Received: 20 June 2019 Revised: 4 November 2019 Accepted: 8 November 2019

DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12517

COMPREHENSIVE REVIEWS IN FOOD SCIENCE AND FOOD SAFETY

Hempseed in food industry: Nutritional value, health benefits, and

industrial applications

William Leonard1 Pangzhen Zhang1 Danyang Ying2 Zhongxiang Fang1

1 School of Agriculture and Food, Faculty of

Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The
University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria,
Australia
2 Agriculture& Food, CSIRO, Melbourne,
Victoria, Australia
Correspondence
Zhongxiang Fang, School of Agriculture and
Food, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricul-
tural Sciences, The University of Melbourne,
Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia.
Email: zhongxiang.fang@unimelb.edu.au
Abstract
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seeds have been consumed in Asian communities since
prehistoric times. Recently, Australia, Canada, and the United States have legalized
the cultivation and consumption of hempseed at low (<0.3%) tetrahydrocannabinol
levels, and there’s a growing interest in hempseed due to its nutritional value and
pharmaceutical potential. This review aims to summarize the chemical composition,
nutritional value, and potential health benefits of hempseed, as researched via in vitro
and in vivo trials. The application of hempseed in the food industry is limited due to
its poor performance on some functional properties, so the latest processing methods
developed to improve these properties were compared. Additionally, manufacturing
technologies incorporating hemp seeds into existing food products are also elaborated.
This review would promote further in-depth research on this recently approved food
resources and maximize its utilization in new food product development.

KEYWORDS
application, health benefits, hempseed, food processing, nutrition

1 I N T RO D U C T I O N
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is an ancient Asian crop that has
been grown and cultivated for about 10,000 years (Russo,
2007). Its economic value is centered on its fiber-rich stem,
which has been used for the manufacture of fabrics, clothes,
and papers. The fruits or seeds of hemp are relatively under-
utilized compared to the stem.
The historical usage of Cannabis sativa L. has been con-
troversial. Cannabis sativa can be classified into drug type
(marijuana) and nondrug type (hemp). The former is generally
applied for medicinal and recreational purposes, whereas the
latter is important to food and fiber industries. Cultivation of
hemp reached its peak between late 19th century and early 20th
century, when it was utilized as a raw material for drying oil in
painting industry, textile clothing, and fuel (Callaway, 2004).
Nevertheless, prohibition of all Cannabis varieties under the
Marijuana Tax Act 1937 effectively halted cultivation of com-
mercial hemp in most parts of the world (Callaway, 2004).
The U.S. government briefly lifted the sanction on hemp dur-
ing World War II. By then, however, hemp has been replaced
by other oilseeds and synthetic material, such as cotton and
flaxseed, in the markets (that is, textile and painting) that it
used to dominate.
Over the past 20 years, there is a resurrection of inter-
est for hempseed due to its nutritional and pharmaceutical
value. Australia, Canada, and most recently the United States
have legalized the cultivation of hempseed at low tetrahydro-
cannabinol (THC) levels (<0.3% w/w). This review begins
with comprehensive summary on the chemical composition
and nutritional value of hempseed, and further investigates its
health benefits through in vitro and in vivo researches. Despite
of its nutritive potential, the application of hempseed appears
to be limited due to its poor performance on some functional
properties such as poor protein solubility, emulsifying capac-
ity, and stability. Therefore, this study also summarizes the
research efforts in improving the functionalities. Finally, this
review highlights the technologies that have been successfully
applied to incorporate hempseed into food products, and their
impacts on food properties.

Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf. 2019;1–27. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/crf3 © 2019 Institute of Food Technologists® 1
2 HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…

TABLE 1 Mean chemical composition of hempseed products. Adapted and simplified from House et al. (2010)
Seed fraction Dry matter Crude fat Crude protein Dietary fiber Ash
Whole seed 94.1 ± 2.0 30.4 ± 2.7 24.0 ± 2.1 32.1 ± 2.5 4.8 ± 0.7
Dehulled seed 95.1 ± 1.4 46.7 ± 5.0 35.9 ± 3.6 7.8 ± 5.1 6.4 ± 0.8
Seed meal 95.1 ± 2.3 10.2 ± 2.2 40.7 ± 8.8 30.5 ± 8.8 6.7 ± 1.0
Hemp hull 94.9 ± 1.8 10.3 ± 5.8 12.7 ± 3.7 64.9 ± 9.3 3.9 ± 0.6

2 NUTRITIONA L P RO F I L E OF to extract hempseed oil, such as cold-pressing and solvent

H EMPS EED extraction (Devi & Khanam, 2019). After the defatting pro-
cess, proteins and fibers dominate in the seed cake or meal.
From a botanical perspective, hempseeds are fruits of C. Hemp protein is mainly composed of globulin and albumin,
sativa. It has a round shape, dark red–brown color, with a which is characterized for its exceptionally high level of argi-
variable diameter of 3.0 to 5.0 mm. Each seed is covered by nine and glutamic acid. These two types of hemp protein were
a thin two-layered pericarp (the outer tube celled layer and found positive in the regulation of organ function and human
the inner spongy parenchyma celled layer), an endosperm, metabolism (Wu et al., 2009). Furthermore, several antiox-
and two cotyledons in its interior (Chandra, Lata, & Elsohly, idative bioactive peptides have been isolated from hempseed
2017). Hempseed contains approximately 25% to 30% oil, protein (Malomo, He, & Aluko, 2014). On the negative side,
25% to 30% protein, 30% to 40% fiber, and 6% to 7% moisture hempseeds contain some antinutritional factors, most notably
(Table 1). This proportion, however, varies largely among dif- phytic acid and trypsin inhibitors (Pojic et al., 2014). The
ferent hemp cultivars (Table 2). There are more than 40 hemp usage of these compounds in food system has been controver-
cultivars that have been reported, and Finola is the commonly sial due to their conflicting effects on human digestive system
cultivated for commercial use (Schluttenhofer & Yuan, 2017). (Sánchez-Chino, Jiménez-Martínez, Dávila-Ortiz, Álvarez-
As a consequence, variations in the chemical composition of González, & Madrigal-Bujaidar, 2015; Thompson, 1993).
hempseed cultivars contribute to the large variation in the Most of the carbohydrates reside in the outer shell of
nutritional, physicochemical, and sensory attributes of hemp- hempseed and dehulling eliminates three-fourth of the fiber
added food products (Vonapartis, Aubin, Seguin, Mustafa, & content (House, Naufeld, & Leson, 2010). To date, infor-
Charron, 2015). mation about characteristics of hempseed fiber is unavail-
Hempseed is increasingly sought for its high (>90%) pro- able. Hempseed is also rich in polyphenols, which mainly
portion of unsaturated fatty acid and desirable balance of includes hydroxycinnamic acid and lignanamides. The anti-
𝜔-6/𝜔-3 fatty acids. Several processes have been developed radical capacity of these compounds is evident in several
chemical and in vitro studies (Chen et al., 2012; Yan et al.,
TABLE 2 Mean chemical composition of selected commercial 2015; Zhou, Wang, Ji, Lou, & Fan, 2018). The properties of
hempseed cultivars each nutrient are discussed in detail in the following sections.
Cultivar Dry matter Protein Oil Ash Fiber
Alyssac 98.87 24.1 30.0 5.6 37.3 2.1 Protein
c
Anka 93.97 23.8 28.8 5.7 38.8
2.1.1 The composition and properties of
CanMac 93.93 26.4 30.4 5.3 35.0
hempseed protein
Craga 95.50 25.5 32.7 5.2 30.3
A total of 181 proteins have been identified in hempseed
CFX1c 92.82 26.3 29.8 5.1 33.2
with the two major storage proteins being the legumin-type
CFX2c 93.85 27.4 29.5 5.5 32.7
c
globulin edestin (67% to 75%) and globular-type albumin
CRS1 94.02 25.7 29.5 5.2 36.2
(25% to 37%; Aiello et al., 2016). Crystallographic charac-
Deloresc 94.01 24.5 26.9 5.6 37.5
terization of the edestin portion revealed its six identical sub-
Fedorab 92.70 24.8 24.5 5.3 38.1 units of acidic and basic subunit linked by a disulfide bond
Finolac 93.72 28.0 30.6 5.8 33.2 (Patel, Cudney, & McPherson, 1994). However, no similar
Juttac 93.81 24.6 27.6 5.5 38.1 study has been carried out to characterize the albumin frac-
USO 14a 93.40 22.6 28.4 4.9 34.1 tion of the seed (Wang & Xiong, 2019). These two major pro-
USO 31a 92.80 23.7 27.8 4.7 33.6 teins have different amino acid composition and functional
Yvonnec 94.01 24.8 28.6 5.4 35.2 characteristics. Malomo and Aluko (2015) concluded that
a Adapted from House et al. (2010) the edestin fraction of hemp protein is nutritionally superior,
b
Adapted from Siano et al. (2018) with higher sulfur-containing (methionine and cysteine), aro-
c
Adapted from Vonapartis et al. (2015) matic (AAA), branched-chain, and hydrophobic amino acids
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY… 3

TABLE 3 Mean amino acid content (%) of hempseed fractions and hempseed proteins
Hemp fractionsa Proteinb
Amino acid Whole seed Dehulled hemp seed Hemp seed meal Hemp hull Albumin Globulin
Alanine 0.96 ± 0.09 1.52 ± 0.14 1.61 ± 0.32 0.40 ± 0.17 3.91 2.84
Arginine 2.28 ± 0.26 4.55 ± 0.45 3.91 ± 0.89 0.94 ± 0.80 12.82 16.12
Asparagine 2.39 ± 0.18 3.66 ± 0.37 3.66 ± 0.67 0.90 ± 0.35 7.93 9.47
Cystine 0.41 ± 0.06 0.65 ± 0.07 0.70 ± 0.15 0.18 ± 0.06 3.20 3.32
Glutamic acid 3.74 ± 0.30 6.23 ± 0.77 6.03 ± 1.24 1.19 ± 0.62 20.37 21.48
Glycine 1.06 ± 0.10 1.61 ± 0.15 1.66 ± 0.35 0.41 ± 0.16 8.26 4.10
Histidine 0.55 ± 0.06 0.97 ± 0.11 0.93 ± 0.19 0.25 ± 0.15 3.68 3.87
Isoleucine 0.80 ± 0.11 1.29 ± 0.35 1.45 ± 0.23 0.39 ± 0.14 2.02 2.86
Leucine 1.49 ± 0.16 2.14 ± 0.28 2.35 ± 0.45 0.71 ± 0.27 4.05 5.57
Lysine 0.86 ± 0.09 1.26 ± 0.05 1.32 ± 0.27 0.33 ± 0.16 7.37 3.69
Methionine 0.56 ± 0.08 0.94 ± 0.12 0.88 ± 0.25 0.18 ± 0.12 1.74 4.07
Phenylalanine 1.03 ± 0.16 1.43 ± 0.30 1.62 ± 0.30 0.53 ± 0.09 1.32 3.27
Proline 0.90 ± 0.10 1.62 ± 0.41 1.59 ± 0.32 0.69 ± 0.48 3.82 3.87
Serine 1.19 ± 0.17 1.70 ± 0.17 1.73 ± 0.32 0.42 ± 0.16 5.12 5.73
Threonine 1.01 ± 0.22 1.27 ± 0.11 1.35 ± 0.23 0.36 ± 0.13 4.63 2.60
Tryptophan 0.23 ± 0.06 0.38 ± 0.07 0.39 ± 0.10 0.06 ± 0.04 0.16 0.34
Tyrosine 0.68 ± 0.11 1.28 ± 0.22 1.15 ± 0.28 0.40 ± 0.07 2.02 3.41
Valine 1.14 ± 0.14 1.78 ± 0.19 1.91 ± 0.30 0.60 ± 0.31 2.90 3.41
a Adapted and simplified from House et al. (2010)
b
Adapted and simplified from Malomo and Aluko (2015)

(HAA). The same study also reported that the albumin frac-
tion is soluble in water, whereas the edestin fraction is salt
soluble.
The unique amino acid composition and structural charac-
teristics may have contributed to the poorer functional prop-
erties of the edestin protein (Malomo & Aluko, 2015). At all
pH levels, hemp albumin fraction had higher overall solubility
and foaming capacity, which may be due to the high isoelec-
tric point and decreased levels of AAA and HAA in albumin.
The same trend was reported in kidney bean protein (Mundi
& Aluko, 2012). The emulsion stability of hemp protein frac-
tions depends on the environmental pH. Compared to albu-
min, the edestin fraction displayed a higher emulsion stability
in acidic pH range of 3.0 to 5.0, but significantly reduced in
the neutral pH of 7.0 (Malomo & Aluko, 2015). Neverthe-
less, at a high concentration of 50 mg/mL hemp protein, the
differences in the emulsifying properties of its fractions are
decreased, due to the domination of the globulin fraction. Fur-
thermore, hempseed globulin possesses higher foaming sta-
bility than albumin at all pH and protein concentrations, which
is likely due to the higher HAA content in globulin fraction
that strengthens the protein–protein network and interfacial
membrane on the interface.
2.1.2 Nutritional properties of hemp protein
Hemp protein contains all nine essential amino acids required
by humans (Table 3). Its amino acid profile is characterized by
very high levels of arginine and glutamic acid, with moderate
quantity of sulfur-containing amino acids (Table 3). Arginine
has been recognized by several clinical studies for its con-
siderable role in ammonia detoxification, fetal growth, and
reducing insulin resistance (Wu et al., 2009). Zhou and Dan-
bolt (2014) have also highlighted the vital role of glutamate
as a neurotransmitter in brain.
Generally, the amino acid profile of hempseed protein is
comparable to that of egg white and soybean, with high con-
centration of arginine, glycine, and histidine (Callaway, 2004).
Wang, Tang, Yang, and Gao (2008) compared hemp pro-
tein isolate to soy protein isolate, and found a higher amount
of sulfur-containing amino acids, higher ratio of essential
to total amino acid content, and better enzyme digestibility.
Protein isolated from dehulled hempseed had higher protein
digestibility-corrected amino acid scores (61) than that from
whole wheat (40), pinto beans (57), or lentils (52); however,
significantly lower than that from egg white (100) or beef
(92) (House et al., 2010). This research also reported that
the digestibility scores were higher for protein from dehulled
hempseed (61) than the protein from whole hempseed (51)
and hempseed meal (48). This suggested that the high con-
centration of antinutritional factors such as phytic acid and
fiber may impede protein absorption.
Raw hempseed is low in lysine, one of the essential amino
acids that are not synthesized in human. House et al. (2010)
reported that the amino acid scores for lysine, leucine, and
tryptophan lied between 0.5 and 1.0, and suggested that
hemp seed alone was insufficient to meet the minimum daily
4 HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
intake of this amino acid as recommended by the FAO/WHO.
Additionally, food processing conditions may further exac-
erbate this loss, as 𝜀-amino group of lysine is vulnerable
to Maillard reaction. Thus, food manufacturers may need
to further supplement hempseed-containing products with
lysine in order to achieve good amino acid composition as
requested by human intake.
2.1.3 Functional properties of hemp protein
The structure of protein often dictates its functionality, which
affects its application in food industry. When subjected to
high temperature, the structural conformation of hemp protein
may change, as evident in the differential scanning calorime-
try (DSC) analysis. Hemp protein started to denature at 86 ◦ C
and reached a peak denaturation temperature at 95 ◦ C (Tang,
Ten, Wang, & Yang, 2006). The authors attributed these tran-
sition points to the strength of disulfide bonds, rather than
hydrophobic interactions. Denaturation temperature range of
85 to 95 ◦ C was common in protein derived from beans and
legumes, as reported in lupin (Alamanou & Doxastakis, 1995)
and chickpea (Paredes-Lopez, Ordorica-Falomir, & Olivares-
Vazquez, 1991).
Hempseed protein’s functionality usually depends on the
pH. Its solubility, emulsion stability/activity, and foaming
capacity/stability are minimum around the pH range 4.0 to
6.0, of which its isoelectric point resides, and increases dra-
matically above pH 9.0 (Malomo et al., 2014). A similar
trend was observed for other functional properties, includ-
ing emulsion stability/activity and foaming capacity/stability.
This phenomenon could be explained by the aggregation of
edestin protein below the neutral pH. Additionally, Karaca,
Low, and Nickerson (2011) attributed the low emulsifying
activity and stability of canola and flaxseed isolates to their
poor protein solubility.
Generally, hempseed protein has poorer functional prop-
erties than other plant proteins. When compared to soy
protein isolate, Tang et al. (2006) reported that hempseed pro-
tein had poorer overall solubility, emulsifying activity, emul-
sifying stability, and water binding capacity. The higher free
sulfydryl content in hempseed protein indicates prevalence
of covalent disulfide bonds, thus the propensity to aggregate.
The differences in the functional properties may also due to
the distinct protein composition and aggregation properties of
glycinin and edestin fraction between soy and hempseed pro-
teins (Tang et al., 2006). Hempseed processing methods aim-
ing to enhance the protein functional properties are discussed
in later sections.
2.2 Oil
2.2.1 Fatty acid profile and nutritional value
of hempseed oil
Approximately 30% to 35% of hempseed is composed of
oil, of which around 90% is unsaturated fatty acids (Vona-
partis et al., 2015). Hempseed oil is dominated by essential
fatty acids, linoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid, and oleic acid.
Linoleic acid is required as a precursor to synthesize dihomo-
𝛾-linolenic acid (DGLA) and arachidonic acid, whereas
𝛼-linolenic acid is essential for the production of eicos-
apentaenoic acid. These fatty acids have been extensively
researched for their potential protective effects against car-
diovascular diseases, obesity, and diabetes mellitus (Sokoła-
Wysoczańska et al., 2018). In addition, the presence of 𝛾
- linolenic acid (GLA) further strengthens the nutritional
value of hempseed oil. Kapoor and Huang (2006) summa-
rized the GLA’s role in regulation of inflammatory responses
by acting as a biosynthetic precursor to the synthesis of anti-
inflammatory eicosanoids.
In comparison to other plant oils, hempseed oil has the
highest proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA;
Callaway, 2004). Higher PUFA consumption has been linked
to reduce risks of cardiovascular disease, cancer, rheumatoid
arthritis, hypertension, inflammatory, and autoimmune dis-
eases (Abedi & Sahari, 2014). More importantly, the 𝜔-6/𝜔-3
ratio of 2.5 to 3.5/1 in hempseed is very desirable, compared
to 𝜔-6/𝜔-3 of typical western diets at 15 to 17/1. Simopoulos
(2002) has highlighted the importance of 𝜔-6/𝜔-3 ratio for
human health, where high 𝜔-6/𝜔-3 ratio (>10:1) in human
diet is associated with elevated risk of cancer and inflamma-
tory and cardiovascular diseases. On the contrary, a ratio of
lower than 2.5/1 is linked to lower risk of chronic diseases,
suppression of cancer cells, and reduced mortality rate. How-
ever, it should be noted that aside from 𝜔-6/𝜔-3 ratio, the pres-
ence of several saturated fats (lauric, myristic, and palmitic)
and ratio of saturated/unsaturated fatty acids should be taken
into account when evaluating the nutritional worth of a plant
oil (Kromhout et al., 1995).
The hempseed oil extraction yield and oil quality is influ-
enced by extraction methods. Cold pressing is the simplest
and the most commonly used extraction method, with a recov-
ery rate of 60% to 80% (Crescente et al., 2018). Other extrac-
tion methods have also been developed, including Soxhlet
and supercritical fluid extraction. Devi and Khanam (2019)
contrasted the six most commonly used extraction methods
based on the optimum physicochemical and economic factors.
The highest extraction yield was observed for ultrasonication-
assisted solvent extraction method, whereas the most opti-
mum fatty acid profile and energy efficiency was obtained
from Soxhlet extraction, and the highest economic profitabil-
ity was observed for supercritical fluid extraction.
2.2.2 Composition of unsaponifiable matter
in hempseed oil
Unsaponifiable matter refers to the fraction of oil soluble in
organic solvents, but insoluble in aqueous solution follow-
ing alkaline hydrolysis. Although less than 2% of hemp oil
is unsaponifiable, it is rich in sterol, phytol, and tocopherol.
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
TABLE 4 Selected constituents in the unsaponifiable fraction of
hempseed oil. Simplified from Montserrat-de la Paz et al. (2014)
Quantity
Constituent (mg/kg of oil)
𝛽-Sitosterol 1,905.07
Campesterol 505.69
Δ5 -avenasterol 142.80
Total Sterol 2,793.73
Phytol 167.59
Geranylgeraniol 26.06
Total policosanols (linear aliphatic alcohol) 226.94
𝛼-Tocopherol 30.22
𝛾-Tocopherol 733.38
Total tocopherol 800.28
Total linear hydrocarbons 451.77
Total waxes 43.35
Montserrat-de la Paz, Marin-Aguilar, García-Giménez, and
Fernández-Arche (2014) indicated that the sterol content con-
stitutes 15% of the unsaponifiable fraction of hempseed oil,
which is claimed to be twice the amount of sterol in olive
oil. Around 68% of this total sterol content is 𝛽-sitosterol
(Table 4). Clinical trials showed that treatment with 𝛽-
sitosterol significantly improved symptoms of prostatic hyper-
plasia (Berges, Windeler, Trampisch, & Senge, 1995; Klip-
pel, Hiltl, & Schipp, 1997). Racette et al. (2010) also reported
effective blood cholesterol-regulating effects with supple-
mentation of phytosterol.
Tocopherols are the major component in food that give vita-
min E activity. Its ability to react with and deactivate free
radicals makes them very potent antioxidants to prevent oxi-
dation of unsaturated fatty acids. In food products, addition
of 𝛼-tocopherol in cooked turkey meat resulted in signifi-
cantly higher oxidative stability compared to control (Higgins,
Kerry, Buckley, & Morrissey, 1998). Similarly, fortification
of 𝛾-tocopherol in fish oil–added energy bars reduced lipid
oxidation, particularly at high (>440 μg/g) fish oil concentra-
tion (Horn, Nielsen, & Jacobsen, 2009). Rizvi et al. (2014)
reviewed the role of tocopherol in human health and summa-
rized its positive effects against atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s
disease, cataract, and cancer. Hempseed’s total tocopherol
content ranges around 80 to 90 mg per 100 g of oil, which is
higher than the majority of vegetable oil, such as sunflower,
corn, sesame, and linseed oil (Schwartz, Ollilainen, Piironen,
& Lampi, 2008). Although other common plant oils (olive and
sunflower) are high in the 𝛼-isomer of tocopherol, the toco-
pherol profile in hempseed is dominated by the 𝛾 -isomer,
which has been less researched than 𝛼-tocopherol due to its
poor bioavailability and retention in human body. Neverthe-
less, Jiang, Christen, Shigenaga, and Ames (2001) suggested
that 𝛾-tocopherol possesses some properties that are absent in
5
𝛼-tocopherol, such as anti-inflammatory activity and detoxi-
fication of electrophiles.
In addition to sterols and tocopherols, hempseed oil
unsaponifiable fraction contains linear aliphatic alcohols,
most notably phytol. As a constituent of chlorophyll, phytol
is commonly found in high-chlorophyll crops such as carrot
and cucumber (Krauß & Vetter, 2018). Some in vivo and in
vitro studies have demonstrated the antioxidant, antinocicep-
tive, and antiparasitic properties of phytol (de Moraes et al.,
2014; Santos et al., 2013).
2.2.3 Physicochemical properties of
hempseed oil
Unrefined hempseed oil is dark green in color, which is due to
its chlorophyll content. Teh and Birch (2013) found a signifi-
cantly lower L (lightness) and a (redness) value in hempseed
oil compared to flaxseed and canola oil. Likewise, using a tin-
tometer RYBN color scale, hempseed oil from three differ-
ent parts of Pakistan also displayed very low redness values
that range between 0.50 and 0.80, which showed a green color
(Anwar, Latif, & Ashraf, 2006).
The iodine value in hempseed oil is generally higher than
most vegetable oils (Rossell, 1991). This is expected as iodine
value reflects the degree of unsaturation. However, the iodine
value in hempseed oil may vary depending on the geo-
graphical location and cultivar. Chen et al. (2010) investi-
gated hempseed oils from eight different regions in China
and observed up to 15.50 g/100 g difference in iodine value
between Yunma No.1 and Dabaipi cultivars. Minimal varia-
tion, however, was reported for density, refractive index, and
saponification values.
Several parameters are utilized to measure the oxidative
stability of oil (Table 5). Peroxide value represents the extent
of primary oxidation products, whereas p-anisidine value dis-
plays the quantity of secondary oxidative products. Similarly,
the specific extinction values at 232 and 270 nm indicate the
amount of primary (free fatty acids, peroxide, and diene) and
secondary oxidation products (aldehyde and ketones), respec-
tively. Based on these measurements, Teh and Birch (2013)
concluded that the oxidative stability of hempseed oil is within
the acceptable quality range of commercial oil. The oxidative
stability of hempseed oil is further enhanced in the presence
of minor unsaponifiable matters, such as sterols and pigments
(carotenoid and chlorophyll; Abuzaytoun & Shahidi, 2006).
However, another study by Anwar et al. (2006) reported higher
specific extinction values, which could be explained from the
different cultivars used and measurement methods. Moreover,
the same study suggested that degumming, a common thermal
treatment to remove phospholipids from oil, may accelerate
lipid oxidation and reduce the shelf life of hempseed oil.
Studies on the thermal, melting, and crystallization charac-
teristics of hempseed oil are limited. Using the DSC method,
6 HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…

TABLE 5 Selected physicochemical properties of hempseed oil 2.3 Polyphenols

Parameters Values range
2.3.1 Polyphenol profile in hempseed
L* 18.13 ± 0.11d
a* 2.40 ± 0.36d
Hempseeds vary in total phenolic content (TPC) and total
flavonoid content depending on the cultivar (Table 6). Within
b* 30.87 ± 0.14d
the seed itself, the TPC differs from one fraction to another.
Moisture content (%) 0.72 ± 0.10d
Based on the study on two defatted Chinese hempseed vari-
Unsaponifiable matter (%) 0.26 to 1.92a to d
eties Bama and Yunma, Chen et al. (2012) concluded that the
Density (24 ◦ C, mg/mL) 0.918 to 0.927a,b
TPC in the hull was considerably higher than the kernel. In
Refractive index (40 ◦ C) 1.472 to 1.478a,b another study using Fedora cultivar, TPC in whole seed and
Iodine value (g of I/100 g of oil) 153.6 to 169.1a,b oil were found at 767 ± 41 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/kg
Peroxide value (mg equiv peroxide/kg) 1.94 ± 0.15d and 21 ± 5 mg GAE/kg, respectively (Siano et al., 2018).
p-Anisidine values (unit) 0.62 ± 0.11d Although there was no comparison study of phenolic content
Specific extinction 232 nm (unit) 1.53 to 4.18a,d of all hempseed fractions simultaneously, it was postulated
Specific extinction 270 nm (unit) 0.02 to 1.43a,d that the levels of polyphenol in hempseed fractions should be
Acid value (mg KOH/g of sample) 1.76 ± 0.05d in the order of: hull > cake > oil, which is similar to pumpkin
Saponification value (mg KOH/g of sample 184.00 to 192.96a,b seed (Peričin, Krimer, Trivić, & Radulović, 2009).
a
Research on hempseed polyphenol has long been overshad-
Adapted from Anwar et al. (2006)
b
Adapted from Chen et al. (2010) owed by its more abundant oil and protein content. Never-
c Adapted from Montserrat-de la Paz et al. (2014) theless, there’s a growing enthusiasm in this topic due to its
d
Adapted from Teh and Birch (2013) potent antioxidant capacity. The two characteristic phenolic
compounds in Cannabis seeds are lignanamides and hydrox-
hempseed oil demonstrated at least two endothermic peaks ycinnamic acids (HAAs; Figure 1). Lignanamides were
between –40 and –17 ◦ C (Oomah, Busson, Godfrey, & thought to be derived from a random coupling in vivo and have
Drover, 2002). There’s a possibility that a shifting of poly- been mediated by amides N-trans-caffeoyltyramine and N-
morphic forms occurs at these points, such as the conver- trans-feruloyltyramine (Flores-Sanchez & Verpoorte, 2008).
sion of 𝛼 form to the more stable 𝛽 form. Compared with Cannabisin A, a neolignanamide, was first isolated from
canola and flaxseed oil (FO), the fatty acid unsaturation level Cannabis fruits by Sakakibara, Katsuhara, Ikeya, Hayashi,
of hempseed oil is still lower, which displays lower crystalliza- and Mitsuhashi (1991), followed by Cannabisin B to G in the
tion and melting transition point than canola and FO, indicat- later years (Table 7).
ing higher susceptibility to dissociation (Teh & Birch, 2013). Although the lignanamides above have been identified
At the temperature range of 130 to 140 ◦ C, hempseed oil since the 1990s, it was not until the last decade that exten-
begins to oxidize, before reaching the peak oxidation tem- sive phenolic studies were carried out for the hull fraction
perature at 150 to 155 ◦ C. These oxidation temperatures are of hempseed. For the first time, Chen et al. (2012) iso-
still within the common range observed in other vegetable oils lated cannabisin B and N-trans-caffeoyltyramine from the
(Litwinienko, Daniluk, & Kasprzycka-Guttman, 1999). How- hempseed hull. Both compounds showed higher radical scav-
ever, the lower onset and peak oxidation temperature might enging capacity compared to isoflavones (ISO) and secoiso-
imply that hempseed oil is not suitable for processed foods lariciresinol diglucoside from soybean and flaxseed, respec-
with longer shelf life. This will be discussed in the following tively. Pojic et al. (2014) reported different phenolic profile
sections. in the coarse hull and fine cotyledon fraction of hempseed,

TABLE 6 Selective studies of polyphenol content in hempseed fractions

Hempseed fraction Polyphenol content References
Oil TPC: 0.44 mg GAE/g Yu et al. (2005)
Oil Phenolic acid content: 188.23 GAE mg/100 g; Flavonoid: 19.50 luteolin equiv Teh & Birch (2013)
mg/100 g
Defatted kernel and hull TPC (mg GAE/100 mg): Kernel range 0.39 to 1.56; Hull range: 0.92 to 13.93 Chen et al. (2012)
Whole seed Range: 1,368 to 5,160 mg GAE/100 g DW with a mean value of 2,224 mg Vonapartis et al. (2015)
GAE/100 g DW
Seed TPC 2.33 ± 0.07 mg GAE/g DW; Flavonoid 2.93 ± 0.23 mg QE/g DW Frassinetti et al. (2018)
Seed, flour, and oil Hemp seeds, flour, and oil contained 767 ± 41, 744 ± 29, and 21 ± 5 mg GAE/kg Siano et al. (2018)
TPC, respectively
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
FIGURE 1 Chemical structure of known lignanamides and hydroxycinnamic acids (HAAs) in hempseed
where the hull fraction was concentrated with N-trans-
feruloyltyramine, cannabisin B, ferulic acid, and synapic acid,
and the cotyledon fraction contains most of the catechin, p-
hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, and gallic acid.
Research on the phenolic profile of hempseed oil is rare,
likely due to its lower concentration compared to the hull
or cake. In a study that examined the polyphenol profile of
Finola cultivar hempseed oil, Smeriglio et al. (2016) observed
more abundant flavonoids, particularly naringerin and epi-
catechin, compared to phenolic acids or HAAs. This Finola
hempseed oil exhibited high antioxidative capacity, as sug-
gested by the high metal-chelating ability and suppression of
peroxyl radical in vitro. Hempseed oil, together with pump-
kin seed oil, was also shown to possess higher radical scav-
enging activity and phenolic content than soybean, flaxseed,
grapeseed, sunflower, and corn oil (Siger, Nogala-Kalucka, &
Lampart-Szczapa, 2008). However, the TPC, oxygen radical
absorbance capacity (ORAC) and ABTS radical scavenging
activity of hempseed oil was significantly lower when com-
pared to caraway and carrot seed oil (Yu, Zhou, & Parry,
2005).
2.3.2 Bioactive properties of hempseed
polyphenols based on chemical assays
The antioxidant properties of hempseed lignanamides have
been documented in several studies. It is well-known that
low density lipoprotein (LDL) contributes to accumulation of
7
atherosclerotic plaques in blood vessel, therefore increasing
the risk of cardiovascular disease. A study of hemp hull led
by Chen et al. (2012) demonstrated the highest suppression
of LDL oxidation from N-trans-caffeoyltyramine. Although
still inferior compared to grapeseed extract oligomeric proan-
thocyanidins, the other hemp lignanamide Cannabisin B dis-
played greater oxidation inhibitory effect than ISO from
soybean extract. Yan et al. (2015) reported four new lig-
nanamides and 10 other known compounds from hempseed.
One of the new lignanamides, 3,3′ -dimethyl-heliotropamide,
demonstrated powerful DPPH radical scavenging activity at
81.5%, with moderate AChE (acetylcholinesterase) inhibitory
activity. Additionally, eight of the isolated compounds dis-
played powerful DPPH scavenge values in the range of
69.1% to 86.9%, which is comparable to quercetin at 85.5%.
With the aid of molecular modelling, it was suggested
that two of the most active lignanamides, 3,3′ -dimethyl-
heliotropamide and 3,3′ -dimethyl-grossamide, interact with
the AChE in a different manner. This shows that lig-
nanamides may have different mechanism to scavenge free
radicals and inhibit enzymes, despite of similar chemical
scaffolding.
Aside from the lignanamides, the abundance of flavonoids
in hempseed oil may provide protection against oxidation.
The ORAC and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP)
values for Finola hempseed oil were measured at 695.2 and
3,690.6 μmol trolox equivalent (TE)/100 g oil, respectively
8 HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…

TABLE 7 Selective identified phenolic compounds in hempseed

Polyphenol groups and compounds Source Reference
Lignanamides
Cannabisin Aacef , Cannabisin Babdf , Cannabisin Cae , Fruits (seeds) of Cannabis Chen et al. (2012)b , Lesma et al.
Cannabisin Dae , Cannabisin Eace , Cannabisin Faef , sativaa , hemp hullb , defatted (2014)c , Pojic et al. (2014)d ,
Cannabisin Gacf , Cannabisin Mef , Cannabisin Ne , Cannabisin hempseed of Carmagnola Sakakibara et al. (1991)a ,
Oe , Cannabisin Qf , Cannabisin A derivativec , Grossamidee , cultivarc , defatted hempseed Sakakibara, Ikeya, Hayashi, and
N-(3,4-dimethoxyphenethyl)-3-(3-hydroxy-4- meald , defatted hempseede , Mitsuhashi (1992)a , Sakakibara,
methoxyphenyl) propanamidec , (2,3- trans)-3-(3-hydroxy- defatted hempseedf Ikeya, Hayashi, Okada, and Maruno
5-methoxyphenyl)-N-(4-hydroxyphenethyl)-7-{(E)-3-[(4- (1995)a , Yan et al. (2015)e , Zhou,
hydroxyphenethyl)amino]-3-oxoprop-1-enyl}-2,3-dihydro- Wang, Lou, et al. (2018)f
benzo[b][1,4]dioxine-2-carboxamidee , 3,3′ -demethyl-
cannabisin Gc , 3-demethyl-cannabisin Gc , 3,3′ -demethyl-
grossamidecef , 3,3′ -demethyl-heliotropamidee
Hydroxycinnamic acid
Caffeic acidb , Caffeic acid hexosidef , Chlorogenic acidd , Fruits (seeds) of Cannabis Sakakibara et al. (1991)a , Teh et al.
trans-p-Coumaric acidd , Ferulic acidc , N-trans- sativaa , defatted hempseed (2014a)b , Faugno et al. (2019)f ,
caffeoyltyramineae , N-trans-caffeoyloctopaminee , N-trans- cakeb , defatted hempseed Pojic et al. (2014)c , Smeriglio et al.
coumaroyloctopaminee , N-trans-coumaroyltyramineae , mealc , hempseed oild , (2016)d , Zhou, Wang, Lou, et al.
N-trans-feruloyltyramineae , Sinapic acidc defatted hempseede , (2018)e
hempseed oil USO31
varietyf
Hydroxybenzoic acid
Caffeoyl-tartaric acidc , p-coumaroyl-tartaric acidc , Defatted hempseed meala , Faugno et al. (2019)c , Pojic et al.
p-hydroxybenzoic acidab , Hydroxytyrosol hexosidec , hempseed oil Finola (2014)a , Smeriglio et al. (2016)b
Hydroxybenzoic acid hexosidec , Protocatechuic acidab , varietyb , hempseed oil
Gallic acidab , Vanillic acidab USO31 varietyc
Flavonoid
Apigeninc , Catechinac , Daidzeinc , Dihydrokaempferol Defatted hempseed meala , Pojic et al. (2014)a , Teh et al.
hexosided , Epicatechinc , Eriodictyolc , defatted hempseed cakeb , (2014a)b , Faugno et al. (2019),
Eriodictyol-7-O-glucosidec , Genisteinc , hempseed oilc , hempseed oil Smeriglio et al. (2016)c,d
Hesperidin/neohesperidind , Isorhamnetin-O-hexuronided , USO31 varietyd
Isorhamnetin-O-rutinosided , Kaempferol-O-hexosided ,
Kaempferol-O-hexuronided , Kaempferol-O-rutinosided ,
Kaempferol-3-O-glucosidec , Kaempferol-3-O-rutinosidec ,
Kaempferol hexuronyl methyl esterd , Luteolinb , Naringeninc ,
Naringerin-7-O-glucosidec , Naringinc , Quercetinb ,
Quercetin-O-hexosided , Quercetin-O-hexuronided ,
Quercetin-3-O-rutinosidec , Quercetin-3-O-glucosidec ,
Rutind
Note. abcdef Same superscript in the same row means the compounds are identified from the same source and study.

(Smeriglio et al., 2016). These values are higher compared
to some seed oil extracts such as roasted pumpkin seeds
and onion seeds (Parry et al., 2006), suggesting hempseed
flavonoid’s capacity to protect oil against peroxyl radical. It
should be noted that extraction method may influence the
results of the antioxidant activity of hempseed polyphenol.
For example, Teh, Bekhit, Carne, and Birch (2014a) com-
pared seven different solvent extractions and revealed that
the sample obtained from methanol:acetone:water (MAW)
solvent extraction has the highest phenolics, flavonoids, and
DPPH inhibition (%) values.
Different hempseed fractions from hempseed processing
also have different antioxidant activities. It has been reported
that the coarsest, hull-dominated fraction had the strongest
radical scavenging activity with IC50 value of 5.29 mg/mL,
whereas the finest cotyledon fraction (<180 μm) showed
the weakest IC50 value of 17.18 mg/mL (Pojic et al.,
2014). Due to the high concentration of polyphenol con-
tent in hempseed hull compared to other hempseed prod-
ucts, it can be expected that the hull possesses the high-
est antiradical capacity. These chemical-based studies set the
foundation for further investigations on hempseed polyphe-
nol potential to improve human health and as an addi-
tive to improve the oxidative stability of food products,
containing hempseed oil, which will be discussed in later
sessions.
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
2.4 Hempseed fiber
2.4.1 Hempseed fiber composition
Hempseed contains both water-soluble and water-insoluble
fiber at a ratio about 20:80 (Callaway, 2004), which is com-
parable to other seeds and legumes such as flaxseed and lupin
seed (Mattila et al., 2018). Majority of hempseed fiber resides
in the hull, with the rest from cotyledon part of the seed.
Unlike their soluble counterpart, insoluble fiber cannot gelate
with water, thus digestion in the upper part of the GI tract
is very limited. Vonapartis et al. (2015) reported that cellu-
lose, lignin, and hemicellulose accounted for approximately
of 46%, 31%, and 22% of the total hempseed insoluble fiber,
respectively. This composition is well balanced compared to
lupin seed, where more than 70% of its neutral-detergent fiber
is cellulose (Gdala & Buraczewska, 1996). Cellulose con-
sumption has been suggested to reduce total and LDL in
hypercholesterolemic adults (Maki et al., 2000); together with
intake of insoluble fiber, fiber consumption has been linked
to decreased risk of obesity and diabetes (Lattimer & Haub,
2010).
2.4.2 Functional properties of hempseed fiber
The functionality of fiber depends on the structural features of
the polysaccharide and external factors, such as pH, tempera-
ture, and ionic strength. Solubility is one of the most important
functional properties as it affects the extent of other proper-
ties, such as water and oil holding capacity and emulsifying
property. Soluble fiber is characterized by its high capacity to
swell, form gels, and improve viscosity (Elleuch et al., 2011).
On the contrary, the porous and low density insoluble fiber
displays the opposite characteristics to that of soluble fiber.
As a result, materials with higher proportion of soluble fiber
are preferable for the application in food manufacturing.
Nevertheless, food processing methods can modify the
solubility, thus the applicability of fiber for food applications.
Processing technologies, such as extrusion, thermal, and
pressure treatment could disrupt the covalent bonds in the
long-chain polysaccharides, which increases the proportion
of soluble fibers (Zhong, Fang, Wahlqvist, Hodgson, &
Johnson, 2019). Sangnark and Noomhorm (2004) reported
improvement in swollen volume, water and oil binding
capacity of rice straw after alkaline hydrogen peroxide (AHP)
treatment, and high-speed centrifugation. This is likely due
to two reasons: (a) AHP treatment removes lignin, which
is the most insoluble fraction of the fiber; (b) mechanical
stress in high-speed centrifugation promotes the breakdown
of hydrogen bonds between cellulose chains, which allows
stronger interaction between water and free hydroxyl group.
The functional properties of hempseed fiber are not clearly
defined due to the absence of relevant literature. Raikos,
Neacsu, Russell, and Duthie (2014) studied the functionality
9
of hemp, lupin, green pea, fava bean, and buckwheat flour.
At alkaline conditions (pH 10), hempseed flour displayed one
of the highest solubility, emulsifying and foaming properties,
albeit its inability to form gels at any pH. However, it is uncer-
tain whether these properties are derived from the protein,
fiber, or other components of the flour.
2.4.3 Interactions between dietary fiber and
polyphenol
The interactions between dietary fiber and phenolic com-
pounds have been highlighted in past reviews (Jakobek, 2015;
Saura-Calixto, 2011). Dietary fiber may physically entrap
the phenols and antioxidants in a matrix. In another review,
Palafox-Carlos, Ayala-Zavala, and González-Aguilar (2011)
indicated that pectin-like fiber matrix may trap 𝛽-carotene
in a chyme, which consists of distinct particulate dispersed
phase and continuous liquid phase. Therefore, antioxidant
compounds should be liberated from dispersed into the con-
tinuous phase to be available for intestinal absorption. Addi-
tionally, dietary fiber and polyphenol can chemically link
together through hydrophobic interactions, hydrogen bond-
ing (oxygen atoms from polysaccharide’s glycosidic chains
and hydroxyl groups from phenolic compounds), and cova-
lent bonds (Saura-Calixto, 2011). As a consequence, bioavail-
ability of polyphenols in the body may be reduced. Compared
to semipurified (73% wheat starch) diet, Adam et al. (2002)
observed a significantly lower urine excretion of ferulic acid
in rats fed with cereal diets. The research team suggested that
the cross-linking with arabinoxylan and lignin in fiber helps
explain the impaired bioavailability of ferulic acid. The bound
ferulic acid may also limit fermentation and enzyme activity
on hydrolysis of carbohydrates (Snelders et al., 2014).
Digestive enzymes are required to release the bound
polyphenols from fiber. However, even with the aid of mas-
tication, only a small proportion of polyphenol, particularly
ones bonded on the outer parts of cell wall, manages to pass
through the mucosa of small intestine (Palafox-Carlos et al.,
2011). As a consequence, the nonextractable polyphenols are
not bioavailable for small intestine, but becomes available
for the gut microbiota in the colon. Colonic fermentation of
polyphenols resulted in release of phenolic metabolites, such
as hydroferulic and dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, which have
been studied for their potential protective effect against cancer
(Cardona, Andrés-Lacueva, Tulipani, Tinahones, & Queipo-
Ortuño, 2013). However, there is no report about the interac-
tions of polyphenols and dietary fiber of hempseed in human
digestion, which need more in-depth research.
2.5 Cannabinoids
Cannabis sativa cannot directly biosynthesize the psychoac-
tive compound THC (Hanuš, Meyer, Muñoz, Taglialatela-
Scafati, & Appendino, 2016). However, it can form its
10
F I G U R E 2 Synthesis of THC and CBD in Cannabis plants
Abbreviations: CBD, cannabidiol; CBDA, cannabidiolic acid; CBGA, cannabigerolic acid; THCA-A, tetrahydrocannabinolic acid - A; THCA-B,
tetrahydrocannabinolic acid - B; THC, tetrahydrocannabinol
precursors, olivetolic acid, and geranyl pyrophosphate, which
could be used to biosynthesize cannabigerolic acid (CBGA)
with the help of geranyldiphosphate:olivetolate geranyl-
transferase (Figure 2). CBGA could be further converted
to cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and tetrahydrocannabinolic
acid (THCA), by cannabidiolic acid-synthase and THCA-
synthase, respectively. Cannabinoids, including cannabidiol
(CBD), THC, and cannabinol (CBN), could then be formed
through decarboxylation process, a simple decomposition
reaction catalyzed by heat.
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
THC has long been the major concern of utilizing
hempseed for food consumption. In most hempseed culti-
vars, THC has only been found at very low levels (less than
1%; Citti, Pacchetti, Vandelli, Forni, & Cannazza, 2018).
However, the outer shells of hempseed may be contami-
nated with the THC-rich resin excreted by epidermal glands,
which may not be adequately cleaned. The concentration
of cannabinoids could also be affected by temperature and
extraction method used. Oil extraction using the Soxhlet (sol-
vent) method involves high temperature, which could result in
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
higher concentration of THC (Citti et al., 2018). Additionally,
microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was reported to yield
the highest total cannabinoids (THC, CBN, and cannabidiol),
as compared to Soxhlet, ultrasonic-assisted extraction, and
supercritical fluid extraction (Fathordoobady, Singh, Kitts, &
Singh, 2019). Among these methods, MAE required the least
processing time and solvent amount.
Cannabidiolic acid is the dominant cannabinoid component
in commercial hempseed oils (Citti et al., 2018). Although a
high proportion of THCA is detected in some commercial oil,
keeping it in cool environments (below 4 ◦ C) can prevent the
accumulation of THC through decarboxylation (Citti et al.,
2018). Very recently, 30 new cannabinoids have been iden-
tified from hempseed oil, which can be regarded as a monu-
mental step toward unlocking the full potential of hempseed
(Citti et al., 2019).
2.6 Antinutritive compounds in hempseed
The presence of antinutritive compounds in food products,
such as trypsin inhibitor, phytic acid, and tannins, may limit
the absorption of protein, vitamin, and mineral and lead to the
accumulation of toxic compounds. In hempseed, the majority
of antinutrients are located in its cotyledon fraction. Pojic et al.
(2014) identified phytic acid as the dominant antinutrient in
hempseed meal, with an average concentration of 22.5 mg/g.
This is comparable to the range of values found in phytate-
rich food groups such as legumes (2.2 to 29.0 mg/g), nuts
(1.5 to 94.2 mg/g), and oilseeds (1.0 to 75.0 mg/g; Schlem-
mer, Frølich, Prieto, & Grases, 2009). Smaller amount of glu-
cosinolates (3.80 μmol/g), trypsin inhibitor (2.88 TIU/mg pro-
tein), and condensed tannins (0.23 mg/g) was also recorded
in the hempseed meal (Pojic et al., 2014). Phytic acid, also
known as phytate, impairs nutrient bioavailability by convert-
ing cations into insoluble complexes (Sánchez-Chino et al.,
2015). The levels of antinutrients are also affected by the culti-
var type and geographical location (Russo & Reggiani, 2013).
However, previous researches on the health effects of these
antinutrients have been controversial as some studies have
indicated its potential protective effects against diabetes, car-
diovascular disease, and cancer (Thompson, 1993).
3 POTENTIAL HEALTH BENEFITS
OF HEMPSEED
3.1 Health benefits of hemp protein fractions
as suggested by in vitro studies and chemical
assays
Hempseed protein harbors bioactive peptides that exhibit
powerful antioxidant properties. Lu et al. (2010) prepared
hempseed protein hydrolysate (HPH) by enzymatic hydrol-
11
ysis of hempseed protein isolate. This hydrolysate contains
two peptides (NHAV and HVRETALV), which significantly
increased the survival rate of peptide-treated rat PC12 cells in
comparison to H2 O2 -treated cells. This result was consistent
with morphological observation, which confirmed that these
peptides alleviated H2 O2 -induced cell apoptosis. Twenty-
three short-chain (less than five amino acids) peptides were
further isolated from hempseed crude protein powder by enzy-
matic hydrolysis with pancreatin and pepsin (Girgih et al.,
2014). At 0.5 mg/mL, WVYY and PSLPA were the most
active antioxidant peptides, with DPPH inhibition rate of 67%
and 58%, and metal chelating activity of 94% and 96%, respec-
tively. Rather than using enzymes, Orio et al. (2017) adopted
chemical hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid to obtain the HPH.
This result in the isolation of four new peptides (GVLY, LGV,
RVR, and IEE), with GVLY being the most active peptide
with DPPH IC50 value equal to 16 ± 1.5 μM, followed by
LGV with IC50 value equal to 145 ± 13 μM and RVR the
third with IC50 value equal to 526 ± 33 μM. Except for IEE,
all other three peptides have strong angiotensin converting
enzyme (ACE) inhibition rate higher than 90%. These stud-
ies provided a foundation for the potential use of hempseed
peptides as a preventative treatment against hypertension and
cardiovascular diseases, which warrants further investigation.
3.2 Health benefits of other hempseed
fractions (oil and polyphenol) as suggested by in
vitro studies
In vitro studies involving cell cultures have demonstrated pos-
sible protective mechanism of hempseed oil and polyphe-
nol against several diseases. Jeong et al. (2014) reported
that hempseed oil promoted cell apoptosis and upregu-
lated the expression of endoplasmic reticulum stress mark-
ers and C/EBP homologous protein using MH7A human-like
rheumatoid arthritis cells model. Their findings were associ-
ated with the high PUFA content in hempseed, which was
detected in cancer cells, though the responsible fatty acid
could not be determined. Furthermore, hempseed supercrit-
ical fluid and ethanol extracts were also found to induce the
release of antioxidant enzymes in human hepatoma HepG2
cells (Hong et al., 2015).
Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a microglia stimulator that
induces the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-𝜅B),
a transcription factor known to upregulate pro-inflammatory
enzymes and mediators (O’Neill & Kaltschmidt, 1997). Using
LPS-treated BV2 microglia cells, Luo et al. (2017) displayed
the ability of hempseed grossamide to block TLR4-mediated
NF-𝜅B signaling pathway, which weakens the production
of inflammatory cytokines. Recently, another two new lig-
nanamides, cannabisin Q and coumaroylaminobutamol glu-
copyranoside, have been isolated from hempseed, which
exhibited a significant inhibitory action on TNF-𝛼 release,
12
a neurodegenerative-related cytokine, of LPS-induced BV2
microglia cells Zhou, Wang, Lou, et al. (2018). Further
researches are required to explore the anti-neurodegenerative
properties of these polyphenols.
3.3 Potential health properties of
cannabinoids
Cannabinoids can be separated into acidic and neutral groups.
The neutral group includes the decarboxylated phytocannabi-
noids, such as THC and CBD. The acidic group, such as
CBDA, has not undergone the decarboxylation step. Several
studies have recorded the health benefits of neutral phyto-
cannabinoids. Pisanti et al. (2017) reviewed the therapeutic
effect of CBD against Alzheimer’s disease, cancers, epilepsy,
inflammatory diseases, and Parkinson’s disease. Treatment
with CBN delayed the onset of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis in
mice (Weydt et al., 2005). Turner and Elsohly (1981) showed
the superior antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activity of
cannabichromene compared to phenylbutazone.
For the acidic cannabinoid, most research was carried out
for CBDA. Takeda et al. (2012) reported CBDA as an inhibitor
of migrating breast cancer cells. Supplementation of CBDA
was also found to reduce the incidence of vomiting (Bolognini
et al., 2013). Apart from CBDA, there is limited research
on the pharmacological effects of other acidic phytocannabi-
noids. Further research is required to decipher the health
effects of these cannabinoids.
3.4 Clinical studies of hempseed on animal
and human subjects
Animal (Table 8) and human (Table 9) trials have been con-
ducted to investigate the effects of hempseed supplementa-
tion on human health. Improvements in blood lipid profiles
of rats and rabbits were observed after taking hempseeds
supplements (Al-Khalifa et al., 2007; Prociuk et al., 2008).
Both studies reported elevated plasma levels of linoleic acid
(LA), alpha-linolenic acid, and GLA in subjects on hempseed-
enriched diet. Significant reduction in platelet aggregation
was observed after ingestion of ground hempseed for 8 weeks
using male Sprague–Dawley rats as model (Prociuk et al.,
2008). There’s a high possibility that the GLA contributes to
this observation, as GLA could be converted into DGLA, then
prostaglandin E1 (PGE1 ), which has been suggested to protect
against proliferative diseases (Wang, Lin, & Gu, 2012). Apart
from the fatty acids, Girgih et al. (2014) showed the poten-
tial of hempseed meal peptides, notably WVYY and SVYT,
in lowering blood cholesterol of spontaneously hypertensive
rats, which explained the reduced cholesterol and mortality
rate in drosophila fed with hempseed meal (Lee et al., 2011).
Diets rich in hempseed may also protect against metabolic
syndrome and neurodegenerative diseases. Li et al. (2018)
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
observed longer longevity, improved memory, reduced sys-
temic inflammation and oxidative stress, healthier gut micro-
biome, and enhanced insulin sensitivity and expression of
anti-aging genes in rats on hempseed diet. Zhou, Wang, Ji,
et al. (2018) reported a reversal in memory loss caused by
LPS, a constituent of Gram-negative bacteria, when the stud-
ied mice were fed with phenylpropionamides (TPA) extract of
hempseed. At low dose (1 g/kg), the TPA extract could also
reduce the level of inflammatory cytokines (TNF-𝛼, IL-1𝛽,
and IL-6), but exhibited a counteracting effect at higher doses
(2 g/kg).
In human trials, hempseed oil positive effects on skin, men-
tal, and neurologic disorders have been evident in several stud-
ies (Callaway et al., 2005; Palmieri, Laurino, & Vadalà, 2017;
Rezapour-Firouzi et al., 2013). Nevertheless, the impacts of
hempseed on cardiovascular diseases still need further verifi-
cation. In a randomized crossover study, Schwab et al. (2006)
showed elevated LA and GLA in blood plasma of healthy
human volunteers after consuming 30 mL/day of hempseed
oil (HO) for 4 weeks. Additionally, the HO treatment recorded
lower total-to-HDL ratio compared to FO treatment, which
may indicate a lower risk of developing coronary heart dis-
ease (Kinosian, Glick, Preiss, & Puder, 1995). In contrast,
Kaul et al. (2008) found no effect of hempseed oil on serum
fatty acid profiles and platelet aggregation on healthy human
subjects, which was likely due to the lower dose (2 g/day)
used. The authors reasoned that oil supplementation at lower
doses was more practical for healthy individuals. Therefore,
more human trials are necessary to elucidate the relationship
between hempseed supplementation and the risk of cardiovas-
cular diseases.
4 EFFECTS OF PROCESSING ON
T H E FU NC T I O NA L A N D
NUTRITIO NAL P RO P ERTIES OF
HEMPSEED CONSTITUENTS
4.1 Effects of processing conditions on
hempseed protein
Hempseed can be consumed raw, but processing seeds is often
desirable due to several reasons: (a) to improve the nutri-
ent bioavailability and functionality; (b) to eliminate harmful
antinutrients, and (c) to improve consumer acceptability of the
product (Zhong et al., 2018). Despite its superior nutritional
properties, hempseed protein often displays poor functional
properties compared to other plant proteins. To expand its
applicability in the food industry, past researches have focused
on modifying the techno-functionality of hempseed protein
using various processing methods (Figure 3).
Yin et al. (2008) pioneered the investigation in this area
and applied enzymatic and chemical hydrolysis to hempseed
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY… 13

TABLE 8 Selective animal studies on the effect of hempseed supplementation on biomarkers of several diseases
Hempseed
fraction Animal type Experimental design Main conclusion Reference
Cardiovascular health
Hempseed: White New Randomized controlled trial Limited beneficial effects on cardiac Prociuk et al.
whole and Zealand Measures taken: Electrocardiogram traces function during ischemia/reperfusion (2006)
dilipidated rabbits (male) and fatty acid content of plasma and challenge
cardiac tissue
Hempseed Sprague–Dawley Randomized controlled trial Supplementation significantly increased Al-Khalifa et al.
rats (male) Measures taken: Diet, plasma, and heart alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) plasma (2007)
tissue fatty acid levels. Cardiac levels, but insufficient to elevate plasma
performance during levels of linoleic acid (LA) in rats.
ischemia-reperfusion Rats’ hearts exhibited significantly better
postischemic recovery of maximal
contractile function and enhanced rates
of tension development and relaxation
during reperfusion.
Ground Sprague–Dawley Randomized controlled trial Significant inhibition of platelet Richard,
hempseed rats (male) Measures taken: Platelet aggregation and aggregation Ganguly,
rate of aggregation Steigerwald,
Al-Khalifa,
and Pierce
(2007)
Hempseed: White New Randomized controlled trial Increase in plasma and gamma-linolenic Prociuk et al.
whole and Zealand Each rabbit consumed 125 g diet/day for acid (GLA) levels of hempseed-fed (2008)
dilipidated rabbits (male) 8 weeks rabbits.
Measures taken: diet composition, plasma Hempseed supplementation nullifies the
levels (cholesterol esters, triglycerides, effect of cholesterol on platelet
and fatty acids), total platelet aggregation
aggregation, and rate of aggregation
Hempseed Meal Drosophila Randomized controlled trial Higher survival in H202-HPM reared Lee et al. (2011)
(HSM) (GMR-GAL4 Measures taken: oxidative stress, sterol flies, compared to H2O2-CTL flies.
& (sev)-GAL4 assay, and longevity Shows capacity to reduce oxidative
strain) toxicity.
Significant reduction in cholesterol uptake
level with supplementation of linoleic
acid and/or HSM
Hempseed Wistar-Kyoto Randomized controlled trial Attenuation of the normal increases in Girgih et al.
protein meal Rats (male) Measures taken: systolic and siastolic systolic blood pressure (SBP). (2014)
hydrolysate blood pressure, plasma ACE Reduction of rats’ SBP.
(HMH) (angiotensin I-converting enzyme) Plasma ACE activity was significantly
activity, and plasma renin concentration suppressed, and plasma renin level was
also decreased.
Metabolic syndrome
Hempseed C57BL rats Randomized controlled trial Higher survival rate and reduced Li et al. (2018)
(Bama variety) (female) Measures taken: MWM test (learning and senescence on rats
memory function), open field test, Reduced hepatic lipid accumulation,
blood plasma profiles, plasma spleen inflammation, systemic
lipopolysaccharide (LPS) measurement, inflammation, and oxidative stress in
plasma antioxidant capacity and lipid rats
oxidation, bacteria culture, stool PCR Significantly lower gut levels of the
analysis, and gene expression analysis LPS-producing E. coli and significantly
higher gut levels of the beneficial
Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus
Improved insulin sensitivity and
anti-aging genes in rats
(Continues)
14
TABLE 8 (Continued)
Hempseed
fraction Animal type Experimental design
Neurodegenerative diseases
Hempseed TPA Kunming mice Randomized controlled trial
(phenylpropi- (male) Measures taken: MWM test, hippocampal Significant reduction of inflammatory
onamides) morphology examination, ELISA
extract (detection of TNF-𝛼, IL-1𝛽, and IL-6)
protein isolate. However, these treatments showed opposite
effects for different functional properties. For instance, diges-
tion of hemp protein isolate using trypsin increased protein
solubility, but led to reduction in emulsifying activity and
foaming capacity. There is a possibility that trypsin diges-
tion promotes aggregation of hydrolysate molecules, which
impairs the viscoelasticity of the oil–water interface. This is in
contrary to other study showing a positive correlation of pro-
tein solubility and emulsifying activity (Felix, Hill, & Diarra,
1990). Guan, Yao, Chen, Shan, and Zhang (2007) partially
digested oat bran protein concentrate with trypsin and found
simultaneously improved higher protein solubility and emul-
sifying activity, and therefore theorized that enzymatic treat-
ment exposed the hydrophobic groups previously buried in
folded protein, providing a favorable hydrophilic–lipophilic
balance for a stable emulsion.
Similarly, addition of acyl or succinyl groups is expected to
improve protein emulsion stability by enhancing the electric
potential of the oil droplet’s interfacial membrane, prevent-
ing the droplets from coalescing (Shilpashree, Arora, Chawla,
& Tomar, 2015). In a study of mung bean protein isolate,
El-Adawy (2000) reported significant increase in the emul-
sifying stability with higher degree of acetylation and suc-
cinylation. Nevertheless, succinylation was shown to decrease
the emulsifying stability of hempseed protein isolate, albeit
the increased protein solubility and emulsifying activity (Yin,
Tang, Wen, & Yang, 2009), which was inconsistent to the
succinylated oat protein isolate (Mirmoghtadaie, Kadivar, &
Shahedi, 2009). This could be explained by the fact that suc-
cinylation, particularly at high concentration, may enhance
protein–protein repulsion on the oil–water interface, leading
to unstable emulsions.
Studies on the impact of processing on the quality of pro-
tein are still limited. The defatting process using hexane was
found to alter the amino acid composition of hempseed com-
pletely, where significantly higher amount of essential amino
acids, except histidine and lysine, was observed in the defat-
ted hempseed cake (Teh, Bekhit, Carne, & Birch, 2014b).
In contrast, the alkali-extracted hempseed protein isolates
have comparable amino acid content to defatted samples,
except with higher histidine and lysine content, which was
also reported in flaxseed cakes, but not in canola cakes (Teh
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
Main conclusion Reference
Attenuation of memory loss Zhou, Wang, Ji,
et al. (2018)
cytokines at low dose (1 g/kg) of TPA
et al., 2014b). Additionally, acid extraction improved methio-
nine levels in flaxseed and canola protein isolates compared
to alkali extraction; however, no difference was observed
in hempseed protein. This suggests that the effect of pro-
cessing may differ between various seed cakes and protein
isolates.
The pH manipulation is another processing technique com-
monly used to modify the protein functionality. Wang, Jin, and
Xiong (2018) combined pH shifting and high temperature in
treatment of hempseed protein, and observed higher protein
solubility, emulsifying activity, and physical stability, which
is also observed in soy protein isolate (Jiang, Chen, & Xiong,
2009). In whey protein isolate, enhanced emulsifying proper-
ties were found after adjusting the pH solution from 7 to 12
(Chen et al., 2019). This could be explained by the following
reasons: (a) pH adjustment could increase surface hydropho-
bicity; (b) increasing pH induces denaturation of protein and
its rearrangement into a molten globule structure, which sig-
nificantly enhances its functional properties (Wang, Jiang, &
Xiong, 2018).
Additionally, when high-pressure homogenization was
applied with pH shifting, improved physical stability, oxida-
tive stability and lowered microbial population were reported
in hempseed milk (Wang et al., 2018). Decrease in 𝛼-helix and
increase in 𝛽-sheets could be observed simultaneously when
whey protein was subjected to high-pressure homogenization,
which suggests a stronger interaction between interfacial pro-
teins (Lee et al., 2016). However, the effects of high-pressure
homogenization on oxidative stability are still inconclusive.
Homogenization fragmentizes the oil globules into smaller
fraction, which increases the surface area that must be covered
by interfacial proteins, and therefore leading to higher sus-
ceptibility to lipid oxidation. On the contrary, Nakaya, Ushio,
Matsukawa, Shimizu, and Ohshima (2005) offered a different
view and suggested enhanced oxidative stability with smaller
droplet size. This could be explained by the hypothesis that
hempseed protein had the ability to recuperate and rearrange
themselves after homogenization, which forms a thick interfa-
cial layer that protects the droplet from oxidation (Wang et al.,
2018). Integrated manothermosonication and ultrasonication
was also adopted, which was reported to improve the func-
tional properties of seed proteins (Lee et al., 2016; Yildiz,
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY… 15

TABLE 9 Selective human studies on the effect of hempseed supplementation on biomarkers of several diseases
Hempseed Population
fraction tested Experimental design Main conclusion Reference
Cardiovascular health
Hempseed oil Healthy male and Double-blinded randomized cross over The HO period resulted in higher Schwab et al.
female study proportions of both LA and (2006)
participants Measures taken: Body weight, lipid gamma-linolenic acid in serum
(n = 14) profile, serum and lipoprotein lipid cholesteryl esters (CE) and
Mean age (year): concentration, apo A-1 and B, plasma triglycerides (TG) as compared with
45 ± 7, Body glucose and insulin concentrations the flaxseed oil (FO) period.
weight (Kg): The proportion of arachidonic acid in CE
70.9 ± 9.2 was lower after the FO period than after
the HO period.
The HO period resulted in a lower
total-to-HDL cholesterol ratio
compared with the FO period.
Hempseed oil Healthy male and Double-blinded, placebo-controlled Supplementation with hempseed oil did Kaul et al. (2008)
female randomized trial not significantly alter the concentration
participants Measures taken: Plasma fatty acid and of any plasma fatty acid.
(n = 86) lipid profiles, platelet aggregation, and The lipid parameters (TC, HDL-C,
inflammatory markers (C-Reactive LDL-C, and TG) did not show any
protein and tumor necrosis factor alpha) significant differences among the four
groups.
None of the dietary interventions induced
any significant change in collagen or
thrombin-stimulated platelet
aggregation and no increase in the level
of inflammatory markers was observed.
Skin disorder
Hempseed oil Atopic dermatitis Single blinded randomized cross over Dietary hempseed oil caused significant Callaway et al.
patients study changes in plasma fatty acid profiles (2005)
(n = 20) Measures taken: Body weight, and improved clinical symptoms of
questionnaire on dryness and itchiness, atopic dermatitis.
measurement of transepidermal water Levels of both essential fatty acids
loss. Plasma fatty acid analysis (linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid);
and gamma-linolenic acid increased in
all lipid fractions after hempseed oil.
Intragroup TEWL values decreased,
qualities of both skin dryness and
itchiness improved, and dermal
medication usage decreased after
hempseed oil intervention.
Mental disorder
CBD-enriched Females (n = 12, Retrospective, observational study Sf-36 showed significant benefits in the Palmieri et al.
Hempseed 12 to 24 years Measures taken: Questionnaire (SF-36 – physical component score, vitality, and (2017)
old) with 0% to 100%) on the quality of life, social role functioning after the
severe vitality, general health perceptions, treatment.
somatofom bodily pain, mental health, etc. The administration of hemp oil also
and significantly reduced body pain
dysautonomic according to the Sf-36 assessment.
syndrome
following
HPV vaccine
(Continues)
16
TABLE 9 (Continued)
Hempseed Population
fraction tested Experimental design
Neurologic disorder
Hempseed and Multiple Double blinded randomized controlled
primrose oil sclerosis trial
patients Measures taken: Mizadj (warmth/coldness
(n = 65, 23 M, ratio), EDSS (extended disability status
42 F) scores), relapse rate, blood analysis
(interferon cytokines).
Andrade, Engeseth, & Feng, 2017). These methods have the
potential to be applied for hemp protein in the future.
4.2 Effects of processing conditions on
hempseed oil and polyphenol
Due to its high nutritional value, hempseed oil has been
extracted for human consumption. However, its abundance of
unsaturated fatty acids makes it highly susceptible to produce
oxidative rancidity. Previous studies have proposed various
extraction methods and pretreatments technologies to alle-
viate this issue. Oomah et al. (2002) dried the seeds in a
microwave for up to 12 min before extraction and observed a
significantly higher 𝛽-tocopherol and carotenoid content. The
same research also found that these pretreatments simultane-
ously lowered the melting point and increased the oxidation
temperature of the oil, which was in consistent with researches
in cottonseed (Taghvaei, Jafari, Assadpoor, Nowrouzieh, &
Alishah, 2014), hazelnut (Uquiche, Jeréz, & Ortíz, 2008), and
rapeseed oil (Yang et al., 2014). This could be explained by
the elevated release of bounded polyphenols and inactiva-
tion of oxidative enzymes such as lipoxygenase and lipase in
microwave treatment.
Enzyme hydrolysis may also improve the oxidative sta-
bility of hempseed oil without significantly affecting the
fatty acid composition of the oil. Latif and Anwar (2009)
treated hempseed with five enzyme preparations (Protex 7L,
Alcalase 2.4L, Viscozyme L, Kemzyme, and Natuzyme)
before extraction and recorded higher tocopherol content and
longer induction time to initiate oxidation, as compared to
untreated hempseed oil, which was also in consistent to result
to enzyme-treated canola oil (Latif, Diosady, & Anwar, 2008).
Enzyme hydrolysis promotes the expulsion of phenolics and
tocopherols from the seed cell wall, and therefore resulting
in higher oil oxidative stability. Future research is needed to
improve the oxidative stability of hempseed oil, such as inte-
gration of microwave and enzyme treatment, which has been
proved successfully in pumpkin seed oil (Jiao et al., 2014).
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
Main conclusion Reference
After 6 months, significant improvements Rezapour-Firouzi
in Mizadj, EDSS, and relapse rate were et al. (2013)
found in the hemp and primrose
evening oil group, whereas the olive oil
group showed a border significant
decrease in relapse rate. Immunological
parameters showed improvement in
hemp and primrose oil group, whereas
there was worsening condition for olive
oil group after the intervention.
Ultrasound has also been applied to improve hempseed oil
quality. Compared to hexane-solvent extraction, 13% increase
in radical inhibition activity was observed in hempseed oil
obtained from ultrasound extraction (Lin et al., 2012). A com-
bined ultrasound pretreatment and supercritical CO2 extrac-
tion also provided significantly higher antiradical capacity
than Soxhlet solvent extraction, though not as high when
the supercritical extraction was applied alone (Da Porto,
Natolino, & Decorti, 2015). When ultrasound is combined
with bleaching clay Sepiolate, significantly lower peroxide
value was observed over a 30-day storage at 40 ◦ C (Liang
et al., 2018). However, no differences were observed in
sepholite-only treatment. This could be explained by the
reduction in chlorophyll, which improved the oxidative sta-
bility of oil. Additionally, ultrasound may aid the release of
bound phenolic compounds in the hempseed fiber, as reflected
by the enhanced antioxidant capacity in treated hempseed
cake (Teh & Birch, 2014).
5 INTEG RATIO N O F H EM P S EE D
COMPONENTS I NTO FOOD
PRODUCTS
Hempseed’s high nutritional value has attracted the interest
of food manufacturers and researchers to integrate it into dif-
ferent food systems. To date, it has been successfully incor-
porated into various bread, energy bars, and dairy and meat
products (Table 10). Adding hempseed components into these
products may not only influence their nutritional value, but
also their physiochemical and sensory properties.
5.1 Integration of hempseed to improve the
nutritional value of food products
For the majority of hempseed-added products, the most dras-
tic change is its carbohydrate profile, where dietary fiber con-
tent increased. Korus, Gumul, Krystyjan, Juszczak, and Korus
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
FIGURE 3 Effects of some selective processing methods on the functional and nutritional properties of hempseed components
(2017) replaced 20% of starch with hempseed flour in gluten-
free bread and observed threefold increase in dietary fiber.
Compared to corn flour, hempseed flour has a more profound
effect in enhancing the total dietary fiber content of gluten-
free biscuits (Korus, Witczak, Ziobro, & Juszczak, 2017).
For manufacture of gluten-free crackers, Radocaj, Dimic, and
Tsao (2014) reported a positive correlation between crude
fiber content and proportion of hempseed flour. The majority
of this additional fiber is insoluble fiber, including cellulose,
lignin, and hemicellulose, which has been linked to reduced
17
macronutrient absorption, improved fecal bulking, and weight
loss (Lattimer & Haub, 2010).
Inclusion of hempseed fractions also increases the protein
content of food products. This is one of the major concerns in
food industry as protein-energy malnutrition is still prevalent
in some groups of human population (Crichton et al., 2019).
About 38% increase in protein content was observed when
replacing up to 20% of wheat flour with hempseed flour to
make bread (Pojic, Hadnadev, Hadnagev, Rakita, & Brlek,
2015). In another bread product, Mikulec et al. (2019) also
18 HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…

TABLE 10 Selective studies of incorporating hempseed fractions in food products

Hempseed
fraction Product Inclusion % Notes Reference
Powder (blended Energy bars from 20%, 30%, and 40% – Decreased water absorption and Norajit et al. (2011)
whole and extruded (w/w) of rice flour solubility index
defatted rice/hempseed flour were replaced by
– Extruded rice blended was darker
hempseeds) mixture hempseed powder
and had higher a and b values than
the control.Lesser expansion values
for hempseed-incorporated
extrudate compared to control, with
whole hempseed powder > defatted
hempseed powder.
– Higher phenolic content and
antioxidant capacity, with whole
hempseed > defatted hempseed.
– Extruded rice/40% whole hempseed
had the highest antioxidant activity
– Moisture sorption isotherms of
extruded rice/defatted hempseed
bar absorbed more humidity than
extruded rice/whole hempseed
– The energy bar made with extruded
rice/20% whole hempseed was
preferred for color, taste, and
overall acceptability.
Hempseed (26% Bread from extruded Up to 40% of rice flour – Inhibited the decrease of peak Wang et al. (2013)
protein, 28% rice/hempseed was replaced by viscosity on the extrusion
fat, 8% ash, mixture hempseed condition.
and 6%
– The onset gelatinization
moisture)
temperature was extended due to
the hempseed addition. Also
increased the weakness and
extensibility.
– For bread properties, hempseed
addition increased the bread
specific volume and decreased the
hardness during storage time.
Flour (32% Gluten-free crackers Up to 40% hempseed – Highest sensory scores in crackers Radocaj et al. (2014)
protein, 44% flour with hempseed flour added up to
fiber, and 10% 20% + 4 g of decaffeinated green
fat) tea leaves.
– Up to 30% hempseed flour + 8 g of
green tea leaves can be added.
Flour Bread Up to 20% wheat flour – No significant effect on dough Pojic et al. (2015)
(composition substituted with strength and stability by
not shown) hempseed flour incorporation hemp flour up to
10%. But significant decrease was
observed at substitution level of
20%.
– Higher protein and iron content in
hempseed-added product
(Continues)
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY… 19

TABLE 10 (Continued)
Hempseed
fraction Product Inclusion % Notes Reference
Defatted Extruded corn snack Up to 10% of total – Higher bulk density and hardness. Jozinovic et al. (2017)
hempseed cake ingredients Reduced fracturability.
(35% protein
– Lower cold paste viscosity, showing
and 60% fiber)
a more stable starch suspension
– Increased water absorption and
solubility index
Flour (30% Gluten-free bread 10% or 20% substitution – Protein concentrate increased levels Korus et al. (2017)
protein, 8% fat, of applied starches of dietary fiber from 15.2 up to
and 49% fiber) 61.0 g/kg, hempseed flour
and protein increased dietary fiber from 29.3 to
concentrate 90.0 g/kg.
(49% protein,
– Reduced its lightness from 62.3 to
12% fat, and
40.8 and increased bread volume
fiber 14%)
from 633 to 878 mL.
– Limited hardening of the crumb
and recrystallization of
the amylopectin in bread during
storage (significantly reduced
enthalpy).
Flour (20% Gluten-free biscuits 20% to 60% substitution – Significantly darker biscuits Korus et al. (2017)
protein, 8% of corn flour
– Improvement in protein content
fats, and 52%
(40% to 122%), fiber content,
fiber)
polyphenol content (41% to 143%),
and antioxidant activity (average
124%)
– Lowest sensory scores for
hempseed flour- added biscuits due
to bitter taste and greenish color
(thicker granulation).
Protein (50% Yoghurt Up to 2.79% plant – Significantly higher acidity Dabija et al. (2018)
protein, 21% protein compared to control yoghurt.
fiber, and 11%
– Hempseed-added yoghurt has the
lipid)
lowest syneresis values, highest
water binding capacity, and
viscosity (compared to control, soy,
wheat, and pumpkin seed protein).
– Second highest sensory evaluation
scores for hempseed-added yoghurt
after pumpkin seed.
Seed Liver pate (paste with 5.7% of the total – Improved fatty acid profile (more Zając and Świątek
forcemeat) ingredients polyunsaturated fatty acids with (2018)
(Hempseed only) narrow gap of n-3/6 fatty acids).
5.5% of total ingredients
– Significantly higher hardness and
(Hempseed + 2.8%
chewiness in oilseed-incorporated
Linseed)
products.
– Sensory evaluation suggested
higher appearance, texture, taste,
and overall acceptability scores in
oilseed containing pates.
(Continues)
20 HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…

TABLE 10 (Continued)
Hempseed
fraction Product Inclusion % Notes Reference
Flour (defatted) Bread Up to 50% wheat flour – Significantly higher protein, Mikulec et al. (2019)
(36% protein, replaced with polyphenols content, and browning
45% fiber, and hempseed flour index.
9% fat)
– Hempseed flour added at >30%
contributed to the reduction of
organoleptic assessment of the
bread.
– Significantly inhibited changes in
the hardness of bread crumb by
reducing bread stalling index from
1.12 (wheat bread) to 0.05 (50% of
the additive).
– Formation of furan derivatives such
as hydroxymethyfurfural, furfuryl
alcohol, and furfuryl aldehyde
depends on the presence of
hempseed flour.
Whole seed, Pork loaves 5% for each fraction – Increased hardness and the fiber Zajac et al. (2019)
dehulled seed, content. Magnesium, manganese,
flour, and iron, and copper content was also
protein higher in the products with hemp.
– Polyunsaturated fatty acids content
increased in products with dehulled
and whole hempseeds. Hempseed
ingredients containing hempseed
hull decreased the oxidation
processes.
– No significant differences in fat
oxidation products between the
samples on the first or the 8th day
after production. Sharp increase of
after 15 days of storage in the
control and the sample with
dehulled hempseed. There was no
change in the microbial growth
after the addition of all the tested
ingredients.
– Lower overall acceptability, but the
taste of meat loaf with dehulled
hempseeds was comparable with
the control product.

observed a higher protein content with greater proportion of
hempseed flour. Despite its low cost and high functionality,
the protein content in wheat flour is nutritionally inferior com-
pared to hempseed protein, which improved the nutritional
value of the hempseed-bread products.
In addition to fiber and protein, hempseed addition
improves the polyphenol content in food products. Mikulec
et al. (2019) reported approximately fourfold increase in
polyphenol content after inclusion of 50% hempseed flour in
the bread, dominated by (-)-epicatechin and ferulic acid. Like-
wise, incorporation of hempseed flour in gluten-free biscuits
enhanced the polyphenol content by 41% to 143% (Korus,
Witczak, et al., 2017). Compared to defatted hempseed pow-
der, the whole hempseed powder provided higher TPC in
extruded-rice energy bars (Norajit, Gu, & Ryu, 2011). This
is expected given the rich polyphenol content, particularly
of naringerin and epicatechin, in hempseed oil (Smeriglio
et al., 2016). Along with the phenolic profile, application of
HEMPSEED IN FOOD INDUSTRY…
hempseed oil could improve the fatty acid profile in liver pâté
by increasing the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids and
lowering 𝜔-6/𝜔-3 fatty acid ratio (Zajac & Swiatek, 2018).
5.2 Effects of integrating hempseed on the
physicochemical and sensory properties of food
products
Incorporation of hempseed fraction leads to conflicting results
on the physicochemical and sensory qualities of food prod-
ucts. In bread, some studies recorded significantly lower loaf
volume, smaller cell size, and increased hardness with higher
level of hemp flour, likely due to the absence of gluten
and high fiber content in hemp flour (Mikulec et al., 2019;
Pojic et al., 2015). This result is incongruent to the study by
Wang et al. (2013), who linked the inclusion of hempseed
to softer and higher bread volume. One explanation is that
the possible formation of lipid–protein complexes provides
enhanced expansion property in bread. Nevertheless, when
hempseed protein concentrate was added into bread formu-
lation, a higher increase in volume was observed compared
to bread with or without addition of hempseed whole flour
(Korus, Gumul, et al., 2017). The result claimed that the high
surfactant and foaming properties of hempseed protein pro-
mote the entrapment of gases during fermentation, thus lead-
ing to the observed high bread volume in hempseed protein–
fortified bread. Overall, it is most likely that the balance
between protein and fiber in hempseed fraction determines
the differences in volume and hardness among hempseed-
incorporated bread products.
The effects of incorporating hempseed fractions on the sen-
sory characteristics of food products vary widely among dif-
ferent products. Integration of hempseed consistently impairs
the product’s organoleptic acceptance. Norajit et al. (2011)
reported the lowest overall acceptance scores in energy bars
with inclusion of defatted or whole hempseed powder at
40% level. Both Mikulec et al. (2019) and Korus, Gumul,
et al. (2017) observed a negative correlation between level
of hempseed inclusion and the sensory evaluation scores in
hempseed-added bread and biscuit, which were explained by
the bitter aftertaste, hay-like aroma, and undesirable dark-
green color that hempseed imparted.
For most researches, the aim was to incorporate an ade-
quate amount of hempseed fractions to improve its nutri-
tional worth, without significantly altering the physicochem-
ical and sensory attributes of the food product. Inclusion
of 10% hempseed protein concentrate or flour was found
to improve all the tested sensory parameters, except struc-
ture and porosity, in gluten-free bread (Korus, Gumul, et al.,
2017). Similarly, Radocaj et al. (2014) recorded the highest
overall sensory score with a moderate (20%) proportion of
hempseed flour in cracker product. In a few studies, no nega-
tive effects were detected with addition of hempseed compo-
21
nents at all experimented levels, as observed in liver pâté and
yoghurt (Dabija, Codina, Gatlan, Sanduleac, & Rusu, 2018;
Zając & Świątek, 2018). Because replacement of the original
ingredients with hempseed fractions may negatively affect the
sensory properties of the final product, researches on the opti-
mum integration level are critical to achieve high acceptability
and enhanced nutritional value simultaneously.
6 CONC LU S IO N AND F UTURE
PROSPECTS
This review first summarized the key chemical constitutes of
hempseed and their nutritional values, and then explored their
functionality and health benefits, which further determined
their application in food industry. Although hempseed pro-
tein and oil have been extensively studied in the past, little
is known on the structural and functional characteristics of
hempseed fiber concentrated in the hempseed hull. The effect
of food processing technologies on hempseed fiber’s prop-
erties and its possible applications could also be an area of
interest for future studies. Animal trials and in vitro experi-
ments demonstrated potential protective effect of hempseed
against cardiovascular diseases, metabolic syndrome, skin
disorders, and neurologic disorders. However, human trial on
the health benefits of hempseed are still required as existing
studies showed contradictory results. In the past two decades,
partially due to legalization to cultivate low-THC hemp, an
increasing number of hempseed food products have been
developed by researchers and manufacturers. Application of
food processing methods produced conflicting results on the
functionality and stability of hempseed constituents and resul-
tant food products. Importantly, there are limited in vivo or in
vitro and toxicological studies on hempseed constituents mod-
ified by these processing methods. Hence, further researches
are required to explore the influence of different process-
ing technologies, such as pH shifting, high pressure homog-
enization, and ultrasound treatment, on the physicochemical
properties (i.e., texture, protein, and lipid oxidation), sensory
properties (i.e., appearance, flavor, and overall acceptability),
toxicity, and health beneficial effects (from animal, in vivo and
in vitro studies) of hempseed food products.
CONFLICTS O F INTEREST
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
AU T H O R CO N T R I B U T I O N S
William Leonard drafted the original manuscript. Critical
inputs and corrections were successively provided by Zhongx-
iang Fang, Pangzhen Zhang, and Danyang Ying during the
preparation process. Zhongxiang Fang also helped in the
22
conception and structure design of the manuscript and final-
ized the manuscript for submission.
ORC ID
Pangzhen Zhang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9794-2269
Zhongxiang Fang https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9902-3426
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How to cite this article: Leonard W, Zhang P, Ying D,
Fang Z. Hempseed in food industry: Nutritional value,
health benefits, and industrial applications. Compre-
hensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety.
2019;1–27. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12517