Transfer functions

Definitions

1. Transfer Function: describe the effect that changes in system input have on system output in the Laplace domain. Transfer functions are of the general form

where G(s) is the transform function, and Y(s) and U(s) are the Laplace transforms of the output and input variables respectively.[1]

For example, Take Y(s) to be the Outlet Temperature of a Process Stream (in Deviation Variable Form, see below), and U(s) to be Input Flow Rate into a CSTR (in Deviation Variable Form,

see below), G(s) would relate the Outlet Temperature to the Input Flow Rate in the Laplace domain.

[1]

2. Zeros of a Transfer Function: the roots of the equation N(s)=0 where N(s) is the numerator of the transfer function

3. Poles of a Transfer Function: the roots of the equation D(s)=0 where D(s) is the denominator of the transfer function.

4. Sustained Oscillations: oscillation with a fixed amplitude.

5. Unstable Behavior: unbounded growth of a dependent variable for a bounded input.

6. Ringing: an industrial term referring to a response that exhibits slow damping of the oscillations.

7. Overshoot: when the response of a system goes through a maximum or minimum before settling at it steady-state value.

Deriving Deviation Variables

Y(s) and U(s) must be in the form of deviation variables for the derivation of transfer functions. Instead of representing an absolute property of an input/output, Deviation Variables represent

changes in the system from steady state.

For example, Take y(t) to be the Outlet Temperature of a Process Stream (in the time domain), a deviation variable of y would be defined as follows:

where <y>(t) is the deviation variable in the time domain, y(t) is the current outlet temperature of the process stream, and [y] is the initial condition (ex. 210°C).

The following three steps should be used obtain the variables in deviation form.

1. Define input, u(t), and output, y(t), variables in the following form: <y>(t) as y(t) - [y]. NOTE: [y] and [u] are set to zero as an initial condition.

2. Eliminate y(t) and u(t) from the differential equation using the equations obtained in Step 1.
3. Eliminate [y] and [u] from the differential equation, noting that [y] and [u] are set to zero as an initial condition

Example 1.1 (Taken from Riggs, Chemical and Bio-Process Control, 3rd Edition pg 158)[1]

Convert the process model equation for a level into deviation variable form.

Solution

The model equation for the level in a tank is given as:

h, fin, and fout must be converted to deviation variable form. Defining [h] and [f] as the initial steady state conditions, deviation variables can be defined as:

Plugging in yeilds:

Simplified form:

Deriving Transfer Functions

Once the input and output variables are in deviation variable form, the following steps can be taken to obtain the Transfer Function itself.

1. Convert the linear ODE into deviation variable form (see previous section).

2. Transform each term in the equation to the Laplace domain.

3. Solve for Y(s)/U(s).

Example 1.2 (continuing from Example 1.1) Determine the transfer function for the process.

Solution
Poles and Zeros of a Transfer Function

The general form of a transfer equation is shown above. N(s) and D(s) are polynomials in s. The roots of D(s) are called the poles of the transfer function and the roots of N(s) are the zeros of a

Transfer Function.

Poles of a Transfer Function

Assume that one of the factors of D(s) is (s2+as+b). You can apply a partial fraction expansion and a term with the following form results.

Factoring Yields:
Therefore:

If a2-4b>0, then real roots exist and you can solve for the poles of the transfer function corresponding to this term.

If a2-4b=0, then there are two real, equal roots. Therefore, repeated poles result.

If a2-4b<0, then imaginary roots result.

If you have imaginary roots, you can complete the square for the denominator.

Your solution for

is a complex conjugate pair. You can take the inverse Laplace transform to understand how “a” affects the sinusoidal behavior in real space.

The poles of a Transfer function are important because they can be plotted on a complex plain. This visual indicates the type of dynamic behavior for the systems. that the transfer function

represents.

===Examples of Transfer Functions and Their Corresponding Behavior===[1]

Zeros of a Transfer Function

The roots of the numerator of G(s) are the zeros of a transfer function. The zeros of a transfer function have a effect on the dynamic response not the stability of the system. Below is a simple

generic transfer function

There is one zero in this system at z = -c. Whether c is positive or negative can change the dynamic response of the system G(s)

Systems with positive zeros (c < 0) referred as a system with right-handed plane zeros which indicates a transfer function with inverse-acting behavior[1]

Systems with negative zeros (c > 0) referred as a system with left-handed plane zeros where overshoot can occur

Stability Analysis Using the Routh Array

The denominator of any transfer function can be used to determine the dynamic response of the system. If any of the roots of the denominator has positive real components, unstable behavior

occurs. The Routh array can be used to determine if any of the roots of a denominator in the form of a real polynomial have positive real components! The Routh array uses a transfer function’s

denominator in the following form[1]:

In the above equation, each ai is assumed to be positive; if any ai*s is negative, the transfer function is unstable because one or more roots will have positive real components. Note that if all

ai*s are negative, the negatives can be removed from the polynomial by multiplying the entire equation by -1, i.e. the transfer function is not necessarily unstable.

The actual Routh array is formed as shown below:

This pattern is repeated until a zero or a negative number is obtained in the first column. If any negative numbers appear in the first row or the first column, the transfer function is unstable.[1]

A more visual way to view the Routh array structure is also provided below:

Examples

Example 3.1
Determine the stability of the system represented by the following transfer function:

Solution The transfer function is already in standard form, so the first step is to form the Routh array:

A negative number appears in the first column, therefore the system is unstable.

Example 3.2

Determine the stability of the system represented by the following transfer function:

Solution The first step is to get the transfer function into standard form. The last term should be a 1, so the denominator should be divided by 2 producing:

Now, the Routh array can be formed:

The system is stable because the numbers in the first column are all positive or zero.

Block Diagrams using Transfer Functions

Transfer functions can be drawn using diagrams to illustrate the control process. Block diagrams are drawn in sequence of the controls and communications between the controllers are

demonstrated with lines and arrows, similarly to a process flow diagram. [2]
When the transfer functions are in a series (shown above) they can be combined into one block using multiplication.

For functions that are in parallel the relationship of the transfer function is the sum of the two equations.

Listed in the table below are more shorthand block diagrams for transfer functions.[3]
Linearization of Nonlinear Differential Equations

Taylor Series Expansion[1]

The use of Laplace transforms for the purpose of developing transfer functions is limited in application to linear differential equations. Since all processes have varying degrees of nonlinearity,

such as changes in process gains and time constants, it is important to have a means to linearize these equations. In order to apply Laplace transforms to a nonlinear equation, an operating

point is chosen and a Taylor Series Expansion is used to linearize the equation. Consider a nonlinear ODE,

At t=0, y=ȳ, u = ū and f(ȳ,ū)=0

In which u is the input and y is the output variable. The initial steady-state condition is represented by ȳ and ū, and is taken as the basis for the deviation variables. A linear approximation about

(ȳ,ū) using a Taylor series expansion that is truncated for all terms that are second order or higher gives,

Moving the first term of the equation to the left-hand side produces,
If the derivative of y is equal to f(y,u), ├ f(y,u)┤|_(ȳ,ū) would be equal to dȳ/dt. This allows for the equation to be converted into terms of deviation variables as seen below:

Where ŷ is the difference of y and ȳ. Taking the Laplace transform of each term in the equation yields

After rearranging the transfer function based on the linearization of the process about the operating point this produces

Examples

Example 6.1: Suppose you have a mixing tank of 100 gallons that exhibits ideal mixing. Water from the local municipal water supply flows into the tank, where it is heated to 75oC. At steady-

state, water at 25oC is flowing into the tank at 10 gallons per minute. The mixing tank is operated at constant volume, and the water is essentially incompressible. In this temperature range, the

heat capacity of the water is constant at 15 BTU/(galoC). Energy is added to the system via a heat coil. You are interested in the temperature of the water in the tank over time. Derive the linear

model of the energy balance for fluid in the tank using deviation variables. Feel free to choose your reference temperature to be zero.

Solution
Example 6.2: An isothermal CSTR (V=1000L) is fed a stream of pure component A at a rate of Fv (100L/min). Component a undergoes a reversible reaction; r= k1A – k2B. The rate constants

are k1=0.5min-1, k2=0.2min-1. The initial concentration of A in the reactor is 0.1 gmol/L, and the concentration of A in the feed is 1.0 gmol/L. The initial concentration of B in the reactor is 0.18

gmol/L.
Solution
References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Riggs, James B., and Nazmul M. Karim. Chemical and Bio-Process Control. Lubbock, Texas: Ferret Publishing, 2006."

2. ↑ Chemical Engineering at Michigan Tech. (1999). Transfer Functions. Retrieved Apr. 6, 2009, fromhttp://www.chem.mtu.edu/~tbco/cm416/transfunc.html "

3. ↑ ECE Illinois.. (n.d.). Transfer Functions. Retrieved Apr. 6, 2009, from http://courses.ece.illinois.edu/ece486"

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