadership, the leader lets teachers know what is expected of
them and tells them how to perform their tasks. This style is appropriate
when the teachers or staff have an ambiguous job.
(a) Path-goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change
their style, as situations require.
(b) The theory proposes two contingency variables (environment and follower
characteristics) that moderate the leader behaviour-outcome relationship.
(e) Follower characteristics are the locus of control, experience and perceived
ability.
(g) Effective leaders clarify the path to help their followers achieve their goals
and make the journey easier by reducing roadblocks and pitfalls.
No one leadership behaviour works for motivating every person and the leader
supplies what is missing to motivate the follower. After this initial assessment of
the follower and the task, the leader then helps the follower define goals and then
reaches them in the most efficient way.
Leaders may even adapt their styles with an individual during the completion of
a task, if one part of the job needs a different motivation from another.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
2. What are the four skills that a path-goal leader needs to master?
ACTIVITY 3.2
Hersey and Blanchard (1977) identified four different leadership styles that could
be adopted to deal with contrasting situations:
Aside from their very general nature, there are some issues with such models.
First, there is a lot of evidence to suggest that cultural factors influence the way
that people carry out, and respond to, different leadership styles. For example,
some cultures are more individualistic, or value family as against bureaucratic
models, or have very different expectations about how people address and talk
with each other. All these have impact on the choice of style and approach.
Second, as we saw earlier, there may be different patterns of leadership linked with
men and women. Some have argued that women may have leadership styles that
are more nurturing, caring and sensitive. They look more to relationships. Men are
said to look to task. However, there is a lot of debate about this. We can find plenty
of examples of nurturing men and task-oriented women. Any contrasts between
the styles of men and women may be down to the situation. In management, for
example, women are more likely to be in positions of authority in people-oriented
sectors ă so this aspect of style is likely to be emphasised.
Third, Hersey and Blanchard „focus mainly on the relationship between managers
and immediate subordinates, and say little about issues of structure, politics or
symbols‰.
SELF-CHECK 3.3
When will delegating and telling styles be effective tools for success?
ACTIVITY 3.3
Kouzes, J. M., & Posner, B. Z. (1995). The leadership challenge. San Francisco, CA:
Jossey-Bass.
INTRODUCTION
Why are you doing the Masters of Education? Perhaps with a MasterÊs degree you
will be able to lecture in a college or improve your chances of a promotion or
simply to learn more about education. Surely you have your own reasons and are
interested enough to take courses towards getting a MasterÊs degree. Interest is an
important motivator for a student. So is a desire to learn. Although interest and
desire are important, they may not be enough. Think about this analogy.
In your garage is parked a powerful sleek sports car with enough fuel, a new
set of tyres and equipped with the latest stereophonic system. The car has
incredible potential and but until you sit in the driverÊs seat and start the
ignition, the car does not function.
Yes, the key is motivation. When it comes to motivation, knowing (that you have
a powerful sport car) is not as important as doing (starting and driving it).
Similarly, in studying for this course, you may have the intelligence, knowledge
base, study skills and time management skills, but if you do not have motivation
or desire to learn, you will not get far.
But, motivating employees is easier said than done! Despite the abundance of
research and theories on motivation, the subject of motivation is not clearly
understood and in many instances poorly practised. It has been suggested that to
understand motivation you need to understand the whole of human nature.
Obviously, this would be problematic as human nature or human behaviour can
be very simple and yet very complex too. Despite these difficulties, psychologists
and management specialists have attempted to examine human behaviour and
studied motivation in some detail.
Surely, you know the old saying that you can take a horse to the pond of water but
you cannot force it to drink, unless of course it is thirsty. Similarly with people,
they will do what they want to do if they are motivated. For example, teachers in
your school will teach extra classes on a Saturday if they are motivated to do so,
either by themselves or through some external stimulus.
McClelland further elaborates that in reality people possess and are driven
by a combination or mix of these three types of motivation. These combination or
mix in motivational needs affects a personÊs behaviour and working style.
McClelland was most interested in achievement motivation and suggested other
characteristics and attitudes of achievement-motivated people (Chapman, 1995):
(b) Achieving the aim or task gives greater personal satisfaction than receiving
praise or recognition.
ACTIVITY 4.1
A leader with a strong n-affil may be less objective and this may affect
decision making because of his need to belong and to be liked by
subordinates.
A leader with strong n-pow may produce a committed work force but
there is the possibility that he may lack flexibility and people-centred
skills.
A strong n-ach leader may make a good leader but he may demand too
much of employees believing that they are all equally achievement-
oriented and results driven, which of course most people are not.
(b) If you are a leader, which of the three mentioned characteristics best
describes you? Discuss.
The theory assumes that people consciously choose from among alternatives with
the aim of maximising pleasure and minimising pain or negative consequences.
Vroom was convinced that an employeeÊs performance is based on his personality,
skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. Have you wondered why some people
are just not interested in going the extra mile and are content with doing the
minimum? Perhaps the individual does not have the relevant knowledge and
skills to do more.
The expectancy theory states that individuals have different sets of goals and can
be motivated if they believe that there is a positive correlation between effort and
reward. In other words, a person completes a certain task (effort) and is rewarded
accordingly which may be a statement by his superior, „That was a job well done!‰
The reward satisfies an important need (to be recognised for oneÊs effort). When
the need is satisfied, the individual realises that the effort was worthwhile. The
expectancy theory is based on the following three beliefs or variables:
(a) Valence
Valence refers to the importance people have with regard to the outcomes
or rewards. What do employees value? Is money important to you? Is
recognition of your work important?
(b) Expectancy
Expectancy is the belief that effort leads to performance: If I work harder, the
product will be better. Employees have different expectations and levels of
confidence about what they are capable of doing. What resources or training
do employees need?
(c) Instrumentality
Instrumentality is the belief that if a person performs as expected, he will get
what they desire as promised: „Everything seems to be going on very well
and I am sure to be rewarded‰. Leaders must ensure that promises of
rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.
This formula can be used to indicate and predict such things such as job
satisfaction, oneÊs occupational choice, the likelihood of staying in a job and the
effort one might expend at work. Refer to „What motivates a person to recycle
paper?‰ to see the application of the formula in Figure 4.2.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
(a) Goals serve as a directive function. For example, goals direct attention and
effort toward relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities.
(b) Goals have an energising function. What does this mean? Goals tend to
increase the effort of the staff. High goals initiate a larger magnitude of effort
than low goals. When a goal is set at a difficult level a person is required to
put forth more effort to meet it. Satisfaction is experienced when a goal is
met.
(c) Goals affect persistence. Faced with a difficult task, it is possible to work
faster and more intensely for a short period or to work more slowly and less
intensely for a long period. Tight deadlines lead to more rapid work pace
than loose deadlines.
(d) Goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery and/or use
of task-relevant knowledge and strategies.
Figure 4.4 discusses important issues regarding Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting
theory.
Figure 4.4: Important issues regarding Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory
(b) Direction
Locke and Latham also argue that the direction and accuracy of goals are
important. The direction of a goal states where we are supposed to go. It
forces a person to focus, narrow his thinking and select beliefs that will lead
to the achievement of the goal.
(c) Accuracy
An accurate goal states the most exact possible conclusion or achievement of
the goal. Accuracy is important because deviating from the goal may be
costly.
So, it is not surprising that people invest more effort in achieving accuracy
goals. When we have an accurate goal, we do not stop at the „good enough‰
stage but continue to search for improvements.
Goals are products to strive for and a means of judging satisfaction. When a
person puts forth the effort to meet a goal, that person will not be satisfied
until his goal is met (Locke & Latham, 2002). As may be implied, when a
subject achieves a higher performance level than is required for a goal to be
attained, satisfaction will be increased relative to the amount of performance.
Likewise, the further a subject is from meeting the goal, the more
dissatisfaction will be experienced. These relationships show that there is a
relationship between goal difficulty and job satisfaction. It is this premise
that the current study is based.
SELF-CHECK 4.2
In todayÊs „dog-eat-dog‰ world, this culture of brute strength rules the day.
Students who are involved in this culture would not excel in academic matters.
Instead they would be trouble-makers and cause indiscipline in the school. The
school authorities, especially the principal and the teachers would have to find
means to modify these studentsÊ behaviours in order to establish a positive and
effective school culture.
(i) Attention ă the learner has to pay attention to the behaviours, attitudes
and reactions.
(iii) Motor reproduction ă the learner has reproduced what he has learnt.
(iv) Motivation ă in order for the learner to retain the modelled behaviour
there must be some motivation on his part to continue doing it.
(viii) Students who need help may show negative behaviour that they wish
to eliminate, or show positive behaviour that they wish others to
follow.
SELF-CHECK 4.3
(e) Evaluation
After the programme of behaviour modification has been implemented,
formative evaluation has to be carried out to gauge its effectiveness. If
necessary, the intervention process might be modified to suit the
requirement of achieving the goal.
They become less motivated, less curious, less interested in new ideas
and in learning. Their self-esteem and pride is based upon good
impression management, not on careful evaluation or estimate of
their ability. This impression leads to less curiosity and avoidance of
testing their limits. Their self-confidence falls further and if they make
any foolish statement, they begin to doubt their intelligence. The
consequence for this orientation is grave even for the high achievers if
they fall into this trap.
Schools that are aware of this phenomenon among the students can
attempt to remedy it by introducing programmes that build studentsÊ
self-esteem by giving lots of positive reinforcement, positive
expectations of the students to do well (self-fulfilling prophecy), but
this attempt cannot be stretched too much. It might be harmful to the
students and jeopardise the objective of the whole process. Rewarding
success on easy assignments will not encourage students to tackle
difficult tasks. They know that their „success‰ is not real and their limits
are not tested. This feeling might be more harmful to their self-esteem.
(i) Approach rather than avoid tasks related to success because he believes
that success is due to high ability and effort which he is confident of.
Failure is due to something else other than his lack of ability.
(ii) Never surrender but instead become more persistent when work
becomes more difficult, because failure is considered as the result of a
lack of effort.
(iii) Choose moderate challenges where the success rate is 50 per cent
because the feedback on these attempts tells him how well he is doing.
(iv) Works very hard because the results are believed to be the result of hard
work and how much he tries.
The unmotivated person, on the other hand, has the opposite attitude and the
result of this attitude causes him to slide further into lower self-confidence, self-
esteem and lower achievements.
4.4.3 Conclusion
As teachers in the school, you may find many students who can be categorised into
this group of students who are not motivated and have negative attitudes towards
themselves. What would you do? This question can be answered if you have read
the earlier paragraphs as well as other articles on the subject.
As teachers you can apply many theories and principles of education; psychology,
sociology, curriculum development, leadership, pedagogy and many others to
design programmes for student improvement. The success of the programmes
depend on the seriousness of implementation and the teachers who are behind
them. Effective schools are the result of the principals and teachers belief that
anything can be achieved if they believe in what they are doing.
SELF-CHECK 4.4
ACTIVITY 4.2
This topic enables students to recognise and apply the differences between
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
Locke and LathamÊs goal-setting theory was focused on how goals affect
performance through four mechanisms ă directive function, energising
function, persistence and action.
Good leaders aim to motivate others by meeting their higher order needs.
This topic also addresses the need to motivate and to modify behaviours.
Guez, W., & Allen, J. (Eds.). Regional Training Seminar on Guidance and
Counselling Module 4. Behaviour modification. UNESCO, Uganda.
Vroom, V. (1995). Work and motivation. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Inc.
INTRODUCTION
The school is not an island by itself. It is a part of a community and, due to that,
it is a social organisation. A social organisation has its own characteristics and
the most common aspect of these characteristics is bureaucracy. It rules the
organisation in almost all aspect of activities. Understanding the bureaucratic
process and characteristics of the organisation enables an individual to plan the
activities to achieve certain goals and objectives without much hindrance. As a
post-graduate student, you are expected not only to understand the concepts of
a social organisation but also to explain, evaluate and criticise all aspects of it.
Besides that, you are also expected to know some social theories so that you can
apply them in actual situations in the school system in the process of developing
effective schools for the benefit of the students and the future of the nation. What
makes the school a social organisation? It is an organisation because it is made up
of a system of social interactions; an organised whole comprising of interesting
personalities bound together in an organic relationship (Waller, 1932). These
personalities determine the type of school system which may change with the
change of personalities and the approaches towards policy implementation.
(g) Are sanction bearing where norms for behaviour are enforced with reward
and punishment;
The 11 assumptions of a social system can reflect the school system which is
familiar to many of us. If school improvement is to be implemented successfully,
the school as a social system must be understood. The strengths and the
weaknesses of the school must be analysed in order to plan the school
improvement process. The success depends on how thorough the analysis was
made, and, how close the problems identified are to the actual problems. When
the actual problems are identified, the planning and the implementation of the
solutions would bring about the desired results and wastage would be minimised.
After the deliberations on the subject of the schools as social systems, let us delve
in more detail into the theoretical aspects of the school as a social organisation.
Weber (1947) discussed the concept of bureaucracy and our objective is to relate
his theoretical concepts to our schools.
SELF-CHECK 5.1
ACTIVITY 5.1
SELF-CHECK 5.2
Name the five characteristics of a bureaucracy according to the Weberian
model.
ACTIVITY 5.2
(b) Division of labour ensures that every member of the organisation is an expert
in a certain area of specialisation.
(c) This results in more efficiency since the expert would be able to give advice
to his superordinates and others in matters that need expert and professional
opinions before any decision could be made.
(d) When there are experts in all sectors of the organisation, then it will become
self-sufficient and will not need the services of other experts from outside the
organisation.
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
108 TOPIC 5 THE SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL ORGANISATION
(f) This process would be enhanced further by the hierarchy of authority, where
subordinates would carry out the duties and responsibilities as planned by
their superordinates.
(g) This compliance would lessen the disagreement by the subordinates since
the line of authority dictates that the subordinates would not question the
decision made by their superiors.
(h) Since there is the presence of hierarchy of authority where there are leaders
as well as followers in an organisation which has developed long term goals
through strategic planning, the employees naturally would have an
orientation of making their jobs as a lifelong career.
(i) This orientation would enhance the quality of the work force and compliance
by the subordinates would be an easier task.
Since most people were more interested in the positive aspects of bureaucracy,
they forgot the dysfunctional features of his formulation. The Weberian model did
not touch on the role of the informal organisation which is actually as important
as the formal one. The discussion of the informal organisation in a bureaucracy
would describe the workings of the bureaucratic model in a more realistic
deliberation which would benefit those who implement the model.
The lack of discussion on the informal aspect of the bureaucracy results in the
neglect of the discussion on the potential internal contradictions of the model. The
following discussions on the functions and dysfunctions of the Weberian
bureaucratic model would allow the reader to have a better picture of the whole
bureaucratic system of an organisation.
(d) Rules and regulations do provide stability, continuity and uniformity but
simultaneously they may lead to rigidity and goal displacement. The
employees, who might be so rigid in abiding by the rules and regulations,
may make them as an end, and not as a means to achieve an end. This rigidity
and formalism may make the organisation inflexible and, as a consequence,
it may not be able to adapt to changes easily and it may interfere with goal
achievement.
The Weberian bureaucratic model as proposed by Weber (1947) has become the
guideline for formal organisations around the world even though modifications
have been made to minimise the negative effects of the proposed bureaucracy. We
have heard that the bureaucratic process has been simplified where red tapes was
minimised and the bureaucratic pyramid has been flattened where there is less
hierarchy and more democracy but the principles of organisations still remain
intact.
The next stage of our discussion is deliberating on the „role theory‰. When we are
deliberating about leadership and followership we are actually talking about the
different roles played by individuals within the organisation. Let us read and think
about the explanations and arguments put forward by some researchers regarding
role theory, and try to relate them to our school system.
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1. What are the benefits of bureaucracy?
ACTIVITY 5.3
Zaidatul Akmaliah and Foo (2003) cited a report by the school inspectorate of 2000
which stated that about 57 per cent of the schools were able to provide a positive
atmosphere for the teaching and learning process at the average level, while the
remainder was weak. Barker (1997) found that the ambiguity of the role that
should be played by the principal was one of the causes for the difficulty in getting
a suitable candidate to head the school.
The role of the principal is closely related to the purpose of the setting up of the
school. In the case of the setting up of the science residential secondary schools in
every state in 1973, the purpose of the schools was to encourage Malay students
from the rural areas to take up Science and Mathematics so that there would be
enough candidates for the science-oriented professional courses such as medicine
and engineering.
The objective of those schools have been met due to their catalystic natures.
Caldwell (1998) proposed that future schools should be able to fulfil the
requirements of many besides formal education, such as for training and retraining
of the workforce of the nation due to the fast pace of the technological changes
which characterised our era.
(c) They are flexible having behaviours in a continuum ranging from „required‰
to „prohibited‰; and
The decision-making approach in determining the roles a leader plays involves the
authority given to a leader in making decisions. This authority provides a guide
on the actual roles the leader has been empowered with. In order to really know
the specified roles as expected by the incumbent or by his subordinates or others,
a process of role analysis can be used. The process of role analysis can obtain
expectations for a role incumbentÊs behaviour along a relevant continuum from
„absolutely a must‰ to „absolutely must not‰. This analysis can provide
information on the actual role of a principal and the preferred role of a principal.
(a) The principalÊs perceptions of the teachersÊ expectations for the principalÊs
role;
Figure 5.2 explains the role expectations of a principal from three dimensions.
From the analysis of the three dimensions we can have a more accurate picture of
the roles played by a school principal.
For example, the principal does not believe in giving a good appraisal to all
his staff and he believes that the teachers should be independent and there is
no need for him to know what his teachers do. This interceptive distance may
cause some disharmony in the organisation and it can be avoided if the
interceptive distance is minimised through knowing what the actual roles of
the principal and the teachers are.
A check list of the roles, responsibilities and duties of the principal should be
made known to the teachers and vice-versa. This is a simple process of
making sure the problem of miscommunication does not occur and if it does
occur from to time, there should be a mechanism to resolve it before it
develops into a hindrance to good governance in the education system.
The induction course or briefing helps to spell out the roles of each individual
though they might share some of the roles especially in the present environment
where multi-tasking is a norm in most organisations. In the educational institution,
the principal, the teachers and the supporting staff have different roles to play. The
teachers who have specialised in their own subject areas have their own roles to
play to ensure that the objectives, mission and the vision of their school are
achieved as planned.
SELF-CHECK 5.4
As a leader of the school, how should he interpret the analysis of his own and
othersÊ values? There are several approaches to the analysis of these values which
are of several types, based on the opinions of several experts.
Whatever terms they use to explain the value system of the American society, they
discussed these based on the three levels of the value system as were described by
Lipham and Hoeh (1974); the core or sacred values, the secular values and the
operational values. The following Figure 5.3 summarises the three levels of the
values explained in this subtopic.
Lipham and Hoeh (1974) summarised that the sacred or core values serve
as a source for the legal and political structure of our society and receive
expression in the Constitution and charter provisions of the state
governments, and local governments; law and ordinances; judicial decisions
and interpretations by the courts; executive decisions in the form of orders,
and administrative regulations. The sacred values serve as a filter for their
manifestations in the forms mentioned which constitute the secular values.
Later at Level III at the operational values level, there is more variety and
as in the case of Malaysia becoming more developed, the tendency of
the operational values to become the opposite is ever present. As society
becomes more affluent, individualism becomes more prominent and the core
value of cooperating between members of society becomes less frequent, and
slowly the shift of core values begin to occur and in time to come, a new set
of the three levels of values might become entrenched.
This sacred value changes when it becomes secular values because though in
theory they have equal treatment, in practice, the urban schools are more
advantageous because of the availability of other resources that may help the
students to have better education than those in the rural areas. This secular
value will become more diversified when it, in turn, becomes operational
values due to many more different variables that exist in Malaysian society.
Though Malaysian education may look bright, there are shortcomings that
need to be addressed. Since 2003, meritocracy has been implemented
to replace the quota system for higher education. The quota system was
originally introduced to ensure that the disadvantaged groups such as
the Bumiputras or the indigenous citizens from the rural areas would
have an equal opportunity to tertiary education. With the introduction of
meritocracy, every candidate for public higher institutions needs to compete
for limited places at these universities. A few questions arise due this policy
such as:
(i) Can rural students from the disadvantaged groups compete with
students from the developed urban areas for places at some of the
prestigious faculties such as medicine and engineering?
(iii) Are we widening and deepening the gap between the well-to-do and
the have-nots of the country?
(iv) Are we depriving the poor from pursuing higher education to favour
the rich?
Discuss these questions from all angles, and find out other alternatives to
address the problems posed by those questions and rationalise them.
Such questions touch the basic rights of a citizen to pursue higher education
since it is the fundamental value of the nation. At this juncture of educational
development in Malaysia, this dilemma could bring about a more
enlightened future with the system of meritocracy or by reverting to the older
policy of the quota system which might also hinder a more just society that
we want to create with a higher level of productivity.
(l) The introduction of „To Uphold Bahasa Malaysia and To Strengthen the
English Language‰ policy (MBMMBI) (2011).
(o) The School Based Assessment (PBS) begins with Year One students (2011).
(w) The launch of the Higher Education Institution Entrepreneur Action Plan
2016ă2020 by the Higher Education Ministry (2016).
These innovations and changes in the Malaysian educational policy reflect the
current and future trends of education. Some of the changes were strategically
planned while others were implemented in a hurry which could affect the future
of our children.
The students from the different schools study separately where they use the
vernacular languages, but for the common subjects where the medium of
instruction is common such as English, Mathematics and Science they can study
in mixed classes of students from different schools. They are also encouraged to
play together during games and sports activities. At present, this is futuristic
because only a few schools were built based on the vision concept and parents are
not very receptive at present, but in the future there is the potential that these
schools would become showcases of integration not only for this country but for
the world.
SELF-CHECK 5.5
1. Explain the core values, secular values and the operational values.
ACTIVITY 5.4
The process implies a set of behaviours that are continuous which are made up of
stages of activities and operations. The process formulations are usually logical in
nature where the first step serves as a basis for the next step. Since the limits of the
problem define the decision to be made, the process may be entered at any stage.
In other words, as more information is gathered, the decision to be made may be
altered and the decision maker may enter the process at the most appropriate
stage. Thus, Lipham and Hoeh (1974) stated that „In decision making, incremental
judgements are made concerning whether to continue, terminate, or change the
major or minor decisions made. Contrary to typical views, recycling may and often
does occur at any time or many times in the decision process‰.
Awareness is the first stage of the decision-making process. This awareness ranges
from an intuition to a specific evidence. Bernard (1966) was among the first person
to observe that the nature of a problem is an important consideration in deciding
whether one should or should not attempt to solve it. He indicated that there are
three occasions when one should make decisions:
Griffiths (1960) gave the following typology of decisions to differentiate one from
the other for easier analysis:
Both intermediary and appellate decisions are a function of the organisational role
structure and since they originate from outside the person of the decision maker,
it is seldom a problem of not recognising the awareness of the problem.
Creative decisions are created by the decision maker, not necessarily as the result
of an actual problem occurring within the organisation. Creative decisions which
originate within the decision maker may represent a change in goals, policies,
procedures or relationships. Though the present situation does not need a change,
the decision maker feels that a change would bring about better results in the
output of the organisation which may bring it to the forefront of the industry.
To be able to make creative decisions the decision maker has to have personality
variables such as mental ability, interception, training and experience as a decision
maker, and simultaneously holds situational variables such as power, resources
and role relations with others within and outside the organisation (Lipham &
Hoeh 1974).
5.8.2 Information
The information that is of worth to the decision maker is the amount, form and
flow of the information. Research should be able to reveal the amount of useful
information which could be in various forms, such as face-to-face, telephone, or by
e-mail. A problem may arise especially when the decision maker is not perceptive
of the information that may affect the organisation negatively. Another factor that
is considered as important is the flow of the information. Is the information readily
available to the organisation especially the decision maker? The smooth flow of
the information in an organisation enables the decision maker to decide what
action to be taken as the need arises.
To illustrate this situation is the example of a school principal who refuses to make
any decision on more strict discipline in the school because he feels that by doing
so the objectives of education would be stifled and the students who enter society
would be robots who are good at following orders but are unable to think for
themselves. On the other hand, the teachers feel that the students cannot get the
benefit of education due to indiscipline. This value discrepancy can be rectified by
having common guidelines for the decision maker as well as other members of the
organisation.
Another important factor is the timing of the decision. The better timing of the
decision enables the potential of the choice to be realised, but if there is mis-timing
then the objectives might not be achieved as desired. Sometimes, a decision cannot
be made due to insufficient information and seeking of new information becomes
a required exercise which must be done fast. At other times, making a decision is
delayed due to various reasons including perhaps they think that the problem
would vanish by itself. We must also remember that not making a decision is also
an alternative to making it.
(i) This model requires the objectives to be set first before generating
alternatives. The ends are determined first before the means to obtain
them are sought.
(i) This model also requires the objectives to be set first before generating
alternatives.
(iii) A good decision is judged by the way it achieves the end. If it is judged
as a satisfactory means to achieve the end, then the decision is a good
one.
(ii) When decision makers can agree that an alternative plan is in the right
direction when the existing decision is proven wrong, then the decision
is considered to be good.
(iii) Many alternatives are ignored and as the result it limits the search and
analysis, and it focuses on alternatives that are similar in nature.
(iv) It limits the search and analysis for alternatives closely related to the
problem, but it evaluates alternatives related to broad policy.
These models are useful as guidelines for a decision maker. With experience, a
decision maker will be able to know what model to use to expedite the process of
decision making. In the fast changing environment of the 21st century, decisions
have to be made at a faster rate than before because delay may cause the decision
to be obsolete by the time the implementation process begins.
In the Malaysian education scene, policy changes were often made which upset
some quarters of Malaysian society but the policy makers felt that these changes
had to be implemented to cope with the dynamic changes in society. Take the
examples of the most controversial decisions made by the Ministry of Education
in 2002 when English was made the medium of instruction for the teaching of
Mathematics and Science at all levels of the Malaysian education system.
The stated aim of this policy change was to improve the English proficiency among
Malaysian students. Though publicly the criticism was not vocal, in private it
became a hot issue. Many questions were raised such as:
(a) Can students improve their command of the English Language by using
English as the medium of instruction for teaching Mathematics and Science?
(b) Can students from the rural areas and from the lower socioeconomic
background benefit from this policy change?
(c) How much English is used in the teaching of Mathematics and Science?
(d) Are there other better means to improve the English Language proficiency
among Malaysian students?
(e) If students are unable to master the English Language, is using English to
teach Mathematics and Science a calamity to these students?
(f) Is there any country that excels in education because of using two mediums
of instruction in the school system?
Discuss these questions by answering them. Please rationalise each answer to the
above questions and the alternative answers may reflect the actual rationale for the
policy change.
These questions are important for the decision maker to answer. The answers
could only be available after at least one cycle of students entering the school
system has left it after their School Certificate Examination which takes about
eleven years of schooling.
SELF-CHECK 5.6
ACTIVITY 5.6
If you were a decision maker, how would you make the programme of
using English as a medium of instruction a success, where the objectives
of improving the standard of English and a better understanding of
Mathematics and Science among Malaysian students could be achieved?
Discuss.
The school system is characterised by its bureaucratic set up, which is much in
line with that of the Weberian bureaucracy.
The three social theories are the role theory, the decision-making theory and
the value theory. These theories will help a leader to understand the processes
of any organisation and by knowing and understanding them you can
optimise your organisational output.
In the school system, the principal needs to know how to make an accurate
timely decision and know his own roles as well as the roles of his teachers. This
knowledge enables him to be a more effective principal in achieving the
mission and the vision of our schools.
Getzels, J. W., & Guba, E. G. (1957). Social behavior and the administrative process.
School Review, 65 (4), 423ă441.
Lipham, J. M., & Hoeh Jr., J. A. (1974). The principalship: Foundations and
functions. New York, NY: Harper & Row Publishers.
Murphey, J., & Adams, J. (1998). Reformong americaÊs schools: 1980ă2000. Journal
of Educational Administration, 36 (5), 426ă444.
Scott, W. R. (1998). Organizations: Rational, natural, and open systems (4th ed.).
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Zaidatul Akmaliah, & Foo Say Fooi, (Eds.) (2003). Pengurusan dan kepimpinan
pendidikan: Satu langkah ke hadapan. Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia: Penerbit
Universiti Putra Malaysia.
INTRODUCTION
An organisation of the new millennium requires a leader who empowers his
subordinates to execute their multi-tasking duties and responsibilities effectively.
In an era where people with higher education diplomas and degrees are in
abundance and with the rise of a more transparent bureaucracy, most of the staff
members are well-trained executives. These executives are able and willing to take
up more responsibilities and multi-task. In the past, there would be stenographers
to type and take dictation from the boss and peon to carry-out mundane duties
such as posting letters and cleaning the tables of the bosses. Now the executives
are willing to take the responsibility to carry out these simple tasks as well as
analyse problems and make decisions for the organisation. This ability is an asset
to the organisation, and this capability is achieved through the process of
empowerment of staff members.
(a) The opportunities a student has for autonomy, choice, responsibility, and
participation in decision-making in organisations (Lightfoot, 1986).
(b) Jenkins (1988) stated „To empower others is to give a stakeholder share in
the movement and direction of the enterprise‰ (p. 149).
Jenkins (1988) and Short and Greer (1989) agreed that students who are able to
initiate and carry out new ideas by involvement in decision making should, in
turn, take more responsibility for their learning and exhibit higher levels of
engagement of learning experiences.
Traditionally, students have been passive listeners to what the teachers have to say
and as the result of this tradition, students get detached little by little to what is
happening in many classrooms. They might become unmotivated and little
learning would result. With student empowerment, learning will be handed to the
students and this will free them from the shackles of the classroom, and as a result,
they can achieve more than what the teachers can give. The teachers will be the
agents of change, and the facilitators of the studentsÊ learning process.
(b) Allow the individual to display existing competencies as well as learn new
competencies that support and strengthen functioning.
When the two issues mentioned here become permissible, then empowerment will
bring out the best of everyone in the school organisation. Teachers become braver
to experiment with their skills and expertise to produce better outcomes from
among the students. Students, in turn, would stretch their ability to display their
competencies which will further strengthen their capacities to produce their best.
The training ground for taking responsibility was through participative decision
making. By taking part in the process the individual who did play a role in making
the decision would feel responsible for the implementation of the decision as well
as make sure that the decision taken would achieve the desired objectives.
The same scenario can also be applied to our schools. Schools have become more
sophisticated with the presence of trained specialised teachers, educated parents,
and well-informed students with the presence of Internet facilities in homes and
schools. These teachers could be empowered by the principals so that whatever
skills they have could be made use to achieve their schoolsÊ objectives.
Principals have become more enlightened and more professional in outlook, while
many of them have already achieved their post-graduate degrees ă MasterÊs and
PhDs. The democratic process in all social and governmental activities encourages
empowerment in schools.
(a) The failure of empowerment was due to the unwillingness of the principals
to yield and share the decision-making process.
(b) Not training the people who are empowered by the leaders to take
responsibilities successfully.
(c) Not enough time is given to planning and implementing the process so as to
familiarise the subordinates with the new responsibilities. After they have
proven themselves to be able to carry out those responsibilities successfully,
only then they are empowered to carry out certain leadership tasks.
(d) The leader gives a free hand to his empowered subordinates right from the
start and due to inexperience they might fail to carry out their empowered
responsibilities. The leader should mentor them until a time when they
become familiar with the processes and then they can stand own their own.
The interaction between teachers would promote better teaching, better curricular
and co-curricular activities that can lead to an easier change process and shifts of
paradigms where there is an urgent need to do so. The 21st century is a fast-pace
era, faster than the past century, where changes occur more frequently than before.
In order to cope with the fast changes so that the nation is able to change with the
times, we have to involve every individual in society to be ready for the changes.
Individuals in society will be ready with the task if they are empowered with the
right knowledge, skills and attitude. These individuals depend on the type of
education that they received when they were in schools and later in the institutions
of higher learning. Here is where the teachers play their proper role.
If teachers do not have the power and authority to carry out their responsibilities
in schools, then they just behave like mere robots; following orders and directions
from their superiors. Their direct superiors, in turn, have to obey what they have
been directed to do. The whole process of the education system is not just obeying
orders. If this process is the norm in any organisation, then there is no way for the
education system to pave the way for coping with the changes and become the
catalyst for the changes themselves. Even though the teachers have post graduate
degrees, the school system will remain the same.
Short and Greer (1997) stated that in American schools „Teachers often find
themselves teaching in situations where important decisions are made by persons
far removed from the actual activities of the school, decisions that limit the
teachersÊ abilities to meet the educational needs of students and their own needs
for feelings of significance and self-worth.‰ If we were to observe our Malaysian
educational practices, we will find that a similar situation is occurring even though
attempts have been made to improve the situation.
There are many issues that are raised by our teachers as well the public that reflect
the lack of empowerment in the teachers in various matters that affect their lives
as well as their students. The following issues are very familiar to many of us:
(c) Should a teacher teach subjects that are not their specialisation?
(e) Do teachers have a say in confirming the post of a principal and a senior
assistant?
These are some of the questions that need an affirmative answer if teachers are to
be empowered. At present, the Malaysian education system is not flexible enough
to empower the teachers in the above areas of concern. Although the issue
mentioned in item „a‰ has been debated for a long time, the answer has always
been mixed. There are teachers who teach the students to master the curriculum
according to their best ability irrespective of whether they finish the syllabus or
not but they are reprimanded by their conservative principal.
At the same time, there are also principals who are willing to experiment various
methodologies in the teaching and learning process to achieve the targeted
objectives. All the mentioned questions are issues because teachers or even
principals are not empowered to make independent decisions. They will remain
as issues for the present Malaysian education system for the time being but needs
and requirements change with time.
ACTIVITY 6.1
3. Besides the five issues that are faced by our schools and teachers,
there are other important problems that hinder the development of
our school system to compete with the best schools in the world.
Name them and explain.
(b) Should a teacher teach subjects that are not within their area
of specialisation?
The principal might utter as reported by Short and Greer (1997), „IÊve spent four
years studying for my doctorate just so I could make the decisions in the school‰
just to tell his colleagues that he had really worked so hard to earn his doctorate,
might indicate that he is not willing to empower his subordinates.
Another phrase that indicates that the principal is the person who will have a
difficult time building an atmosphere of trust is „but if anything goes wrong, IÊm
the one who will be held responsible.‰ According to the findings of a research by
Short and Greer (1997) such principals were identified as those who had problem
in releasing control. It was found that some principals, regardless of their verbal
support for empowering teachers and shared governance, just could not give up
any of their power to control.
(ii) Schmuck and Runkel (1972) cited that among the critical processes are
communication, decision making, goal setting, problem solving and
conflict management.
(iv) Once a high degree of trust is established between the parties then
empowerment would most likely be successfully implemented.
Now let us look at the theoretical point of view of the business of empowerment
where leadership issues and trust go hand in hand before success could be
achieved.
The capacity to help the organisation solve its problems is widely distributed
among the members of the organisation.
(i) A principal with the Theory Y inclination is more trusting of others and
as the result of this inclination he would be more likely to empower his
subordinates and to trust them to carry out the responsibility of being
empowered.
(iii) This freedom due to the empowered process enables the schools to
progress towards achieving their objectives which if this freedom does
not exist then there would not be any changes that could lead to better
education for all.
(iv) The knowledge and skill of these teachers who have achieved post-
graduate degrees could be made use for school improvement.
ACTIVITY 6.2
4. What are the merits and demerits of those leaders who are inclined
towards Theory Y?
(b) Control over their work environment and work conditions; and
The jobs at present are already demanding organisational participants who are
flexible in both thinking and action, as knowledge expands and job requirements
shift to different paradigms. Participants in the workplace must be able to work
in collegial, collaborative problem-solving teams that function with great
independence (Dede, 1989). Participants in any work group who are lifelong
learners will be more self-motivated and satisfaction is derived from the
information and knowledge that they gain from the quest.
(b) Lowin (cited in Dunstan, 1981) has found that participative management is
an organisational operation by which decisions are reached by including
those persons who are to execute those decisions.
(c) Erickson and Gmelch (1977) reported that the overall benefits of adopting a
team-management approach to school governance include improving the
quality of communications and decision-making practices, staff motivation,
and the enhanced coordination of tasks and plans.
At present, OUM is playing a leading role in making sure that at least 7000 of these
primary school teachers annually will enter OUM degree programmes which are
specially developed for them.
With creative and innovative thinking becoming an integral part of our school
curriculum, empowerment has become a very important tool to ensure whatever
theory they learn about the processes of innovative and creative thinking are
implemented. Empowerment can be made a vehicle for creativity and innovation.
This skill will become a very important trait in later life where it is needed in the
workplace. A nation can only be at the top of any competition through the ability
of its people to generate creative and innovative products and ideas.
This approach is the most effective way to complete a heavy task. In modern
organisations, team working has been introduced, in one form or another, and
many have been amazed by the positive differences it has made, but for others
they have been disappointed by their results. To succeed, it is important that
organisations consider all factors that make team working successful.
Before one considers introducing team working in his organisation, one needs to
understand some very important fundamental lessons. A successful team working
is the result of collaboration between team members through collaborative
management of the work team. The reality is that much of the organisationÊs work
is accomplished directly or indirectly through teams where work team culture
exerts a significant influence on individual behaviour (French & Bell Jr., 1999).
From these definitions, we might say that team members complement each other
and the team can produce more than the sum of individual components. Team
working can provide for an organisation a way of achieving more from the same
resources. An effective team is defined as one that achieves its aim in the most
efficient way and is then ready to take on more challenging tasks. Let us read Case
Study 1, following the section on Commitment of Senior Management, which
illustrates a success story of „empowerment‰.
(a) Clear purpose ă defined and accepted vision, mission, goal or task and an
action plan.
(d) Listening ă effective listening skills by all members which are reflected by
questioning, paraphrasing and summarising.
(h) Clear roles and work assignments ă work evenly divided and clear
expectations.
(j) External relations ă team members help each other to develop outside
relationships.
The formal team leader plays a leading role in ensuring that all team members
understand their roles well and inculcate themselves with all the skills that are
needed in establishing an effective team.
Let us now refer to the following case study that shows empowerment and team
working.
Case Study 1
In this secondary school, significant changes that began during the second year
of the project indicated a growing focus on student empowerment. It was at
this time that several teachers wrote and received a grant providing the school
with technical assistance and stipends for teachers, working with consultants,
to implement whole language instruction. A retreat was held during the school
semester break, with the district education officer, the two assistant district
education officers, and the TESL subject matter expert in attendance.
One of the teachers provided the key information presented during the retreat.
As a result, a number of changes occurred in the instructional programme.
Many of the changes emanated from teacher identification of significant issues
and concerns about meeting the needs of students at the school. Instead of
complaining about those concerns, the teachers shifted their focus toward
generating ideas for solutions and forwarded those problems to the
Empowerment Committee.
This presented a radical change from the manner in which teachers addressed
concerns early in the project. It appeared that involvement in the decision
process created more of a sense of problem ownership on the part of the
teachers. For example, teachers implemented the portfolio assessment process.
They had experimented with the concept through a project mini-grant the past
year and found strategies that made portfolios useful to them. In particular,
they discovered that though individual videos prepared for portfolios were
expensive, parents were eager to contribute blank videos at the begging of the
year to be used in the year-long videotaping of children for individual
portfolios.
In the first semester of the third year, the teachers and students made a video
about the school and their attempts to empower teachers and students. The
teachers presented the video at a meeting with the school inspectorate
personnel. According to the principal of this school, the most significant impact
made throughout the empowerment effort was the manner in which teachers
worked together to provide a better place for students to learn. The level of
dialogue and effort to find more effective ways to help students develop
academic skills was enlarged over the three years.
(This case study was adapted from the actual case study provided by Short
and Greer, 1997, p. 169ă170)
Let us read the following case studies of companies that have achieved their
objectives through team working:
Case Study 2
Daiichi Hotel
TokyoÊs Daiichi Hotel Annex was voted number one in a recent customer
satisfaction survey and believes that the way it successfully introduced team
working is largely responsible.
(c) Cooking.
Within each team, staff cover all specific job functions. For example, within the
room-related team, the concierge, bell-boy and receptionist all cover for each
other at busy times, or when something unusual happens. The company
training manual compares this approach to that of a successful baseball team
where players with specialist skills also provide support for other team
members. The Daiichi Hotel believes that:
Case Study 3
Dettmers Industries
Dettmers believes that employees can be very creative if they are given the
opportunity ⁄ and the education. Too often, they believe, organisations start
from the premise that people are stupid and incapable of contributing or
planning ideas. But by introducing team working and then focusing the
companyÊs education system on these teams, Dettmers have brought the social
element back into learning.
Dettmers gives the team the right to decide when they want to recruit a new
member who is then taken on for a three-month introductory period during
which they are paid less than the market rate. During this period, they learn the
team skills and get to understand the DettmersÊ philosophy. The team votes
after three months whether to include the new member permanently. From this
point on, they will earn their salary in the same way as established team
members and usually make up the deficit within a few months. The company
believes that applicants who are prepared to start at a lower rate are looking for
„more than just a job‰. Dettmers believes their experience proves that team
working provides tangible business benefits:
(a) Proves that with education and the right conditions employees can and
will make a contribution.
(b) Provides discipline and values to help improve the standards and
performance of all employees.
(c) Team-based pay with a tangible reward for effort can maintain team
performance.
(Cane, 1996, p. 115ă116)
ACTIVITY 6.3
With the existence of online learning, the advancement of the Internet learning
facilities and digital libraries, the traditional school has changed its function
permanently.
The present scenario differs greatly where teachers have become facilitators to
the process of learning.
Teachers guide their students, and the students on their own either
individually or as a team of peers, will seek the information needed through
the Internet, physical libraries or by consulting the experts for the answer to
their assignments.
There is a wider scope of knowledge to pursue and more freedom for the
students to apply whatever knowledge and experience that they have already
gained in their quest for knowledge through various sources. This is only
possible if empowerment of teachers and students have become an integral
part of the education system.
The ideology of trust should exist between the various components of the
education system.
The policy makers should trust the implementers, the principals should trust
their teachers, and the teachers should trust their students. This trust will
empower them to carry out their responsibilities creatively and, as the result
of this freedom, the potential of every individual may be realised and
productivity in all areas will be manifested and increased.
The result of this shift in the thinking of future citizens of the nation will be
reflected in the all spheres of life of the nation.
Optimism and activism will guide the nation to greater heights to achieve
Vision 2020, but all this will only be wishful thinking if we do not prepare our
teachers and leaders to be effective empowering agents.
Cane, S. (1996). Kaizen strategies for winning through people. London, England:
Pittman Publishing.
Frase, L. E., & Sorrenson, L. (1992). TeacherÊs motivation and satisfaction: Impact
on participatory management. NASSP Bulletin, 76 (540), 37ă44.
Kasten, K. L., Short, P. M., & Jarmin, H. (1989). Self-managing work groups and
the professional lives of teachers: A case study. The Urban Review, 21 (2),
63ă80.
Parker, G. M. (1990). Team players and teamwork: The new competitive business
strategy. San Francisco, CA: Josey-Bass.
Short, P. M., & Greer, J. T. (1989, April). Increasing teacher autonomy through
shared governance: Effects on policy making and student outcomes. Paper
presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research
Association, San Francisco, California, USA.
INTRODUCTION
An „organisation‰ can be defined as an entity that comprises of elements with
varied functions that contribute to the whole and to collective functions. Different
theories of organisational structure, human resource, culture and politics focus on
different elements and functions. To examine the relationship between politics and
accountability, it helps to characterise these theories and suggest how they apply
to schools. Consideration of these different organisational perspectives also helps
to clarify the idea of „politics‰ in the context of accountability.
Different types of facilities to suit the specific needs of the primary or secondary
schools are needed. Vertical lines of control run from the Ministry of Education,
the state education officers, the district education officers, the inspector of schools,
principals to the academic staff. There are explicit rules and procedures for
providing instruction, delivering services and administering the system whereas
plans, budgets and accounting systems help to monitor school operations.
The socioeconomic background and the location of the schools can influence
student performance in the schools. Different school goals will produce different
structures, for example, academic excellence, citizenship, character development,
efficiency or equity. An emphasis on equity where students are treated according
to their needs might result in highly diverse classrooms, collaborative teaching
styles and a wide array of services for disadvantaged students with differentiated
teaching and learning. An efficiency goal to standardise instruction might
encourage tracking and sorting of students according to their abilities.
In the Malaysian context, the structure of the schools depends on the types of
schools which are categorised under the medium of instruction as well as the
specialisation of the schools such as technical and vocational, residential, urban or
rural schools. Malaysian primary schools provide education in at least three
medium of instruction: namely Malay for the national schools, while Mandarin
and Tamil for the vernacular schools.
When these students graduated from these schools they would be joining
government-owned secondary schools using Malay language as the medium of
instruction, but if the parents would like to pursue private education in the
Chinese language they can do so by joining private secondary schools
administered by the schoolsÊ Board of Directors. Since 2006, the Government
relaxed the rules regarding the opening up of international schools where it
introduced a ruling that any international school can enrol Malaysians up to 40 per
cent of their student total enrolment. This freedom has given Malaysians a choice
to pursue the type of education that their children should have.
Since these schools are governed by their respective controlling bodies, their
organisational structure differs. These differences cause some conflicts among the
communities but the democratic nature of the education system tends to lead to a
healthy competition if viewed from the positive side of the situation.
7.1.1 Politics
Schools in Malaysia are set up by the government and fully controlled by the
Ministry of Education. Therefore politics in schools is minimal in this sense. They
do not have to compete with one another for funding as well as for human
resource. Annual grants are allocated by the Ministry of Education fairly based on
the size of the schools as well as to their types. Teachers are sent by the Ministry of
Education based on the schoolsÊ requirements. Even though these schools are less
political in procuring funding and staffing, but in other areas „politics‰ cannot be
avoided.
Principals and principals to-be would lobby the Ministry of Education for coveted
posts especially posts that they consider as conduits for higher positions, such as
working in high-profile positions. They would prefer to work at the headquarters
rather than holding posts in remote areas. Those working in Putra Jaya feel that
they have the power of influence in policy matters and as a result they would be
recognised for promotion to higher positions. Back-biting and bad-mouthing
colleagues are sometimes used to promote one-self. They have to play „politics‰ to
survive.
Funding and human resources are two important factors to ensure the schoolÊs
success. To procure funding and the right mix of trained, talented and dedicated
teachers requires the principal of a private educational institution to play
„politics‰. He has to compete with other institutions for these two scarce resources.
Funding in a private school is either through endowment by a philanthropist(s) or
through fees by students. The heads of these institutions have to develop strategies
to gain the confidence of the public to enrol in their institutions.
These strategies include the inclusion of personalities that will attract potential
customers. These personalities often are political in nature, and were at one time
or another close to the seats of power or who were politically powerful. As a
consequence of this situation, quality might be brushed aside in the squabbles for
power. The wrong person for the job might lead the institution due to his political
clout.
From the positive side, this intense politicking might bring out the best in a person.
If this politicking produces intense competition in the improvement of academic
programmes to attract students, then one day we may have private institutions
that are at par with the Ivy League universities such as Harvard, MIT or Oxbridge.
One opinion assumes that managers direct and control the work of subordinates,
who prefer to be led and who resist change (Theory X). Another opinion has the
view that managers must arrange conditions so that the employeeÊs self-interest
coincides with the organisationÊs interests (Theory Y). In practice, managers may
find it difficult to achieve harmony. As people mature and develop they become
more independent, attain a broader perspective and range of skills, and develop a
longer time perspective. This developmental process appears to be true not only
for teachers, but also for other professionals who provide education services.
However, organisations often treat people like children by requiring higher level
managers to direct and control subordinates and as the result this domination can
result in psychological failure, passivity and dependence. When this tragedy
occurs, the organisation might become stagnated and, in the long run, collapse.
7.1.3 Culture
„Evaluation is a ritual whose function is to calm the anxieties of the citizenry and
to perpetuate an image of government rationality, efficiency and accountability.
The very act of requiring and commissioning evaluations may create the
impression that government is committed to the pursuit of publicly espoused
goals, such as increasing student achievement ....‰ (Floden & Weiner, 1978, cited
in Bolman & Deal, p. 284). Due to the very fact that evaluation serves the purposes
mentioned previously, it has become a culture of life in any society.
Diplomas, textbooks, tests, grades, report cards, whiteboards and the like are, in
fact, symbols that all have one kind of meaning for a school planner. They are also
deeply embedded symbols that define what many people expect from a „school.‰
The performance report of a school relies on the meanings people put on the
accountability for responsibility, integrity and trust that people have on the school.
People entrust their children directly to schools because they have indirectly paid
taxes which in part was use for school funding. A report on the measurable
benefits of education for children can have several meanings. The report can affirm
school integrity by documenting the consistency of the schoolÊs mission, for
example, teaching and learning, with the goals of the educational programme and
student outcomes.
The act of reporting can also affirm the schoolÊs willingness to take responsibility
for carrying out its mission. The connotations of integrity and responsibility are
stronger if people perceive schools as accepting accountability. By contrast, if the
perception is of government coercion, the connotation is negative. In the case of
Malaysian schools, school autonomy is minimal and initiatives for achieving better
studentsÊ performance is more of the second nature (coercion) and as a result the
initiatives were always towards meeting the targets set by the Ministry of
Education at the expanse of „real‰ education.
Ideally school performance should be the result of voluntary efforts by the school
personnel, from the principal to the teachers, and the clerical staff. The
achievement would be the product of their voluntary free will and it would be
sweeter and self-sustaining for psychological processes which enrich their
personalities to do better.
7.1.4 Government
In Malaysia, the Government is perceived as an agent that can bring about changes
in the education policy by the public and has a monolithic power to implement its
goals. This act can be seen in many instances such as the change of language
medium for the teaching of mathematics and science in all schools at the expense
of other languages in schools. On the other hand, this perception is considered as
a fallacy by Galbraith (1983) because he proposed that modern governments do
not typically behave as large disciplined units. He distinguishes three aspects of
government namely:
The inner orientation refers loosely to the bureaucracy and the many organisations
that administer the tasks of government (see Figure 7.1). Continuity and relative
autonomy characterise the inner orientation. The power of the bureaucracy is in
preparing budgets, overseeing programmes and developing regulations. The
inner orientation also promotes its goals to the public by providing information in
the form of speeches, memoranda, advisories, press conferences, etc.
The mediator or the force that mediates between the two aforementationed
orientations are embodied in the chief executive, ministers, cabinet, staff and
appointees who are empowered to control budgets, legislation and have the
persuasive powers to mediate.
7.1.5 Regulation
Regulation is one way that government can exert power and enforce
accountability. Rules and regulations introduced in our Malaysian education
system are meant for controlling our schools to achieve objectives set by the
government. Mandatory programmes originated by the ministry are engines to
ensure conformity among schools and facilitate control from higher levels of the
bureaucracy. These objectives are in line with Malaysian development plans. As
for the year 2016, Malaysia is in its 11th Malaysia Plan.
Regulations cannot be effective to create change all the time. Performance reports
are sometimes proposed as an alternative to regulation that can be a more effective
tool for meeting programme goals. However, ThurowÊs (1981) analysis of
regulation suggests that performance reports actually are a kind of regulation.
Further, an attempt to substitute performance reports for existing regulation is
likely to encounter resistance.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Our Malaysian education system subscribes to a multi-lingual
school system where the medium of instruction is based on the
needs of the different ethnic groups. As the result of this policy,
there are at least three mediums of instruction for the primary
schools and two medium of instruction for secondary schools. Do
you agree with this policy? Please rationalise your answer.
(a) Oakes (1986) wrote „Decisions about desired outcomes and conditions will
determine the nature of any indicator system ... these decisions will be
political‰.
(b) Brown (1990) cited that accountability systems are „very powerful policy
tools‰. „An apparent strategy imbedded in most statesÊ (the states in US)
indicator systems is that they will be used to guide future policy‰.
(c) Oakes (1991) said that an education indicator information system „can be
used by policymakers responsible for defining the nationÊs education agenda
to monitor the education outcomes they consider most significant‰.
(d) Linn (1993) mentioned that the function of an accountability mechanism „is
to oversee (monitor and evaluate) the performance of the education system
and to propose needed changes to policy makers‰.
For example, Mitchell and Encarnation (1984) consider such diverse „policy
mechanisms‰ as structural organisation, revenue generation, resource allocation,
programme definition, personnel training, assessment and curriculum ă an
approach that clusters diverse aspects of organisations into the single category of
„policy‰.
„Politics‰ is a word that has lost any precise meaning due to the over-use of that
word to mean many other things. A second barrier to answering the questions is
the common view of a singular government, which fails to discriminate the
internal from the external orientations of government and the forces that mediate
between these orientations which was mentioned earlier. These different aspects
of government often have distinct perspectives on policy which sometimes causes
conflicts among them.
Most urban schools are still being utilised as a double session schools which make
it difficult to administer them effectively. These schools are less friendly due to its
gigantic size, and students might not feel that they belong to it.
These research studies would enable experts in their own disciplines, from among
the teachers, to have a deeper interest in their schools and students. They will carry
out the school improvement process more diligently from the findings of their own
studies. The schools can disseminate their findings through proper channels that
can be set up by the schools themselves such as by using their own websites. The
district and state education office can be the instruments to disseminate research
findings for reference of other schools.
Policy makers had not yet made a strong connection between assessment and
reforms in curriculum, instructional methods or staff development. By the mid-
1990s the terms of the debate had changed. Prominent educators such as Tucker,
Sizer, Resnick and Anrig (1992) viewed performance assessment, in harmony with
curriculum and staff development, as a way to implement educational reform.
SELF-CHECK 7.1
The Malaysian education system has evolved over the decades after
independence. Can you cite two major reforms that were implemented
throughout these years?
One key factor that was often neglected in discussion of Machiavellian beliefs was
MachiavelliÊs conviction that leadership is a pursuit that serves the needs of the
„common good‰ (Ledeen, 1999). Contemporary political scholar Michael Ledeen
(1999) clarifies the intentions of Machiavelli in his book Machiavelli on Modern
Leadership (1999), which strengthens our understanding of Machiavelli when he
states:
Nobody else has dealt with the political and moral requirements of leadership
with such brutal clarity as Machiavelli⁄ Machiavelli understands the
pathology of this often fatal disease of the body politic. He has identified and
catalogued the microbes that infect leadersÊ minds and spirits, dragging us
down to ruin. Anyone looking at the modern world through MachiavelliÊs eyes
will see, as he saw in his own day, an epidemic of corruption, causing a perilous
shortage of virtuous leaders and a growing threat to freedom. His diagnosis
helps us better understand our own problems and the qualities required of
leaders capable of restoring virtue and preserving free institutions (p. ix, xxii).
MachiavelliÊs ideas are so well-known and, at the same time, they have a negative
connotation to them that causes some difficulty for researchers to utilise the Mach
IV, the research measure to assess Machiavellianism as a personality construct.
One such research project was conducted within a nation-wide insurance
organisation in the US to assess leaders and the impact of Machiavellianism on the
relationship between motivation and influence tactics (Reimers & Barbuto, 2002).
86 per cent of the respondents responded, which is an excellent rate of return.
Christie and Gris (1970) reported that an agreement was made with the sponsoring
organisation that the results of the study would be shared with the interested
participants as part of a developmental process. The researchers first presented the
results to eight members of the leadership team within the organisation. In general,
the participants were interested and enthusiastic about the results.
They were particularly impressed that their organisation had scored „so low‰ on
the Machiavellian measure, the Mach IV. It surprised the researchers, as the mean
score for this sample was .91, based on a 1ă5 Likert scale. An average score on the
normal curve would be expected to be around 2.5. Based on these results, the
organisation was nearly non-Machiavellian. In fact, it appeared the organisation
was almost politically naive. Yet, the leadership team with whom the researchers
met was pleased with this result.
Days went by before the researcher had the opportunity to ask when they might
present the results of the study. The team member of the organisation stated, „We
donÊt want the results of our Machiavellianism scores revealed for everyone to
see‰. The researcher responded, „But why? The organisation scored rather low in
Machiavellianism.‰ The study participant replied, „Yes, but we just donÊt want to
discuss Machiavellianism within our organisation‰. After that the researchers did
not hear anything more about presenting the results of the study to the group.
In addition to his official duties and travel, Machiavelli raised seven children and
still found time to write prolifically about power, politics, war and philosophy. It
is because of MachiavelliÊs letters to friends and superiors that we have access to
his thoughts today. But all this came to an end with the downfall of the republic
and the seizure of power by the Medici family in 1512. Machiavelli spent time in
prison and was tortured, but ultimately was allowed to remain in exile at his
country villa just outside Florence. This was where The Prince (1513/1902) was
born, written as a letter to the new power regime, the Medici, in order to gain
employment.
These unfortunate circumstances made people think that his writings were the
result of frustration, but if we were to delve further into his writings we could
sense his genius in ensuring that the vision of the organisation of his time could be
better off if the leaders were to employ the tactics of this visionary.
Christie (1970) and his colleagues at the Center for Advanced Studies in the
Behavioural Sciences became interested in those who occupied formal leadership
positions and the authoritarian personality. They realised that many formal
leaders were ineffective in political tactics and inflexible in their behaviours. Those
extreme positions barred them from making compromises necessary for political
success.
Through in-depth literature reviews, Christie and his colleagues discovered that
much of the research done on those wielding power over others was psychological
in nature. In fact, much of the research focused on the psychopathology of such
leaders. Because these leaders were in the limelight, it was a temptation to analyse
them for psychological deviation. Christie found that this line of research is faulty
because he felt that those who exerted influence over others were more prone to
psychopathology than those who did not.
(b) A lack of concern with conventional morality (utilitarian rather than moral
view);
(d) Low ideological commitment (focus on task completion rather than long-
range ideological goals).
After the personality characteristics were defined, Christie and his colleagues set
out to discover if individuals with these characteristics actually existed in society.
Using the model outline mentioned earlier, they interviewed respondents about
the people who were responsible for their training. The qualitative interviews
revealed findings consistent with the political behaviour construct as stated in the
four categories given earlier.
SELF-CHECK 7.2
7.4 DISAGREEMENT
If you seriously disagree with someone, how do you respond? Do you ...
(a) Get mad inside but keep quiet and give the other the „silent‰ treatment?
(c) Get angry, criticise, call names, use sarcasm or some other aggressive
behaviour?
(d) Give in; say „I guess you are right‰ with a big sigh, be submissive in order to
avoid disagreement and conflict.
(b) There is a value disagreement in which two people have different attitudes,
beliefs and expectations. These differences may interfere in making decisions
if we are inflexible and hold rigid, dogmatic beliefs about the „right way‰ to
do things. Different values and beliefs influence two people to choose
different goals or different methods to achieve the same goals. Since each
goal requires an investment of time, effort and some sacrifice, we cannot
pursue one goal without sacrificing the other to some extent.
(d) There are discrepancies in role performances. Difficulties can arise if two
people see their own and each otherÊs roles differently. For example, if the
wifeÊs and husbandÊs concepts of their roles are very different from each
other, conflict may arise. But, if the manÊs role as a male and husband
matches well with the womanÊs role as a female and wife, conflict will be
minimal.
When changes occur abruptly and unpredictably, conflict may follow, for
example: Out of the blue one night suddenly the wife says „send me back to
my parents‰ which implies a divorce. The wife must have been under stress
due to forces that may have been at work for a long time to cause such a
change, but its appearance was so sudden and provokes anger, anxiety and
confusion.
Tolerance for differences and recognising the legitimacy of feelings are vital
for the success of this strategy. Each individual must agree to abide by the
rules of negotiation and agree to solve the conflict constructively. Nothing is
hidden and everything is brought out in the open to be dealt with effectively.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. Disagreement between individuals in an organisation can be a
positive factor. Do you agree with this opinion? Please elaborate.
It is important that a leader knows what strategies he can use in dealing with
disagreements.
The potential for disagreement and conflict exists whenever and wherever
people have contact. It basically involves one or more of the following:
ă Threats;
Remember the words of Robert Townsend: „A good manager does not try to
eliminate disagreement; he tries to keep it from wasting the energies of his
people‰. Not all disagreements and conflicts can be resolved. Sometimes
individuals do not think it is in their best interest to resolve it because the price
is too high.
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Aziz, A., May, K., & Crotts, J. C. (2002). Relations of Machiavellian behaviors with
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Barth, R. (1990). Improving schools from within: Teachers, parent and principals
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Beatty, B. (2000, Nov 30ăDec 3). Pursuing the paradox of emotion and educational
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Blase, J., & Blase, J. (1997). The fire is back! Principals sharing governance.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
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Christie, R., & Geis, F. (1970). Studies in machiavellianism. New York, NY:
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Cronbach, L. (1984). Essentials of psychological testing (4th ed.). New York, NY:
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Handy, C., & Aitken, R. (1986). Are schools different? London, England: Penguin.
Hargreaves, A., & Fullan, M. (1998). WhatÊs worth fighting for out there? Toronto:
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Hodgkinson, C. (1990). Educational leadership: The moral art. Albany NY: State
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Proceedings of the 10th Annual Meeting of the Institute of Behavioral and
Applied Management, Denver, Colorado, USA.
INTRODUCTION
Although creativity and innovation are closely intertwined by the public, they
have often been studied separately using different methodologies and models.
Creativity has been in the domain of psychology, with its emphasis on individuals
and small groups, while innovation has been the focus of sociologists, economists
and others who take a larger, systems perspective.
Innovation, on the other hand, means making changes for the better on a certain
human creation so that the finished product becomes more practical and useful. In
the innovation process, creativity is highly involved and we may be unable to
distinguish between the „creating‰ and the „innovating‰ process. It would be
better if both were to be studied together especially in a social system such as
schools.
On the other hand, original thoughts must be examined critically before they
can be refined into useful and correct concepts whereas less creative people
tend to be too quick to judge or reject ideas. Creative people think out
carefully what they are looking for, and they clarify the reasons for their
reactions to emerging ideas. They tend to search longer for original thoughts
that can improve upon or even replace the emerging ideas.
(i) Males;
SELF-CHECK 8.1
So what can the leaders do to promote creativity and innovation? The most
obvious answer is to use management initiatives to create a work environment that
stimulates the existing staff to be more creative and innovative.
This working memory will also bring about creative operations that may
help to formulate potential solutions. These ideas come from our permanent
memory store, which is the collection of our lifetime database of knowledge
and experience.
Other potential alternatives are inputs from external sources such as reading,
ideas from colleagues, data bases and other sources. Next, this information
in the form of data and ideas can be processed logically such as by
associating, sorting, and aligning into new or unusual categories and
contexts, or more „illogically‰ by the use of images, abstractions, models,
metaphors and analogies.
After these initial stages the process of thinking involves noticing clues and
potential leads, realising combinations of alternatives that are significant
and finally selecting those thoughts that lead to a new idea. Next, we have
to choose an approach or a combination of approaches among alternative
approaches for finding a solution.
The solution to the problem may not be reached instantly for it needs to
reduce the size of the problem into manageable parts and provide time and
space for the alternative solution(s) to emerge. That may well be why one
has to be immersed in the problem for long periods, with subconscious
„incubation‰ operating to help sort through various alternatives and their
combinations.
All these mental activities must occur in the working memory, which
unfortunately has very limited capacity. That is probably the reason why
insight and creativity is so hard to come by. Researchers on creativity would
do better to look for ways and means to create more capacity for our working
memory and to make it more efficient.
The later and final stages involve critical and logical analysis which help to
refine the emerging ideas. Premature ideas should not be rejected outright
for they might turn out to be the binding factors of many outrageous ideas at
the end of the selection process.
Sometimes, analysis will force the realisation that the wrong problem is being
worked or that the problem needs to be restated. Eventually, out of these
processes will emerge the „bright idea‰ that could lead to the final workable
solution.
There are many examples of this kind from many parts of the world. Take
the case of intelligent tests conducted on the African-Americans which
showed that they were inferior mentally to the Caucasians. Based on that
finding, they concluded that the African-Americans were unable to hold
important positions and be leaders in organisations. They would not be
successful in sports that require intelligent thinking. They could only be
successful in sports that require physical strength. We all know that those
perceptions are wrong. No ethnic group is inferior or superior to others
because all those traits are the result of nurture rather than nature.
The creative process seems to depend on freeing our right brain from the
domineering control of our left brain. Managers tend to reward people for
left-brain thinking, which is rigorous and precise. Due to this inclination we
tend to reward precision and not creativity and as the result of creativity is
lost in most people. Creativity needs to be reawakened for there are many
problems in society that need solutions to make our world more peaceful and
better.
ACTIVITY 8.1
The creative person grows and develops and is liable to be influenced by the
environment and self-education (Raudsepp, 1981; Roger von Oech, 1983;
Nierenberg, 1982; Koestler, 1964; Parkes, 1959). Leaders have more control over
the creative process than they think. If leaders know what kinds of people are more
creative, they can make it a point to hire such people. The existing staff can be
educated on creativity by the leaders and they also need to be shown that creativity
is within the grasp of everybody. Finally, there is a host of management practices
that create the work environment that enables creativity.
Kekule was a pupil of Justus von Liebig, who is the acknowledged „father‰
of organic chemistry. LiebigÊs teacher was a giant in the field of inorganic
chemistry, Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac, who discovered many of the gas laws.
Gay-Lussac was a pupil of Claude Louis Berthollet, who helped to introduce
the concept of combustion and elucidated the chemistry of such compounds
as chlorine, ammonia and cyanide. BertholletÊs mentor was the famous
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier. Thus, this family tree of teachers and pupils was
extended in an unbroken chain over 200 years.
The creative fever can infect others as can be seen in the example of the
famous industrial laboratory, Bell Labs. Seven of BellÊs scientists received
the Nobel Prize. There are not many single work environments that have
spawned such fundamental innovations as the transistor, the laser and fibre-
optics. But the creative atmosphere at Bell is not limited to spectacular
innovation. The staff at Bell acquired over 31,800 patents since the lab was
formed in 1925, and the current rate is about one patent every day (Science
221, 1983).
(h) Give Your People Some Slack, Freedom and Time for Reflection
Here we refer to mental freedom, as well as freedom from external
constraints, to let new ideas emerge even if they violate common wisdom or
the constraints of time, money and facilities.
Arieti (1976) also makes the point that the creative person must have time
where he does nothing. If the workers must always be „doing‰ something,
they do not have the opportunity for uninterrupted reflection on their work.
If the staff is too productive in the usual sense, it also leads to less creativity
and the products are of lesser quality. One junior scientist was given some
wise advice by his more experienced mentor: „Young man, you would do
well to publish less so that you can publish better‰.
(i) Letting professionals present their own work for briefings, presenting
reports, and so on;
The Pelz and Andrews (1976) study showed a clear increase in productivity
in those workers.
Hickman and Silva (1984) have listed six common factors that hinder
creativeness and innovation from being manifested. They are:
(ii) Pick an organisational rule that gets in the way and break it;
(iv) Indulge in fantasy and wild thinking, particularly when you are
swamped with technical detail;
(v) Force yourself to consider many solutions for any problem; and
Pelz and Andrews (1976) also found, to their surprise, that productivity was
greater in those scientists and engineers who worked at several levels,
including both basic and applied research. Those who focused on either basic
research or applied research only were usually much less productive. This
may indicate that scientists and engineers are more productive because they
are capable enough to work at several different levels. However, it is also
possible that efforts to make them work at different levels actually can
stimulate their creativity and productivity.
However, there was another spurt of creative productivity after 50. The late
40s decline was quite distinct, and was most marked with government
workers, compared with those in industry or the universities. At all ages, and
in all work environments, productivity was greatest in those scientists who
were motivated by their own ideas rather than the ideas of management.
(w) Newly Formed Research Groups are the Most Creative and Productive
For example, when research directors of 21 industrial labs were asked to rank
their teams or sections on such criteria as „creativity‰, they found that the
most creative groups were less than 16 months old. According to the survey
by Pelz and Andrews (1976), the height of a groupÊs creative powers lasts
about five years, after which they generally decline. They explain this
phenomenon on the basis of their idea that a certain amount of creative
tension is needed; in this case, the tension and stimulation are achieved by
placing staff on a new team in which the insecurity of proving oneself to new
peers brings out the best in each worker.
The typical decline with age of the group can be partially offset if the group
becomes especially cohesive, while at the same time becoming intellectually
competitive. The cohesiveness is illustrated by the frequency of
communication among team members, which under normal circumstances
is quite high during the first year, but falls off drastically as the group ages.
Competitiveness included competition among individuals in the team as
well as competition between a given team and other teams.
Stagnation also sets in because an older group tends to get specialised, and
the membersÊ approaches to problems become more stable and stereotyped.
The loss of a broader perspective, and the creativity that goes with it, is best
offset when management challenges an older group with problems outside
its expertise. Leaders are advised to avoid letting a group come to believe
that they are the in-house experts in a special area; in fact, some leaders will
deliberately assign a problem within an older groupÊs specialty to another
group which has no such expertise.
(x) Reorganise
The more productive professionals in the Pelz and Andrews (1976) study
were those in organisations that had a relatively „flat‰ organisation tree, with
few levels at which veto or interference can occur. Pelz and Andrews (1976)
also found that conventional management schemes that were designed to
make workers dependent on their supervisors were counterproductive.
Specifically, real productivity declined when the primary source of
evaluation was the immediate supervisor. As Pelz and Andrews (1976) put
it: „If you deliberately wanted to stamp out independent thought in the
subordinates, could you design a better system?‰
Partridge notes that there are „... 120 different, special and measurable
aspects of creative thinking which particularly distinguish humans from
other species. These wide-ranging creative faculties have been, and continue
to be, critical to mankindÊs ability to adopt to changing situations,
environments and systems....Extensive studies of creative thinking have
firmly established that individuals exhibiting higher than average scores in
creative thinking also exhibit higher than average scores in areas of mental/
emotional health. Systematic courses of instruction in applied imagination
produce significant gains in personality traits such as confidence, self-
reliance, persuasiveness, initiative and leadership‰ (Robert & Patridge, 1997).
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
TOPIC 8 CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING 211
The challenge is to create an environment that will bring out the creativity of
everyone and make those who have demonstrated creativity even more
creative.
ACTIVITY 8.2
We also know that creativity is not a personality trait that is available to a few
geniuses. Everyone has unique knowledge and experiences that can be tapped,
given the proper environment.
Creative problem solving in schools are important and everyone should have
the skills to apply self-help techniques to enhance creative problem solving.
These mental blocks are associated with the risk of being wrong. Many
educational processes give rewards only for getting the right answer, not for
experimenting with new approaches or exploring the risky unknown.
The motivation for innovating comes largely from the joy of doing something
that has never been done before. It is like going on an expedition and risking
everything to be the first person to climb a mountain or sail alone around the
world like what was experienced by DatoÊ Azhar.
The same drive also exists within a composer or an artist who wishes to create
something for immortality.
Creativity can transform a dream or wish into a reality that can make the life
of others more meaningful and ease them from hunger, disease and ignorance.
Anderson, J. V. (1992). Weirder than fiction: the reality and myths of creativity.
Academy of Management Executive, 6 (4), 41.
Arieti, S. (1976). Creativity: The magic synthesis. New York, NY: Basic Books.
Firestien, R. L. (1996). Leading on the creative edge. Colorado Springs, CO: Pinon.
Hickman, C. R., & Silva, M. A. (1984). Creating excellence. New York, NY: New
American Library.
Hill, G. C., & Clark, D. (1998, June 5). Motorola Plans to Slash Staff, Take A Charge.
The Wall Street Journal, pp. A3.
Hamel, G. (1997, June 23). Killer strategies that make shareholders rich. Fortune,
135 (12), 70ă84.
Isaksen, S. G., & Parnes, S. J. (1992). Curriculum Planning for Creative Thinking
and Problem Solving. Journal of Creative Behavior, 19 (1), 422ă440.
Nierenberg, G. (1982). The art of creative thinking. New York, NY: Simon and
Schuster.
Perkins, D. N. (1981). The mindÊs best work. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Raudsepp, E. (1981). How creative are you. New York, NY: PutnamÊs Sons.
Robert, A., & Partridge, M. D. (1997). Epilogue. In S. J. Parnes, Optimize the magic
of your mind. Buffalo, NY: Bearly Limited.
Rogers, E. (1962). Diffusion of innovation. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Roger von Oech. (1983). A whack on the side of the head. New York, NY: Warner
Books.
Selye, H. (1964). From dream to discovery: On Being a Scientist. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.
Strickland, A. G., & Coulson, L. T. (2004). Learning creative process: A basic life
skill. In Costa, A. L., & Liebman, R. M. (Eds.), Envisioning process as content:
Toward a Renaissance curriculum. New York, NY: Sage Publications.
Taylor, A., & Getzels, J. W. (1975). Perspectives in creativity. Chicago, IL: Aldine
Publishing Co.
Wheatley, M. J. (1994). Leadership and the new science. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-
Koehler Publishers, Inc.
Woodman, R., Sawyer, J., & Griffin, R. (1993). Toward a theory of organizational
creativity. The Academy of Management Review, 18 (2), 293ă321,
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)
Topic Communication
and Skills in
9 Resolving
Conflicts
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Explain the factors that contribute to the improvement of
inspirational and supportive communication in the school
environment;
2. Discuss the methods that can be used in schools to develop effective
communication;
3. Describe the cross-cultural communication barriers in our schools;
4. Discuss the conflicts that occur in our schools; and
5. Apply the principles of conflict resolutions to solve conflicts in
schools.
INTRODUCTION
Communication can be the making or breaking of all relationships. Whenever two
individuals meet, they have to communicate verbally as well as use body language
to convey their intents. There are a number of ways of communicating which use
oneÊs verbal skills, tactile skills, kinaesthetic skills as well as skills in expressing
oneÊs self through written forms. As a matter of reference, we, as a society in
general, judge a person within a matter of seconds to the level and degree of their
intelligence based on how well or poorly they communicate. If a person is a
marvellous orator filled with passion and colourful stories and anecdotes that we
can relate to, then that person is judged as a superior being, smart and intelligent,
and „a somebody‰ in society regardless of his mental capacity. This impression
may prove to be inaccurate but that judgment has been the norm of how people
judge.
(a) Be clear in your own mind about what you want to communicate;
(c) Ensure that the message has been clearly and correctly understood; and
(d) Good communication means saying what you mean ă and fully
comprehending any feedback.
Electronic media have generated even more possibilities by creating a hybrid form
of speech and writing. Thus, e-mails have the speed and informality of a phone
conversation, yet they are in letter form and can be filed. The purpose of the
message will dictate which method to choose. Decide on your message first, and
then select the best method to convey it, making sure that you have mastered its
technique.
Though the first four methods work well individually, it is now known that using
two or more different communication methods together increases interest,
comprehension and retention. Methods are more effective when combined with
others. Examples of a combined approach include communicating via commercial
media and electronic technology, such as multimedia and video conferencing.
Multimedia allows better use of usual elements, and is increasing the medium of
choice when it comes to communicating with large numbers of people, especially
employees in a big organisation. For further reading, refer to Table 9.1.
Wrong Right
Slovenly stance Upright posture
Messy hair Neat hair
Crumpled T-Shirt Neatly buttoned jacket
Dirty Shoes Shining shoes
Single gestures may combine to form complex patterns. For instance, in a private
meeting, you may recognise that a colleague is appraising you while listening to
you, by the position of their fingers on their cheek or chin. However, to know
whether the appraisal is positive or negative, you need to observe other signs, such
as whether their legs are crossed defensively, or if their head and chin are lowered
aggressively.
(d) Listening with approval ă approval listening is shown by the slight tilt of the
head together with friendly eye contact;
(e) Paying attention ă eyes making contact and the body leaning forward show
alertness and readiness to assist the speaker;
(k) Needing reassurance ă one hand around the neck and the other around the
waist show a need for reassurance; and
(l) Experiencing conflict ă closed eyes and nose pinching reveal inner confusion
and conflict about what is being heard.
Use analytical questions to discover the reasons behind the speakerÊs statements,
especially if you need to understand a sequence of facts or thoughts. Ask questions
carefully, so you can pick up clues from the answers and use the personÊs
responses to help you form your next set of questions.
If you need to achieve a desired result, make statements to which others can
respond with ideas. Listen and give your answers to othersÊ remarks in a way that
suggests which ideas can be enacted and how they might be implemented.
Alternatively, include a different solution in your next question.
(b) Use open questions to gain insight into the other personÊs character, and to
invite a response.
9.1.28 Conclusion
The importance of interpersonal skills is increasingly critical because of four
factors of growing importance in most organisations these days; technology,
time intensity, diversity and liability. Beginning from the very basic of all
interpersonal skills is understanding the similarities and differences in our
inherent temperaments. These „relational skills‰ are the building blocks or the
foundation for every type of communication.
ACTIVITY 9.1
Incongruence can occur under two different circumstances. First, it can occur when
there is a mismatch between what one is experiencing and what one is aware of.
For example, a school member may not be aware that he is experiencing hostility
toward a student, even though the student can sense it. The second type of
incongruence occurs when there is a mismatch between what one thinks or feels
and what one communicates.
This is common in relationships when one party is less than honest in its
communication with the other. For example, a school leader may be very upset
about an incident concerning a teacher and a student but deny saying that the
feeling exists. It is important that school leaders or department heads be honest
and genuine when coaching or counselling their junior teachers because, often,
those who do not express what is on their mind create the perception of a „hidden
agenda.‰ If a school member senses that not all is being said, the relationship may
become distrusting and/or superficial (Haas & Arnold, 1995).
(b) Entails focusing on the behaviour and oneÊs reaction, not on the school
memberÊs attributes. This step might include describing oneÊs feelings and
the objective consequences that have or will result. The school leadership
might say; „IÊm concerned because how can we expect students to do what
they say if we donÊt do what we say?‰
For example, the global statement „You have no consideration for othersÊ feelings‰
is likely to be met with a defensive statement „Yes I do, I am always considerate
of othersÊ feelings‰. A specific statement is much more effective; „By using sarcasm
in your response to my question, you gave me the impression that you do not care
about my feelings.‰ The response is more likely to not be defensive: „I am sorry. I
know I am often sarcastic without thinking of how it affects others‰.
IÊm interested in you as a person, and I respect your thoughts and even if I donÊt
agree with them, I know they are valid for you. I feel sure you have a
contribution to make. I think youÊre worth listening to and I want you to know
IÊm the kind of person you can talk to.
ACTIVITY 9.2
Discuss how basic attributes of supportive communication can be
incorporated into personnel management activities to improve teachers,
staff and student relationships.
Everything that occurs within a school and especially in the classroom, involves
communication, the act of sharing information. Sometimes communication
involves the use of oral or written verbal symbols. On other occasions,
communication involves various types of nonverbal symbols, including body
language.
Students with different cultural norms are at risk if teachers have little knowledge,
sensitivity or appreciation of the diversity in communication styles. Such teachers
may perceive differences as problems and respond to studentsÊ diversify with
negative attitudes, low expectations and culturally inappropriate teaching and
assessment procedures. Culturally and communicatively diverse students, in turn,
may respond with low self-concepts and low academic achievement to a school
climate they perceive as hostile. The result is reflected in these studentsÊ excessive
placements in special education, reduced placements in talented and gifted
programmes and high suspension rates.
The fact that these circumstances occur is a tragedy, of course. The greater tragedy,
however, is that educators do not always know how to eliminate or minimise this
type of discord.
(a) Be aware of words, images and situations that suggest that all or most
members of a racial group are the same.
Example: „Why canÊt Kontoi ever be on time?‰ „HeÊs Orang Asli, isnÊt he?‰
(b) Avoid using qualifiers that reinforce racial and ethnic stereotypes.
Example: „The articulate Orang Asli student‰ implies that Orang Asli
students typically have low verbal skills.
(c) Be aware that objects, characters and symbols may reflect different beliefs or
values for different groups.
(d) Be aware that cultures may vary in what they consider humorous or taboo.
(f) Cultures may use different standards for loudness, speed of delivery, silence,
attentiveness and time to respond to anotherÊs point.
One way to improve relationships across cultural lines, particularly in the upper
grades, is to develop a unit on „Communicating with One Another‰. The purpose
of such a unit would be to teach students how to communicate more effectively
across cultural lines and how to address and negotiate differences.
It is also useful for teachers to brainstorm with one another on how to remove
communication barriers. In addition, a well-designed staff development
programme can lead to better relations among staff and generate effective cross
cultural communication activities for the classroom.
While schools have a responsibility to teach students the behavioural codes of the
society at large and to expect students to adhere to them, they have a similar
responsibility to reduce culturally induced discipline problems and to avoid
misinterpreting cultural differences as behavioural problems.
ACTIVITY 9.3
(a) Disagreement
Generally, we are aware there is some level of difference in the positions of
the two (or more) parties involved in the conflict. But the true disagreement
versus the perceived disagreement may be quite different from one
another. In fact, conflict tends to be accompanied by significant levels of
misunderstanding that exaggerate the perceived disagreement considerably.
If we can understand the true areas of disagreement, this will help us solve
the right problems and manage the true needs of the parties.
(d) Conflicts are normal experiences within the work environment. They are
also, to a large degree, predictable and expectable situations that naturally
arise as we go about managing complex and stressful projects in which we
are significantly invested. As such, if we develop procedures for identifying
conflicts likely to arise, as well as systems through which we can
constructively manage conflicts, we may be able to discover new
opportunities to transform conflict into a productive learning experience.
(a) Are there seasonal peaks in our workload that tend to occur annually?
Chart the occurrence of such challenges, and consider whether they can be
managed as a normal period of stress and transition. For example, a school
had a large population of students who arrived after long bus rides without
breakfast, who tended to arrive at school ready to fight. The school identified
10 minutes at the start of the day to give these students a healthy snack and
worked with teachers to pull out students who were not yet ready for school
before they became disruptive. After food and a little counselling, students
entered their classrooms in a better frame of mind (and body) to participate.
(c) Are there certain factors in the environment that make problems worse,
especially at times of conflict?
Take stock of your processes for managing during stressful times. Look
at how phones are routed, noise is managed, client lines are queued,
distractions are managed, etc. Often, our response during times of stress is to
meet less frequently, because „we have no time to meet‰. Also, we continue
to do things the way we have been doing them, because „we have no time to
create new procedures‰. This approach dooms us to repeat the same errors,
rather than to learn from the opportunities. Examine your systems for
managing problems, including dispute resolution systems and use times of
"harmony" to identify process improvements that can be implemented in
times of stress.
(a) Competing is a style in which oneÊs own needs are advocated over the needs
of others. It relies on an aggressive style of communication, low regard for
future relationships and the exercise of coercive power. Those using a
competitive style tend to seek control over a discussion, in both substance
and ground rules. They fear that loss of such control will result in solutions
that fail to meet their needs. Competing tends to result in responses that
increase the level of threat.
(e) Collaborating is the pooling of individual needs and goals toward a common
goal. Often called „win-win problem-solving‰, collaboration requires
assertive communication and cooperation in order to achieve a better
solution than either individual could have achieved alone. It offers the
chance for consensus, the integration of needs and the potential to exceed the
„budget of possibilities‰ that previously limited our views of the conflict. It
brings new time, energy and ideas to resolve the dispute meaningfully.
By understanding each style and its consequences, we may normalise the results
of our behaviours in various situations. This is not to say, „Thou shalt collaborate‰
in a moralising way, but to indicate the expected consequences of each approach.
If we use a competing style, we might force the others to accept „our‰ solution, but
this acceptance may be accompanied by fear and resentment. If we accommodate,
the relationship may proceed smoothly, but we may build up frustrations that our
needs are going unmet.
or:
or:
These factors (along with others) conspire to form the perceptual filters through
which we experience conflict. As a result, our reactions to the threat and dilemma
posed by conflict should be anticipated to include varying understandings of the
situation. This also means that we can anticipate that in many conflicts there will
be significant misunderstanding of each otherÊs perceptions, needs and feelings.
These challenges contribute to our emerging sense, during conflict, that the
situation is overwhelming and unsolvable. As such, they become critical sources
of potential understanding, insight and possibility.
„Why should I talk to her? SheÊll bite my head off and not listen to anything
I have to say!‰
OR
„I should talk to him about this problem, but maybe it will go away on
its own. There is no sense stirring up something that makes us both
uncomfortable‰.
OR
In other circumstances, those who raise issues and concerns, even respectfully, are
quickly perceived to be „problem‰ clients or staff members⁄ they tend to be
avoided and minimised. In any of these approaches, negotiated solutions to
conflicts are rarely modelled or held in high esteem.
ACTIVITY 9.4
Keep in mind that negotiation requires profound courage on the part of all
parties; it takes courage to honestly and clearly articulate your needs, and it
takes courage to sit down and listen to your adversaries. It takes courage to
look at your own role in the dispute, and it takes courage to approach others
with a sense of empathy, openness and respect for their perspective.
There are various ways to communicate, ranging from written words, spoken
words, symbolic gestures and visual images to body language. A combination
of one or two methods would increase its effectiveness.
Bolton, R. (1979). People skills: How to assert yourself, listen to others & resolve
conflicts. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Boss, W. L. (1983). Team building and the problem of regression: The personal
management interview as an intervention. Journal Applied Behavioral
Science, 19 (1), 67ă83.
Crum, T. (1998). The magic of conflict. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster.
Fisher, R., & Ury, W. (1991). Getting to yes: Negotiating agreement without giving
in workbook. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Fisher, R., & Ertl D. (1995). Getting ready to negotiate: The getting to Yes
workbook. New York, NY: Penguin Books.
Heitler, S. M. (1990). From conflict to resolution. New York, NY: W.W. Norton and
Co.
Latif, D. A., & Grillo, J. A. (2001). Satisfaction of junior faculty with academic role
functions. American Journal Pharmacy Education, 65 (2), 137ă143.
Maier, M. R. F., Solem, A. R., & Maier, A. A. (1973). Counseling, interviewing, and
job contacts. In Maier MRF, Education. Psychology of Industrial
Organizations. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Rosen, H. R., & Berger, L. (1992). The healthy company. New York, NY: PutnamÊs
Sons.
Rogers, C., & Farson, R. (1976). Active listening. Chicago, IL: Industrial Relations
Center.
Steil, L., Barker, L., & Watson, K. (1999). Effective listening: Key to your success.
New York, NY: Addison-Wessley.
Schnake, M. E., Dumler, M. P., Cochran, D. S., & Barnett, T. R. (1990). Effects
of differences in superior and subordinate perceptions of superiorsÊ
communication practices. Journal of Business Communication, 27 (1), 37ă50.
Tanner, D. (2001). You just donÊt understand: Women and men in conversation.
New York, NY: Harper Collins Books.
Ury, W. (1991). Getting Past No: Negotiating with difficult people. New York, NY:
Bantam Books.
Ury, B., & Goldberg (1989). Getting disputes resolved. San Francisco, CA: Jossey
Bass Publishing.
Volkema, R. (1999). The negotiation tool kit. New York, NY: AMACOM, American
Management Association.
Weeks, D. (1992). The eight essential steps to conflict resolution. New York, NY:
Tarcher Books.
Whetten, D. A., & Cameron, K. S. (2002). Developing management skills, 5th ed.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
INTRODUCTION
With a more enlightened society where the literacy rate is almost universal (about
99 per cent of the population), leadership of nations and organisations takes on a
different form other than what is normal. The followers cannot be fooled into
obeying the leader without questioning him. They must be satisfied with the
decision of the leader, use rational, logic and reason as the guiding principle
in all actions. As the result of this change, leadership takes a different shape.
Participative leadership, empowerment of followers and collective decision
making are the norm. The staff members are skilful in many areas of the discipline
and multi-tasking has become the norm. „The Jack of all trades‰ has been accepted
as the more acceptable characteristic among staff members rather than a specialist
who is unwilling to do tasks other than their own specialisation.
With this changing scenario, leaders of the future should be shaped to fulfil the
requirements and specifications of the present era and the future. Leaders should
be educated, trained and exposed to the changes that are happening in society and
be adaptable to future changes. A rigid leader will either make way for an
adaptable leader or has to shape himself to fit the requirements of the present and
the future. Inflexible leaders have no place in our fast changing world.
This danger is also faced by school principals. In the Malaysian situation, the
change of the medium of instruction for the teaching of Mathematics and Science
into English brought about some chaotic situations due to the inability of these
teachers to communicate in English effectively with the students. The problem was
compounded by the insufficient number of teachers in those specialisations who
can teach in English. Strong leaders (principals) are needed to bring such changes
to success whilst good middle managers or the senior management team (SMT)
are needed to carry out the implementation of change. However, critiques of
management and managerialism have argued that, on the drive toward efficiency,
the SMT can cause untenable assumptions about the changes that are targeted.
Understanding change and the after effects of the process would be a good asset
for leaders. The anticipation of the messiness of the effect of change would better
prepare a leader to handle the problems that come with it. In the process of creating
a change, the potential of creative breakthroughs is ever present. The paradigm
shifts that come along with change will open up peopleÊs minds and new
viewpoints that were not even dreamt of before the change process seems to be
free flowing.
As a leader in a school, the principal plays an important role to lead the teachers,
students and the parents towards the path of change. Therefore, the principal
needs to have knowledge about the change process and the right attitude towards
the need for change. A change might not achieve its target if the people who are to
be involved in the change process do not give their cooperation.
They need to be convinced and the task of the leader becomes heavier and he needs
other skills, such as communication skills, human relation skills and resilience.
Some of these knowledge and skills have already been covered in previous topics
while others will be discussed further in this final topic.
(a) Mobilise commitment to change through joint diagnosis with people in the
organisation of business problems.
(b) Develop a shared vision of how to organise and manage for competitiveness.
(c) Foster concerns for the new vision, competence to enact it, and cohesion to
move it along.
(d) Spend revitalisation to all departments without pushing it from the top.
When both the leaders and the subordinates cooperate with each other through
the institutionalisation of the change process, then change that brings about
innovation and invention with it will be a permanent feature of the society. A new
culture has been established.
(a) Manpower planning should consider recruiting the right people for the right
posts to ensure that the best suited person holds the post to best meet the
planned objectives within the targeted period. Failing to do so endangers the
mission and vision of the organisation. Nations that practice meritocracy in
the real sense have an advantage to advance faster than others which practice
nepotism.
(c) Positive attitude and work ethics of the workforce. Workers who are willing
to work hard and motivated towards their work will ensure that the products
they produce will be of high-quality.
(e) Strong and Strategic leadership. The leader should be strong in the sense that
he gets the support of the majority of the people. This strong support helps
in achieving the objectives of the development and change programs. The
leader should also be a visionary who could see the future and planned for
the people and country to be at an advantage in the areas that have been
developed.
All these characteristics could be established if the leaders and the society are
willing to change. They could be developed when the leaders and the people in
the society are willing to work towards achieving the planned objectives through
innovations and new procedures. Regarding the selection of leaders of industries,
the criteria should be based on their expertise rather than their close association
with the political leaders or their ethnic background.
ACTIVITY 10.1
2. Strong and strategic leadership are two qualities that are lacking in
some schools. What do you consider are the characteristics of a
strong and strategic leader?
10.3.1 Multi-tasking
„Jack of all trades and the master of none‰ is not the whole truth and not in favour
anymore. The market place needs a person who is „Jack of all trades and the master
of all‰. The leaders of our schools, namely the principals have to be a „Jack of all
trades‰ because they have to know about managing their staff, know how to use
the computer to write e-mails and send them through the wired technology to the
respective addresses, to use Microsoft Word and Microsoft Excel to write letters
and to provide data to be sent to the education departments and the Ministry of
Education. These basic skills are essential to be effective in our present
environment. Without it, the principals would be helpless and they would not be
of much use to fulfil their responsibilities. A principal in a private school or college
needs to do other things as well, such as marketing his programmes and
institution, training his staff on methodologies of teaching, studentsÊ discipline as
well as ensuring that there is a healthy cash flow.
(a) The principal can draw a schedule for the utilisation of the Internet by
the students outside school hours as part of the co-curriculum activities
including seeking information for their assignments.
(b) The school can appoint senior students who are knowledgeable about the
use of the Internet as mentors to other students.
(c) Classes for learning to use the softwares provided by computer companies
can be held for the students so that they can master the skills of using the
computer.
(d) Competitions can be held for the students such as designing web pages to
create interest and awareness among the school population regarding the
usefulness of the computer.
(e) The school can develop an informative web site for others to communicate
with the school.
(f) The school can develop relationships with other schools across the globe
through their web sites.
(g) Information and knowledge exchange between the schools across the globe
will be beneficial to all parties.
(h) The students can become „ambassadors‰ for Malaysia to foster goodwill
among the students around the globe.
But as long as we have a desire to control our own destiny, we will try to envision
our future. Some aspects of our lives can be shaped significantly by our
aspirations, and by the nature of our schools. Morgan (1989) noted that no matter
the type of organisation or the conception of leadership (e.g. Bass, 1981), the vision
of what the organisation ought to be seems to be vital to success, especially during
turbulent times. One of the executives of MorganÊs study noted the following:
„The world is such a changeable place that you need to have a well articulated
long-term sense of where you are going, which gives you the base, the
confidence to take on whatever adaptability issues come along without losing
sense of direction. YouÊve got to respond to the issues of the moment without
losing that long-term sense‰.
(Leithwood, Begley & Cousins, 1994, p. 31)
Leaders should be able to visualise the future for these visions, provide precise
guides to action and allow reasonable discrepancies in need of attention to be
detected in the school so that actions can be taken to rectify these discrepancies.
These visions should be widely shared so that they will become points for
discussions and shared collective decisions.
(b) The ability to make long term forecasts and strategies to ensure the survival
as well as the healthy existence of the organisation.
(c) The ability to translate the strategic plans into short-term activities that lead
into financial ability and profit.
When these qualities are transferred into school leadership, we are able to visualise
the sort of a principal who develops a vision for the school to achieve and at the
same time he becomes an inspiration to the teachers, students and parents to
achieve the objective of the vision by ensuring the achievement of the objectives of
the short-term development programmes.
The most difficult part of this strategic leadership is the ability to continuously
inspire oneÊs followers for a length of time because the interest of the followers
may subside and this can cause the failure to achieve the vision. The only way to
maintain the momentum is the leader not being the first person to lose interest in
the quest for achieving the vision as targeted if not earlier.
He has to devise means to inspire the followers such as laying out one mission
after another to be accomplished. After every successful accomplishment they
should celebrate to mark every success. It is a motivating factor that can sustain
the inspiration to produce better results. In the school situation for example,
studentsÊ academic improvements in Mathematics or English might be a booster
to teachersÊ and studentsÊ morales.
On the other hand, managerial leaders are most comfortable handling day-to-day
events, and focus on the short-term goals rather than long-term goals. Although
sometimes touted as a panacea for many organisations in a fast-changing
environment, visionary leaders are not readily embraced and unless they have
managerial leaders to support them, may not be appropriate for many
organisations.
Strategic leadership presumes that managerial and visionary leadership can co-
exist, and that strategic leadership is a synergistic combination of the two. A
strategic leader has the ability of the visionary leader as well as the managerial
leader. Therefore, the development of a strategic leadership is important for long-
term school improvement. Our Malaysian schools need leaders who can strategise
the vision of the schools and at the same time create keen interest among the
teachers and students to achieve the short-term goals continuously before reaching
the ultimate realisation of the vision.
The data collected from our own research, from intelligence gathering, from the
Internet data, and the process of selected information gathering can provide useful
information that can lead to strategies useful for the survival of organisations. The
collected information and data have to be analysed by those who have the
knowledge and talents both collectively and individually.
An organisation that develops this capability will enhance its overall capacities
that can be witnessed in its decision-making capabilities and the improvement of
its overall performance. On the other hand, organisations that do not develop these
capabilities will be unable to compete with those that have done so.
When these components have become the culture of the organisation and as an
integral part of it, then the post of knowledge management officer or manager
would be redundant. All staff members would have to be knowledge executives
for the survival of the organisation.
First of all we have to understand the concept of the learning organisation through
some definitions:
The culture of the learning organisation should be developed in all schools where
students would seek knowledge wherever they are not only on the subject matter
that are taught in schools but also knowledge that can make them wiser, more
informed and knowledgeable about other matters which can lead to creativity and
the creation of new knowledge.
ACTIVITY 10.2
This topic has investigated the link between strategic leadership and leading
change. It is important that leaders must understand change and how it affects
their schools.
In the 21st century with the advancement of technology and in a digital world,
leaders need to understand how to lead in organisations where work ethics
and organisational structures are different from the 20th century.
Bass, B. M. (1981). StogdillÊs handbook of leadership. New York, NY: Free Press.
Beer, M., Eisenstat, R., & Spector, B. (1990). The critical path to corporate renewal.
Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Kotter, J. (1996). Leading change. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
Mintzberg, H., Ahlstrand, B., & Lampel, J. (1998). Strategy safari: A guided tour
through the wilds of strategic management. New York, NY: Free Press.
Morgan, G. (1989). Riding the waves of change. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass.
Senge, P. (1993). The fifth discipline: the art and practices of the learning
organisation. London, England: Century Business.
OR
Thank you.