Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation

Regenerative braking SYSTEM

Regenerative braking is used on hybrid gas/electric automobiles to recoup some of the energy
lost during stopping. This energy is saved in a storage battery and used later to power the motor
whenever the car is in electric mode.
Understanding how regenerative braking works may require a brief look at the system it
replaces. Conventional braking systems use friction to counteract the forward momentum of a
moving car. As the brake pads rub against the wheels (or a disc connected to the axle),
excessive heat energy is also created. This heat energy dissipates into the air, wasting up to
30% of the car's generated power. Over time, this cycle of friction and wasted heat energy
reduces the car's fuel efficiency. More energy from the engine is required to replace the energy
lost by braking.
Hybrid gas/electric automobiles now use a completely different method of braking at slower
speeds. While hybrid cars still use conventional brake pads at highway speeds, electric motors
help the car brake during stop-and-go driving. As the driver applies the brakes through a
conventional pedal, the electric motors reverse direction. The torque created by this reversal
counteracts the forward momentum and eventually stops the car.
But regenerative braking does more than simply stop the car. Electric motors and electric
generators (such as a car's alternator) are essentially two sides of the same technology. Both
use magnetic fields and coiled wires, but in different configurations. Regenerative braking
systems take advantage of this duality. Whenever the electric motor of a hybrid car begins to
reverse direction, it becomes an electric generator or dynamo. This generated electricity is fed
into a chemical storage battery and used later to power the car at city speeds.
Regenerative braking takes energy normally wasted during braking and turns it into usable
energy. It is not, however, a perpetual motion machine. Energy is still lost through friction with
the road surface and other drains on the system. The energy collected during braking does not
restore all the energy lost during driving. It does improve energy efficiency and assist the main
alternator.
Regenerative braking in Hybrid electric vehicle
Hybrid vehicles make use of an internal combustion engine and an electric motor.
How is a hybrid vehicle different from a fully electric vehicle? Well, hybrid electric vehicles use
both an electric motor and an internal combustion engine to provide a best-of-both-worlds
driving experience. They combine the driving range of an internal combustion engine with the
fuel efficiency and emissions-free characteristics of an electric motor. If a hybrid is to have
maximum fuel efficiency and produce as few carbon emissions as possible, it's important that
the battery remain charged as long as possible. If a hybrid vehicle battery were to lose its
charge, the internal combustion engine would be entirely responsible for powering the vehicle.
At that point, the vehicle is no longer acting as a hybrid but rather just another car burning fossil
fuels.
Automotive engineers have come up with a number of tricks to wring the maximum efficiency
out of hybrids, like aerodynamic streamlining of the bodies and use of lightweight materials, but
arguably, one the most important is regenerative braking. In a hybrid setup, however, these
types of brakes can provide power only to the electric motor part of the drivetrain via the
vehicle's battery. The internal combustion
engine gains no advantage from these kinds of brakes.
In part, these efficiencies are necessary due to the extreme difficulty in finding a place to
recharge a hybrid. This makes longer trips difficult without relying on the hybrid's internal
combustion engine, which actually cancels out some of the advantage of owning a hybrid.
Up next, we'll learn about a new take on this idea of regenerative braking.

PREPARED By: SAILESH ADHIKARI 063/33/BIE THAPATHALI CAMPUS

 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Fuel injection is a system for mixing fuel with air in an internal combustion engine. It has become the
primary fuel delivery system used in gasoline automotive engines, having almost completely replaced
carburetors in the late 1980s.
A fuel injection system is designed and calibrated specifically for the type(s) of fuel it will handle. Most
fuel injection systems are for gasoline or diesel applications. With the advent of electronic fuel injection
(EFI), the diesel and gasoline hardware has become similar. EFI's programmable firmware has permitted
common hardware to be used with different fuels. Carburetors were the predominant method used to
meter fuel on gasoline engines before the widespread use of fuel injection. A variety of injection
systems have existed since the earliest usage of the internal combustion engine.
The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by
forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on low pressure
created by intake air rushing through it to add the fuel to the airstream.
The fuel injector is only a nozzle and a valve: the power to inject the fuel comes from a pump or a
pressure container farther back in the fuel supply.

The functional objectives for fuel injection systems can vary. All share the central task of supplying
fuel to the combustion process, but it is a design decision how a particular system will be
optimized. There are several competing objectives such as:
 power output
 fuel efficiency
 emissions performance
 ability to accommodate alternative fuels
 reliability
 driveability and smooth operation
 initial cost
 maintenance cost
 diagnostic capability
 range of environmental operation
Certain combinations of these goals are conflicting, and it is impractical for a single engine control
system to fully optimize all criteria simultaneously. In practice, automotive engineers strive to best
satisfy a customer's needs competitively. The modern digital electronic fuel injection system is far
more capable at optimizing these competing objectives consistently than a carburetor.
Carburetors have the potential to atomize fuel better (see Pogue and Allen Caggiano patents).
Engine operation
Operational benefits to the driver of a fuel-injected car include smoother and more dependable engine
response during quick throttle transitions, easier and more dependable engine starting, better operation
at extremely high or low ambient temperatures, increased maintenance intervals, and increased fuel
efficiency. On a more basic level, fuel injection does away with the choke which on carburetor-equipped
vehicles must be operated when starting the engine from cold and then adjusted as the engine warms
up.
An engine's air/fuel ratio must be precisely controlled under all operating conditions to achieve the
desired engine performance, emissions, driveability, and fuel economy. Modern electronic fuel-injection

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
systems meter fuel very accurately, and use closed loop fuel-injection quantity-control based on a
variety of feedback signals from an oxygen sensor, a mass airflow (MAF) or manifold absolute pressure
(MAP) sensor, a throttle position (TPS), and at least one sensor on the crankshaft and/or camshaft(s) to
monitor the engine's rotational position. Fuel injection systems can react rapidly to changing inputs such
as sudden throttle movements, and control the amount of fuel injected to match the engine's dynamic
needs across a wide range of operating conditions such as engine load, ambient air temperature, engine
temperature, fuel octane level, and atmospheric pressure.
A multipoint fuel injection system generally delivers a more accurate and equal mass of fuel to each
cylinder than can a carburetor, thus improving the cylinder-to-cylinder distribution. Exhaust emissions
are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic
combustion byproducts leaving the engine, and because exhaust cleanup devices such as the catalytic
converter can be optimized to operate more efficiently since the exhaust is of consistent and predictable
composition.
Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. With the improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel
distribution, less fuel is needed for the same power output. When cylinder-to-cylinder distribution is less
than ideal, as is always the case to some degree with a carburetor or throttle body fuel injection, some
cylinders receive excess fuel as a side effect of ensuring that all cylinders receive sufficient fuel. Power
output is asymmetrical with respect to air/fuel ratio; burning extra fuel in the rich cylinders does not
reduce power nearly as quickly as burning too little fuel in the lean cylinders. However, rich-running
cylinders are undesirable from the standpoint of exhaust emissions, fuel efficiency, engine wear, and
engine oil contamination. Deviations from perfect air/fuel distribution, however subtle, affect the
emissions, by not letting the combustion events be at the chemically ideal (stoichiometric) air/fuel ratio.
Grosser distribution problems eventually begin to reduce efficiency, and the grossest distribution issues
finally affect power. Increasingly poorer air/fuel distribution affects emissions, efficiency, and power, in
that order. By optimizing the homogeneity of cylinder-to-cylinder mixture distribution, all the cylinders
approach their maximum power potential and the engine's overall power output improves.
A fuel-injected engine often produces more power than an equivalent carbureted engine. Fuel injection
alone does not necessarily increase an engine's maximum potential output. Increased airflow is needed
to burn more fuel, which in turn releases more energy and produces more power. The combustion
process converts the fuel's chemical energy into heat energy, whether the fuel is supplied by fuel
injectors or a carburetor. However, airflow is often improved with fuel injection, the components of
which allow more design freedom to improve the air's path into the engine. In contrast, a carburetor's
mounting options are limited because it is larger, it must be carefully oriented with respect to gravity,
and it must be equidistant from each of the engine's cylinders to the maximum practicable degree.
These design constraints generally compromise airflow into the engine. Furthermore, a carburetor relies
on a restrictive venturi to create a local air pressure difference, which forces the fuel into the air stream.
The flow loss caused by the venturi, however, is small compared to other flow losses in the induction
system. In a well-designed carburetor induction system, the venturi is not a significant airflow
restriction.
Fuel is saved while the car is coasting because the car's movement is helping to keep the engine
rotating, so less fuel is used for this purpose. Control units on modern cars react to this and reduce or
stop fuel flow to the engine reducing wear on the brakes.
History and development
Herbert Akroyd Stuart developed the first system laid out on modern lines (with a highly-accurate 'jerk
pump' to meter out fuel oil at high pressure to an injector. This system was used on the hot bulb engine
and was adapted and improved by Robert Bosch for use on diesel engines - Rudolf Diesel's original
system employed a cumbersome[citation needed] 'air-blast' system using highly compressed air.
[clarification needed]

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
The first use of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer
Jonas Hesselman in 1925.[1][2] Hesselman engines use the ultra lean burn principle; fuel is injected
toward the end of the compression stroke, then ignited with a spark plug. They are often started on
gasoline and then switched to diesel or kerosene.[citation needed] Fuel injection was in widespread
commercial use in diesel engines by the mid-1920s. Because of its greater immunity to wildly changing
g-forces on the engine, the concept was adapted for use in gasoline-powered aircraft during World War
II, and direct injection was employed in some notable designs like the Daimler-Benz DB 603, the BMW
801, the Shvetsov ASh-82FN (M-82FN) and later versions of the Wright R-3350 used in the B-29
Superfortress.
Alfa Romeo tested one of the very first electric injection systems (Caproni-Fuscaldo) in Alfa Romeo
6C2500 with "Ala spessa" body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors
and were fed by a semi-high pressure circulating fuel pump system.[3]
One of the first commercial gasoline injection systems was a mechanical system developed by Bosch and
introduced in 1955 on the Mercedes-Benz 300SL. This was basically a high pressure diesel direct-
injection pump with an intake throttle valve set up. (Diesels only change amount of fuel injected to vary
output; there is no throttle.) This system used a normal gasoline fuel pump, to provide fuel to a
mechanically driven injection pump, which had separate plungers per injector to deliver a very high
injection pressure directly into the combustion chamber. When combined with Desmo valves in racing
the 300 SL was capable of over 100 horsepower per liter, still better than what's commonly possible
today without a turbo.
Another mechanical system, also by Bosch, (CIS) but injecting the fuel into the port above the intake
valve was later used by Porsche from 1969 until 1973 for the 911 production range in the USA and until
1975 on the Carrera RS 2.7 and RS 3.0 street models in Europe. Porsche continued using it on its racing
cars into the late seventies and early eighties. Porsche racing variants such as the 911 RSR 2.7 & 3.0,
904/6, 906, 907, 908, 910, 917 (in its regular normally aspirated or 5.5 Liter/1500 HP Turbocharged
form), and 935 all used Bosch or Kugelfischer built variants of injection. The Kugelfischer system was
also used by the BMW 2000/2002 Tii and some versions of the Peugeot 404/504 and Lancia Flavia. Lucas
also offered a mechanical system which was used by some Maserati, Aston Martin and Triumph models
between ca. 1963 and 1973. The first factory electronic fuel injection, a true multi-point system, with
dual 2-bbl. throttles, was optional on 1958 Chrysler products, both Hemi and wedge engines. It was
jointly engineered by Chrysler and Bendix.
A system similar to the Bosch inline mechanical pump was built by SPICA for Alfa Romeo, used on the
Alfa Romeo Montreal and on US market 1750 and 2000 models from 1969 until 1981. This was
specifically designed to meet the US emission requirements, and allowed Alfa to meet these
requirements with no loss in performance and a reduction in fuel consumption.
Chevrolet introduced a mechanical fuel injection option, made by General Motors' Rochester Products
division, for its 283 V8 engine in 1957. This system directed the inducted engine air across a "spoon
shaped" plunger that moved in proportion to the air volume. The plunger connected to the fuel
metering system which mechanically dispensed fuel to the cylinders via distribution tubes. This system
was not a "pulse" or intermittent injection, but rather a constant flow system, metering fuel to all
cylinders simultaneously from a central "spider" of injection lines. The fuel meter adjusted the amount
of flow according to engine speed and load, and included a fuel reservoir, which was similar to a
carburetor's float chamber. With its own high-pressure fuel pump driven by a cable from the distributor
to the fuel meter, the system supplied the necessary pressure for injection. This was "port" injection,
however, in which the injectors are located in the intake manifold, very near the intake valve. (Direct
fuel injection is a fairly recent innovation for automobile engines. As recent as 1954 in aforementioned
Mercedes-Benz 300SL or the Gutbrod in 1953) The highest performance version of the fuel injected

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
engine was rated at 283 bhp (211 kW) from 283 cu in (4.6 L). This made it among the early production
engines in history to exceed 1 hp/in³ (45.5 kW/L), after Chrysler's Hemi engine and a number of others.
During the 1960s, other mechanical injection systems such as Hilborn were occasionally used on
modified American V8 engines in various racing applications such as drag racing, oval racing, and road
racing.[citation needed] These racing-derived systems were not suitable for everyday street use, having
no provisions for low speed metering or even starting (fuel had to be squirted into the injector tubes
while cranking the engine in order to start it). However they were a favorite in the aforementioned
competition trials in which essentially wide-open throttle operation was prevalent.
The first commercial electronic fuel injection (EFI) system was Electrojector, developed by the Bendix
Corporation and was to be offered by American Motors (AMC) in 1957.[4] A special muscle car model,
the Rambler Rebel, showcased AMC's new 327 cu in (5.4 L) engine. The Electrojector was an option and
rated at 288 bhp (214.8 kW). The Rebel Owners Manual described the design and operation of the new
system.[5] Initial press information about the Bendix system in December 1956 was followed in March
1957 by a price bulletin that pegged the option at US$395, but due to supplier difficulties, fuel-injected
Rebels would only be available after June 15.[6] This was to have been the first production EFI engine,
but Electrojector's teething problems meant only pre-production cars were so equipped and none were
made available to the public.[7] The EFI system in the Rambler was a far more-advanced setup than the
mechanical types then appearing on the market and the engines ran fine in warm weather, but suffered
hard starting in cooler temperatures.[6]
Chrysler offered Electrojector on the 1958 Chrysler 300D, Dodge D500, Plymouth Fury and DeSoto
Adventurer, arguably the first series-production cars equipped with an EFI system. The early electronic
components were not equal to the rigors of underhood service, however, and were too slow to keep up
with the demands of "on the fly" engine control. Most of the 35 vehicles originally so equipped were
field-retrofitted with 4-barrel carburetors. The Electrojector patents were subsequently sold to Bosch.
Bosch developed an electronic fuel injection system, called D-Jetronic (D for Druck, German for
"pressure"), which was first used on the VW 1600TL in 1967. This was a speed/density system, using
engine speed and intake manifold air density to calculate "air mass" flow rate and thus fuel
requirements. The system used all analog, discrete electronics, and an electro-mechanical pressure
sensor. The sensor was susceptible to vibration and dirt.[citation needed] This system was adopted by
VW, Mercedes-Benz, Porsche, Citroën, Saab, and Volvo. Lucas licensed the system for production with
Jaguar.
Bosch superseded the D-Jetronic system with the K-Jetronic and L-Jetronic systems for 1974, though
some cars (such as the Volvo 164) continued using D-Jetronic for the following several years. The
Cadillac Seville was introduced in 1977 with an EFI system made by Bendix and modelled very closely on
Bosch's D-Jetronic. L-Jetronic first appeared on the 1974 Porsche 914, and uses a mechanical airflow
meter (L for Luft, German for "air") that produces a signal that is proportional to "air volume". This
approach required additional sensors to measure the barometer and temperature, to ultimately
calculate "air mass". L-Jetronic was widely adopted on European cars of that period, and a few Japanese
models a short time later.
In 1982, Bosch introduced a sensor that directly measures the air mass flow into the engine, on their L-
Jetronic system. Bosch called this LH-Jetronic (L for Luftmasse and H for Hitzdraht, German for "air
mass" and "hot wire", respectively). The mass air sensor utilizes a heated platinum wire placed in the
incoming air flow. The rate of the wire's cooling is proportional to the air mass flowing across the wire.
Since the hot wire sensor directly measures air mass, the need for additional temperature and pressure
sensors is eliminated. The LH-Jetronic system was also the first fully digital EFI system, which is now the
standard approach.[citation needed] The advent of the digital microprocessor permitted the integration
of all powertrain sub-systems into a single control module.
Supersession of carburetors

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
The ultimate combustion goal is to match each molecule of fuel with a corresponding number of
molecules of oxygen so that neither has any molecules remaining after combustion in the engine and
catalytic converter. Such a balanced condition is known as stoichiometry. Extensive carburetor
modifications and complexities were needed to approach stoichiometric engine operation in order to
comply with increasingly-strict exhaust emission regulations of the 1970s and 1980s. This increase in
complexity gradually eroded and then reversed the simplicity, cost, and packaging advantages
carburetors had traditionally offered over fuel injection systems.
There are three primary types of toxic emissions from an internal combustion engine: Carbon Monoxide
(CO), unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). CO and HC result from incomplete
combustion of fuel due to insufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber. NOx, in contrast, results from
excessive oxygen in the combustion chamber. The opposite causes of these pollutants makes it difficult
to control all three simultaneously. Once the permissible emission levels dropped below a certain point,
catalytic treatment of these three main pollutants became necessary. This required a particularly large
increase in fuel metering accuracy and precision, for simultaneous catalysis of all three pollutants
requires that the fuel/air mixture be held within a very narrow range of stoichiometry. The open loop
fuel injection systems had already improved cylinder-to-cylinder fuel distribution and engine operation
over a wide temperature range, but did not offer sufficient fuel/air mixture control to enable effective
exhaust catalysis. Closed loop fuel injection systems improved the air/fuel mixture control with an
exhaust gas oxygen sensor. The O2 sensor is mounted in the exhaust system upstream of the catalytic
converter, and enables the engine management computer to determine and adjust the air/fuel ratio
precisely and quickly.
Fuel injection was phased in through the latter '70s and '80s at an accelerating rate, with the US, French
and German markets leading and the UK and Commonwealth markets lagging somewhat, and since the
early 1990s, almost all gasoline passenger cars sold in first world markets like the United States, Canada,
Europe, Japan, and Australia have come equipped with electronic fuel injection (EFI). Many motorcycles
still utilize carbureted engines, though all current high-performance designs have switched to EFI.
Fuel injection systems have evolved significantly since the mid 1980s. Current systems provide an
accurate, reliable and cost-effective method of metering fuel and providing maximum engine efficiency
with clean exhaust emissions, which is why EFI systems have replaced carburetors in the marketplace.
EFI is becoming more reliable and less expensive through widespread usage. At the same time,
carburetors are becoming less available, and more expensive. Even marine applications are adopting EFI
as reliability improves. Virtually all internal combustion engines, including motorcycles, off-road vehicles,
and outdoor power equipment, may eventually use some form of fuel injection.
The carburetor remains in use in developing countries where vehicle emissions are unregulated and
diagnostic and repair infrastructure is sparse. Fuel injection is gradually replacing carburetors in these
nations too as they adopt emission regulations conceptually similar to those in force in Europe, Japan,
Australia and North America.
The process of determining the necessary amount of fuel, and its delivery into the engine, are known as
fuel metering. Early injection systems used mechanical methods to meter fuel (non electronic, or
mechanical fuel injection). Modern systems are nearly all electronic, and use an electronic solenoid (the
injector) to inject the fuel. An electronic engine control unit calculates the mass of fuel to inject.
Modern fuel injection schemes follow much the same setup. There is a mass airflow sensor or manifold
absolute pressure sensor at the intake, typically mounted either in the air tube feeding from the air filter
box to the throttle body, or mounted directly to the throttle body itself. The mass airflow sensor does
exactly what its name implies; it senses the mass of the air that flows past it, giving the computer an
accurate idea of how much air is entering the engine. The next component in line is the Throttle Body.
The throttle body has a throttle position sensor mounted onto it, typically on the butterfly valve of the
throttle body. The throttle position sensor (TPS) reports to the computer the position of the throttle

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
butterfly valve, which the ECM uses to calculate the load upon the engine. The fuel system consists of a
fuel pump (typically mounted in-tank), a fuel pressure regulator, fuel lines (composed of either high
strength plastic, metal, or reinforced rubber), a fuel rail that the injectors connect to, and the fuel
injector(s). There is a coolant temperature sensor that reports the engine temperature to the ECM,
which the engine uses to calculate the proper fuel ratio required. In sequential fuel injection systems
there is a camshaft position sensor, which the ECM uses to determine which fuel injector to fire. The last
component is the oxygen sensor. After the vehicle has warmed up, it uses the signal from the oxygen
sensor to perform fine tuning of the fuel trim.
The fuel injector acts as the fuel-dispensing nozzle. It injects liquid fuel directly into the engine's air
stream. In almost all cases this requires an external pump. The pump and injector are only two of
several components in a complete fuel injection system.
In contrast to an EFI system, a carburetor directs the induction air through a venturi, which generates a
minute difference in air pressure. The minute air pressure differences both emulsify (premix fuel with
air) the fuel, and then acts as the force to push the mixture from the carburetor nozzle into the
induction air stream. As more air enters the engine, a greater pressure difference is generated, and
more fuel is metered into the engine. A carburetor is a self-contained fuel metering system, and is cost
competitive when compared to a complete EFI system.
An EFI system requires several peripheral components in addition to the injector(s), in order to duplicate
all the functions of a carburetor. A point worth noting during times of fuel metering repair is that early
EFI systems are prone to diagnostic ambiguity. A single carburetor replacement can accomplish what
might require numerous repair attempts to identify which one of the several EFI system components is
malfunctioning. Newer EFI systems since the advent of OBD II diagnostic systems, can be very easy to
diagnose due to the increased ability to monitor the realtime data streams from the individual sensors.
This gives the diagnosing technician realtime feedback as to the cause of the drivability concern, and can
dramatically shorten the number of diagnostic steps required to ascertain the cause of failure,
something which isn't as simple to do with a carburetor. On the other hand, EFI systems require little
regular maintenance; a carburetor typically requires seasonal and/or altitude adjustments.
Typical EFI components

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation

Animated cut through diagram of a typical fuel injector.

 Injectors
 Fuel Pump
 Fuel Pressure Regulator
 ECM - Engine Control Module; includes a digital computer and circuitry to communicate with
sensors and control outputs.
 Wiring Harness
 Various Sensors (Some of the sensors required are listed here.)
 Crank/Cam Position: Hall effect sensor
 Airflow: MAF sensor, sometimes this is inferred with a MAP sensor
 Exhaust Gas Oxygen: Oxygen sensor, EGO sensor, UEGO sensor
Functional description
Central to an EFI system is a computer called the Engine Control Unit (ECU), which monitors
engine operating parameters via various sensors. The ECU interprets these parameters in order to
calculate the appropriate amount of fuel to be injected, among other tasks, and controls engine
operation by manipulating fuel and/or air flow as well as other variables. The optimum amount of
injected fuel depends on conditions such as engine and ambient temperatures, engine speed and
workload, and exhaust gas composition.
The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and opens to inject pressurized fuel as long as
electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil. The duration of this operation, called the pulse
width, is proportional to the amount of fuel desired. The electric pulse may be applied in closely-
controlled sequence with the valve events on each individual cylinder (in a sequential fuel
injection system), or in groups of less than the total number of injectors (in a batch fire system).

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
Since the nature of fuel injection dispenses fuel in discrete amounts, and since the nature of the 4-
stroke-cycle engine has discrete induction (air-intake) events, the ECU calculates fuel in discrete
amounts. In a sequential system, the injected fuel mass is tailored for each individual induction
event. Every induction event, of every cylinder, of the entire engine, is a separate fuel mass
calculation, and each injector receives a unique pulse width based on that cylinder's fuel
requirements.
It is necessary to know the mass of air the engine "breathes" during each induction event. This is
proportional to the intake manifold's air pressure/temperature, which is proportional to throttle
position. The amount of air inducted in each intake event is known as "air-charge", and this can be
determined using several methods. (See MAF sensor, and MAP sensor.)
The three elemental ingredients for combustion are fuel, air and ignition. However, complete
combustion can only occur if the air and fuel is present in the exact stoichiometric ratio, which
allows all the carbon and hydrogen from the fuel to combine with all the oxygen in the air, with no
undesirable polluting leftovers. Oxygen sensors monitor the amount of oxygen in the exhaust, and
the ECU uses this information to adjust the air-to-fuel ratio in real-time.
To achieve stoichiometry, the air mass flow into the engine is measured and multiplied by the
stoichiometric air/fuel ratio 14.64:1 (by weight) for gasoline. The required fuel mass that must be
injected into the engine is then translated to the required pulse width for the fuel injector. The
stoichiometric ratio changes as a function of the fuel; diesel, gasoline, ethanol, methanol,
propane, methane (natural gas), or hydrogen.
Deviations from stoichiometry are required during non-standard operating conditions such as
heavy load, or cold operation, in which case, the mixture ratio can range from 10:1 to 18:1 (for
gasoline). In early fuel injection systems this was accomplished with a thermotime switch.
Pulse width is inversely related to pressure difference across the injector inlet and outlet. For
example, if the fuel line pressure increases (injector inlet), or the manifold pressure decreases
(injector outlet), a smaller pulse width will admit the same fuel. Fuel injectors are available in
various sizes and spray characteristics as well. Compensation for these and many other factors are
programmed into the ECU's software.
Throttle body injection
Throttle-body injection (called TBI by General Motors and Central Fuel Injection (CFI) by Ford) or single-
point injection was introduced in the 1940s in large aircraft engines, (then called the pressure
carburetor) and in the 1980s in the automotive world. The TBI system injects fuel at the throttle body
(the same location where a carburetor introduced fuel). The induction mixture passes through the
intake runners like a carburetor system, and is thus labelled a "wet manifold system". The justification
for the TBI/CFI phase was low cost. Many of the carburetor's supporting components could be reused
such as the air cleaner, intake manifold, and fuel line routing. This postponed the redesign and tooling
costs of these components. Most of these components were later redesigned for the next phase of fuel
injection's evolution, which is individual port injection, commonly known as MPFI or "multi-point fuel
injection". TBI was used extensively on American-made passenger cars and light trucks in the 1980 to
1995 timeframe and some transition-engined European cars throughout the early and mid 1990s.
Continuous injection
Bosch's K-Jetronic (K for kontinuierlich, German for "continuous"- a.k.a. CIS- Continuous Injection
System) was introduced in 1974. In this system, fuel sprays constantly from the injectors, rather than
being pulsed in time with the engine's intake strokes. Gasoline is pumped from the fuel tank to a large
control valve called a fuel distributor, which separates the single fuel supply pipe from the tank into
smaller pipes, one for each injector. The fuel distributor is mounted atop a control vane through which
all intake air must pass, and the system works by varying fuel volume supplied to the injectors based on
the angle of the air vane, which in turn is determined by the volume flowrate of air past the vane, and

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
by the control pressure. The control pressure is regulated with a mechanical device called the control
pressure regulator (CPR) or the warm-up regulator (WUR). Depending on the model, the CPR may be
used to compensate for altitude, full load, and/or a cold engine. On cars equipped with an oxygen
sensor, the fuel mixture is adjusted by a device called the frequency valve. The injectors are simple
spring-loaded check valves with nozzles; once fuel system pressure becomes high enough to overcome
the counterspring, the injectors begin spraying. K-Jetronic was used for many years between 1974 and
the mid 1990s by BMW, Lamborghini, Ferrari, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen, Ford, Porsche, Audi, Saab,
DeLorean, and Volvo. There was also a variant of the system called KE-Jetronic with electronic instead of
mechanical control of the control pressure.
In piston aircraft engines, continuous-flow fuel injection is the most common type. In contrast to
automotive fuel injection systems, aircraft continuous flow fuel injection is all mechanical, requiring no
electricity to operate. Two common types exist: the Bendix RSA system, and the TCM system. The
Bendix system is a direct descendant of the pressure carburetor. However, instead of having a discharge
valve in the barrel, it uses a flow divider mounted on top of the engine, which controls the discharge
rate and evenly distributes the fuel to stainless steel injection lines which go to the intake ports of each
cylinder. The TCM system is even more simple. It has no venturi, no pressure chambers, no diaphragms,
and no discharge valve. The control unit is fed by a constant-pressure fuel pump. The control unit simply
uses a butterfly valve for the air which is linked by a mechanical linkage to a rotary valve for the fuel.
Inside the control unit is another restriction which is used to control the fuel mixture. The pressure drop
across the restrictions in the control unit controls the amount of fuel flowing, so that fuel flow is directly
proportional to the pressure at the flow divider. In fact, most aircraft using the TCM fuel injection
system feature a fuel flow gauge which is actually a pressure gauge that has been calibrated in gallons
per hour or pounds per hour of fuel.
Central port injection (CPI)
General Motors implemented a system called "central port injection" (CPI) or "central port fuel
injection" (CPFI). It uses tubes with poppet valves from a central injector to spray fuel at each intake
port rather than the central throttle-body[citation needed]. The 2 variants were CPFI from 1992 to 1995,
and CSFI from 1996 and on[citation needed]. CPFI is a batch-fire system, in which fuel is injected to all
ports simultaneously. The 1996 and later CSFI system sprays fuel sequentially.[8]
Multi-point fuel injection
Multi-point fuel injection injects fuel into the intake port just upstream of the cylinder's intake valve,
rather than at a central point within an intake manifold, referred to as SPFI, or single point fuel injection.
MPFI (or just MPI) systems can be sequential, in which injection is timed to coincide with each cylinder's
intake stroke, batched, in which fuel is injected to the cylinders in groups, without precise
synchronization to any particular cylinder's intake stroke, or Simultaneous, in which fuel is injected at
the same time to all the cylinders.
All modern EFI systems utilize sequential MPFI. Some Toyotas and other Japanese cars from the 1970s
to the early 1990s used an application of Bosch's multipoint L-Jetronic system manufactured under
license by DENSO.
Many diesel engines feature direct injection (DI). The injection nozzle is placed inside the combustion
chamber and the piston incorporates a depression (often toroidal) where initial combustion takes place.
Direct injection diesel engines are generally more efficient and cleaner than indirect injection engines.
Some recent gasoline engines utilize direct injection as well. This is the next step in evolution from multi-
port fuel injection and offers another magnitude of emission control by eliminating the "wet" portion of
the induction system. By virtue of better dispersion and homogeneity of the directly injected fuel, the
cylinder and piston are cooled, thereby permitting higher compression ratios and more aggressive
ignition timing, with resultant enhanced output. More precise management of the fuel injection event
also enables better control of emissions. Finally, the homogeneity of the fuel mixture allows for leaner

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
air/fuel ratios, which together with more precise ignition timing can improve fuel economy. Along with
this, the engine can operate with stratified mixtures and hence avoid throttling losses at low and part
load. Some direct-injection systems incorporate piezo electronic injectors. With their extremely fast
response time, multiple injection events can occur during each power stroke of the engine.
The first use of direct gasoline injection was on the Hesselman engine invented by Swedish engineer
Jonas Hesselman in 1925.[9][10]
DFI costs more than indirect injection systems; the injectors are exposed to more heat and pressure, so
more costly materials and higher-precision electronic management systems are required.
Maintenance hazards
Fuel injection introduces potential hazards in engine maintenance due to the high fuel pressures used.
Residual pressure can remain in the fuel lines long after an injection-equipped engine has been shut
down. This residual pressure must be relieved, and if it is done so by external bleed-off, the fuel must be
safely contained. If a high-pressure diesel fuel injector is removed from its seat and operated in open air,
there is a risk to the operator of injury by hypodermic jet-injection, even with only 100 psi pressure.
[11]. The first known such injury occurred in 1937 during a diesel engine maintenance operation[12].

PRESSURE SENSOR
A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. Pressure is an expression of the force
required to stop a fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per unit area. A pressure
sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the
purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical.
Pressure sensors are used for control and monitoring in thousands of everyday applications. Pressure
sensors can also be used to indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level,
and altitude. Pressure sensors can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters,
pressure senders, pressure indicators and piezometers, manometers, among other names.
Pressure sensors can vary drastically in technology, design, performance, application suitability and cost.
A conservative estimate would be that there may be over 50 technologies and at least 300 companies
making pressure sensors worldwide.
There is also a category of pressure sensors that are designed to measure in a dynamic mode for
capturing very high speed changes in pressure. Example applications for this type of sensor would be in
the measuring of combustion pressure in an engine cylinder or in a gas turbine. These sensors are
commonly manufactured out of piezoelectric materials such as quartz.
Some pressure sensors, such as those found in some traffic enforcement cameras, function in a binary
(on/off) manner, i.e., when pressure is applied to a pressure sensor, the sensor acts to complete or
break an electrical circuit. These types of sensors are also known as a pressure switch.
Types of pressure measurements

silicon piezoresistive pressure sensors

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
Pressure sensors can be classified in term of pressure ranges they measure, temperature ranges of
operation, and most importantly the type of pressure they measure. In terms of pressure type,
pressure sensors can be divided into five categories:
 Absolute pressure sensor
This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum pressure (0 PSI or no pressure).
Atmospheric pressure, is 101.325 kPa (14.7 PSI) at sea level with reference to vacuum.
 Gauge pressure sensor
This sensor is used in different applications because it can be calibrated to measure the pressure
relative to a given atmospheric pressure at a given location. A tire pressure gauge is an example of
gauge pressure indication. When the tire pressure gauge reads 0 PSI, there is really 14.7 PSI
(atmospheric pressure) in the tire.
 Vacuum pressure sensor
This sensor is used to measure pressure less than the atmospheric pressure at a given location.
This has the potential to cause some confusion as industry may refer to a vacuum sensor as one
which is referenced to either atmospheric pressure (ie measure Negative gauge pressure) or
relative to absolute vacuum.
 Differential pressure sensor
This sensor measures the difference between two or more pressures introduced as inputs to the
sensing unit, for example, measuring the pressure drop across an oil filter. Differential pressure is
also used to measure flow or level in pressurized vessels.
 Sealed pressure sensor
This sensor is the same as the gauge pressure sensor except that it is previously calibrated by
manufacturers to measure pressure relative to sea level pressure (14.7 PSI).
Pressure Sensing Technology
There are two basic categories of analog pressure sensors.
Force Collector Types These types of eletronic pressure sensors generally utilize a force collector
(such a diaphragm, piston, bourdon tube, or bellows) to measure strain (or deflection) due to
applied force (pressure) over an area.
 Piezoresistive Strain Gage
Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gages to detect strain due to applied
pressure. Common technology types are Silicon (Monocrystalline), Polysilicon Thin Film, Bonded
Metal Foil, Thick Film, and Sputtered Thin Film. Generally, the strain gages are connected to form
a Wheatstone bridge circuit to maximize the output of the sensor. This is the most commonly
employed sensing technology for general purpose pressure measurement. Generally, these
technologies are suited to measure absolute, gauge, vacuum, and differential pressures.
 Capacitive
Uses a diaghragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied
pressure. Common technologies utilize metal, ceramic, and silicon diaphragms. Generally, these
technologies are most applied to low pressures (Absolute, Differential and Gauge)
 Electromagnetic
Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes in inductance (reluctance), LVDT,
Hall Effect, or by eddy current principal.
 Piezoelectric
Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the
sensing mechanism due to pressure. This technology is commonly employed for the measurement
of highly dynamic pressures.
 Optical

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
Uses the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due applied pressure. A common
example of this type utilizes Fiber Bragg Gratings. This technology is employed in challenging
applications where the measurement may be highly remote, under high temperature, or may
benefit from the technologies inherent immunity to eletromagnetic interference.
 Potentiometric
Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied
pressure.
Other Types
These types of eletronic pressure sensors utilize other properties (such as density) to infer
pressure of a gas, or liquid.
 Resonant
Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in
gas density, caused by applied pressure. This technology may be used in conjunction with a force
collector, such as those in the category above. Alternatively, resonant technology may be
employed by expose the resonating element iteself to the media, whereby the resonant frequency
is dependent upon the density of the media. Sensors have been made out of vibrating wire,
vibrating cylinders, quartz, and silicon MEMS. Generally, this technology is considered to provide
very stable readings over time.
 Thermal
Uses the changes in thermal conductivity of a gas due to density changes to measure pressure. A
common example of this type is the Pirani gage.
 Ionization
Measures the flow of charged gas particles (ions) which varies due to density changes to measure
pressure. Common examples are the Hot and Cold Cathode gages.
 Others
There are numerous other ways to derive pressure from it's density (speed of sound, mass, index
of refraction) among others.
 
Applications
There are many applications for pressure sensors:
 Pressure sensing
This is the direct use of pressure sensors to measure pressure. This is useful in weather
instrumentation, aircraft, cars, and any other machinery that has pressure functionality
implemented.
 Altitude sensing
This is useful in aircraft, rockets, satellites, weather balloons, and many other applications. All
these applications make use of the relationship between changes in pressure relative to the
altitude. This relationship is governed by the following equation:
 
 
This equation is calibrated for an altimeter, up to 36,090 feet (11,000 m). Outside that range, an
error will be introduced which can be calculated differently for each different pressure sensor.
These error calculations will factor in the error introduced by the change in temperature as we go
up.
Barometric pressure sensors can have an altitude resolution of less than 1 meter, which is
significantly better than GPS systems (about 20 meters altitude resolution). In navigation

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
applications altimeters are used to distinguish between stacked road levels for car navigation and
floor levels in buildings for pedestrian navigation.
 Flow sensing
This is the use of pressure sensors in conjunction with the venturi effect to measure flow.
Differential pressure is measured between two segments of a venturi tube that have a different
aperture. The pressure difference between the two segments is directly proportional to the flow
rate through the venturi tube. A low pressure sensor is almost always required as the pressure
difference is relatively small.
 Level / Depth sensing
A pressure sensor may also be used to calculate the level of a fluid. This technique is commonly
employed to measure the depth of a submerged body (such as a diver or submarine), or level of
contents in a tank (such as in a water tower). For most practical purposes, fluid level is directly
proportional to pressure. In the case of fresh water where the contents are under atmospheric
pressure, 1psi = 27.7 inH20 / 1Pa = 9.81 mmH20. The basic equation for such a measurement is
P=p*g*h
Where P = Pressure, p = Density of the Fluid, g = Standard Gravity, h = Height of fluid column
above pressure sensor
 Leak Testing
A pressure sensor may be used to sense the decay of pressure due to a system leak. This is
commonly done by either comparison to a known leak using differential pressure, or by means of
utilizing the pressure sensor to measure pressure change over time.

TRAFFIC SIGNS USED

SIGNS
Traffic signs tell you about traffic rules, special hazards, where you are, how to
get where you are going and where services are available.
The shape and color of traffic signs give clues to the type of information they
provide:
REGULATION SIGNS usually are white rectangles with black lettering or
symbols, but some are different shapes, and some may use red letters or
symbols.
WARNING SIGNS usually are yellow and diamond-shaped, with black
lettering or symbols.
DESTINATION SIGNS are green with white letters and symbols.
SERVICE SIGNS are blue with white letters and symbols.
Know the signs shown below and what they mean. You will be asked about
them on your written test.
Here are descriptions of the most common traffic signs and what they
mean:
STOP Sign
COLOR: Red, with white letters.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
MEANING: Come to a full stop, yield the right-of-way to vehicles and
pedestrians in or approaching the intersection. Go when it is safe. You must
come to a stop before the stop line, if there is one. If not, you must stop
before entering the crosswalk. (See "Stop and Crosswalk Lines" under the
"Pavement Markings" section of this chapter.) If there is no stop line or
crosswalk, you must stop before entering the intersection, at the point nearest
the intersection that gives you a view of traffic on the intersecting roadway.
YIELD Sign
COLOR: Red and white, with red letters.

MEANING: Slow down as you approach the intersection. Prepare to stop and
yield the right-of-way to vehicles and pedestrians in or approaching the
intersection. You must come to a full stop at a YIELD sign if traffic conditions
require it. When you approach a YIELD sign, check carefully for traffic, and be
prepared to stop.
REGULATION Signs
COLOR: White, with black and/or red letters or symbols.

MEANING: These signs give information about rules for traffic direction, lane
use, turning, speed, parking, and other special requirements.
Some regulation signs have a red circle with a slash over a symbol indicating
that an action, such as a right turn, is not allowed, or that certain vehicles are
restricted from the road. Rectangular white signs with black or red letters or
symbols are clues to be alert for special rules.
WARNING Signs

COLOR: Yellow, with black letters or symbols.

MEANING: You are approaching an especially hazardous location or a place
where there is a special rule, as shown in the sample signs. Sometimes a
warning sign is combined with a rectangular yellow and black "recommended
speed" sign. This means reduced speed is advised in that area.
RAILROAD CROSSING WARNING Sign

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation

COLOR: Yellow with black letters "RR" and "X" symbol.

MEANING: There is a railroad crossing ahead. Use caution, and be prepared
to stop. If you are following a bus or truck toward a railroad crossing, be
careful. Most buses and some trucks must stop at railroad crossings. (See
"Railroad Crossing Signals" later in this chapter.)
WORK AREA Signs

COLOR: Orange, with black letters or symbols.

MEANING: People are working on or near the roadway, and traffic may be
controlled by a flag person. A work area speed limit as low as 25 MPH (40
km/h) may be posted. Even if no speed limit is posted, you must drive at a
reduced speed through the work zone, and you must always obey flag
persons. These illustrations show some of the signals a flag person will use.
Know and obey them.
 
STOP PROCEED SLOW

DESTINATION Signs

COLOR: Green, with white lettering.

MEANING: Show direction and distance to various locations.
ROUTE Signs
COLOR: Varied.

MEANING: Indicate interstate, U.S., state or county routes. The shape tells
you what type of route you are on. The sample signs, left to right, are for
state, U.S., and interstate routes. When planning a trip, use a highway map to

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
decide which routes to take. During the trip, watch for destination signs so you
will not get lost, or have to turn or stop suddenly.
SERVICE Signs

COLOR: Blue, with white letters or symbols.

MEANING: Show the location of services, such as rest areas, gas stations,
hospitals and campgrounds.
TRAFFIC SIGNALS

Traffic Lights
Traffic lights are usually red, yellow and green from top to bottom, or left to
right. At some intersections, there are single red, yellow or green lights. Some
traffic lights are steady, others flash. Some are circular, and some are arrows.
State law requires that if the traffic lights or controls are out of service or
malfunctioning when you approach an intersection, you must come to a stop
as you would for a stop sign.  You must then proceed according to the rules of
right of way, unless you are directed to proceed by a traffic officer.
Here is what various traffic lights mean:
STEADY RED: Stop. Do not go until the light is green. If a green arrow is
shown with the red light, you may go only in the direction of the arrow and
only if the way is clear.
You may make a right turn at a steady red light after coming to a full stop and
yielding the right-of-way to oncoming traffic and pedestrians. You may make a
left turn at a steady red light when turning from a one-way road into another
one-way road after coming to a full stop and yielding the right-of-way to
oncoming traffic and pedestrians.
You may not make a turn at a red light if there is a NO TURN ON RED sign
posted, or another sign, signal or pavement marking prohibits the turn. Also,
turning on a red light is not allowed in New York City unless a sign is posted
permitting it.
The driver of a school bus carrying pupils may not turn right on any red light.

FLASHING RED: Means the same as a STOP sign: Stop, yield the right-of-
way, and go when it is safe.
RED ARROW: Do not go in the direction of the arrow until the red arrow light
goes out and a green light or arrow light goes on. A right or left turn on red is
not permitted at a red arrow.

STEADY YELLOW: The light is changing from green to red. Be ready to stop
for the red light.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
FLASHING YELLOW: Drive with caution.

YELLOW ARROW: The protection of a green arrow is ending. If you intend to

turn in the direction of the arrow, be prepared to stop.
STEADY GREEN: Go, but yield the right-of-way to other traffic at the
intersection as required by law (see Chapter 5).

GREEN ARROW: You may go in the direction of the arrow, but you must yield
the right-of-way to other traffic at the intersection as required by law (see
Chapter 5.)
Lane Use Control Lights
Special overhead lights are sometimes used to indicate which lanes of a
highway may be used at certain times:
STEADY RED "X": Do not drive in this lane.
STEADY YELLOW "X": Move out of this lane.
FLASHING YELLOW "X": This lane may only be used for a left turn.
GREEN ARROW: You may use this lane.
Railroad Crossing Signals

Flashing red lights, lowered crossing gates and/or a ringing bell at a railroad
crossing mean that you must stop, at least 15 feet (5 m) from the tracks. Do
not cross the tracks until the lights and bell have stopped and the crossing
gates are all the way up. Do not drive around or under a gate that is being
lowered or raised.
Look and listen for trains before crossing any railroad tracks. If an approaching
train is near enough or going fast enough to be a danger, you may not cross
the tracks, even if there are no signals or the signals are not working.
You may not cross any railroad tracks unless there is room for your vehicle on
the other side. If other traffic prevents you from crossing all the way, wait, and
cross only when there is room.
School buses with or without passengers, other buses while carrying
passengers, and vehicles carrying explosives or flammable cargo must stop at
all railroad crossings. Keep this in mind if you are following one of these

SOME TRAFFIC SYMBOLES

 

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation

RIGHT LANE YIELD MERGING TRAFFIC STOP

ENDS MERGE ENTERING FROM
LEFT RIGHT

RAILROAD TRAFFIC SCHOOL CROSSING KEEP RIGHT OF

CROSSING SIGNAL DIVIDER
AHEAD

SLIPPERY WHEN NO LEFT TURN DIVIDED HIGHWAY ONE WAY TRAFFIC DO

WET ENDS NOT ENTER

TWO WAY HILL AHEAD NO U-TURN HOSPITAL EMERGENCY

TRAFFIC SERVICES TO THE
RIGHT

PARKING IN HILLS
 
Parking Uphill:
- Turn your signal on and pull to the curb onto the gutter line or about 6-8 inches from the
curb
- Place the vehicle's gear lever in neutral
- Turn the wheels away from the curb one full turn
- Release brake pressure and roll back until the front tire touches the curb
- Place the vehicle's gear lever in park
Pulling away from Uphill parking:

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
- Place the vehicle's gear lever in drive
- Signal in the direction your pulling away from the curb
- Check your blind spot over your shoulder in the direction your pulling away from the curb
- Release brake pressure and straighten your vehicle's wheels while gradually accelerating 
Parking Downhill:
- Turn your signal on and pull to the curb onto the gutter line or about 6-8 inches from the
curb
- Place the vehicle's gear lever in neutral
- Turn the wheels towards the curb one full turn
- Release brake pressure and roll forward until the front tire touches the curb
- Place the vehicle's gear lever in park
Pulling away from Downhill parking:
- Place the vehicle's gear lever in reverse
- Release brake pressure and if necessary tap the gas pedal to back 6-8 inches off the curb 
- Straighten the vehicle's front wheels
- Place the vehicle's gear lever in drive
- Signal in the direction your pulling away from the curb
- Check your blind spot over your shoulder in the direction your pulling away from the curb
- Turn the steering wheel 1/4 turn in the direction your pulling away from the curb
- Release brake pressure and straighten your vehicle's wheels while gradually accelerating 
 
 
Inserted from <http://www.handsondrivingschool.com/new_page_9.htm>

ELECTRIC MOTOR USED IN HYBRID VECHILES

Eectric motors
An electric motor is a device using electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, nearly always by the
interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying conductors. The reverse process, that of using
mechanical energy to produce electrical energy, is accomplished by a generator or dynamo. Traction
motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks.
As a convention, a powerplant operating on electricity is called electric motor. The word electric engine
refers to a railroad electric locomotive.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
Electric motors are found in a myriad of applications such as industrial fans, blowers and pumps,
machine tools, household appliances, power tools, and computer disk drives, among many other
applications. Electric motors may be operated by direct current from a battery in a portable device or
motor vehicle, or from alternating current from a central electrical distribution grid. The smallest motors
may be found in electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly standardized dimensions and
characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The very largest electric motors
are used for propulsion of large ships, and for such purposes as pipeline compressors, with ratings in the
thousands of kilowatts. Electric motors may be classified by the source of electric power, by their
internal construction, and by application.
The physical principle of production of mechanical force by the interaction of an electric current and a
magnetic field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of increasing efficiency were constructed
throughout the 19th century, but commercial exploitation of electric motors on a large scale required
efficient electrical generators and electrical distribution networks.

The principle
The principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was
demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821 and consisted of a free-hanging wire
dipping into a pool of mercury. A permanent magnet was placed in the middle of the pool of mercury.
When a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the
current gave rise to a circular magnetic field around the wire[2]. This motor is often demonstrated in
school physics classes, but brine (salt water) is sometimes used in place of the toxic mercury. This is the
simplest form of a class of electric motors called homopolar motors. A later refinement is the Barlow's
Wheel. These were demonstration devices, unsuited to practical applications due to limited power.

Type Advantages Disadvantages

AC Induction Least expensive Rotation slips from frequency

(Shaded Pole) Long life Low starting torque
high power

AC Induction High power Rotation slips from frequency

(split-phase capacitor) high starting torque

AC Synchronous Rotation in-sync with freq More expensive

long-life (alternator)

Stepper DC Precision positioning Requires a controller

High holding torque

Brushless DC electric motor Long lifespan High initial cost

low maintenance Requires a controller

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
High efficiency

Brushed DC electric motor Low initial cost High maintenance (brushes)

Simple speed control (Dynamo) Low lifespan
[9]
Servo motor
Main article: Servo motor
A servomechanism, or servo is an automatic device that uses error-sensing feedback to correct the
performance of a mechanism. The term correctly applies only to systems where the feedback or
error-correction signals help control mechanical position or other parameters. For example, an
automotive power window control is not a servomechanism, as there is no automatic feedback
which controls position—the operator does this by observation. By contrast the car's cruise
control uses closed loop feedback, which classifies it as a servomechanism.
Synchronous electric motor
Main article: Synchronous motor
A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor distinguished by a rotor spinning with coils passing
magnets at the same rate as the alternating current and resulting magnetic field which drives it.
Another way of saying this is that it has zero slip under usual operating conditions. Contrast this
with an induction motor, which must slip in order to produce torque. Synchronous motor is like an
induction motor except the rotor is excited by a DC field. Slip rings and brushes are used to
conduct current to rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed
hence the name synchronous motor.
Induction motor
Main article: Induction motor
An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to the
rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Another commonly used name is squirrel
cage motor because the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel cage (hamster
wheel). An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its rotor (rotating
part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied to
the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the
rotating device. An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator
(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is
the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors,
which are frequently used in industrial drives.
Electrostatic motor (capacitor motor)
Main article: Electrostatic motor
An electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on the attraction and
repulsion of electric charge. Usually, electrostatic motors are the dual of conventional coil-based
motors. They typically require a high voltage power supply, although very small motors employ
lower voltages. Conventional electric motors instead employ magnetic attraction and repulsion,
and require high current at low voltages. In the 1750s, the first electrostatic motors were
developed by Benjamin Franklin and Andrew Gordon. Today the electrostatic motor finds frequent
use in micro-mechanical (MEMS) systems where their drive voltages are below 100 volts, and
where moving charged plates are far easier to fabricate than coils and iron cores. Also, the
molecular machinery which runs living cells is often based on linear and rotary electrostatic
motors.
DC Motors

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
A DC motor is designed to run on DC electric power. Two examples of pure DC designs are Michael
Faraday's homopolar motor (which is uncommon), and the ball bearing motor, which is (so far) a
novelty. By far the most common DC motor types are the brushed and brushless types, which use
internal and external commutation respectively to create an oscillating AC current from the DC
source—so they are not purely DC machines in a strict sense.
Brushed DC motors
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor
The classic DC motor design generates an oscillating current in a wound rotor, or armature, with a
split ring commutator, and either a wound or permanent magnet stator. A rotor consists of one or
more coils of wire wound around a core on a shaft; an electrical power source is connected to the
rotor coil through the commutator and its brushes, causing current to flow in it, producing
electromagnetism. The commutator causes the current in the coils to be switched as the rotor
turns, keeping the magnetic poles of the rotor from ever fully aligning with the magnetic poles of
the stator field, so that the rotor never stops (like a compass needle does) but rather keeps
rotating indefinitely (as long as power is applied and is sufficient for the motor to overcome the
shaft torque load and internal losses due to friction, etc.)
Many of the limitations of the classic commutator DC motor are due to the need for brushes to
press against the commutator. This creates friction. At higher speeds, brushes have increasing
difficulty in maintaining contact. Brushes may bounce off the irregularities in the commutator
surface, creating sparks. (Sparks are also created inevitably by the brushes making and breaking
circuits through the rotor coils as the brushes cross the insulating gaps between commutator
sections. Depending on the commutator design, this may include the brushes shorting together
adjacent sections—and hence coil ends—momentarily while crossing the gaps. Furthermore, the
inductance of the rotor coils causes the voltage across each to rise when its circuit is opened,
increasing the sparking of the brushes.) This sparking limits the maximum speed of the machine,
as too-rapid sparking will overheat, erode, or even melt the commutator. The current density per
unit area of the brushes, in combination with their resistivity, limits the output of the motor. The
making and breaking of electric contact also causes electrical noise, and the sparks additionally
cause RFI. Brushes eventually wear out and require replacement, and the commutator itself is
subject to wear and maintenance (on larger motors) or replacement (on small motors). The
commutator assembly on a large machine is a costly element, requiring precision assembly of
many parts. On small motors, the commutator is usually permanently integrated into the rotor, so
replacing it usually requires replacing the whole rotor.
Large brushes are desired for a larger brush contact area to maximize motor output, but small
brushes are desired for low mass to maximize the speed at which the motor can run without the
brushes excessively bouncing and sparking (comparable to the problem of "valve float" in internal
combustion engines). (Small brushes are also desirable for lower cost.) Stiffer brush springs can
also be used to make brushes of a given mass work at a higher speed, but at the cost of greater
friction losses (lower efficiency) and accelerated brush and commutator wear. Therefore, DC
motor brush design entails a trade-off between output power, speed, and efficiency/wear.

A: shunt
B: serie

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
C: compound
There are four types of DC motor:
1. DC series motor
2. DC shunt motor
3. DC compound motor - there are also two types:
1. cumulative compound
2. differentially compounded
4. Permanent Magnet DC Motor
Brushless DC motors
Main article: Brushless DC electric motor
Some of the problems of the brushed DC motor are eliminated in the brushless design. In this
motor, the mechanical "rotating switch" or commutator/brushgear assembly is replaced by an
external electronic switch synchronised to the rotor's position. Brushless motors are typically 85-
90% efficient or more (higher efficiency for a brushless electric motor of up to 96.5% were
reported by researchers at the Tokai University in Japan in 2009[10]), whereas DC motors with
brushgear are typically 75-80% efficient.
Midway between ordinary DC motors and stepper motors lies the realm of the brushless DC
motor. Built in a fashion very similar to stepper motors, these often use a permanent magnet
external rotor, three phases of driving coils, one or more Hall effect sensors to sense the position
of the rotor, and the associated drive electronics. The coils are activated, one phase after the
other, by the drive electronics as cued by the signals from either Hall effect sensors or from the
back EMF of the undriven coils. In effect, they act as three-phase synchronous motors containing
their own variable-frequency drive electronics. A specialized class of brushless DC motor
controllers utilize EMF feedback through the main phase connections instead of Hall effect sensors
to determine position and velocity. These motors are used extensively in electric radio-controlled
vehicles. When configured with the magnets on the outside, these are referred to by modelists as
outrunner motors.
Brushless DC motors are commonly used where precise speed control is necessary, as in computer
disk drives or in video cassette recorders, the spindles within CD, CD-ROM (etc.) drives, and
mechanisms within office products such as fans, laser printers and photocopiers. They have
several advantages over conventional motors:
 Compared to AC fans using shaded-pole motors, they are very efficient, running much cooler
than the equivalent AC motors. This cool operation leads to much-improved life of the fan's
bearings.
 Without a commutator to wear out, the life of a DC brushless motor can be significantly longer
compared to a DC motor using brushes and a commutator. Commutation also tends to cause a
great deal of electrical and RF noise; without a commutator or brushes, a brushless motor may be
used in electrically sensitive devices like audio equipment or computers.
 The same Hall effect sensors that provide the commutation can also provide a convenient
tachometer signal for closed-loop control (servo-controlled) applications. In fans, the tachometer
signal can be used to derive a "fan OK" signal.
 The motor can be easily synchronized to an internal or external clock, leading to precise speed
control.
 Brushless motors have no chance of sparking, unlike brushed motors, making them better suited
to environments with volatile chemicals and fuels. Also, sparking generates ozone which can
accumulate in poorly ventilated buildings risking harm to occupants' health.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
 Brushless motors are usually used in small equipment such as computers and are generally used
to get rid of unwanted heat.
 They are also very quiet motors which is an advantage if being used in equipment that is
affected by vibrations.
Modern DC brushless motors range in power from a fraction of a watt to many kilowatts. Larger
brushless motors up to about 100 kW rating are used in electric vehicles. They also find significant
use in high-performance electric model aircraft.
Coreless or ironless DC motors
Nothing in the design of any of the motors described above requires that the iron (steel) portions
of the rotor actually rotate; torque is exerted only on the windings of the electromagnets. Taking
advantage of this fact is the coreless or ironless DC motor, a specialized form of a brush or
brushless DC motor. Optimized for rapid acceleration, these motors have a rotor that is
constructed without any iron core. The rotor can take the form of a winding-filled cylinder, or a
self-supporting structure comprising only the magnet wire and the bonding material. The rotor
can fit inside the stator magnets; a magnetically-soft stationary cylinder inside the rotor provides a
return path for the stator magnetic flux. A second arrangement has the rotor winding basket
surrounding the stator magnets. In that design, the rotor fits inside a magnetically-soft cylinder
that can serve as the housing for the motor, and likewise provides a return path for the flux. A
third design has the windings shaped as a disc (originally formed on a printed wiring board)
running between arrays of high-flux magnets facing the rotor and arranged in a circle.
The windings are typically stabilized by being impregnated with electrical epoxy potting systems.
These are filled epoxies that have moderate mixed viscosity and a long gel time. They are
highlighted by low shrinkage and low exotherm, and are typically UL 1446 recognized as a potting
compound for use up to 180°C (Class H) (UL File No. E 210549).
Because the rotor is much lighter in weight (mass) than a conventional rotor formed from copper
windings on steel laminations, the rotor can accelerate much more rapidly, often achieving a
mechanical time constant under 1 ms. This is especially true if the windings use aluminum rather
than the heavier copper. But because there is no metal mass in the rotor to act as a heat sink,
even small coreless motors must often be cooled by forced air.
Another advantage of ironless DC motors is that there is no cogging (vibration caused by attraction
between the iron and the magnets) and parasitic eddy currents cannot form in the iron. This can
greatly improve efficiency, but variable-speed controllers must use a significantly higher switching
rate (>150kHz) or direct current because of the decreased electromagnetic induction.
These motors were commonly used to drive the capstan(s) of magnetic tape drives and are still
widely used in high-performance servo-controlled systems, like radio-controlled vehicles/aircraft,
humanoid robotic systems, industrial automation, medical devices, etc.
Related limited-travel actuators have no core and a bonded coil placed between the poles of high-
flux thin permanent magnets. These are the fast head positioners for rigid-disk ("hard disk")
drives.
Universal motors
A variant of the wound field DC motor is the universal motor. The name derives from the fact that
it may use AC or DC supply current, although in practice they are nearly always used with AC
supplies. The principle is that in a wound field DC motor the current in both the field and the
armature (and hence the resultant magnetic fields) will alternate (reverse polarity) at the same
time, and hence the mechanical force generated is always in the same direction. In practice, the
motor must be specially designed to cope with the AC (impedance must be taken into account, as

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
must the pulsating force), and the resultant motor is generally less efficient than an equivalent
pure DC motor.
Operating at normal power line frequencies, the maximum output of universal motors is limited
and motors exceeding one kilowatt (about 1.3 horsepower) are rare. But universal motors also
form the basis of the traditional railway traction motor in electric railways. In this application, to
keep their electrical efficiency high, they were operated from very low frequency AC supplies, with
25 and 16.7 hertz (Hz) operation being common. Because they are universal motors, locomotives
using this design were also commonly capable of operating from a third rail powered by DC.
The advantage of the universal motor is that AC supplies may be used on motors which have the
typical characteristics of DC motors, specifically high starting torque and very compact design if
high running speeds are used. The negative aspect is the maintenance and short life problems
caused by the commutator. As a result such motors are usually used in AC devices such as food
mixers and power tools which are used only intermittently. Continuous speed control of a
universal motor running on AC is easily obtained by use of a thyristor circuit, while stepped speed
control can be accomplished using multiple taps on the field coil. Household blenders that
advertise many speeds frequently combine a field coil with several taps and a diode that can be
inserted in series with the motor (causing the motor to run on half-wave rectified AC).
Universal motors generally run at high speeds, making them useful for appliances such as
blenders, vacuum cleaners, and hair dryers where high RPM operation is desirable. They are also
commonly used in portable power tools, such as drills, circular and jig saws, where the motor's
characteristics work well. Many vacuum cleaner and weed trimmer motors exceed 10,000 RPM,
while Dremel and other similar miniature grinders will often exceed 30,000 RPM.
Motor damage may occur due to overspeeding (running at an RPM in excess of design limits) if the
unit is operated with no significant load. On larger motors, sudden loss of load is to be avoided,
and the possibility of such an occurrence is incorporated into the motor's protection and control
schemes. In smaller applications, a fan blade attached to the shaft often acts as an artificial load to
limit the motor speed to a safe value, as well as a means to circulate cooling airflow over the
armature and field windings.
With the very low cost of semiconductor rectifiers, some applications that would have previously
used a universal motor now use a pure DC motor, sometimes with a permanent magnet field.
AC motors
Main article: AC motor
In 1882, Nikola Tesla invented the rotating magnetic field, and pioneered the use of a rotary field
of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a unique two-phase induction
motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the concept. In 1888, Ferraris
published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin.
Tesla had suggested that the commutators from a machine could be removed and the device
could operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin
to building a perpetual motion machine.[11] Tesla would later attain U.S. Patent 0,416,194,
Electric Motor (December 1889), which resembles the motor seen in many of Tesla's photos. This
classic alternating current electro-magnetic motor was an induction motor.
Michail Osipovich Dolivo-Dobrovolsky later invented a three-phase "cage-rotor" in 1890. This type
of motor is now used for the vast majority of commercial applications.
Components
A typical AC motor consists of two parts:
 An outside stationary stator having coils supplied with AC current to produce a rotating
magnetic field, and;

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 An inside rotor attached to the output shaft that is given a torque by the rotating field.
Torque motors
A torque motor (also known as a limited torque motor) is a specialized form of induction motor
which is capable of operating indefinitely while stalled, that is, with the rotor blocked from
turning, without incurring damage. In this mode of operation, the motor will apply a steady torque
to the load (hence the name).
A common application of a torque motor would be the supply- and take-up reel motors in a tape
drive. In this application, driven from a low voltage, the characteristics of these motors allow a
relatively-constant light tension to be applied to the tape whether or not the capstan is feeding
tape past the tape heads. Driven from a higher voltage, (and so delivering a higher torque), the
torque motors can also achieve fast-forward and rewind operation without requiring any
additional mechanics such as gears or clutches. In the computer gaming world, torque motors are
used in force feedback steering wheels.
Another common application is the control of the throttle of an internal combustion engine in
conjunction with an electronic governor. In this usage, the motor works against a return spring to
move the throttle in accordance with the output of the governor. The latter monitors engine
speed by counting electrical pulses from the ignition system or from a magnetic pickup [12] and,
depending on the speed, makes small adjustments to the amount of current applied to the motor.
If the engine starts to slow down relative to the desired speed, the current will be increased, the
motor will develop more torque, pulling against the return spring and opening the throttle. Should
the engine run too fast, the governor will reduce the current being applied to the motor, causing
the return spring to pull back and close the throttle.
Slip ring
The slip ring or wound rotor motor is an induction machine where the rotor comprises a set of
coils that are terminated in slip rings. These are metal rings rigidly mounted on the rotor, and
combined with brushes (as used with commutators), provide continuous unswitched connection
to the rotor windings.
In the case of the wound-rotor induction motor, external impedances can be connected to the
brushes. The stator is the same as is used with a standard squirrel cage motor. By changing the
impedance connected to the rotor circuit, the speed/current and speed/torque curves can be
altered.
(Slip rings are also often used in alternators as well as in synchro angular data-transmission
devices, among other applications.)
The slip ring motor is used primarily to start a high inertia load or a load that requires a very high
starting torque across the full speed range. By correctly selecting the resistors used in the
secondary resistance or slip ring starter, the motor is able to produce maximum torque at a
relatively low supply current from zero speed to full speed. This type of motor also offers
controllable speed.
Motor speed can be changed because the torque curve of the motor is effectively modified by the
amount of resistance connected to the rotor circuit. Increasing the value of resistance will move
the speed of maximum torque down. If the resistance connected to the rotor is increased beyond
the point where the maximum torque occurs at zero speed, the torque will be further reduced.
When used with a load that has a torque curve that increases with speed, the motor will operate
at the speed where the torque developed by the motor is equal to the load torque. Reducing the
load will cause the motor to speed up, and increasing the load will cause the motor to slow down
until the load and motor torque are equal. Operated in this manner, the slip losses are dissipated
in the secondary resistors and can be very significant. The speed regulation is also very poor.
Stepper motors

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
Main article: Stepper motor
Closely related in design to three-phase AC synchronous motors are stepper motors, where an
internal rotor containing permanent magnets or a magnetically-soft rotor with salient poles is
controlled by a set of external magnets that are switched electronically. A stepper motor may also
be thought of as a cross between a DC electric motor and a rotary solenoid. As each coil is
energized in turn, the rotor aligns itself with the magnetic field produced by the energized field
winding. Unlike a synchronous motor, in its application, the stepper motor may not rotate
continuously; instead, it "steps" — starts and then quickly stops again — from one position to the
next as field windings are energized and de-energized in sequence. Depending on the sequence,
the rotor may turn forwards or backwards, and it may change direction, stop, speed up or slow
down arbitrarily at any time.
Simple stepper motor drivers entirely energize or entirely de-energize the field windings, leading
the rotor to "cog" to a limited number of positions; more sophisticated drivers can proportionally
control the power to the field windings, allowing the rotors to position between the cog points
and thereby rotate extremely smoothly. This mode of operation is often called microstepping.
Computer controlled stepper motors are one of the most versatile forms of positioning systems,
particularly when part of a digital servo-controlled system.
Stepper motors can be rotated to a specific angle in discrete steps with ease, and hence stepper
motors are used for read/write head positioning in computer floppy diskette drives. They were
used for the same purpose in pre-gigabyte era computer disk drives, where the precision and
speed they offered was adequate for the correct positioning of the read/write head of a hard disk
drive. As drive density increased, the precision and speed limitations of stepper motors made
them obsolete for hard drives—the precision limitation made them unusable, and the speed
limitation made them uncompetitive—thus newer hard disk drives use voice coil-based head
actuator systems. (The term "voice coil" in this connection is historic; it refers to the structure in a
typical (cone type) loudspeaker. This structure was used for a while to position the heads. Modern
drives have a pivoted coil mount; the coil swings back and forth, something like a blade of a
rotating fan. Nevertheless, like a voice coil, modern actuator coil conductors (the magnet wire)
move perpendicular to the magnetic lines of force.)
Stepper motors were and still are often used in computer printers, optical scanners, and digital
photocopiers to move the optical scanning element, the print head carriage (of dot matrix and
inkjet printers), and the platen. Likewise, many computer plotters (which since the early 1990s
have been replaced with large-format inkjet and laser printers) used rotary stepper motors for pen
and platen movement; the typical alternatives here were either linear stepper motors or
servomotors with complex closed-loop control systems.
So-called quartz analog wristwatches contain the smallest commonplace stepping motors; they
have one coil, draw very little power, and have a permanent-magnet rotor. The same kind of
motor drives battery-powered quartz clocks. Some of these watches, such as chronographs,
contain more than one stepping motor.
Stepper motors were upscaled to be used in electric vehicles under the term SRM (switched
reluctance machine).
Linear motors
Main article: Linear motor
A linear motor is essentially an electric motor that has been "unrolled" so that, instead of
producing a torque (rotation), it produces a straight-line force along its length by setting up a
traveling electromagnetic field.
Linear motors are most commonly induction motors or stepper motors. You can find a linear
motor in a maglev (Transrapid) train, where the train "flies" over the ground, and in many roller-

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
coasters where the rapid motion of the motorless railcar is controlled by the rail. On a smaller
scale, at least one letter-size (8.5" x 11") computer graphics X-Y pen plotter made by Hewlett-
Packard (in the late 1970s to mid 1980's) used two linear stepper motors to move the pen along
the two orthogonal axes.
Doubly-fed electric motor
Main article: Doubly-fed electric machine
Doubly-fed electric motors have two independent multiphase windings that actively participate in
the energy conversion process with at least one of the winding sets electronically controlled for
variable speed operation. Two is the most active multiphase winding sets possible without
duplicating singly-fed or doubly-fed categories in the same package. As a result, doubly-fed
electric motors are machines with an effective constant torque speed range that is twice
synchronous speed for a given frequency of excitation. This is twice the constant torque speed
range as singly-fed electric machines, which have only one active winding set.
A doubly-fed motor allows for a smaller electronic converter but the cost of the rotor winding and
slip rings may offset the saving in the power electronics components. Difficulties with controlling
speed near synchronous speed limit applications.[13]
Singly-fed electric motor
Main article: Singly-fed electric machine
Singly-fed electric motors incorporate a single multiphase winding set that is connected to a
power supply. Singly-fed electric machines may be either induction or synchronous. The active
winding set can be electronically controlled. Induction machines develop starting torque at zero
speed and can operate as standalone machines. Synchronous machines must have auxiliary means
for startup, such as a starting induction squirrel-cage winding or an electronic controller. Singly-
fed electric machines have an effective constant torque speed range up to synchronous speed for
a given excitation frequency.
The induction (asynchronous) motors (i.e., squirrel cage rotor or wound rotor), synchronous
motors (i.e., field-excited, permanent magnet or brushless DC motors, reluctance motors, etc.),
which are discussed on the this page, are examples of singly-fed motors. By far, singly-fed motors
are the predominantly installed type of motors.
Nanotube nanomotor
Main article: Nanomotor
Researchers at University of California, Berkeley, recently developed rotational bearings based
upon multiwall carbon nanotubes. By attaching a gold plate (with dimensions of the order of
100 nm) to the outer shell of a suspended multiwall carbon nanotube (like nested carbon
cylinders), they are able to electrostatically rotate the outer shell relative to the inner core. These
bearings are very robust; devices have been oscillated thousands of times with no indication of
wear. These nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS) are the next step in miniaturization and may
find their way into commercial applications in the future.

Efficiency
To calculate a motor's efficiency, the mechanical output power is divided by the electrical input
power:

,
where η is energy conversion efficiency, Pe is electrical input power, and Pm is mechanical output
power.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
In simplest case Pe = VI, and Pm = Tω, where V is input voltage, I is input current, T is output
torque, and ω is output angular frequency.
Implications
This means that efficiency is highest in the middle of the torque range, so an oversized motor runs
with the highest efficiency. This means using a bigger motor than is necessary accounts for extra
torque, and allows the motor to operate closest to no load, or peak operating conditions.
Torque capability of motor types
When optimally designed for a given active current (i.e., torque current), voltage, pole-pair
number, excitation frequency (i.e., synchronous speed), and core flux density, all categories of
electric motors or generators will exhibit virtually the same maximum continuous shaft torque
(i.e., operating torque) within a given physical size of electromagnetic core. Some applications
require bursts of torque beyond the maximum operating torque, such as short bursts of torque to
accelerate an electric vehicle from standstill. Always limited by magnetic core saturation or safe
operating temperature rise and voltage, the capacity for torque bursts beyond the maximum
operating torque differs significantly between categories of electric motors or generators.
Note: Capacity for bursts of torque should not be confused with Field Weakening capability
inherent in fully electromagnetic electric machines (Permanent Magnet (PM) electric machine are
excluded). Field Weakening, which is not readily available with PM electric machines, allows an
electric machine to operate beyond the designed frequency of excitation without electrical
damage.
Electric machines without a transformer circuit topology, such as Field-Wound (i.e.,
electromagnet) or Permanent Magnet (PM) Synchronous electric machines cannot realize bursts
of torque higher than the maximum designed torque without saturating the magnetic core and
rendering any increase in current as useless. Furthermore, the permanent magnet assembly of PM
synchronous electric machines can be irreparably damaged, if bursts of torque exceeding the
maximum operating torque rating are attempted.
Electric machines with a transformer circuit topology, such as Induction (i.e., asynchronous)
electric machines, Induction Doubly-Fed electric machines, and Induction or Synchronous Wound-
Rotor Doubly-Fed (WRDF) electric machines, exhibit very high bursts of torque because the active
current (i.e., Magneto-Motive-Force or the product of current and winding-turns) induced on
either side of the transformer oppose each other and as a result, the active current contributes
nothing to the transformer coupled magnetic core flux density, which would otherwise lead to
core saturation.
Electric machines that rely on Induction or Asynchronous principles short-circuit one port of the
transformer circuit and as a result, the reactive impedance of the transformer circuit becomes
dominant as slip increases, which limits the magnitude of active (i.e., real) current. Still, bursts of
torque that are two to three times higher than the maximum design torque are realizable.
The Synchronous WRDF electric machine is the only electric machine with a truly dual ported
transformer circuit topology (i.e., both ports independently excited with no short-circuited port).
The dual ported transformer circuit topology is known to be unstable and requires a multiphase
slip-ring-brush assembly to propagate limited power to the rotor winding set. If a precision means
were available to instantaneously control torque angle and slip for synchronous operation during
motoring or generating while simultaneously providing brushless power to the rotor winding set
(see Brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine), the active current of the Synchronous
WRDF electric machine would be independent of the reactive impedance of the transformer
circuit and bursts of torque significantly higher than the maximum operating torque and far
beyond the practical capability of any other type of electric machine would be realizable. Torque
bursts greater than eight times operating torque have been calculated.

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Materials
Further information: Materials science
There is an impending shortage of many rare raw materials used in the manufacture of hybrid and
electric cars (Nishiyama 2007) (Cox 2008). For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is
required to fabricate many of the advanced electric motors used in hybrid cars (Cox 2008).
However, over 95% of the world's rare earth elements are mined in China (Haxel et al. 2005), and
domestic Chinese consumption is expected to consume China's entire supply by 2012 (Cox 2008).
[citation needed]
While permanent magnet motors, favored in hybrids such as those made by Toyota, often use rare
earth materials in their magnets, AC traction motors used in production electric vehicles such as
the GM EV1, Toyota RAV4 EV and Tesla Roadster do not use permanent magnets or the associated
rare earth materials. AC motors typically use conventional copper wire for their stator coils and
copper or aluminum rods or bars for their rotor. AC motors do not significantly use rare earth
materials.
Motor standards
The following are major design and manufacturing standards covering electric motors:
 International Electrotechnical Commission: IEC 60034 Rotating Electrical Machines
 National Electrical Manufacturers Association (USA): NEMA MG 1 Motors and Generators
 Underwriters Laboratories (USA): UL 1004 - Standard for Electric Motors
Uses
Electric motors are used in many, if not most, modern machines. Obvious uses would be in
rotating machines such as fans, turbines, drills, the wheels on electric cars, locomotives and
conveyor belts. Also, in many vibrating or oscillating machines, an electric motor spins an irregular
figure with more area on one side of the axle than the other, causing it to appear to be moving up
and down.
Electric motors are also popular in robotics. They are used to turn the wheels of vehicular robots,
and servo motors are used to turn arms and legs in humanoid robots. In flying robots, along with
helicopters, a motor causes a propeller or wide, flat blades to spin and create lift force, allowing
vertical motion.
In industrial and manufacturing businesses, electric motors are used to turn saws and blades in
cutting and slicing processes, and to spin gears and mixers (the latter very common in food
manufacturing). Linear motors are often used to push products into containers horizontally.
Many kitchen appliances also use electric motors to accomplish various jobs. Food processors and
grinders spin blades to chop and break up foods. Blenders use electric motors to mix liquids, and
microwave ovens use motors to turn the tray food sits on. Toaster ovens also use electric motors
to turn a conveyor in order to move food over heating elements.

HYBRID VEHICLES

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to move the vehicle.[1] The
term most commonly refers to hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), which combine an internal combustion
engine and one or more electric motors.
Waste heat from internal combustion engine. This can be converted to steam or electricity (eg
via Stirling engine or Thermogenerator) to increase vehicle propulsion. The extra power may also be
used for supplemental systems (eg cooling for cool-trucks, ...) [2]
 Coal, wood, Biochar[3] or other solid combustibles
 Electromagnetic fields, Radio waves
Vehicle type
Two-wheeled and cycle-type vehicles
Mopeds and electric bicycles are a simple form of a hybrid, as power is delivered both via an
internal combustion engine or electric motor and the rider's muscles. Early prototypes of
motorcycles in the late 1800s used the same principles.
 In a parallel hybrid bicycle human and motor power are mechanically coupled at the pedal drive
train or at the rear or the front wheel, e.g. using a hub motor, a roller pressing onto a tire, or a
connection to a wheel using a transmission element. Human and motor torques are added
together. Almost all manufactured models are of this type. See Motorized bicycles, Mopeds and[4]
for more information.
 In a series hybrid bicycle (SH) the user powers a generator using the pedals. This is converted
into electricity and can be fed directly to the motor giving a chainless bicycle but also to charge a
battery. The motor draws power from the battery and must be able to deliver the full mechanical
torque required because none is available from the pedals. SH bicycles are commercially available,
because they are very simple in theory and manufacturing. [5]
The first known prototype and publication of an SH bicycle is by Augustus Kinzel (US Patent
3'884'317) in 1975. In 1994 Bernie Macdonalds conceived the Electrilite SH lightweight
vehicle which used power electronics allowing regenerative braking and pedaling while
stationary. In 1995 Thomas Müller designed a "Fahrrad mit elektromagnetischem Antrieb"
in his 1995 diploma thesis and built a functional vehicle. In 1996 Jürg Blatter and Andreas
Fuchs of Berne University of Applied Sciences built an SH bicycle and in 1998 mounted the
system onto a Leitra tricycle (European patent EP 1165188). In 1999 Harald Kutzke
described his concept of the "active bicycle": the aim is to approach the ideal bicycle
weighing nothing and having no drag by electronic compensation. Until 2005 Fuchs and
colleagues built several prototype SH tricycles and quadricycles. [6]
Heavy vehicles
Hybrid power trains are used for diesel-electric or turbo-electric railway locomotives, buses, heavy
goods vehicles, mobile hydraulic machinery, and ships. Typically some form of heat engine (usually
diesel) drives an electric generator or hydraulic pump which powers one or more electric or
hydraulic motors. There are advantages in distributing power through wires or pipes rather than
mechanical elements especially when multiple drives — e.g. driven wheels or propellers — are
required. There is power lost in the double conversion from typically diesel fuel to electricity to
power an electric or hydraulic motor. With large vehicles the advantages often outweigh the
disadvantages especially as the conversion losses typically decrease with size. With the exception
of non nuclear submarines, presently there is no or relatively little energy storage capacity on
most heavy vehicles, e.g. auxiliary batteries and hydraulic accumulators—this is changing.
When the term hybrid vehicle is used, it most often refers to a Hybrid electric vehicle. These
encompass such vehicles as the AHS2 (Chevrolet Tahoe, GMC Yukon, Chevrolet Silverado, Cadillac
Escalade, and the Saturn Vue), Toyota Prius, Toyota Camry Hybrid, Ford Escape Hybrid, Toyota

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Highlander Hybrid, Honda Insight, Honda Civic Hybrid and others. A petroleum-electric hybrid
most commonly uses internal combustion engines (generally gasoline or Diesel engines, powered
by a variety of fuels) and electric batteries to power electric motors. There are many types of
petroleum-electric hybrid drivetrains, from Full hybrid to Mild hybrid, which offer varying
advantages and disadvantages.[19]
While liquid fuel/electric hybrids date back to the late 1800s, the braking regenerative hybrid was
invented by David Arthurs, an electrical engineer from Springdale, Arkansas in 1978-79. His home-
converted Opel GT was reported to get as much as 75MPG and plans are still sold to this original
design, and the "Mother Earth News" modified version on their website. [20]
The plug-in-electric-vehicle (PEV) is becoming more and more common. It has the range needed in
locations where there are wide gaps with no services. The batteries can be plugged in to house
(mains) electricity for charging, as well being charged while the engine is running.
Continuously outboard recharged electric vehicle (COREV)
Given suitable infrastructure, permissions and vehicles, BEVs can be recharged while the user
drives. The BEV establishes contact with an electrified rail, plate or overhead wires on the highway
via an attached conducting wheel or other similar mechanism (see Conduit current collection). The
BEV's batteries are recharged by this process—on the highway—and can then be used normally on
other roads until the battery is discharged.
This provides the advantage, in principle, of virtually unrestricted highway range as long as you
stay where you have BEV infrastructure access. Since many destinations are within 100 km of a
major highway, this may reduce the need for expensive battery systems. Unfortunately private
use of the existing electrical system is nearly universally prohibited.
The technology for such electrical infrastructure is old and, outside of some cities, is not widely
distributed (see Conduit current collection, trams, electric rail, trolleys, third rail). Updating the
required electrical and infrastructure costs can be funded, in principle, by toll revenue, gasoline or
other taxes.
Hybrid fuel (dual mode)

Ford Escape Hybrid the first hybrid electric vehicle with a flexible fuel capability to run on
E85(ethanol).
In addition to vehicles that use two or more different devices for propulsion, some also consider
vehicles that use distinct energy sources or input types ("fuels") using the same engine to be
hybrids, although to avoid confusion with hybrids as described above and to use correctly the
terms, these are perhaps more correctly described as dual mode vehicles:
 Some electric trolleybuses can switch between an on board diesel engine and overhead
electrical power depending on conditions (see dual mode bus). In principle, this could be
combined with a battery subsystem to create a true plug-in hybrid trolleybus, although as of 2006,
no such design seems to have been announced.
 Flexible-fuel vehicles can use a mixture of input fuels mixed in one tank — typically gasoline and
ethanol, or methanol, or biobutanol.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
 Bi-fuel vehicle:Liquified petroleum gas and natural gas are very different from petroleum or
diesel and cannot be used in the same tanks, so it would be impossible to build an (LPG or NG)
flexible fuel system. Instead vehicles are built with two, parallel, fuel systems feeding one engine.
While the duplicated tanks cost space in some applications, the increased range and flexibility
where (LPG or NG) infrastructure is incomplete may be a significant incentive to purchase.
 Some vehicles have been modified to use another fuel source if it is available, such as cars
modified to run on autogas (LPG) and diesels modified to run on waste vegetable oil that has not
been processed into biodiesel.
 Power-assist mechanisms for bicycles and other human-powered vehicles are also included.
Fluid power hybrid
Hydraulic and pneumatic hybrid vehicles use an engine to charge a pressure accumulator to drive
the wheels via hydraulic or pneumatic (i.e. compressed air) drive units. The energy recovery rate is
higher and therefore the system is more efficient than battery charged hybrids, demonstrating a
60% to 70% increase in energy economy in EPA testing [21]. Under tests done by the EPA, a
hydraulic hybrid Ford Expedition returned 32 miles per US gallon (7.4 L/100 km; 38 mpg-imp) City,
and 22 miles per US gallon (11 L/100 km; 26 mpg-imp) highway. [22] UPS currently has two trucks in
service with this technology. [23]
While the system has faster and more efficient charge/discharge cycling and is cheaper than gas-
electric hybrids, the accumulator size dictates total energy storage capacity and requires more
space than a battery.
Hybrid vehicle power train configurations
Main articles: Hybrid vehicle drivetrains and Micro HEV
Parallel hybrid

The Honda Insight is a Mild Parallel Hybrid.

The Toyota Prius is a series-parallel hybrid.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation

The Ford Escape Hybrid has a parallel drivetrain.

In a parallel hybrid the electric motor and the internal combustion engine are installed so that
they can both individually or together power the vehicle. In contrast to the power split
configuration typically only one electric motor is installed. Most commonly the internal
combustion engine, the electric motor and gear box are coupled by automatically controlled
clutches. For electric driving the clutch between the internal combustion engine is open while the
clutch to the gear box is engaged. While in combustion mode the engine and motor run at the
same speed.
The first mass production parallel hybrid is the Honda Insight.
Mild Parallel hybrid
This types use a generally compact electric motor to give extra output[24] during the acceleration,
and to generate on the deceleration phase.
On road examples are Honda Civic Hybrid, Honda Insight, Mercedes Benz S400 BlueHYBRID and
BMW 7-Series hybrids.
The main improvement in fuel consumption over a conventional vehicle with the same
performance is possible by the installation of a smaller internal combustion engine, with smaller
internal losses and lower weight. There are also savings through energy recovery through the
motor/generator on the overrun and while decelerating. This electrical energy may be used to
drive the a/c, power steering, and other auxiliaries electrically as and when needed as opposed to
continuously with traditional belt-driven pumps, reducing mechanical losses and so improve the
fuel consumption.
The Smart Hybrid is a recently introduced city-car mild-hybrid.
Powersplit hybrid
In a power split hybrid electric drive train there are always two electric motors and one internal
combustion engine. Typical passenger car installations such as those from Toyota and Lexus. One
motor mostly acts as a generator while the other one is used as a motor or generator. The two
motors are connected through a planetary gear set.
The Toyota Prius, the Ford Escape and the Lexus Gs450 and LS600 are power split hybrids. While
the Honda Insight is the first parallel hybrid in mass production.
On the open road, the primary power source is the internal combustion engine (partly to
maximise the life of the batteries), but when maximum power is required, for example to
overtake, the electric motors are used to maximise the available power for a short time, giving the
effect of having a larger engine than that actually installed.
The fuel consumption benefits of a hybrid electric vehicle against an internal combustion vehicle
of similar performance come through the recovery of braking energy, stored in the battery by the
motor/generator for use at the next start which in a conventional vehicle would have been
dissipated as heat from the brakes. Additionally, the ability to shut off the engine while the electric
motor is running brings further savings. The dimension of motor and battery limit the braking
energy that can be recovered before conventional brakes are necessary to achieve the required

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
retardation. However, a weight/space compromise determines the limits of energy recovery
possible in a given installation.
Series Hybrid

The Chevrolet Volt concept car is a series plug-in hybrid. The fuel engine power is exclusively used
to generate electricity and not used directly for drive wheel propulsion.
A series hybrid uses an electric motor(s), which is powered by a single-speed internal combustion
engine. While operating at its most efficient single speed, the combustion engine drives an electric
generator instead of directly driving the wheels. This engine can do any combination of the
following: charge a battery, charge a capacitor, directly power the electric motor. When large
amounts of power and torque are required, the electric motor can draw electricity from a
combination of batteries, capacitors, and the generator. A series hybrid does not require batteries
in its design as a capacitor can act as a storage device.
There are three main options for series hybrid electric motors: Permanent Magnet, 3-Phase AC
Induction, Multi-Phase AC Induction. Permament Magnet motors, like those found in the Prius,
degrade in performance at higher temperatures and require a cooling system in the design. They
allow for regenerative braking, and this comes with a safety trade off as any time there is motion
by the magnets, they produce voltage. Permanent magnets also require rare earth which are
expensive and difficult to source.
In contrast, 3-Phase AC Induction motors can be air cooled and therefore have better stamina, but
have less power density which means that the weight saved from removing the cooling system is
replaced with heavier and more complex gearing for the drivetrain. This more complex
transmission gearing is also needed to compensate for the fact that a standard 3-Phase AC
Induction motor can be either low-speed high-torque (like a standard vehicles starter) or a high-
speed low-torque (like a standrd vehicles alternator) but not both.
A Multi-Phase AC Induction motor (called a Chorus Motor) co-opts the harmonics that limit motor
performance, which means a that it can smoothly change from behaving like a high-torque low-
speed motor to behaving like a low-torque high-speed motor, without the need for efficiency
robbing physical gearing that would be required to compensate for a 3-Phase AC Induction motors
lower power density. The January 2009 issue of Motor Trend magazine discusses this third choice
and its use in planes and vehicles. [7] Furthermore, by co-opting the harmonics that limit standard
motor performance, greater torque can be generated by this motor; up to 10 times the torque of
a standard motor. This extra torque can be generated for short 'burst' or 'startup' torque
requirements, which means that the Chorus Motor used in a series hybrid can both be smaller and
be sized for its 'average' torque requirements while still providing the acceleration torque needed
for occasional circumstances like joining a highway from a dead stop. This motor is presently only
being used in WheelTug and its use turns an airplane into a series hybrid with a turbine in the APU
generating the electricity needed to power the Chorus Motor in the WheelTug
BYD Auto's F3DM sedan is the world's first mass-produced plug-in hybrid, which went on sale in
China on December 15, 2008.[25][26][27] It costs the equivalent of USD $16,062[28] and has an
all-electric range of 68.4 miles.[29] The F3DM is set to debut in North America and Europe in 2011.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
[30] Meanwhile, GM hopes to introduce the Chevy Volt by 2011, aiming for an all-electric range of
40 miles[31] and a price tag of around $40,000.[32]

A Honda Civic Hybrid used by Zipcar, a car sharing service at Washington, D.C.

Ford Escape plug-in hybrid.

Plug-in hybrid electrical vehicle (PHEV)
Main article: Plug-in hybrid
Another subtype added to the hybrid market is the Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV). The
PHEV is usually a general fuel-electric (parallel or serial) hybrid with increased energy storage
capacity (usually Li-ion batteries). It may be connected to mains electricity supply at the end of the
journey to avoid charging using the on-board internal combustion engine.[33][34]
This concept is attractive to those seeking to minimize on-road emissions by avoiding - or at least
minimizing - the use of ICE during daily driving. As with pure electric vehicles, the total emissions
saving, for example in CO2 terms, is dependent upon the energy source of the electricity
generating company.
For some users, this type of vehicle may also be financially attractive so long as the electrical
energy being used is cheaper than the petrol/diesel that they would have otherwise used. Current
tax systems in many European countries use mineral oil taxation as a major income source. This is
generally not the case for electricity, which is taxed uniformly for the domestic customer, however
that person uses it. Some electricity suppliers also offer price benefits for off-peak night users,
which may further increase the attractiveness of the plug-in option for commuters and urban
motorists.
Fuel cell, electric hybrid
The fuel cell hybrid is generally an electric vehicle equipped with a fuel cell. The fuel cell as well as
the electric battery are both power sources, making the vehicle a hybrid. Fuel cells use hydrogen
as a fuel and power the electric battery when it is depleted. The Ford Edge Hyseries Drive and
Honda FCX are examples of a fuel cell/electric hybrid.
Environmental issues
Fuel consumption and emissions reductions
The hybrid vehicle typically achieves greater fuel economy and lower emissions than conventional
internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), resulting in fewer emissions being generated. These
savings are primarily achieved by three elements of a typical hybrid design:
1. relying on both the engine and the electric motors for peak power needs resulting in a smaller
engine sized more for average usage rather than peak power usage.

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2. having significant battery storage capacity to store and reuse recaptured energy, especially in
stop-and-go traffic.
3. recapturing significant amounts of energy normally wasted during braking etc. (regenerative
braking) This is a mechanism that reduces vehicle speed by converting some of its kinetic energy
into another useful form of energy, dependent upon the power rating of the motor/generator;
other techniques that are not necessarily 'hybrid' features, but that are frequently found fuel
saving measures on hybrid vehicles include;
1. shutting down the engine during traffic stops or while coasting or other idle periods;
2. improving aerodynamics ; (part of the reason that SUVs get such bad fuel economy is the drag
on the car. A box shaped car or truck has to exert more force to move through the air causing
more stress on the engine making it work harder). Improving the shape and aerodynamics of a car
is a good way to help better the fuel economy and also improve handling at the same time.
3. using low rolling resistance tires ; (tires were often made to give a quiet, smooth ride, high grip
etc. but efficiency was a lower priority. Tires cause mechanical drag, once again making the engine
work harder, consuming more fuel. Hybrid cars may use special tires that are more inflated than
regular tires and stiffer or by choice of carcase structure and rubber compound have lower rolling
resistance while retaining acceptable grip, and so improving fuel economy whatever the power
source.
These features make a hybrid vehicle particularly efficient for city traffic where there are frequent
stops, coasting and idling periods. In addition noise emissions are reduced, particularly at idling
and low operating speeds,[35] in comparison to conventional engine vehicles. For continuous high
speed highway use these features are much less useful in reducing emissions.
Hybrid Vehicle Emissions
Hybrid Vehicle emissions today are getting close to or even lower than the recommended level set
by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). The recommended levels they suggest for a typical
passenger vehicle should be equated to 5.5 metric tons of carbon dioxide. The three most popular
hybrid vehicles, Honda Civic, Honda Insight and Toyota Prius, set the standards even higher by
producing 4.1, 3.5, and 3.5 tons showing a major improvement in carbon dioxide emissions.
Environmental impact of hybrid car battery
Main article: Electric vehicle battery
This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed. (July 2008)
Though hybrid cars take in substantially less petroleum than conventional cars, there is still an
issue regarding the environmental damage of the Hybrid car battery. Today most Hybrid car
batteries are one of two types: (1) nickel metal hydride, or (2) lithium ion; both are regarded as
more environmentally friendly than lead-based batteries (which constitute the bulk of car
batteries today). "Jim Kliesch, author of the 'Green Book: The Environmental Guide to Cars and
Trucks' told HybridCars.com, 'There are many types of batteries. Some are far more toxic than
others. While batteries like lead acid or nickel cadmium are incredibly bad for the environment,
the toxicity levels and environmental impact of nickel metal hydride batteries—the type currently
used in hybrids—are much lower.'"[8]. Though substantially less toxic than conventional car
batteries, nickel-based batteries are known carcinogens, and have been shown to cause a variety
of teratogenic effects.[36].
Although companies are funding research to use these safer less toxic batteries, the fact of the
matter is lead is so cheap, and money always plays a factor when dealing with mass production of
an item.[clarification needed] According to a 2003 report entitled, "Getting the Lead Out," by
Environmental Defense and the Ecology Center of Ann Arbor, Mich., an estimated 2.6 million

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
metric tons of lead can be found in the batteries of vehicles on the road today. There's little
argument that lead is extremely toxic. Scientific studies show that long-term exposure to even tiny
amounts of lead can cause brain and kidney damage, hearing impairment, and learning problems
in children. The auto industry uses over one million metric tons of lead every year, with 90% going
to conventional lead-acid vehicle batteries. While lead recycling is a mature industry, it's
impossible to rescue every car battery from the dump. More than 40,000 metric tons of lead are
lost to landfills every year. According to the federal Toxic Release Inventory, another 70,000
metric tons are released in the lead mining and manufacturing process. [Jim Kliesch, author of the
Green Book: The Environmental Guide to Cars and Trucks]
Raw materials increasing costs
There is an impending increase in the costs of many rare materials used in the manufacture of
hybrid cars [37].
For example, the rare earth element dysprosium is required to fabricate many of the advanced
electric motors and battery systems in hybrid propulsion systems [38][37]. Neodymium is another
rare earth metal which is a crucial ingredient in high-strength magnets that are found in
permanent magnet electric motors [9]
Nearly all the rare earth elements in the world come from China[39], and many analysts believe
that an overall increase in Chinese electronics manufacturing will consume this entire supply by
2012.[37] In addition, export quotas on Chinese Rare Earth exports have resulted in a generally
shaky supply of those metals [38][40].
A few non-Chinese sources such as the advanced Hoidas Lake project in northern Canada as well
as Mt Weld in Australia are currently under development;[40] however it is not known if these
sources will be developed before the shortage hits.
Alternative green vehicles
Main article: Green vehicle#Types
Other types of green vehicles include other vehicles that go fully or partly on alternative energy
sources than fossil fuel. Another option is to use alternative fuel composition (i.e. biofuels) in
conventional fossil fuel-based vehicles, making them go partly on renewable energy sources.
Other approaches include personal rapid transit, a public transportation concept that offers
automated on-demand non-stop transportation, on a network of specially-built guideways.
ALTERNATIVE FULES IN MORDERN DAYS
Liquefied petroleum gas (also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, or autogas) is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases
used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles, and increasingly replacing chlorofluorocarbons as an
aerosol propellant and a refrigerant to reduce damage to the ozone layer.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane, mixes that are primarily
butane, and the more common, mixes including both propane (60%) and butane (40%), depending on
the season—in winter more propane, in summer more butane. Propylene and butylenes are usually also
present in small concentration. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can be detected
easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United States, thiophene or amyl mercaptan are also
approved odorants.
LPG is synthesised by refining petroleum or 'wet' natural gas, and is usually derived from fossil fuel
sources, being manufactured during the refining of crude oil, or extracted from oil or gas streams as
they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr. Walter Snelling, and the first
commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of the energy consumed, and
burns cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions, posing no ground or water pollution hazards.
LPG has a typical specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared to 42.5 MJ/kg for diesel and 43.5 MJ/kg

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
for premium grade petrol (gasoline).[1] However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/l is lower
than either that of petrol or diesel.
At normal temperatures and pressures, LPG will evaporate. Because of this, LPG is supplied in
pressurised steel bottles. In order to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid, these bottles
are not filled completely; typically, they are filled to between 80% and 85% of their capacity. The ratio
between the volumes of the vaporised gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition,
pressure and temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid,
called its vapour pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is
approximately 220 kilopascals (2.2 bar) for pure butane at 20 °C (68 °F), and approximately
2.2 megapascals (22 bar) for pure propane at 55 °C (131 °F). LPG is heavier than air, and thus will flow
along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. This can cause ignition or suffocation
hazards if not dealt with.
LPG is a low carbon emitting hydrocarbon fuel available in rural areas, emitting 19 percent less CO2 per
kWh than oil, 30 percent less than coal and more than 50 percent less than coal-generated electricity
distributed via the grid. Being a mix of propane and butane, LPG emits more carbon per joule than
propane and LPG emits less carbon per joule than butane.
Large amounts of LPG can be stored in bulk tanks and can be buried underground if required.
Alternatively, gas cylinders can be used.

Autogas is the common name for liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) when it is used as a fuel in internal
combustion engines in vehicles. The same equipment is also used for similar engines in stationary
applications such as generators.
Autogas is widely used as a "green" fuel as it decreases exhaust emissions. In particular, it reduces CO2
emissions by around 20% compared to petrol. It has an octane rating (MON/RON) that is between 90
and 110 and an energy content (higher heating value—HHV) that is between 25.5 megajoules per litre
(for pure propane) and 28.7 megajoules per litre (for pure butane) depending upon the actual fuel
composition.
In countries where petrol is called petrol rather than gasoline, it is common for autogas to be
simply referred to as gas. This can be confusing for people from countries where petrol is called
gasoline, as they often use the abbreviation gas to refer to petrol.
In the United States, autogas is more commonly known under the name of its primary constituent,
propane. The term autogas is used in the United States to refer to automobile petrol, when used
in piston-powered small aircraft. Aircraft owners using this fuel in place of the more common
aviation fuel or avgas, require a Supplemental Type Certificate issued by the United States Federal
Aviation Agency.
In the UK "LPG" and "autogas" are used interchangeably.
In Asian countries, particularly those with historical American influences such as the Philippines,
the term autogas is not commonly recognized as a generic term and the use of the term "LPG" or
"autoLPG" is more widely used by consumers, especially by taxi drivers many of whom use
converted vehicles.[1] The converted vehicles are commonly called LGP vehicles or LPG cars.
Vehicle manufacturers

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4.0 litre E-Gas straight-six engine of a 2001 Ford AU Falcon.

3.6 litre Alloytec dual-fuel (petrol and LPG) V6 engine of a 2006–2008 Holden VE Commodore.
Toyota made a number of LPG-only engines in their 1970s M, R, and Y engine families.
Currently, a number of automobile manufacturers—Citroën, Fiat, Ford, Hyundai, General Motors
(including Daewoo, Holden, Opel/Vauxhall, Saab), Maruti Suzuki, Peugeot, Renault (including
Dacia), Toyota, Volvo, and more recently Volkswagen —have OEM bi-fuel (dual fuel) models that
will run equally well on both LPG and petrol.
Petrol engined cars which have not been fitted with LPG/autogas systems by the manufacturers
can usually accept third party systems to enable them to use both LPG or petrol.
Vialle manufacture OEM LPG powered scooters and LPG powered mopeds that run equally well on
LPG. Ford Australia have offered an LPG-only variant of their Falcon model since 2000.
Countries
Autogas enjoys great popularity in numerous countries and territories including Australia, Croatia,
European Union, Hong Kong, India, the Philippines, Republic of Macedonia, South Korea, Serbia
and Turkey. It is also available at larger petrol stations in several countries. The Republic of
Armenia may, however, be the world leader in autogas use. The Armenian transport ministry
estimates as much as 20 to 30% of vehicles use autogas compared with traditional gasoline, once
again due to the fact that it offers a very cheap alternative to both diesel and petrol, being less
than half the price of petrol and some 40% cheaper than diesel. The recent rises in oil-derived
fuels has sharply raised the difference.
Australia
LPG is popular in Australia, because it is less than half the price of petrol in urban areas (approx
$A0.57-0.73 per litre, as opposed to $A1.60 per litre for unleaded fuel and $A1.85 per litre for
diesel, as of June 2008), and it is locally produced. The three major local manufacturers (Ford,
Holden and Toyota) offer factory fitted autogas in some models of their locally made large cars. All
factory autogas vehicles are dual fuel vehicles, with the exception of the E-Gas Ford Falcon model,
which runs on autogas only.
Autogas is especially popular with taxis, except in remote areas where transportation costs make
autogas prices uncompetitive.
Whilst autogas is currently excise-free, excise is to be imposed on all vehicle fuels that are not
currently subject to excise, being added incrementally from 2011 to 2015. The excise on autogas
will start at 2.5 cents per litre in 2011 and reach 12.5 cents per litre by 2015. By comparison, the
excise on petrol will remain at its existing 38 cents per litre. The additional excise on autogas is

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
being offset somewhat by a subsidy that was implemented in 2006 for private motorists, paying
either AU$2000 to convert their existing vehicle to autogas, or AU$1000 for purchasing a new
vehicle that was manufactured to operate on autogas.[2] The subsidy does not apply to business
vehicles or vehicles with a Gross Vehicle Mass of over 3500 kilograms. In addition to the subsidy
provided by the Australian federal government, the Western Australian government also provides
a AU$1000 subsidy under the long-running LPG subsidy scheme.
System types
The different autogas systems generally use the same type of filler, tanks, lines and fittings but use
different components in the engine bay. Some injection systems use special tanks with circulation
pumps and return lines similar to petrol fuel injection systems.
There are three basic types of autogas system. The oldest of these is the conventional converter-
and-mixer system, which has existed since the 1940s and is still widely used today. The other two
types are known as injection systems, but there are significant differences between the two.
A converter-mixer system uses a converter to change liquid fuel from the tank into vapour, then
feeds that vapour to the mixer where it is mixed with the intake air.
Vapour phase injection systems use a converter in much the same way as with a mixer, but have a
series of electrical shutoff solenoids and nozzles (collectively referred to as injectors) that are
controlled by a computer. The computer works in much the same way as a petrol fuel injection
computer. This allows much more accurate metering of fuel to the engine than is possible with
mixers, improving economy and/or power while reducing emissions.
Liquid phase injection systems do not use a converter, but instead deliver the liquid fuel into a fuel
rail in much the same manner as a petrol injection system. These systems are still very much in
their infancy. Because the fuel vapourises in the intake, the air around it is cooled significantly.
This increases the density of the intake air and can potentially lead to substantial increases in
engine power output, to the extent that such systems are usually de-tuned to avoid damaging
other parts of the engine. Liquid phase injection has the potential to achieve much better
economy and power plus lower emission levels than are possible using mixers or vapour phase
injectors.
System components

Fuel filler in E-Gas Ford Falcon

Filler with mounting and cover removed

Filler
The fuel is transferred into a vehicle tank as liquid by connecting the bowser at the filling station
to the filler fitting on the vehicle.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
The type of filler used varies from country to country and in some cases different types are used
within the same country.[3]
The three types are:
 ACME thread. This type has a threaded fitting onto which the bowser nozzle is screwed before
the trigger is pulled to establish a seal before fuel transfer. This type is used in Australia, USA,
Germany, Austria, Belgium, Republic of Ireland.
 'Dutch' Bayonet. This type establishes a gas proof seal by a push and twist action. This type is
used in the United Kingdom, Netherlands and Switzerland.
 'Italian' Dish. This type is used in Italy, France, Scandinavia and Portugal.
Adaptors that allow a vehicle fitted with a particular system to refuel at a station equipped with
another system are available.
The fill valve contains a check valve so that the liquid in the line between the filler and the tank(s)
does not escape when the bowser nozzle is disconnected.
In installations where more than one tank is fitted, T-fittings may be used to connect the tanks to
one filler so that the tanks are filled simultaneously. In some applications, more than one filler
may be fitted, such as on opposite sides of the vehicle. These may be connected to separate tanks,
or may be connected to the same tanks using T-fittings in the same manner as for connecting
multiple tanks to one filler.
Hoses, pipes and fittings

Gas lines and fittings. Containment hose, liquid hose, copper pipe with flared end plus brass elbows and
T fitting
The hose between the filler and tank(s) is called the fill hose or fill line. The hose or pipe between the
tank(s) and the converter is called the service line. These both carry liquid under pressure.
The flexible hose between the converter and mixer is called the vapour hose or vapour line. This line
carries vapour at low pressure and has a much larger diameter to suit.
Where the tank valves are located inside an enclosed space such as the boot of a sedan, a plastic
containment hose is used to provide a gas-tight seal between the gas components and the inside of the
vehicle.
Liquid hoses for LPG are specifically designed and rated for the pressures that exist in LPG systems, and
are made from materials designed to be compatible with the fuel. Some hoses are made with crimped
fittings, while others are made using re-usable fittings that are pressed or screwed onto the end of the
hose.
Rigid sections of liquid line are usually made using copper tubing, although in some applications, steel
pipes are used instead. The ends of the pipes are always double-flared and fitted with flare nuts to
secure them to the fittings.
Liquid line fittings are mostly made from brass. The fittings typically adapt from a thread in a
component, such as a BSP or NPT threaded hole on a tank, to an SAE flare fitting to suit the ends of pipes
or hoses.
Tank

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Autogas tank in boot of Volvo sedan

Tank valves. From left, relief valve (with red cap), service valve, gauge and fill valve
Further information: Gas tank, Gas cylinder, Storage tank, and Pressure vessel
Vehicles are often fitted with only one tank, but multiple tanks are used in a some applications. In
passenger car applications, the tank is typically either a cylindrical tank mounted in the boot of the
vehicle or a toroidal tank or set of permanently interconnected cylinders placed in the spare wheel well.
In commercial vehicle applications, the tanks are generally cylindrical tanks mounted either in the cargo
space or on the chassis underneath the body.
The tanks have fittings for filling, liquid outlet, emergency relief of excess pressure, fuel level gauge and
sometimes a vapour outlet. These may be separate valves mounted into a series of 3 to 5 holes in a
plate welded into the tank shell, or may be assembled onto a multi-valve unit which is bolted into one
large hole on a boss welded into the tank shell.

Fill valve and AFL

Modern fill valves are usually fitted with an automatic fill limiter (AFL) to prevent overfilling. The AFL has
a float arm which restricts the flow significantly but does not shut it off entirely. This is intended to
cause the pressure in the line to rise enough to tell the bowser to stop pumping but not cause
dangerously high pressures. Before AFLs were introduced, it was common for the filler (with integral
check valve) to be screwed directly into the tank, as the operator had to open an ullage valve at the tank
while filling, allowing vapour out of the top of the tank and stopping filling when liquid started coming
out of the ullage valve to indicate that the tank was full. Modern tanks are not fitted with ullage valves.
The liquid outlet is usually used to supply fuel to the engine, and is usually referred to as the service
valve. Modern service valves incorporate an electric shutoff solenoid. In applications using very small
engines such as small generators, vapour may be withdrawn from the top of the tank instead of liquid
from the bottom of the tank.
The emergency pressure relief valve in the tank is called a hydrostatic pressure relief valve. It is designed
to open if the pressure in the tank is dangerously high, thus releasing some vapour to the atmosphere to
reduce the pressure in the tank. The release of a small quantity of vapour reduces the pressure in the
tank, which causes some of the liquid in the tank to vapourise to re-establish equilibrium between liquid
and vapour. The latent heat of vapourisation causes the tank to cool, which reduces pressure even
further.
The gauge sender is usually a magnetically coupled arrangement, with a float arm inside the tank
rotating a magnet, which rotates an external gauge. The external gauge is usually readable directly, and
most also incorporate an electronic sender to operate a fuel gauge on the dashboard.
Valves

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There are a number of types of valve used in autogas systems. The most common ones are shutoff or
filterlock valves, which are used to stop flow in the service line. These may be operated by vacuum or
electricity. On dual-fuel systems with a petrol carburettor, a similar shutoff valve is usually fitted in the
petrol line between the pump and carburettor.
Check valves are fitted in the filler and on the fill input to the fuel tank to prevent fuel flowing back the
wrong way.
Service valves are fitted to the outlet from the tank to the service line. These have a tap to turn the fuel
on and off. The tap is usually only closed when the tank is being worked on. In some countries, an
electrical shutoff valve is built into the service valve.

Two Sherwood valves. 1995 on left, 1989 on right

Where multiple tanks are fitted, a combination of check valves and a hydrostatic relief valve are usually
installed to prevent fuel from flowing from one tank to another. In Australia, there is a common
assembly designed for this purpose. It is a combined twin check valve and hydrostatic relief valve
assembly built in the form of a T-fitting, such that the lines from the tanks come into the sides of the
valve and the outlet to the converter comes out the end. Because there is only one common brand of
these valves, they are known colloquially as a Sherwood valve.
Converter
The converter (also known as vaporiser) is a device designed to change the fuel from a pressurised liquid
to a vapour at around atmospheric pressure for delivery to the mixer or vapour phase injectors. Because
of the refrigerant characteristic of the fuel, heat must be put into the fuel by the converter. This is
usually achieved by having engine coolant circulated through a heat exchanger that transfers heat from
that coolant to the LPG.
There are two distinctly different basic types of converter for use with mixer type systems. The
European style of converter is a more complex device that incorporates an idle circuit and is designed to
be used with a simple fixed venturi mixer. The American style of converter is a simpler design which is
intended to be used with a variable venturi mixer that incorporates an idle circuit.
Engines with a low power output such as; scooters, quad bikes and generators can use a simpler type of
converter (also known as governor or regulator). These converters are fed with fuel in vapour form.
Evaporation takes place in the tank where refrigeration occurs as the liquid fuel boils. The tanks large
surface area exposed to the ambient air temperature combined with the low power output (fuel
requirement) of the engine make this type of system viable. The refrigeration of the fuel tank is
proportional to fuel demand hence this setup is only used on smaller engines. This type of converter can
either fed with vapour at tank pressure (called a 2 stage regulator) or be fed via a tank mounted
regulator at a fixed reduced pressure (called a single stage regulator).

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OHG X-450 mixer showing air valve open to full load position
Mixer
The mixer is the device that mixes the fuel into the air flowing to the engine. The mixer incorporates a
venturi designed to draw the fuel into the airflow due to the movement of the air.
Mixer type systems have existed since the 1940s and some designs have changed little over that time.
Mixers are now being increasingly superseded by injectors.
Vapour phase injectors
Most vapour phase injection systems mount the solenoids in a manifold block or injector rail, then run
hoses to the nozzles, which are screwed into holes drilled and tapped into the runners of the intake
manifold. There is usually one nozzle for each cylinder. Some vapour injection systems resemble petrol
injection, having separate injectors that fit into the manifold or head in the same manner as petrol
injectors, and are fed fuel through a fuel rail.

Vapour phase injectors

Liquid phase injectors
Liquid phase injectors are mounted onto the engine in a manner similar to petrol injectors, being
mounted directly at the inlet manifold and fed liquid fuel from a fuel rail.
Electrical and electronic controls
The are four distinct electrical systems that may be used in autogas systems - fuel gauge sender, fuel
shutoff, closed loop feedback mixture control and injection control.
In some installations, the fuel gauge sender fitted to the autogas tank is matched to the original fuel
gauge in the vehicle. In others, an additional gauge is added to display the level of fuel in the autogas
tank separately from the existing petrol gauge.
In most modern installations, an electronic device called a tachometric relay or safety switch is used to
operate electrical shutoff solenoids. These work by sensing that the engine is running by detecting
ignition pulses. Some systems use an engine oil pressure sensor instead. In all installations, there is a
filterlock (consisting of a filter assembly and a vacuum or electric solenoid operated shutoff valve)
located at the input to the converter. In European converters, there is also a solenoid in the converter to
shut off the idle circuit. These valves are usually both connected to the output of the tachometric relay
or oil pressure switch. Where solenoids are fitted to the outputs of fuel tanks, these are also connected
to the output of the tachometric relay or oil pressure switch. In installations with multiple tanks, a
switch or changeover relay may be fitted to allow the driver to select which tank to use fuel from. On
dual-fuel systems, the switch used to change between fuels is used to turn off the tachometric relay.
Closed loop feedback systems use an electronic controller that operates in much the same way as in a
petrol fuel injection systems, using an oxygen sensor to effectively measure the air/fuel mixture by

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measuring the oxygen content of the exhaust and control valve on the converter or in the vapour line to
adjust the mixture. Mixer type systems that do not have a closed loop feedback fitted are sometimes
referred to as open loop systems.
Injection systems use a computerised control system which is very similar to that used in petrol injection
systems. In virtually all systems, the injection control system integrates the tachometric relay and closed
loop feedback functions.
Converter-and-mixer system operation
The designs of converters and mixers are matched to each other by matching sizes and shapes of
components within the two.
In European style systems, the size and shape of the venturi is designed to match the converter. In
American style systems, the air valve and metering pins in the mixer are sized to match the diaphragm
sizes and spring stiffnesses in the converter. In both cases, the components are matched by the
manufacturers and only basic adjustments are needed during installation and tuning.

Autogas carburettor consisting of OHG X-450 mixer, adapter and Rochester throttlebody
An autogas carburettor may simply consist of a throttlebody and a mixer, sometimes fitted together
using an adapter.
Cold start enrichment is achieved by the fact that the engine coolant is cold when the engine is cold.
This causes denser vapour to be delivered to the mixer. As the engine warms up, the coolant
temperature rises until the engine is at operating temperature and the mixture has leaned off to the
normal running mixture. Depending on the system, the throttle may need to be held open further when
the engine is cold in the same manner as with a petrol carburetor. On others, the normal mixture is
intended to be somewhat lean and no cold-start throttle increase is needed. Because of the way
enrichment is achieved, no additional choke butterfly is required for cold starting with LPG.
The temperature of the engine is critical to the tuning of an autogas system. The engine thermostat
effectively controls the temperature of the converter, thus directly affecting the mixture. A faulty
thermostat, or a thermostat of the wrong temperature range for the design of the system may not
operate correctly.
The power output capacity of a system is limited by the ability of the converter to deliver a stable flow
of vapour. A coolant temperature lower than intended will reduce the maximum power output possible,
as will an air bubble trapped in the cooling circuit or complete loss of coolant. All converters have a limit,
beyond which mixtures become unstable. Unstable mixtures typically contain tiny droplets of liquid fuel
that were not heated enough in the converter and will vapourise in the mixer or intake to form an
excessively rich mixture. When this occurs, the mixture will become so rich that the engine will flood
and stall. Because the outside of the converter will be at or below 0°C when this happens, water vapour
from the air will freeze onto the outside of the converter, forming an icy white layer. Some converters
are very suceptible to cracking when this happens.
LPG injection for diesel vehicles
The performance, economy and emission profile of diesel engines can be improved by injecting a small
quantity of LPG into the inlet manifold. It is claimed that the LPG increases the burning efficiency of the
diesel fuel from typically 75-85%, to 95-98%.[4]

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The systems typically operate by metering a small quantity of LPG, at a pressure slightly above
atmospheric, into the intake manifold, where it enters the combustion chamber and is ignited with the
diesel. LPG flow is regulated to ensure smooth operation, and will typically only deliver LPG under
power.
It is claimed that such a system can result in a 10% to 20% increase in power and torque,[5][4] and a
reduction in overall fuel costs. Any actual savings are dependent on the relative cost of diesel versus
LPG. In Australia, where diesel costs substantially more than LPG, savings of 10 to 20% are claimed. [6]
The above systems add small quantities of LPG with the primary aim of improving economy, but much
larger quantities of LPG can be injected in order to increase power. Even at full output a diesel engine
runs about 50% lean of stoichiometric to avoid black smoke production, so there is a substantial amount
of oxygen in the intake charge which is not consumed in the combustion process. This oxygen is
therefore available for the combustion of a substantial addition of LPG resulting in a large increase in
power output.
Uses
Motor fuel

Main article: Autogas

When LPG is used to fuel internal combustion engines, it is often referred to as autogas or auto propane.
In some countries, it has been used since the 1940s as an alternative fuel for spark ignition engines.
More recently, it has also been used in diesel engines.[citation needed] Its advantage is that it is non-
toxic, non-corrosive and free of tetra-ethyl lead or any additives, and has a high octane rating (108 RON).
It burns more cleanly than petrol or diesel and is especially free of the particulates from the latter.
LPG has a lower energy density than either petrol or diesel, so the equivalent fuel consumption is higher.
Many governments impose less tax on LPG than on petrol or diesel, which helps offset the greater
consumption of LPG than of petrol or diesel. Propane is the third most widely used motor fuel in the
world. 2008 estimates are that over 13 million vehicles are fueled by propane gas worldwide. Over 20
million tonnes (over 7 billion US gallons) are used annually as a vehicle fuel.
Refrigeration
LPG is instrumental in providing off-the-grid refrigeration, usually by means of a gas absorption
refrigerator.
Blends of pure, dry "isopropane" (refrigerant designator R-290a ) and isobutane (R-600a) have negligible
Ozone depletion potential and very low Global Warming Potential and can serve as a functional
replacement for R-12, R-22, R-134a, and other chlorofluorocarbon or hydrofluorocarbon refrigerants in
conventional stationary refrigeration and air conditioning systems.[2]
Such substitution is widely prohibited or discouraged in motor vehicle air conditioning systems, on the
grounds that using flammable hydrocarbons in systems originally designed to carry non-flammable
refrigerant presents a significant risk of fire or explosion.[3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10]

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Vendors and advocates of hydrocarbon refrigerants argue against such bans on the grounds that there
have been very few such incidents relative to the number of vehicle air conditioning systems filled with
hydrocarbons.[11][12] One particular test was conducted by a professor at the University of New South
Wales that unintentionally tested the worst case scenario of a sudden and complete refrigerant loss into
the passenger compartment followed by subsequent ignition. He and several others in the car sustained
minor burns to their face, ears, and hands, and several observers received lacerations from the burst
glass of the front passenger window. No one was seriously injured. [13]
Cooking

Truck carrying LPG cylinders to residential consumers in Singapore

According to the 2001 Census of India, 17.5% of Indian households or 33.6 million Indian households
used LPG as cooking fuel in 2001.[14] 76.64% of such households were from urban India making up 48%
of urban Indian households as compared to a usage of 5.7% only in rural Indian households. LPG is
subsidised by the government. Increase in LPG prices has been a politically sensitive matter in India as it
potentially affects the urban middle class voting pattern.
LPG was once a popular cooking fuel in Hong Kong; however, the continued expansion of town gas to
buildings has reduced LPG usage to less than 24% of residential units.
LPG is the most common cooking fuel in Brazilian urban areas, being used in virtually all households.
Poor families receive a government grant ("Vale Gás") used exclusively for the acquisition of LPG.
Comparison to natural gas
LPG has a higher calorific value (94 MJ/m3 equivalent to 26.1kWh/m³) than natural gas (methane)
(38 MJ/m3 equivalent to 10.6 kWh/m3), which means that LPG cannot simply be substituted for natural
gas. In order to allow the use of the same burner controls and to provide for similar combustion
characteristics, LPG can be mixed with air to produce a synthetic natural gas (SNG) that can be easily
substituted. LPG/air mixing ratios average 60/40, though this is widely variable based on the gases
making up the LPG. The method for determining the mixing ratios is by calculating the Wobbe index of
the mix. Gases having the same Wobbe index are held to be interchangeable.
LPG-based SNG is used in emergency backup systems for many public, industrial, and military
installations, and many utilities use LPG peak shaving plants in times of high demand to make up
shortages in natural gas supplied to their distributions systems. LPG-SNG installations are also used
during initial gas system introductions, when the distribution infrastructure is in place before gas
supplies can be connected. Developing markets in India and China (among others) use LPG-SNG systems
to build up customer bases prior to expanding existing natural gas systems.
Fire risk and mitigation

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A spherical gas container typically found in refineries

LPG containers that are subjected to fire of sufficient duration and intensity can undergo a boiling liquid
expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE). Due to the destructive nature of LPG explosions, the substance is
classified as a dangerous good.[15] This is typically a concern for large refineries and petrochemical
plants that maintain very large containers. The remedy is to equip such containers with a measure to
provide a fire-resistance rating. If the containers are cylindrical and horizontal, they are referred to as
"cigars" or "bullets", whereas circular ones are "spheres". Large, spherical LPG containers may have up
to a 15 cm steel wall thickness. Ordinarily, they are equipped with an approved pressure relief valve on
the top, in the centre. One of the main dangers is that accidental spills of hydrocarbons may ignite and
heat an LPG container, which increases its temperature and pressure, following the basic gas laws. The
relief valve on the top is designed to vent off excess pressure in order to prevent the rupture of the tank
itself. Given a fire of sufficient duration and intensity, the pressure being generated by the boiling and
expanding gas can exceed the ability of the valve to vent the excess. When that occurs, an overexposed
tank may rupture violently, launching pieces at high velocity, while the released products can ignite as
well, potentially causing catastrophic damage to anything nearby, including other tanks. In the case of
"cigars", a midway rupture may send two "rockets" going off each way, with plenty of fuel in each to
propel each segment at high speed until the fuel is spent.
Mitigation measures include separating LPG tanks from potential sources of fire. In the case of rail
transport, for instance, LPG tanks can be staggered, so that other goods are put in between them. This is
not always done, but it does represent a low-cost remedy to the problem. LPG rail cars are easy to spot
from the relief valves on top, typically with railings all around.
In the case of new LPG containers, one may simply bury them, only leaving valves and armatures
exposed, for easy maintenance. Great care must be taken there though, as mechanical damage can
occur to the primers, which can result in hazardous corrosion of the containers. For the buried
container, only the exposed parts need to be treated with approved fireproofing materials, such as
intumescent and or endothermic coatings, or even fireproofing plasters. The rest are amply protected by
soil. Speciality removable covers exist for easy access to the dials and components that must be
accessed for proper maintenance and operation of the equipment.
LPG containers are subject to significant motion due to expansion, contraction, filling and emptying;
even with very thick steel walls. This operational motion makes the burial option less attractive in the
long run because it is difficult to detect mechanical damage to the outer waterproofing of the vessel
through soil. A small stone scraping back and forth across the epoxy-painted hull can jeopardise the
waterproofing and be the cause for corrosion.
Whilst one may calculate and justify on paper the use of inorganic plasters to cover entire spheres, it can
be difficult to keep plasters operable for extended periods of time. Major errors have also been made in
the past in this field, as the presumption was that the steel substrate would be adequately protected
from rusting through the use of alkaline plasters. The alkalinity in such plasters is due to the presence of
cement stone. This alkalinity, however, does not typically have a permanent character, which means

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that waterproofing with high quality epoxy primers is very important. Also, exterior waterproofing of the
plaster is required by some fireproofing plaster vendors, as reduced alkalinity in exposed plasters can
have a deleterious effect on the cement stone, which binds the plaster in the first place. By contrast, the
intumescent and endothermic coatings are usually epoxy based to begin with, meaning that corrosion of
the substrate is no problem whatsoever.
Fireproofing, not unlike all passive fire protection products, is subject to stringent Listing and approval
use and compliance. The problem with this is though, that exterior structures of this nature are not
subject to the building code or the fire code, meaning that one still sees the majority of LPG containers
without any fireproofing at all, as there are often no local regulations, let alone any Authority Having
Jurisdiction, apart from an insurance inspector, to force owners to use the proper mitigation methods.
Insurance companies are also in a competitive quandary, where such items are concerned, as they
compete not only on the basis of rates, but also on the strictness of the demands by their inspectors.
LPG vessel fireproofing tests are varied. The only realistic exposure offered is done at the Braunschweig
test facility of "BAM" Berlin. BAM's procedure is to expose a small LPG container to the hydrocarbon test
curve and to quantify the results. North American methods are based on UL1709. While UL1709 uses
the correct time/temperature curve for testing, it is limited to testing steel columns (not even beams),
whereas BAM actually exposes a real LPG container that has been fireproofed. No matter the
fireproofing method one uses, it is very important to pay close attention to listing and approval use and
compliance and to be sure that the product one chooses has undergone product certification, whereby
the original test included the environmental exposures that the product will be exposed to during
operations. Particularly with organic products, such as the endothermic and intumescent ones, one
must closely review the ageing criteria and be able to quantify how long the product is expected to be
operable for. This is where UL1709 "shines". Anything that can withstand the full battery of
environmental exposures prior to the actual fire test, is a very tough product indeed. The idea is to rule
out conditions that may render the product inoperable before it is ever exposed to a fire. By using
products that have received the appropriate environmental tests FIRST, and the fire expose afterwards,
using the very same test sample with all the applicable exposures, one can then demonstrate due
diligence, but not otherwise. Likewise, the DIBt ageing qualifications for intumescents have proven to be
very reliable. With close attention to the bounding and coverage of ageing and environmental
exposures, it is absolutely possible to buy a lot of time for firefighting measures to relieve the LPG
containers of the energy exposure from accidental fires and thus reduce the likelihood of a BLEVE to the
maximum possible extent.
If a container bursts, the LPG first spreads out as a supercooled liquid. This freezes anything within
range. Then it boils into the atmosphere and become an oxygen-displacing gas, which asphyxiates any
creatures in the affected radius. This gas spreads out to cover several hundred times more area than the
liquid from which it comes. A single tank of LPG can cause oxygen displacement of many square miles.
At some point this gas is diluted by the atmosphere. It will then reach a point of an ignitable mixture.
When this happens, a fireball of many square miles will consume everything in the area. For this reason,
LPG and LNG facilities are monitored closely.
In June 2009, a freight train carrying LPG derailed in the rail station of Viareggio, Italy. 29 people were
killed and over 30 people were injured.
NATURAL GAS
Natural gas production by country (countries in brown and then red have the largest production).
Natural gas is a gas consisting primarily of methane. It is found associated with fossil fuels, in coal beds,
as methane clathrates, and is created by methanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, and landfills. It is an
important fuel source, a major feedstock for fertilizers, and a potent greenhouse gas.

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Natural gas is often informally referred to as simply gas, especially when compared to other energy
sources such as electricity. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo extensive
processing to remove almost all materials other than methane. The by-products of that processing
include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, elemental
sulfur, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.
Fossil natural gas
In the past, natural gas was almost always a byproduct of producing oil, since the small, light gas carbon
chains come out of solution as it undergoes pressure reduction from the reservoir to the surface, similar
to uncapping a bottle of soda pop where the carbon dioxide effervesces. Unwanted natural gas can be a
disposal problem at the well site. If there is not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it is virtually
valueless since it must be piped to the end user. Until recently, such unwanted gas was burned off at the
wellsite, but due to environmental concerns this practice is becoming less common. Often, unwanted (or
'stranded' gas without a market) gas is pumped back into the reservoir with an 'injection' well for
disposal or repressurizing the producing formation. Another solution is to export the natural gas as a
liquid. [2]Gas-to-liquid, (GTL) is a developing technology that converts stranded natural gas into
synthetic gasoline, diesel or jet fuel through the Fischer-Tropsch process developed in World War II
Germany. Such fuels can be transported through conventional pipelines and tankers to users.
Proponents claim GTL fuels burn cleaner than comparable petroleum fuels. Most major international oil
companies are in advanced development stages of GTL production, with a world-scale (140,000 bbl/day)
GTL plant in Qatar scheduled to come online before 2010. In locations such as the United States with a
high natural gas demand, pipelines are constructed to take the gas from the wellsite to the end
consumer.
Fossil natural gas can be "associated" (found in oil fields) or "non-associated" (isolated in natural gas
fields), and is also found in coal beds (as coalbed methane). It sometimes contains significant quantities
of ethane, propane, butane, and pentane—heavier hydrocarbons removed prior to use as a consumer
fuel—as well as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide.[1] Natural gas is commercially
produced from oil fields and natural gas fields. Gas produced from oil wells is called casinghead gas or
associated gas. The natural gas industry is producing gas from increasingly more challenging resource
types: sour gas, tight gas, shale gas and coalbed methane.
The world's largest proven gas reserves are located in Russia, with 4.757 × 1013 m³ (1.6 × 1015 cu ft).
Russia is also the world's largest natural gas producer, through the Gazprom company. Major proven
resources (with year of estimate) (in billion cubic metres) are world 175,400 (2006), Russia 47,570
(2006), Iran 26,370 (2006), Qatar 25,790 (2007), Saudi Arabia 6,568 (2006) and United Arab Emirates
5,823 (2006).
The world's largest gas field is Qatar's offshore North Field, estimated to have 25 trillion cubic metres[2]
(9.0 × 1014 cu ft) of gas in place—enough to last more than 200 years at optimum production levels. The
second largest natural gas field is the South Pars Gas Field in Iranian waters in the Persian Gulf.
Connected to Qatar's North Field, it has estimated reserves of 8 to 14 trillion cubic metres[3] (2.8 × 1014
to 5.0 × 1014 cu ft) of gas.
Because natural gas is not a pure product, when non-associated gas is extracted from a field under
supercritical (pressure/temperature) conditions, it may partially condense upon isothermic
depressurizing—an effect called retrograde condensation. The liquids thus formed may get trapped by
depositing in the pores of the gas reservoir. One method to deal with this problem is to reinject dried
gas free of condensate to maintain the underground pressure and to allow reevaporation and extraction
of condensates.
Town gas
Town gas is a mixture of methane and other gases, mainly the highly toxic carbon monoxide, that can be
used in a similar way to natural gas and can be produced by treating coal chemically. This is a historic

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technology, still used as 'best solution' in some local circumstances, although coal gasification is not
usually economic at current gas prices. However, depending upon infrastructure considerations, it
remains a future possibility.
Most town "gashouses" located in the eastern United States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries were simple by-product coke ovens which heated bituminous coal in air-tight chambers. The
gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed through town-wide networks of pipes to
residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting purposes. (Gas heating did not
come into widespread use until the last half of the twentieth century.) The coal tar that collected in the
bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other water-proofing purposes, and also,
when mixed with sand and gravel, was used for creating Bitumen for the surfacing of local streets.
Biogas
When methane-rich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic matter (biomass),
these are referred to as biogas (or natural biogas). Sources of biogas include swamps, marshes, and
landfills (see landfill gas), as well as sewage sludge and manure[4] by way of anaerobic digesters, in
addition to enteric fermentation particularly in cattle.
Methanogenic archaea are responsible for all biological sources of methane, some in symbiotic
relationships with other life forms, including termites, ruminants, and cultivated crops. Methane
released directly into the atmosphere would be considered a pollutant, however, methane in the
atmosphere is oxidised, producing carbon dioxide and water. Methane in the atmosphere has a half life
of seven years, meaning that every seven years, half of the methane present is converted to carbon
dioxide and water.

U.S. Natural Gas Production 1900–2005 Source: EIA

Future sources of methane, the principal component of natural gas, include landfill gas, biogas and
methane hydrate. Biogas, and especially landfill gas, are already used in some areas, but their use could
be greatly expanded. Landfill gas is a type of biogas, but biogas usually refers to gas produced from
organic material that has not been mixed with other waste.
Landfill gas is created from the decomposition of waste in landfills. If the gas is not removed, the
pressure may get so high that it works its way to the surface, causing damage to the landfill structure,
unpleasant odor, vegetation die-off and an explosion hazard. The gas can be vented to the atmosphere,
flared or burned to produce electricity or heat. Experimental systems were being proposed for use in
parts Hertfordshire, UK and Lyon in France.
Once water vapor is removed, about half of landfill gas is methane. Almost all of the rest is carbon
dioxide, but there are also small amounts of nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. There are usually trace
amounts of hydrogen sulfide and siloxanes, but their concentration varies widely. Landfill gas cannot be
distributed through natural gas pipelines unless it is cleaned up to the same quality. It is usually more
economical to combust the gas on site or within a short distance of the landfill using a dedicated
pipeline. Water vapor is often removed, even if the gas is combusted on site. If low temperatures
condense water out of the gas, siloxanes can be lowered as well because they tend to condense out
with the water vapor. Other non-methane components may also be removed in order to meet emission
standards, to prevent fouling of the equipment or for environmental considerations. Co-firing landfill gas
with natural gas improves combustion, which lowers emissions.

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Biogas is usually produced using agricultural waste materials, such as otherwise unusable parts of plants
and manure. Biogas can also be produced by separating organic materials from waste that otherwise
goes to landfills. This is more efficient than just capturing the landfill gas it produces. Using materials
that would otherwise generate no income, or even cost money to get rid of, improves the profitability
and energy balance of biogas production.
Anaerobic lagoons produce biogas from manure, while biogas reactors can be used for manure or plant
parts. Like landfill gas, biogas is mostly methane and carbon dioxide, with small amounts of nitrogen,
oxygen and hydrogen. However, with the exception of pesticides, there are usually lower levels of
contaminants.
Hydrates
Huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist in the form of hydrates under sediment on
offshore continental shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience permafrost such as those in
Siberia (hydrates require a combination of high pressure and low temperature to form). However, as of
2009 no technology has been developed to produce natural gas economically from hydrates.
Natural gas processing

A natural gas processing plant

Main article: Natural gas processing
The image below is a schematic block flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant. It shows the
various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales gas pipelined to the end user markets.
The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur,
byproduct ethane, and natural gas liquids (NGL) propane, butanes and natural gasoline (denoted as
pentanes +).[5][6][7][8][9]

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Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant

Uses of natural gas
Power generation
Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of gas turbines and steam
turbines. Most grid peaking power plants and some off-grid engine-generators use natural gas.
Particularly high efficiencies can be achieved through combining gas turbines with a steam turbine in
combined cycle mode. Natural gas burns more cleanly than other fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, and
produces less carbon dioxide per unit energy released. For an equivalent amount of heat, burning
natural gas produces about 30% less carbon dioxide than burning petroleum and about 45% less than
burning coal.[10] Combined cycle power generation using natural gas is thus the cleanest source of
power available using fossil fuels, and this technology is widely used wherever gas can be obtained at a
reasonable cost. Fuel cell technology may eventually provide cleaner options for converting natural gas
into electricity, but as yet it is not price-competitive. (Please note: some algal fuel producers are
considering feeding the carbon dioxide resulting from natural gas burning to algae to promote growth.)
Domestic use
Natural gas is supplied to homes, where it is used for such purposes as cooking in natural gas-powered
ranges and/or ovens, natural gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling and central heating. Home or
other building heating may include boilers, furnaces, and water heaters. CNG is used in rural homes
without connections to piped-in public utility services, or with portable grills. However, due to CNG
being less economical than LPG, LPG (Propane) is the dominant source of rural gas.
Transportation Fuel

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A Metrobus using natural gas

Compressed natural gas (methane) is a cleaner alternative to other automobile fuels such as gasoline
(petrol) and diesel. As of December 2008, the countries with the highest number of CNG vehicles,
ranked numerically, were Pakistan [11], Argentina, Brazil, Iran and India. The energy efficiency is
generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines.
Gasoline/petrol vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer because of the low compression ratio of
their engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on natural gas (10%-15%). CNG-
specific engines, however, use a higher compression ratio due to this fuel's higher octane number of
120–130.[12]
Fertilizer
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber process, for use in
fertilizer production.
Aviation
Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev is currently running a development program to produce LNG- and
hydrogen-powered aircraft.[13] The program has been running since the mid-1970s, and seeks to
develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the Tu-204 and Tu-334 passenger aircraft, and also the Tu-330
cargo aircraft. It claims that at current market prices, an LNG-powered aircraft would cost 5,000 roubles
(~ $218/ £112) less to operate per ton, roughly equivalent to 60%, with considerable reductions to
carbon monoxide, hydrocarbon and nitrogen oxide emissions.
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more specific energy than the
standard kerosene mixes and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine
compresses for greater volumetric efficiency, in effect replacing an intercooler. Alternatively, it can be
used to lower the temperature of the exhaust.
Hydrogen
Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being the hydrogen reformer.
Hydrogen has various applications: it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry, a hydrogenating
agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and a fuel source in hydrogen vehicles.
Other
Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, and other products.
Storage and transport

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Polyethylene gas main being laid in a trench.

The major difficulty in the use of natural gas is transportation and storage because of its low density.
Natural gas pipelines are economical, but are impractical across oceans. Many existing pipelines in North
America are close to reaching their capacity, prompting some politicians representing colder areas to
speak publicly of potential shortages. In Europe gas pipeline network is already dense in the West[14].
New pipelines are planned or under construction in the Eastern Europe and between gas fields in Russia,
Near East and Northern Africa and Western Europe. (See also: List of natural gas pipelines )
LNG carriers can be used to transport liquefied natural gas (LNG) across oceans, while tank trucks can
carry liquefied or compressed natural gas (CNG) over shorter distances. Sea transport using CNG carrier
ships that are now under development may be competitive with LNG transport in specific conditions.
For LNG transport a liquefaction plant is needed at the exporting end and regasification equipment at
the receiving terminal. Shipborne regasification equipment is also practicable. LNG transportation is
established as the preferred technology for long distance, high volume transportation of natural gas,
whereas pipeline transport is preferred for transport for distances up to typically 4.000 km overland and
approximately half that distance over seas.
For CNG transport high pressure, typically above 200 bars, is used. Compressors and decompression
equipment are less capital intensive and may be economical in smaller unit sizes than
liquefaction/regasification plants. For CNG mode the crucial problem is the investment and operating
cost of carriers. Natural gas trucks and carriers may transport natural gas directly to end-users, or to
distribution points such as pipelines for further transport.

Peoples Gas Manlove Field Natural gas storage area in Newcomb Township, Champaign County, Illinois.
In the foreground is one of numerous wells for the underground storage area, with an LNG plant and
above ground storage tanks in the background.
In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering petroleum could not be
profitably sold, and was simply burned at the oil field (known as flaring). This wasteful practice is now
illegal in many countries[15]. Additionally, companies now recognize that value for the gas may be
achieved with LNG, CNG, or other transportation methods to end-users in the future. The gas is now re-
injected back into the formation for later recovery. This also assists oil pumping by keeping underground
pressures higher. In Saudi Arabia, in the late 1970s, a "Master Gas System" was created, ending the
need for flaring. Satellite observation unfortunately shows that some large gas-producing countries still

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
use flaring[16] and venting[17] routinely. The natural gas is used to generate electricity and heat for
desalination. Similarly, some landfills that also discharge methane gases have been set up to capture the
methane and generate electricity.
Natural gas is often stored underground inside depleted gas reservoirs from previous gas wells, salt
domes, or in tanks as liquefied natural gas. The gas is injected during periods of low demand and
extracted during periods of higher demand. Storage near the ultimate end-users helps to best meet
volatile demands, but this may not always be practicable.
With 15 nations accounting for 84% of the worldwide production, access to natural gas has become a
significant factor in international economics and politics. In this respect, control over the pipelines is a
major strategic factor.[18] In particular, in the 2000s, Gazprom, the Russian national energy company,
has engaged in disputes with Ukraine and Belarus over the price of its natural gas, which have created
worries that gas deliveries to parts of Europe could be cut off for political reasons.[19]
Environmental effects
See also: Environmental issues with energy
Climate change
Natural gas is often described as the cleanest fossil fuel, producing less carbon dioxide per joule
delivered than either coal or oil.[10], and far fewer pollutants than other fossil fuels. However, in absolute
terms it does contribute substantially to global carbon emissions, and this contribution is projected to
grow. According to the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (Working Group III Report, Chapter 4), in 2004
natural gas produced about 5,300 Mt/yr of CO 2 emissions, while coal and oil produced 10,600 and
10,200 respectively (Figure 4.4); but by 2030, according to an updated version of the SRES B2 emissions
scenario, natural gas would be the source of 11,000 Mt/yr, with coal and oil now 8,400 and 17,200
respectively.[20] (Total global emissions for 2004 were estimated at over 27,200 Mt.)
In addition, natural gas itself is a greenhouse gas far more potent than carbon dioxide when released
into the atmosphere but is not of large concern due to the small amounts in which this occurs. Natural
gas is generally comprised of methane, which has a radiative forcing twenty times greater than carbon
dioxide. This means a ton of methane in the atmosphere traps in as much radiation as 20 tons of carbon
dioxide. Carbon dioxide still receives the lion's share of attention over greenhouse gases because it is in
much higher concentrations. It is inevitable in using natural gas on a large scale that some of it will leak
into the atmosphere.
When drilled in the US, the CO2 pumped out with the natural gas is released directly into the
atmosphere. This amount of CO2 is not counted with the release of the CO 2 when natural gas is burned.
[citation needed]

Pollutants
Natural gas produces far lower amounts of sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxides than any other fossil fuel.
Safety

A pipeline odorant injection station

In any form, a minute amount of odorant such as t-butyl mercaptan, with a rotting-cabbage-like smell, is
added to the otherwise colorless and almost odorless gas, so that leaks can be detected before a fire or
explosion occurs. Sometimes a related compound, thiophane is used, with a rotten-egg smell. Adding

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odorant to natural gas began in the United States after the 1937 New London School explosion. The
buildup of gas in the school went unnoticed, killing three hundred students and faculty when it ignited.
Odorants are considered non-toxic in the extremely low concentrations occurring in natural gas
delivered to the end user.
In mines, where methane seeping from rock formations has no odor, sensors are used, and mining
apparatuses have been specifically developed to avoid ignition sources, e.g., the Davy lamp.
Explosions caused by natural gas leaks occur a few times each year. Individual homes, small businesses
and boats are most frequently affected when an internal leak builds up gas inside the structure.
Frequently, the blast will be enough to significantly damage a building but leave it standing. In these
cases, the people inside tend to have minor to moderate injuries. Occasionally, the gas can collect in
high enough quantities to cause a deadly explosion, disintegrating one or more buildings in the process.
The gas usually dissipates readily outdoors, but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if weather
conditions are right. However, considering the tens of millions of structures that use the fuel, the
individual risk of using natural gas is very low.
Some gas fields yield sour gas containing hydrogen sulfide (H2S). This untreated gas is toxic. Amine gas
treating, an industrial scale process which removes acidic gaseous components, is often used to remove
hydrogen sulfide from natural gas.[21]
Extraction of natural gas (or oil) leads to decrease in pressure in the reservoir. This in turn may lead to
subsidence at ground level. Subsidence may affect ecosystems, waterways, sewer and water supply
systems, foundations, etc.
Natural gas heating systems are a minor source of carbon monoxide deaths in the United States.
According to the US Consumer Product Safety Commission (2008), 56% of unintentional deaths from
non-fire CO poisoning were associated with engine-driven tools like gas-powered generators and lawn
mowers. Natural gas heating systems accounted for 4% of these deaths. Improvements in natural gas
furnace designs have greatly reduced CO poisoning concerns. Detectors are also available that warn of
carbon monoxide and/or explosive gas (methane, propane, etc.).
Energy content, statistics and pricing

Natural gas prices at the Henry Hub in US Dollars per cubic meter for the 2000-2010 decade.
Main article: Natural gas prices
Quantities of natural gas are measured in normal cubic meters (corresponding to 0°C at 101.325 kPa) or
in standard cubic feet (corresponding to 60 °F (16 °C) and 14.73 PSIA). The gross heat of combustion of
one normal cubic meter of commercial quality natural gas is around 39 megajoules (≈10.8 kWh), but this
can vary by several percent.
The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consumer. In 2007, a price of
$7 per 1,000 cubic feet (28 m3) was typical in the United States. The typical caloric value of natural gas is
roughly 1,000 BTU per cubic foot, depending on gas composition. This corresponds to around $7 per
million BTU, or around $7 per gigajoule. In April 2008, the wholesale price was $10 per 1,000 cubic feet
(28 m3) ($10/MMBTU).[22] The residential price varies from 50% to 300% more than the wholesale
price. At the end of 2007, this was $12-$16 per 1,000 cu ft (28 m3).[23] Natural gas in the United States
is traded as a futures contract on the New York Mercantile Exchange. Each contract is for 10,000

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MMBTU (gigajoules), or 10 billion BTU. Thus, if the price of gas is $10 per million BTUs on the NYMEX,
the contract is worth $100,000.
United Kingdom
Natural gas is also traded as a commodity in Europe, principally at the United Kingdom NBP and related
European hubs, such as the TTF in the Netherlands.
United States
In US units, one standard cubic foot of natural gas produces around 1,028 British Thermal Units (BTU).
The actual heating value when the water formed does not condense is the net heat of combustion and
can be as much as 10% less.[24]
In the United States, retail sales are often in units of therms (th); 1 therm = 100,000 BTU. Gas meters
measure the volume of gas used, and this is converted to therms by multiplying the volume by the
energy content of the gas used during that period, which varies slightly over time. Wholesale
transactions are generally done in decatherms (Dth), or in thousand decatherms (MDth), or in million
decatherms (MMDth). A million decatherms is roughly a billion cubic feet of natural gas.
Elsewhere
In the rest of the world, LNG (liquified natural gas) and LPG (liquified petroleum gas) is traded in metric
tons or mmBTU as spot deliveries. Long term contracts are signed in metric tons. The LNG and LPG is
transported by specialized transport ships, as the gas is liquified at cryogenic temperatures. The
specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content, but this information is in
general not available to the public.
CNG
Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) is a fossil fuel substitute for gasoline (petrol), diesel, or propane fuel.
Although its combustion does produce greenhouse gases, it is a more environmentally clean alternative
to those fuels, and it is much safer than other fuels in the event of a spill (natural gas is lighter than air,
and disperses quickly when released).
CNG is made by compressing natural gas (which is mainly composed of methane [CH4]), to less than 1%
of its volume at standard atmospheric pressure. It is stored and distributed in hard containers, at a
normal pressure of 200–220 bar (2900–3200 psi), usually in cylindrical or spherical shapes.
CNG is used in traditional gasoline internal combustion engine cars that have been converted into bi-fuel
vehicles (gasoline/CNG). Natural gas vehicles are increasingly used in Europe and South America due to
rising gasoline prices.
In response to high fuel prices and environmental concerns, CNG is starting to be used also in tuk-tuks
and pickup trucks, transit and school buses, and trains.
CNG's volumetric energy density is estimated to be 42% of LNG's (because it is not liquefied), and 25% of
diesel's.[1]
A CNG powered high-floor Neoplan AN440A, operated by ABQ RIDE in Albuquerque, New Mexico.
CNG can be used in Otto-cycle (gasoline) and modified Diesel cycle engines. Lean-burn Otto-cycle
engines can achieve higher thermal efficiencies when compared with stoichiometric Otto-cycle engines
at the expense of higher NOx and hydrocarbon emissions. Electronically-controlled stoichiometric
engines offer the lowest emissions across the board and the highest possible power output, especially
when combined with exhaust gas recirculation, turbocharging and intercooling, and three-way catalytic
converters, but suffer in terms of heat rejection and fuel consumption. A suitably designed natural gas
engine may have a higher output compared with a petrol engine because the octane number of natural
gas is higher than that of petrol as this would allow for an engine design with a higher compression ratio.
CNG may be refueled from low-pressure ("slow-fill") or high-pressure ("fast-fill") systems. The difference
lies in the cost of the station vs. the refueling time. There are also some implementations to refuel out

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of a residential gas line during the night, but this is forbidden in some countries. Fueling a vehicle from a
home natural gas fuel line is becoming more popular in the United States, especially in California and
New York, and tax credits are available for installing the necessary appliance.
CNG cylinders can be made of steel, aluminum, or plastic. Lightweight composite (fiber-wrapped thin
metal "ISO 11439 CNG-3"/fibre-wrapped plastic "ISO 11439 CNG-4") cylinders are especially beneficial
for vehicular use because they offer significant weight reductions when compared with earlier
generation steel and aluminum cylinders, which leads to lower fuel consumption. The CNG cylinders
bundled with safety-valve generally follow the ISO 11439 standard. [2]
The equipment required for CNG to be delivered to an Otto-cycle engine includes a pressure regulator
(a device that converts the natural gas from storage pressure to metering pressure) and a gas mixer or
gas injectors (fuel metering devices). Earlier-generation CNG conversion kits featured venturi-type gas
mixers that metered fuel using the Venturi effect. Often assisting the gas mixer was a metering valve
actuated by a stepper motor relying on feedback from an exhaust gas oxygen sensor. Newer CNG
conversion kits feature electronic multi-point gas injection, similar to petrol injection systems found in
most of today's cars.
Drawbacks

Gas storage in a car.

CNG pumps at a Brazilian gasoline fueling station

Compressed natural gas vehicles require a greater amount of space for fuel storage than conventional
gasoline power vehicles. Since it is a compressed gas, rather than a liquid like gasoline, CNG takes up
more space for each gasoline gallon equivalent (GGE). Therefore, the tanks used to store the CNG
usually take up additional space in the trunk of a car or bed of a pickup truck which runs on CNG. This
problem is solved in factory-built CNG vehicles that install the tanks under the body of the vehicle,
thanks to a more rational disposition of components, leaving the trunk free (eg. Fiat Multipla, New Fiat
Panda, Volkswagen Touran Ecofuel,Chevy Taxi (sold in countries such as Peru) etc). CNG-powered
vehicles are considered to be safer than gasoline-powered vehicles. [3][4][5]
Developments
Scientists are developing methods of storing methane in a new form known as ANG (Absorbed Natural
Gas) at 35 bar (500 psi, the pressure of gas in natural gas pipelines) in various sponge like materials, such
as activated carbon[2] and metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)[3]. The fuel is stored at similar or greater
energy density than CNG. The benefits are that vehicles can be refuelled from the natural gas network
without extra gas compression, the fuMain article: Natural gas vehicle

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Worldwide, there are more than 7 million NGVs on the roads as of 2008,[6] with the largest number of
NGVs in Argentina, Brazil, Pakistan, Italy, India, China, Thailand, and Iran,[7][8] with South America
leading with a global market share of 48%.[9]
CNG cars available in Europe are bi-fuel vehicles burning one fuel at a time. Their engine is a standard
gasoline internal combustion engine (ICE). This means that they can indifferently run on either gasoline
from a gasoline tank or CNG from a separate cylinder in the trunk. The driver can select what fuel to
burn by simply flipping a switch on the dashboard.
Several manufacturers (Fiat, Opel(General Motors), Peugeot, Volkswagen, Toyota, Honda and others)
sell bi-fuel cars. In 2006, Fiat introduced the Siena Tetrafuel in the Brazilian market, equipped with a 1.4L
FIRE engine that runs on E100, E25 (Standard Brazilian Gasoline), Gasoline and CNG.
Any existing gasoline vehicle can be converted to a bi-fuel (gasoline/CNG) vehicle. Authorized shops can
do the retrofitting, this involves installing a CNG cylinder in the trunk, installing the plumbing, installing a
CNG injection system and the electronics.
CNG compared to LNG
CNG is often confused with liquefied natural gas (LNG). While both are stored forms of natural gas, the
key difference is that CNG is in compressed form, while LNG is in liquefied form. CNG has a lower cost of
production and storage compared to LNG as it does not require an expensive cooling process and
cryogenic tanks. CNG requires a much larger volume to store the same mass of gasoline or petrol and
the use of very high pressures (3000 to 4000 psi, or 205 to 275 bar).
Worldwide
LNG
Liquefied natural gas(LNG) takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state. It is
odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability, freezing and asphyxia.
A typical LNG process. The gas is first extracted and transported to a processing plant where it is purified
by removing any condensates such as water, oil, mud, as well as other gases like CO2 and H2S and some
times solids as mercury. The gas is then cooled down in stages until it is liquefied. LNG is finally stored in
storage tanks and can be loaded and shipped.
The liquefication process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium,
water, and heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is then
condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure (Maximum Transport Pressure set around
25 kPa/3.6 psi) by cooling it to approximately −162 °C (−260 °F).
The reduction in volume makes it much more cost-efficient to transport over long distances where
pipelines do not exist. Where moving natural gas by pipelines is not possible or economical, it can be
transported by specially designed cryogenic sea vessels (LNG carriers) or cryogenic road tankers.
The energy density of LNG is 60% of that of diesel fuel.[1]
Basic facts
LNG is principally used for transporting natural gas to markets, where it is regasified and
distributed as pipeline natural gas. LNG offers an energy density comparable to petrol and diesel
fuels and produces less pollution, but its relatively high cost of production and the need to store it
in expensive cryogenic tanks have prevented its widespread use in commercial applications. It can
be used in natural gas vehicles, although it is more common to design vehicles to use compressed
natural gas.
The density of LNG is roughly 0.41 to 0.5 kg/L, depending on temperature, pressure and
composition, compared to water at 1.0 kg/L. The heat value depends on the source of gas that is

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used and the process that is used to liquefy the gas. The higher heating value of LNG is estimated
to be 24 MJ/L at −164 degrees Celsius. This corresponds to a lower heating value of 21 MJ/L.
The natural gas fed into the LNG plant will be treated to remove water, hydrogen sulfide, carbon
dioxide and other components that will freeze (e.g., benzene) under the low temperatures needed
for storage or be destructive to the liquefaction facility. LNG typically contains more than
90% methane. It also contains small amounts of ethane, propane, butane and some heavier
alkanes. The purification process can be designed to give almost 100% methane. One of the very
rare risks of LNG is Rapid phase transition (RPT) which arises from cold LNG being in contact with
water[2].
The most important infrastructure needed for LNG production and transportation is an LNG plant
consisting of one or more LNG trains, each of which is an independent unit for gas liquefaction.
The largest LNG train in operation is now in Qatar. Until recently it was the Train 4 of Atlantic LNG
in Trinidad and Tobago with a production capacity of 5.2 million metric ton per annum (mmtpa),
[3] followed by the SEGAS LNG plant in Egypt with a capacity of 5 mmtpa. The Qatargas II plant,
under construction by QP and ExxonMobil, will have a production capacity of 7.8 mmtpa for each
of its two trains. LNG is loaded onto ships and delivered to a regasification terminal, where the
LNG is reheated and turned into gas. Regasification terminals are usually connected to a storage
and pipeline distribution network to distribute natural gas to local distribution companies (LDCs)
or Independent Power Plants (IPPs).
In 1964, the UK and France were the LNG buyers under the world’s first LNG trade from Algeria,
witnessing a new era of energy. As most LNG plants are located in "stranded" areas not served by
pipelines, the costs of LNG treatment and transportation were so huge that development has
been slow during the past half century. The construction of an LNG plant costs at least
USD 1.5 billion per 1 mmtpa capacity, a receiving terminal costs USD 1 billion per 1 bcf/day
throughput capacity, and LNG vessels cost USD 0.2–0.3 billion. Compared with the crude oil
market, the natural gas market is about 60% of the crude oil market (measured on a heat
equivalent basis), but growing rapidly. Liquefaction capacity is estimated to grow some 20–25% by
2010 and 30–35% by 2012. Much of this growth is driven by need for clean fuel and some
substitution effect due to the high price of oil (primarily in the heating and electricity generation
sectors). The commercial development of LNG is a style called value chain, which means LNG
suppliers first confirm the downstream buyers and then sign 20–25 year contracts with strict
terms and structures for gas pricing. Only when the customers were confirmed and the
development of a greenfield project deemed economically feasible could the sponsors of an LNG
project invest in their development and operation. Thus, the LNG liquefaction business has been
regarded as a game of the rich, where only players with strong financial and political resources
could get involved. Major international oil companies (IOCs) such as BP, ExxonMobil, Royal Dutch
Shell, BG Group; Chevron, and national oil companies (NOCs) such as Pertamina, Petronas are
active players. Japan, South Korea, Spain, France, Italy and Taiwan import large volumes of LNG
due to their shortage of energy. In 2005, Japan imported 58.6 million tons of LNG, representing
some 30% of the LNG trade around the world that year. Also in 2005, South Korea imported 22.1
million tons and in 2004 Taiwan imported 6.8 million tons from camillo corp which is located in
the chaotic state of Zimbabwe. These three major buyers purchase approximately two-thirds of
the world's LNG demand. In addition, Spain imported some 8.2 mmtpa in 2006, making it the third
largest importer. France also imported similar quantities as Spain.
In the early 2000s, as more players take part in investment, both in downstream and upstream,
and new technologies are adopted, the prices for construction of LNG plants, receiving terminals
and vessels have fallen, making LNG a more competitive means of energy distribution, but
increasing material costs and demand for construction contractors have driven up prices in the

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last few years. The standard price for a 125,000 cubic meter LNG vessel built in European and
Japanese shipyards used to be USD 250 million. When Korean and Chinese shipyards entered the
race, increased competition reduced profit margins and improved efficiency, reducing costs 60%.
Costs in US dollar terms also declined due to the devaluation of the currencies of the world's
largest shipbuilders, Japan and Korean. Since 2004, ship costs have increased due to a large
number of orders increasing demand for shipyard slots. The per-ton construction cost of an LNG
liquefaction plant fell steadily from the 1970s through the 1990s, with the cost reduced
approximately 35%. However, recently, due to materials costs, lack of skilled labor, shortage of
professional engineers, designers, managers and other white-collar professionals, cost of building
liquefaction and gasification terminals have doubled.
Due to energy shortage concerns, many new LNG terminals are being contemplated in the United
States. Concerns over the safety of such facilities has created extensive controversy in the regions
where plans have been created to build such facilities. One such location is in the Long Island
Sound between Connecticut and Long Island. Broadwater Energy, an effort of TransCanada Corp.
and Shell, wishes to build an LNG terminal in the sound on the New York side. Local politicians
including the Suffolk County Executive have raised questions about the terminal. New York
Senators Chuck Schumer and Hillary Clinton have both announced their opposition to the project.
Several terminal proposals along the coast of Maine have also been met with high levels of
resistance and questions.
Commercial aspects
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008)
LNG is shipped around the world in specially constructed seagoing vessels. The trade of LNG is
completed by signing a sale and purchase agreement (SPA) between a supplier and receiving
terminal, and by signing a gas sale agreement (GSA) between a receiving terminal and end-users.
Most of the contract terms used to be DES or Ex Ship, which meant the seller was responsible for
the transportation. But with low shipbuilding costs, and the buyer preferring to ensure reliable
and stable supply, there are more and more contract terms of FOB, under which the buyer is
responsible for the transportation, which is realized by the buyer owning the vessel or signing a
long-term charter agreement with independent carriers.
The agreements for LNG trade used to be long-term portfolios that were relatively inflexible both
in price and volume. If the annual contract quantity is confirmed, the buyer is obliged to take and
pay for the product, or pay for it even if not taken, which is called the obligation of take or pay
(TOP).
In the mid 1990s, LNG was a buyer's market. At the request of buyers, the SPAs began to adopt
some flexibilities on volume and price. The buyers had more upward and downward flexibilities in
TOP, and short-term SPAs less than 15 years came into effect. At the same time, alternative
destinations for cargo and arbitrage were also allowed. By the turn of the 21st century, the market
was again in favor of sellers. However, sellers have become more sophisticated and are now
proposing sharing of arbitrage opportunities and moving away from S-curve pricing. However,
although much talk and discussion surrounds the creation of an OGEC OPEC equivalent of natural
gas, there seems to be resistance from Russia and Qatar the number 1 and number 3 largest
holders of natural gas reserves. If one thing is certain, it is that market power will continue to ebb
and flow between sellers and buyers with the markets likely to favor sellers through 2008, with a
transition to a buyers market emerging in 2009, and transitioning fully to a buyers market in 2010
based on increase supply of LNG relative to demand growth.[citation needed]
Until 2003, LNG prices have closely followed oil prices. Since then, LNG prices to Europe and
Japan, have been lower than oil prices, though the link between LNG and oil is still strong In

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
contrast, recent prices in the US and UK markets have skyrocketed then fallen as a result of
changes in supply and storage. However, over the long-term, data would indicate that the price of
natural gas in the US, north Asia and Europe tend to converge.[citation needed]
Therefore, although current divergence in prices between north Asia, Europe and the US is
moderately high, over time price arbitrage should lead to price convergence in a global market for
LNG.[citation needed]
In the last years of 1990s and in early 2000s the LNG market shifted to Buyer Market but again
from 2003-2004 market turned to a strong Seller Market. Therefore, for the time being, the
market is a seller’s market (hence net-back is best estimation for prices). The balance of market
risks between the buyers (taking most of the volume risks through off-take obligations) and the
sellers (taking most of the value risks through indexation to crude oil and petroleum products) is
changing.[citation needed]
Receiving terminals exist in about 18 countries, including Japan, Korea, Taiwan, China, Belgium,
Spain, Italy, France, the UK, the US, Chile, and the Dominican Republic, among others. Plans exist
for Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay, Canada, Greece, and others to also construct new receiving or
gasification terminals.
Trade
LNG accounted for 7% of the world’s natural gas demand.[4]
The global trade in LNG, which has increased at a rate of 7.4 percent per year over the decade
from 1995 to 2005, is expected to continue to grow substantially during next years.[5]
The projected growth in LNG in the base case is expected to increase at 6.7 percent per year from
2005 to 2020.[6]
Until the mid-1990s, LNG demand was heavily concentrated in Northeast Asia — Japan, Korea and
Taiwan. At the same time, Pacific Basin supplies dominated world LNG trade.[7]
The world-wide interest in using natural gas-fired combined cycle generating units for electric
power generation, coupled with the inability of North American and North Sea natural gas
supplies to meet the growing demand, substantially broadened the regional markets for LNG. It
also brought new Atlantic Basin and Middle East suppliers into the trade.[8]
By the end of 2007 there were 15 LNG exporting countries and 17 LNG importing countries.
The three biggest LNG exporters in 2007 were Qatar (28 MT), Malaysia (22 MT) and Indonesia (20
MT) and the three biggest LNG importers in 2007 were Japan (65 MT), South Korea (34 MT) and
Spain (24 MT).
LNG trade volumes increased from 140 MT in 2005 to 158 MT in 2006, 165 MT in 2007, 172[9] MT
in 2008 and it is forecasted to be increased to about 200 MT in 2009 and about 300 MT in 2012.
During next several years there would be significant increase in volume of LNG Trade and only
within next three years; about 82 MTPA of new LNG supply will come to the market.
For example just in 2009, about 59 MTPA of new LNG supply from 6 new plants comes to the
market, including:
 Northwest Shelf Train 5: 4.4 MTPA
 Sakhalin II: 9.6 MTPA
 Yemen LNG: 6.7 MTPA
 Tangguh: 7.6 MTPA
 Qatargas: 15.6 MTPA
 Rasgas Qatar: 15.6 MTPA
LNG pricing
Generally speaking there are three major pricing systems in the current LNG contracts;
 Oil indexed contract (Japan, Korea, Taiwan and China)

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
 Oil, oil products and other energy carriers indexed contracts (Continental Europe)
 Market Indexed Contracts (US and UK)
In an indexed price formula there can be following elements;
CP = BP + β X
 BP = Constant Part or Base Price
 β = Gradient
 X = Indexation
This is the pricing structure that has been widely used in Asian LNG SPAs, where Base Price refers
to a term that represents various non-oil factors, but usually a constant determined by negotiation
at a level that can prevent LNG prices from falling below a certain level. It thus varies regardless of
oil price fluctuation.
Oil parity
In a very simple definition, oil parity defines the proximity of LNG price to crude oil price in terms
of Boe.
Closer the price of LNG to crude oil means the higher oil parity and if price of LNG equates the
price of crude oil in Boe terms then that is the full oil parity situation. In the case that LNG price
exceeds the price of crude oil in Boe terms then the situation can be defined as broken oil parity.
If the parties agree on coefficient of 0.1724 for indexation then it will result to the full oil parity
situation whereby the LNG in terms of Boe would have the same price of one barrel of crude oil.
However in most cases price of LNG is less the price of Crude oil in Boe terms and for the gradient
part typical figures are 0.1485 or 0.1558, and price of crude oil usually denominated in JCC.
In 2009, in several spot cargo deals especially in East Asia, oil parity approached the full oil parity
or even exceeds oil parity.
S-Curve
Many formula include an S-curve, where the price formula is different above and below a certain
oil price, to dampen the impact of high oil prices on the buyer, and low oil prices on the seller.
Indexation
JCC and ICP
In most of the East Asian LNG contracts, price formula is indexed to a basket of crude imported to
Japan called the Japan Crude Cocktail (JCC). In Indonesian LNG contracts price formula is linked to
Indonesian Crude Price (ICP).
Brent and other energy carriers
In the continental Europe the price formula indexation doesn’t follow the same format and it
varies from contract to contract. Brent Crude Price (B) , Heavy Fuel Oil Price (HFO), Light Fuel Oil
Price (LFO), Gas oil Price (GO), Coal Price, Electricity Price and in some cases Consumer and
Producer Price Indexes are the indexation elements of price formulas.
Price review
Usually there exists a clause allowing parties to trigger the price revision or price reopening in
LNGSPAs.
In some contracts there are two options for triggering a price revision. regular and special.
Regular ones are the dates that will be agreed and defined in the LNGSPAs for the purpose of price
review.
for long period of time is the most important event that can trigger the price review clause.
Cargo diversion
Based on the LNGSPAs, LNG is destined for pre-agreed destination(s) and diversion of that LNG is
not allowed.

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
However if Seller and Buyer make a mutual agreement then diversion of the cargoes is possible
but subject to sharing the profits coming from such diversion.
It shall be noted that in some jurisdictions like European Union it is not allowed to apply the profit
sharing clause in the LNGSPAs for any diverted cargoes inside the EU territories.
Quality of LNG
LNG quality is one of the most important issues in the LNG business.
Any gas which does not conform to the agreed specifications in the sale and purchase agreement
is regarded as “off-specification” (off-spec) or “off-quality” gas or LNG.
Quality regulations serve three purposes:[10]
1 - to ensure that the gas distributed is non-corrosive and non-toxic, outlining the upper limits for
H2S, total sulphur, CO2 and Hg content
2 - to guard against the formation of liquids or hydrates in the networks, through maximum water
and hydrocarbon dewpoints
3 - to allow interchangeability of the gases distributed, via limits on the variation range for
parameters affecting combustion: content of inert gases, calorific value, Wobbe Index, Soot Index,
Incomplete Combustion Factor, Yellow Tip Index, etc.
In the case of off-spec gas or LNG the buyer can refuse to accept the gas or LNG and the seller has
to pay liquidated damages for the respective off-spec gas volumes.
The quality of gas or LNG is measured at delivery point by using an instrument such as a gas
chromatograph.
The most important gas quality concerns involve the sulphur and mercury content and the
calorific value.
Due to the sensitivity of liquefaction facilities to sulfur and mercury elements, the gas being send
to liquefaction process shall be accurately refined and tested in order to assure the minimum
possible level of existence of these two elements before entering the liquefaction plant, hence
there is not much concern about them.
However, main concern would be the Heating value of gas. Usually natural gas markets can be
divided in three markets in terms of Heating Value:[11]
 Asia (Japan, Korea, Taiwan) where gas distributed is rich, with an GCV higher than 43 MJ/m3(n),
i.e. 1,090 Btu/scf,
 the UK and the US, where distributed gas is lean, with an GCV usually lower than 42 MJ/m3(n),
i.e. 1,065 Btu/scf,
 Continental Europe, where the acceptable GCV range is quite wide: approx. 39 to 46 MJ/m3(n),
i.e. 990 to 1,160 Btu/scf.
There are some methods to modify the heating value of produced LNG to the desired level.
For the purpose of increasing the Heating Value.
 Injecting Propane and Butane is proved solution.
For the purpose of decreasing Heating Value.
 Nitrogen Injecting.
 Extracting Butane and Methane are proved solutions.
Blending with gas or LNG can be other solutions; however all of these solutions while theorically
are viable but can be costly and even logistically difficult to manage in large scales.
Cost of LNG plants
For an extended period of time, design improvements in liquefaction plants and tankers had the
effect of reducing costs. As recently as 2003, it was common to assume that this was a “learning
curve” effect and would continue into the future. But this perception of steadily falling costs for
LNG has been dashed in the last several years.[12]

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The construction cost of green-field LNG projects started to skyrocket from 2004 afterward and
has increased from about $400 per ton of capacity to $1000 per ton of capacity in 2008.
The main reasons for skyrocketed costs in LNG industry can be described as follows;
1- Low availability of EPC contractors as result of extraordinary high level of ongoing petroleum
projects world wide.
2- High raw material prices as result of surge in demand for raw materials.
3- Lack of skilled and experienced workforce in LNG industry.
4- Devaluation of US dollar.
Recent Global Financial Crisis and decline in raw material and equipment prices is expected to
cause some decline in construction cost of LNG plants, however the extent of such a decline is still
unclear.
Liquefaction technology
Currently there are 4 Liquefaction processes available:
1.APCI: designed by Air Products and Chemicals, Incorporation.
2.Cascade: designed by ConocoPhillips.
3.Shell DMR
4.Linde
It is expected that by the end of 2012, there would be 100 liquefaction trains on stream with total
capacity of 297.2 MMTPA.
The majority of these trains use either APCI or Cascade technology for the liquefaction process.
The other processes, used in a small minority of some liquefaction plants include Shell's DMR
technology and the Linde technology, however these don’t have the importance of the APCI or
Cascade processes.
APCI technology is the most used liquefaction process in LNG plants: out of 100 liquefaction trains
on-stream or under-construction, 86 trains, with a total capacity of 243 MMTPA have been
designed based on the APCI process: the second most used is the Philips Cascade process which is
used in 10 trains with a total capacity of 36.16 MMTPA. The Shell DMR process has been used in 3
trains with total capacity of 13.9 MMTPA; and, finally, the Linde/Statoil process is used only in the
Snohvit 4.2 MMTPA single train.
Environmental concerns
Issues commonly referenced include: focus on climate forcing associated with carbon dioxide
production in extraction, liquefaction, gasification and transport [13]; the plants' release of
nitrogen oxide and particulate matter, known to aggravate asthma and respiratory disease[14];
environmental justice issues associated with site placement[15]; and that expensive infrastructure
investment will displace cleaner alternatives[16].
One study concluded that a proposed LNG terminal near Oxnard, California would emit less than
23 million tons of CO2 equivalent per year.[17] On the West Coast of the United States where up to
five new LNG importation terminals have been proposed, environmental groups, such as Pacific
Environment, Ratepayers for Affordable Clean Energy (RACE), and Rising Tide have moved to
oppose them.[18] While natural gas power plants emit approximately half the carbon dioxide of an
equivalent coal power plant, the natural gas combustion required to produce and transport LNG
to the plants adds 20 to 40 percent more carbon dioxide than burning natural gas alone. [19] With
the extraction, processing, chilling transportation and conversion back to a usable form is taken
into account LNG is a major source of greenhouse gases.
Natural gas could be considered the most environmentally friendly fossil fuel, because it has the
lowest CO2 emissions per unit of energy and because it is suitable for use in high efficiency
combined cycle power stations. Because of the energy required to liquefy and to transport it, the
environmental performance of LNG is inferior to that of natural gas, although in most cases LNG is

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
still superior to alternatives such as fuel oil or coal. This is particularly so in the case where the
source gas would otherwise be flared. However, there are concerns that the benefits of domestic
or locally produced natural gas do not extend to LNG, which is largely imported and thus incurs a
transit 'footprint' of energy cost[20].
Safety and accidents
Natural gas is a fuel and a combustible substance. To ensure safe and reliable operation, particular
measures are taken in the design, construction and operation of LNG facilities.
In its liquid state, LNG is not explosive and can not burn. For LNG to burn, it must first vaporize,
then mix with air in the proper proportions (the flammable range is 5% to 15%), and then be
ignited. In the case of a leak, LNG vaporizes rapidly, turning into a gas (methane plus trace gases),
and mixing with air. If this mixture is within the flammable range, there is risk of ignition which
would create fire and thermal radiation hazards.
LNG tankers have sailed over 100 million miles without a shipboard death or even a major
accident[21].
Several on-site accidents involving or related to LNG are listed below:
 1944, 20 October. The East Ohio Natural Gas Company experienced a failure of an LNG tank in
Cleveland, Ohio.[22] 128 people perished in the explosion and fire. The tank did not have a dike
retaining wall, and it was made during World War II, when metal rationing was very strict. The
steel of the tank was made with an extremely low amount of nickel, which meant the tank was
brittle when exposed to the extreme cold of LNG. The tank ruptured, spilling LNG into the city
sewer system. The LNG vaporized and turn into gas, which exploded and burned.
 1979 October, Lusby, Maryland, at the Cove Point LNG facility a pump seal failed, releasing gas
vapors (not LNG), which entered and settled in an electrical conduit. [22] A worker switched off a
circuit breaker, igniting the gas vapors, killing a worker, severely injuring another and causing
heavy damage to the building. National fire codes were changed as a result of the accident.
 2004, 19 January, Skikda, Algeria. Explosion at Sonatrach LNG liquefaction facility. [22] 27 killed, 56
injured, three LNG trains destroyed, 2004 production was down 76% for the year. A steam boiler
that was part of a liquefaction train exploded triggering a massive hydrocarbon gas explosion. The
explosion occurred where propane and ethane refrigeration storage were located.
Storage
LNG storage tank at EG LNG
Modern LNG storage tanks are typically the full containment type, which is a double-wall
construction with reinforced concrete outer wall and a high-nickel steel inner tank, with extremely
efficient insulation between the walls. Large tanks are low aspect ratio (height to width) and
cylindrical in design with a domed roof. Storage pressures in these tanks are very low, less than
50 kPa (7 psig). Sometimes more expensive frozen-earth, underground storage is used. Pre-
stressed concrete backed up with suitable thermal insulation, are designed to be both under and
above ground to suit sites conditions and local safety regulations and requirements[23]. Smaller
quantities (say 700 m³ (190,000 US gallons) and less), may be stored in horizontal or vertical,
vacuum-jacketed, pressure vessels. These tanks may be at pressures anywhere from less than
50 kPa to over 1,700 kPa (7 psig to 250 psig).
LNG must be kept cold to remain a liquid, independent of pressure. Despite efficient insulation,
there will inevitably be some heat leakage into the LNG, resulting in vapourisation of the LNG. This
boil-off gas acts to keep the LNG cold. The boil-off gas is typically compressed and exported as
natural gas, or is reliquefied and returned to storage.
Transportation

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LNG is transported in specially designed ships with double hulls protecting the cargo systems from
damage or leaks. There are several special leak test methods available to test the integrity of an
LNG vessel's membrane cargo tanks.[24]
Transportation and supply is an important aspect of the gas business, since LNG reserves are
normally quite distant from consumer markets. LNG has far more mass than oil to transport, and
most gas is transported by pipelines. There is a pipeline network in the former Soviet Union,
Europe and North America. LNG, when in its gaseous state is rather bulky. Gas travels much faster
than oil though a high-pressure pipeline can transmit only about a fifth of the amount of energy
per day.[citation needed]
As well as pipelines, LNG is transported using both tanker truck, railway tanker, and purpose built
ships known as LNG carriers. LNG will be sometimes taken to cryogenic temperatures to increase
the tanker capacity. Recently ship-to-ship transfer (STS) transfers have been carried out by Exmar
Shipmanagement the Belgian gas tanker owner in the Gulf of Mexico which involved the transfer
of LNG from a conventional LNG carrier to an LNG regasification vessel (LNGRV). Prior to this
commercial exercise LNG had only ever been transferred between ships on a handful of occasions
as a necessity following an incident.[citation needed]
Terminals
Main article: List of LNG terminals
Liquefied natural gas is used to transport natural gas over long distances, often by sea. In most
cases, LNG terminals are purpose-built ports used exclusively to export or import LNG.
Refrigeration
This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this article by adding
citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008)
The insulation, as efficient as it is, will not keep LNG cold enough by itself. Inevitably, heat leakage
will warm and vapourise the LNG. Industry practice is to keep store LNG as a boiling cryogen. That
is, the liquid is stored at its boiling point for the pressure at which it is stored (atmospheric
pressure). As the vapour boils off, heat for the phase change cools the remaining liquid. Because
the insulation is very efficient, only a relatively small amount of boil off is necessary to maintain
temperature. This phenomenon is also called auto-refrigeration.
Boil off gas from land based LNG storage tanks is usually compressed and fed to natural gas
pipeline networks. Some LNG carriers use boil off gas for fuel.
FUEL CELL
A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device. It produces electricity from fuel (on the anode side)
and an oxidant (on the cathode side), which react in the presence of an electrolyte. The reactants flow
into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel cells
can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained.
Fuel cells are different from electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant from an
external source, which must be replenished[1] – a thermodynamically open system. By contrast,
batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a thermodynamically closed system.
Many combinations of fuels and oxidants are possible. A hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as its fuel and
oxygen (usually from air) as its oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols. Other oxidants
include chlorine and chlorine dioxide.[2]
The principle of the fuel cell had been demonstrated by Sir William Grove in 1839, and other
investigators had experimented with various forms of fuel cell. The first practical fuel cell was developed
by Francis Thomas Bacon in 1959[citation needed].
Fuel cell design

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
A fuel cell works by catalysis, separating the component electrons and protons of the reactant
fuel, and forcing the electrons to travel through a circuit, hence converting them to electrical
power. The catalyst typically comprises a platinum group metal or alloy. Another catalytic process
puts the electrons back in, combining them with the protons and oxidant to form waste products
(typically simple compounds like water and carbon dioxide).
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as
current increases, due to several factors:
 Activation loss
 Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnects)
 Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss
of voltage)[3]
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel
circuits, where series yields higher voltage, and parallel allows a stronger current to be drawn.
Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. Further, the cell surface area can be increased, to allow
stronger current from each cell.
Proton exchange fuel cells
In the archetypal hydrogen–oxygen proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a
proton-conducting polymer membrane, (the electrolyte), separates the anode and cathode sides.
This was called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton
exchange mechanism was well-understood. (Notice that "polymer electrolyte membrane" and
"proton exchange mechanism" result in the same acronym.)
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons
and electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what is commonly
referred to as multi-facilitated proton membranes (MFPM). The protons are conducted through
the membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit
(supplying power) because the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst,
oxygen molecules react with the electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and
protons to form water — in this example, the only waste product, either liquid or vapor.
In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel,
methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides.
The waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water.
Construction of a high temperature PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel
structure, fabricated from conductive plastics (enhanced with carbon nanotubes for more
conductivity); Porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on the polymer membrane applied;
polymer membrane.

Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall. The gold wire around the
cell ensures the collection of electric current.[4]
The materials used in fuel cells differ by type. In a typical membrane electrode assembly (MEA),
the electrode–bipolar plates are usually made of metal, nickel or carbon nanotubes, and are

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
coated with a catalyst (like platinum, nano iron powders or palladium) for higher efficiency.
Carbon paper separates them from the electrolyte. The electrolyte could be ceramic or a
membrane.
Oxygen ion exchange fuel cells
In a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) design, the anode and cathode are separated by an electrolyte that
is conductive to oxygen ions but non-conductive to electrons. The electrolyte is typically made
from zirconia doped with yttria.
On the cathode side, oxygen catalytically reacts with a supply of electrons to become oxygen ions,
which diffuse through the electrolyte to the anode side. On the anode side, the oxygen ions react
with hydrogen to form water and free electrons. A load connected externally between the anode
and cathode completes the electrical circuit.
Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) operate in a similar manner, except the electrolyte consists of
liquid (molten) carbonate, which is a negative ion and an oxidizing agent. Because the electrolyte
loses carbonate in the oxidation reaction, the carbonate must be replenished through some
means. This is often performed by recirculating the carbon dioxide from the oxidation products
into the cathode where it reacts with the incoming air and reforms carbonate.
Unlike proton exchange fuel cells, the catalysts in SOFCs and MCFCs are not poisoned by carbon
monoxide, due to much higher operating temperatures. Because the oxidation reaction occurs in
the anode, direct utilization of the carbon monoxide is possible. Also, steam produced by the
oxidation reaction can shift carbon monoxide and steam reform hydrocarbon fuels inside the
anode. These reactions can use the same catalysts used for the electrochemical reaction,
eliminating the need for an external fuel reformer.
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues
 Costs. In 2002, typical fuel cell systems cost US$1000 per kilowatt of electric power output. In
2008, the Department of Energy reported that fuel cell system costs in volume production are $73
per kilowatt.[citation needed] The goal is $35 per kilowatt. In 2008 UTC Power has 400 kW stationary fuel
cells for $1,000,000 per 400 kW installed costs. The goal is to reduce the cost in order to compete
with current market technologies including gasoline internal combustion engines. Many
companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways including reducing the
amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. Ballard Power Systems have experiments with
a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk which allows a 30% reduction (1 mg/cm² to 0.7 mg/cm²) in
platinum usage without reduction in performance. [5]. Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT
instead of platinum.[6]
 The production costs of the PEM (proton exchange membrane). The Nafion membrane currently
costs $565.92/m². In 2005 Ballard Power Systems announced that its fuel cells will use Solupor, a
porous polyethylene film patented by DSM.[7][8]
 Water and air management[9] (in PEMFCs). In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be
hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If water
is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and eventually it will
crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine directly, generating heat
that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the electrodes will flood,
preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the reaction. Methods to
manage water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic pumps focusing on flow control.
Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant and oxygen is necessary to
keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.
 Temperature management. The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in
order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading. This is particularly challenging as

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
the 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated within
the fuel cell.
 Durability, service life, and special requirements for some type of cells. Stationary fuel cell
applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of -35
°C to 40 °C (-31 °F to 104 °F), while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000 hour lifespan (the
equivalent of 150,000 miles) under extreme temperatures. Current service life is 7,300 hours
under cycling conditions[10]. Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at -30 °C (-22 °F)
and have a high power to volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW per liter).
 Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of the cathode.
History
Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies

Sketch of William Grove's 1839 fuel cell

The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in
1838 and published in one of the scientific magazines of the time.[11] Based on this work, the first
fuel cell was demonstrated by Welsh scientist and barrister Sir William Robert Grove in the
February 1839 edition of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science[12] and later
sketched, in 1842, in the same journal.[13] The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's
phosphoric-acid fuel cell.
In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further
modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane
as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of
depositing platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen
oxidation and oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the 'Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell'.
GE went on to develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during
Project Gemini. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. It wasn't until 1959 that British
engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team
led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers which was demonstrated across
the US at state fairs. This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed
hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a
practical five-kilowatt unit capable of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and
Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and
drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks).
United Technologies Corporation's UTC Power subsidiary was the first company to manufacture
and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in
hospitals, universities and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as
the PureCell 200, a 200 kW system (although soon to be replaced by a 400 kW version, expected

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
for sale in late 2009).[14] UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use
in space vehicles, having supplied the Apollo missions,[15] and currently the Space Shuttle
program, and is developing fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers; the company
has demonstrated the first fuel cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its proton
exchange membrane automotive fuel cell.
Types of fuel cells
Fuel Cell Electrolyte Qualified Working Electrica Status Cost
Name Power (W) Temperature l per
(°C) efficienc Watt
y

Metal Aqueous   above -20   Commercial/Resear  

hydride alkaline solution (50% Ppeak ch
fuel cell (e.g.potassium @ 0°C)
hydroxide)

Electro- Aqueous   under 40   Commercial/Resear  

galvanic alkaline solution ch
fuel cell (e.g., potassium
hydroxide)

Direct Polymer to 50 W under 40   Commercial/Resear  

formic acid membrane ch
fuel cell (ionomer)
(DFAFC)

Zinc-air Aqueous   under 40   Mass production  

battery alkaline solution
(e.g., potassium
hydroxide)

Microbial Polymer   under 40   Research  

fuel cell membrane or
humic acid

Upflow     under 40   Research  

microbial
fuel cell
(UMFC)

Regenerati Polymer   under 50   Commercial/Resear  

ve fuel cell membrane ch
(ionomer)

Direct Aqueous   70   Commercial  

borohydrid alkaline solution
e fuel cell (e.g., sodium
hydroxide)

Alkaline Aqueous 10 kW to under 80 Cell: 60– Commercial/Resear  

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
fuel cell alkaline solution 100 kW 70% ch
(e.g., potassium System:
hydroxide) 62%

Direct Polymer 100 mW to 90–120 Cell: 20– Commercial/Resear  

methanol membrane 1 kW 30% ch
fuel cell (ionomer) System:
10–20%

Reformed Polymer 5 W to (Reformer)25 Cell: 50– Commercial/Resear  

methanol membrane 100 kW 0–300 60% ch
fuel cell (ionomer) (PBI)125–200 System:
25–40%

Direct- Polymer up to above 25   Research  

ethanol membrane 140 mW/c ? 90–120
fuel cell (ionomer) m²

Proton Polymer 100 W to (Nafion)50– Cell: 50– Commercial/Resear $30–

exchange membrane 500 kW 120 70% ch 35
membrane (ionomer) (e.g., (PBI)125–220 System: per
fuel cell Nafion or 30–50% watt
Polybenzimidaz
ole fiber)

RFC - Redox Liquid 1 kW to 10        

electrolytes MW Research
with redox
shuttle &
polymer
membrane
(Ionomer)

Phosphoric Molten up to 10 150-200 Cell: Commercial/Resear $4–

acid fuel phosphoric acid MW 55% ch $4.5
cell (H3PO4) Syste 0
m: per
40% watt
Co-
Gen:
90%

Molten Molten alkaline 100 MW 600-650 Cell: Commercial/Resear  

carbonate carbonate (e.g., 55% ch
fuel cell sodium Syste
bicarbonate m:
NaHCO3) 47%

Tubular O2--conducting up to 100 850-1100 Cell: 60– Commercial/Resear  

solid oxide ceramic oxide MW 65% ch

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
fuel cell (e.g., zirconium System:
(TSOFC) dioxide, ZrO2) 55–60%

Protonic H+-conducting   700   Research  

ceramic ceramic oxide
fuel cell

Direct Several different   700-850 Cell: Commercial/Resear  

carbon fuel 80% ch
cell Syste
m:
70%

Planar Solid O2--conducting up to 100 850-1100 Cell: 60– Commercial/Resear  

oxide fuel ceramic oxide MW 65% ch
cell (e.g., zirconium System:
dioxide, ZrO2 55–60%
Lanthanum
Nickel Oxide
La2XO4,X= Ni,Co,
Cu.)

Enzymatic Any that will not   under 40   Research  

Biofuel denature the
Cells enzyme (usually
aqueous buffer).
Efficiency
Fuel cell efficiency
The efficiency of a fuel cell is dependent on the amount of power drawn from it. Drawing more
power means drawing more current, which increases the losses in the fuel cell. As a general rule,
the more power (current) drawn, the lower the efficiency. Most losses manifest themselves as a
voltage drop in the cell, so the efficiency of a cell is almost proportional to its voltage. For this
reason, it is common to show graphs of voltage versus current (so-called polarization curves) for
fuel cells. A typical cell running at 0.7 V has an efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the
energy content of the hydrogen is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be
converted into heat. (Depending on the fuel cell system design, some fuel might leave the system
unreacted, constituting an additional loss.)
For a hydrogen cell operating at standard conditions with no reactant leaks, the efficiency is equal
to the cell voltage divided by 1.48 V, based on the enthalpy, or heating value, of the reaction. For
the same cell, the second law efficiency is equal to cell voltage divided by 1.23 V. (This voltage
varies with fuel used, and quality and temperature of the cell.) The difference between these
numbers represents the difference between the reaction's enthalpy and Gibbs free energy. This
difference always appears as heat, along with any losses in electrical conversion efficiency.
Fuel cells do not operate on a thermal cycle. As such, they are not constrained, as combustion
engines are, in the same way by thermodynamic limits, such as Carnot cycle efficiency. At times
this is misrepresented by saying that fuel cells are exempt from the laws of thermodynamics,
because most people think of thermodynamics in terms of combustion processes (enthalpy of
formation). The laws of thermodynamics also hold for chemical processes (Gibbs free energy) like

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation
fuel cells, but the maximum theoretical efficiency is higher (83% efficient at 298K [16]) than the
Otto cycle thermal efficiency (60% for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4).
Comparing limits imposed by thermodynamics is not a good predictor of practically achievable
efficiencies. Also, if propulsion is the goal, electrical output of the fuel cell has to still be converted
into mechanical power with the corresponding inefficiency. In reference to the exemption claim,
the correct claim is that the "limitations imposed by the second law of thermodynamics on the
operation of fuel cells are much less severe than the limitations imposed on conventional energy
conversion systems".[17] Consequently, they can have very high efficiencies in converting
chemical energy to electrical energy, especially when they are operated at low power density, and
using pure hydrogen and oxygen as reactants.
In practice
For a fuel cell operating on air (rather than bottled oxygen), losses due to the air supply system
must also be taken into account. This refers to the pressurization of the air and dehumidifying it.
This reduces the efficiency significantly and brings it near to that of a compression ignition engine.
Furthermore fuel cell efficiency decreases as load increases.
The tank-to-wheel efficiency of a fuel cell vehicle is about 45% at low loads and shows average
values of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as
test procedure.[18] The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda
released a car with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency [19].
It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account.
Fuel cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of
22% if the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen.[20]
In addition to the production losses, over 70% of US' electricity used for hydrogen production
comes from thermal power, which only has an efficiency of 33% to 48%, resulting in a net increase
in carbon dioxide production by using hydrogen in vehicles[citation needed].
Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power
plants based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with
electrolyzers and storage systems to form an energy storage system. The overall efficiency
(electricity to hydrogen and back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency) is
between 30 and 50%, depending on conditions.[21] While a much cheaper lead-acid battery might
return about 90%, the electrolyzer/fuel cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen,
and is therefore better suited for long-term storage.
Solid-oxide fuel cells produce exothermic heat from the recombination of the oxygen and
hydrogen. The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used
to heat water in a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is
captured, total efficiency can reach 80-90% at the unit, but does not consider production and
distribution losses. CHP units are being developed today for the European home market.
Fuel cell applications
Further information: Fuel cell vehicle,  Stationary fuel cell applications,  and  Portable fuel cell
applications

Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion of the German Navy in dry dock

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 Clean energy vehicle Technology & Transportation

The world's first certified Fuel Cell Boat (HYDRA), in Leipzig/Germany

Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote
weather stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system
running on hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because
fuel cells have no moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can
achieve up to 99.9999% reliability.[22] This equates to around one minute of down time in a two
year period.
Micro combined heat and power systems such as home fuel cells and cogeneration for office
buildings and factories are in mass production phase. The stationary fuel cell application generates
constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the
same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion
efficiency is tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity
is utilized as heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal furnace, so the
combined heat and power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In terms of
exergy however, the process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity
generated and then using the electricity to drive a heat pump. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC)
comprise the largest segment of existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined
efficiencies close to 90%[23] (35-50% electric + remainder as thermal) Molten-carbonate fuel cells
have also been installed in these applications, and solid-oxide fuel cell prototypes exist.
Since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage
units, they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one
example. In this application, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage
demand, but fuel cells only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical
device).
One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island
Energy Initiative[24] has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer
which makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 gallon tank at 200 PSI, and runs a ReliOn
fuel cell to provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. The SIEI website gives
extensive technical details.
The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output.
In 2003, the world's first propeller driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown
(the first fuel cell powered aircraft was the Space Shuttle). The fuel cell was a unique FlatStackTM
stack design which allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the aerodynamic surfaces of the
plane.[25]
Suggested applications
 Base load power plants
 Electric and hybrid vehicles.
 Auxiliary power
 Off-grid power supply

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 Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be available for weeks at a
time.
 Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges your cell phone or
PDA).
 Smartphones with high power consumption due to large displays and additional features like
GPS might be equipped with micro fuel cells.
Hydrogen transportation and refueling
Main articles: Hydrogen vehicle, Hydrogen station, and Hydrogen highway

Toyota FCHV PEM FC fuel cell vehicle.

Mercedes-Benz (Daimler AG) Citaro fuel cell bus on Aldwych, London.

Element One fuel cell vehicle.

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Hydrogen fueling station.

Toyota's FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005.

The GM 1966 Electrovan was the automotive industry's first attempt at an automobile powered by
a hydrogen fuel cell. The Electrovan, which weighed more than twice as much as a normal van,
could travel up to 70mph for 30 seconds.[18][26]
The 2001 Chrysler Natrium used its own on-board hydrogen processor. It produces hydrogen for
the fuel cell by reacting sodium borohydride fuel with Borax, both of which Chrysler claimed were
naturally occurring in great quantity in the United States.[27] The hydrogen produces electric
power in the fuel cell for near-silent operation and a range of 300 miles without impinging on
passenger space. Chrysler also developed vehicles which separated hydrogen from gasoline in the
vehicle, the purpose being to reduce emissions without relying on a nonexistent hydrogen
infrastructure and to avoid large storage tanks.[28]
The first public hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavík, Iceland in April 2003. This
station serves three buses built by DaimlerChrysler that are in service in the public transport net of
Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing unit
(produced by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water.
Royal Dutch Shell is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any
leaked hydrogen to escape to the atmosphere.
In 2003 President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI), which was later
implemented by legislation through the 2005 Energy Policy Act and the 2006 Advanced Energy
Initiative. These aimed at further developing hydrogen fuel cells and its infrastructure
technologies with the ultimate goal to produce commercial fuel cell vehicles by 2020. By 2008, the
U.S. had contributed 1 billion dollars to this project.[29]
In May 2009, however, the Obama Administration announced that it will "cut off funds" for the
development of fuel cell hydrogen vehicles, since other vehicle technologies will lead to quicker
reduction in emissions in a shorter time. The US Secretary of Energy explained that hydrogen
vehicles "will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years", and also mentioned the challenges
involved in the development of the required infrastructure to distribute hydrogen fuel.
Nevertheless, the U.S. government will continue to fund research related to stationary fuel cells.
[30] The National Hydrogen Association and the U.S. Fuel Cell Council criticized this decision
arguing that "...the cuts proposed in the DOE hydrogen and fuel cell program threaten to disrupt
commercialization of a family of technologies that are showing exceptional promise and beginning
to gain market traction."[31]

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In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working hydrogen run
motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for
four hours, and to travel 100 miles in an urban area, at a top speed of 50 miles per hour.[32] In
2004 Honda developed a fuel-cell motorcycle which utilized the Honda FC Stack.[33][34]
Type 212 submarines use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface.
Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests
in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The
Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane, as it was called, used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel
cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a
conventional propeller.[35]
In 2007, the Revolve Eco-Rally (launched by HRH Prince of Wales) demonstrated several fuel cell
vehicles on British roads for the first time, driven by celebrities and dignitaries from Brighton to
London's Trafalgar Square.[citation needed] Fuel cell powered race vehicles, designed and built by
university students from around the world, competed in the world's first hydrogen race series
called the 2008 Formula Zero Championship, which began on August 22, 2008 in Rotterdam, the
Netherlands. More races are planned for 2009 and 2010. After this first race, Greenchoice Forze
from the university of Delft (The Netherlands) became leader in the competition. Other competing
teams are Element One (Detroit), HerUCLAs (LA), EUPLAtecH2 (Spain), Imperial Racing Green
(London) and Zero Emission Racing Team (Leuven).
The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative by the California Governor to implement a series
of hydrogen refueling stations along that state. These stations are used to refuel hydrogen
vehicles such as fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen combustion vehicles. As of July 2007 California had
179 fuel cell vehicles and twenty five stations were in operation,[36] and ten more stations have
been planned for assembly in California. However, there have already been three hydrogen
fueling stations decommissioned.[37]
Japan also has a hydrogen highway, as part of the Japan hydrogen fuel cell project. Twelve
hydrogen fueling stations have been built in 11 cities in Japan. Canada, Sweden and Norway also
have hydrogen highways implemented.
There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being
researched or manufactured by motor car manufacturers. In 2008, Honda released a hydrogen
vehicle, the FCX Clarity. Meanwhile there exist also other examples of bikes[38] and bicycles[39]
with a hydrogen fuel cell engine.
A few companies are conducting hydrogen fuel cell research and practical fuel cell bus trials.
Daimler AG, with thirty-six experimental units powered by Ballard Power Systems fuel cells
completing a successful three-year trial, in eleven cities, in January 2007. [40][41] There are also
fuel cell powered buses currently active or in production, such as a fleet of Thor buses with UTC
Power fuel cells in California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency.[42] The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a
global cooperative effort in trial fuel cell buses.
The first Brazilan hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype will begin operation in São Paulo during the first
semester of 2009. The hydrogen bus was manufactured in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will
be produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called
"Ônibus Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus), includes three additional buses.
[43][44]
Market structure
Not all geographic markets are ready for SOFC powered m-CHP appliances. Currently, the regions
that lead the race in Distributed Generation and deployment of fuel cell m-CHP units are the EU
and Japan.[45]
Hydrogen economy

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Main article: Hydrogen economy
Electrochemical extraction of energy from hydrogen via fuel cells is an especially clean method of
meeting power requirements, but not an efficient one, due to the necessity of adding large
amounts of energy to either water or hydrocarbon fuels in order to produce the hydrogen.
Additionally, during the extraction of hydrogen from hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide is released.
Although this gas is artificially converted into carbon dioxide, such a method of extracting
hydrogen remains environmentally injurious.
Also, it must be noted that regarding the concept of the hydrogen vehicle, burning/combustion of
hydrogen in an internal combustion engine (IC/ICE) is often confused with the electrochemical
process of generating electricity via fuel cells (FC) in which there is no combustion (though there is
a small byproduct of heat in the reaction). Both processes require the establishment of a hydrogen
economy before they may be considered commercially viable, and even then, the aforementioned
energy costs make a hydrogen economy of questionable environmental value. Hydrogen
combustion is similar to petroleum combustion, and like petroleum combustion, still results in
nitrogen oxides as a by-product of the combustion, which lead to smog. Hydrogen combustion,
like that of petroleum, is limited by the Carnot efficiency, and is completely different from the
hydrogen fuel cell's chemical conversion process of hydrogen to electricity and water without
combustion. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water during use, while producing carbon dioxide
emissions during the majority of hydrogen production, which comes from natural gas. Direct
methane or natural gas conversion (whether IC or FC) also generate carbon dioxide emissions, but
direct hydrocarbon conversion in high-temperature fuel cells produces lower carbon dioxide
emissions than either combustion of the same fuel (due to the higher efficiency of the fuel cell
process compared to combustion), and also lower carbon dioxide emissions than hydrogen fuel
cells, which use methane less efficiently than high-temperature fuel cells by first converting it to
high purity hydrogen by steam reforming. Although hydrogen can also be produced by electrolysis
of water using renewable energy, at present less than 3% of hydrogen is produced in this way.
Hydrogen is an energy carrier, and not an energy source, because it must be produced by adding
energy from other energy sources, such as fossil fuels, wind power, nuclear power, or solar
photovoltaic cells. Hydrogen may be produced from subsurface reservoirs of methane and natural
gas by a combination of steam reforming with the water gas shift reaction, from coal by coal
gasification, or from oil shale by oil shale gasification.[citation needed] low pressure electrolysis of
water or high pressure electrolysis, which requires electricity, and high-temperature
electrolysis/thermochemical production, which requires high temperatures (ideal for the expected
Generation IV reactors), are two primary methods for the extraction of hydrogen from water.
As of 2006, 49.0% of the electricity produced in the United States comes from coal, 19.4% comes
from nuclear, 20.0% comes from natural gas, 7.0% from hydroelectricity, 1.6% from petroleum
and the remaining 3.1% mostly coming from geothermal, solar and biomass.[46] When hydrogen
is produced through electrolysis, the energy comes from these sources. Though the fuel cell itself
will only emit heat and water as waste, pollution is often caused when generating the electricity
required to produce the hydrogen that the fuel cell uses as its power source (for example, when
fossil fuel-generated electricity is used). This will be the case unless the hydrogen is produced
using electricity generated by hydroelectric, geothermal, solar, wind or other clean power sources
(which may or may not include nuclear power, depending on one's attitude to the nuclear waste
byproducts); hydrogen is only as clean as the energy sources used to produce it. A holistic
approach has to take into consideration the impacts of an extended hydrogen scenario, including
the production, the use and the disposal of infrastructure and energy converters.
Nowadays low temperature fuel cell stacks proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), direct
methanol fuel cell (DMFC) and phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) make extensive use of platinum

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catalysts. Impurities create catalyst poisoning (reducing activity and efficiency) in these low-
temperature fuel cells, thus high hydrogen purity or higher catalyst densities are required.[47]
Although platinum is seen by some as one of the major "showstoppers" to mass market fuel cell
commercialization companies, most predictions of platinum running out and/or platinum prices
soaring do not take into account effects of thrifting (reduction in catalyst loading) and recycling.
Recent research at Brookhaven National Laboratory could lead to the replacement of platinum by
a gold-palladium coating which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell
lifetime considerably.[48] Current targets for a transport PEM fuel cells are 0.2 g/kW Pt – which is
a factor of 5 decrease over current loadings – and recent comments from major original
equipment manufacturers (OEMs) indicate that this is possible. Also it is fully anticipated that
recycling of fuel cells components, including platinum, will kick in. High-temperature fuel cells,
including molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC's) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC's), do not use
platinum as catalysts, but instead use cheaper materials such as nickel and nickel oxide, which are
considerably more abundant (for example, nickel is used in fairly large quantities in common
stainless steel). They also do not experience catalyst poisoning by carbon monoxide, and so they
do not require high-purity hydrogen to operate. They can use fuels with an existing and extensive
infrastructure, such as natural gas, directly, without having to first reform it externally to hydrogen
and CO followed by CO removal. Instead, they can more efficiently use the same fuels that are
used to make hydrogen for low-temperature fuel cells. This fuel flexibility, combined with new
developments to make SOFCs on cheaper and more durable metal supports, makes SOFCs
increasingly important as candidates for transportation, as well as for stationary power. SOFCs
have the highest efficiency of all fuel cell types, and their ability to use common fuels, including
liquid fuels, may make them more suitable for long-distance vehicular transportation, as well as
for stationary power.
Research and development
 August 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers use triazole to raise the operating
temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require less
carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel. [49]
 2006: Staxon introduced an inexpensive OEM fuel cell module for system integration. In 2006
Angstrom Power, a British Columbia based company, began commercial sales of portable devices
using proprietary hydrogen fuel cell technology, trademarked as "micro hydrogen." [50][51]

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