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    Hydropower Engineering Handbook

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    HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING HANDBOOK John S. Gulliver, Ph.D. Editor in chief Associate Professor ‘St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota Roger E. A. Arndt, Ph.D. Esitor in chief Director and Professor St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering University of Minnesota Minneapolis, Minnesota McGRAW-HILL, INC. New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Caracas Hamburg Lisbon London Madrid Mexico Milan Montreal New Delhi Paris San Juan Séo Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Hydropower engineering handbook / John S, Gulliver, editor in chief, and Roger E.A. Arndt, editor in chief. Pp cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-07-025193-2 1. Hydroelectric power plants — Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2, Hydraulic engineering — Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Gulliver, John S. Il, Amdt, Roger B.A. TK 1081.H94 1991 621.31'2134 — de20 90-615 Copyright © 1991 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 1234567890 DOCDOC 976543210 ISBN 0-07-025194-¢2 The sponsoring editor for this book was Joel Stein, the editing supervisor was Peggy Lamb, the designer was Naomi Auerbach, and the production supervisor was Suzanne W. Babeuf. This book was set in Times Roman. It was composed by McGraw-Hill’s Professional Publishing composition unit. Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley & Sons Company. Information contained in this work has been obtained by McGraw- Hill, Inc. from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantees the accuracy or com- pleteness of any information published herein and neither McGraw- Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its au- thors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. For more information about other MeGraw-Hill materials, call 1-800-2-MCGRAW in the United States. In other countries, call your nearest McGraw-Hill office. HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Other McGraw-Hill Reference Books of Interest _————_—_——_—— Handbooks Baumeister * MARKS’ STANDARD HANDBOOK FOR MECHANICAL ENGINEERS Brady and Clauser * MATERIALS HANDBOOK Brater * HANDBOOK OF HYDRAULICS Crocker and King + PIPING HANDBOOK Croft, Carr, and Watt » AMERICAN ELECTRICIANS’ HANDBOOK Davis and Sorensen + HANDBOOK OF APPLIED HYDRAULICS Fink and Beaty + STANDARD HANDBOOK FOR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS Gaylord and Gaylord * stRUCTURAL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Harris + HANDBOOK OF NOISE CONTROL Harris and Crede + SHOCK AND VIBRATION HANDBOOK Hicks * STANDARD HANDBOOK OF ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS Higgins and Morrow + MAINTENANCE ENGINEERING HANDBOOK King and Brater + HANDBOOK OF HYDRAULICS La Londe and Janes + CONCRETE ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Merritt +» StANDARD HANDBOOK FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS O’Brien * CONTRACTOR’S MANAGEMENT HANDBOOK Peckner and Bernstein * HANDBOOK OF STAINLESS STEELS Rossnagel + HANDBOOK OF RIGGING Smeaton + SWITCHGEAR AND CONTROL HANDBOOK Streeter + HANDBOOK OF FLUID DYNAMICS Tuma + ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS HANDBOOK Tuma + HANDBOOK OF PHYSICAL CALCULATIONS Tuma + TECHNOLOGY MATHEMATICS HANDBOOK Urquhart + CIVIL ENGINEERING HANDBOOK Waddell » CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION HANDBOOK Other Gieck + ENGINEERING FORMULAS Hoggan * COMPUTER-ASSISTED FLOODPLAIN HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS Whiteneck and Hockney + STRUCTURAL MATERIALS FOR HARBOR AND COASTAL CONSTRUCTION For more information about other McGraw-Hill materials, call 1-800-2-MCGRAW in the United States. In other countries, call your nearest McGraw-Hill office. CONTENTS Contributors ix Preface xi Acknowledgments xii Chapter 1. Introduction to Hydropower Engineering 14 History. / 1.2 Hydropower Potential / 1.4 ‘Types of Development / 1.10 Components of Hydropower Facilities / 1.12 Hydropower Development Sequence 1.16 Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydropower Development / 1.18 Summary 1.20. . References / 1,20 ai@epeee Chapter 2. Preliminary Studies: Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Costs 24 Background / 2.1 .2, Description of Watershed Hydrology | 2.2 3. Flow Data | 2.5 4. Available Head / 2.9 . Flow-Duration Curves / 2.10 . Operational Analysis of Hydropower Facility / 2.19 . Methodology for Cost Estimates / 2.20 8, Case Studies / 2,23 . References / 2.36 Chapter 3. Small Dam Design 31 1. ‘Types of Dams / 3.1 Geotechnical Investigations Required for Design / 3.2 election of Type of Dam / 3.16 Embankment Dams / 3.20 Concrete Dams / 3.61 Roller-Compacted Concrete Dams / 3.67 Masonry Dams / 3.73 Spillway Design / 3.76 Diversion during Construction /. 3.78 3.10, Acknowledgments / 3.79 3.11. References / 3.79 3.12. Bibliography / 3.81 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. vi CONTENTS Chapter 4. Hydraulic Turbines 41 Introduction / 4.1 . Historical Perspective | 4.2 . Basic Principles / 4.4 . Turbine Technology / 4.27 ; Performance Testing / 4.50 . Hydraulic Structures and Operational Considerations / 4.57 Examples / 4.61 . Summary / 4.64 . References / 4.65 Chapter 5. Hydraulic Conveyance Design 51 BERRA uaa ene 5.10. Background / 5.1 Head Race and Tailrace Canals / 5.2 Intake Structures / 5.10 . Gates and Valves / 5.35 Tunnels and Penstocks / 5.41 Total Head Losses / 5.65 Hydraulic Models / 5.66 . Case Study / 5.73 Conclusions / 5.78 References / 5.78 Chapter 6. Powerhouse Design and Small Hydropower Project Cost Estimates 61 . Background / 6.1 . Types of Powerhouses / 6.1 . General Arrangement / 6.2 | Interior Arrangement / 6.4 . Substructure Design / 6.5 . Construction Details / 6.8 . Superstructure Design / 6.9 . Powerhouse Details / 6.10 . Design Loads / 6.10 . Stability Analysis / 6.12 . Underground Powerhouses / 6.12 . Procedure for Developing a Cost Estimate / 6.14 . General Costs / 6.21 . Dams and Reservoirs / 6.28 . Intake and Waterways / 6.32 . Power Plants / 6.37 . Transmission / 6.50 . Other Facilities / 6.52 . Cost Adjustments / 6.52 . Indirect Costs / 6.53 + Recurring Annual Costs / 6.53 . Example of Estimate / 6.54 . References / 6.58 CONTENTS Chapter 7, Case Studies in Facility Design WwW 1, Design Guidelines / 7.1 2, Charlot River—11-MW New Hydropower Development / 7.5 3, Morris—1100-kW Addition to an Existing Facility / 7.23 4, Topsail—Installation of Larger Unit into Existing Powerhouse / 7,29 5, References / 7,35 8.1 1, Background / 8.1 .2, The “Clean” Hydropower Assumption / 8.2 . Legislation Affecting Hydropower / 8,4 4, Impact of Ecological Issues on Hydropower / 8,7 5. Philosophy of Environmental Impact Analysis / 8.10 . Sources of Potential Terrestrial Impacts /” 8.10 . Sources of Potential Aquatic Impacts / 8.18 . A Recommended Licensing Strategy / 8.42 Ackowledgments / 8.51 . References / 8.52 Chapter 9. Economic and Financial Analysis 94 » Purpose / 9.1 Indicators of Economic Feasibility / 9.2 . The Parameters of an Economic Analysis and Their Associated Uncertainties / 9.13 . Uncertainty Applied to Economic Analysis / 9.16 5, Case Studies / 9.79 . References / 9.36 Chapter 10. Plant Maintenance and Operation 10.4 Background / 10.1 Organization | 10.2 Plant Operating and Maintenance Personnel / 10.4 General Preventive Maintenance / 10.6 Turbjne Inspection and Maintenance |’ 10,22 Weld Repairs / 10.24 Generator Inspection, Maintenance, and Tests / 10.27 Maintenance of Trash Racks / 10.28 .9, Realignment and Balancing / 10.30 . Vibration 10,35 » Conclusions / 10.36 . References / 10.37 . Bibliography / 10.38 Chapter 11. System Planning and Operation 11.1 11.1, Systems Approach / 11.1 11.2. Hydropower-Thermal System Characteristics / 11.6 vill CONTENTS . Input Models and Routing Models / 11.31 Optimal Use of Hydropower Resources / 11.45 Applications of Optimization Methods / 11.60 System Expansion Planning /- 11.75 References / 11.92 Appendix A. Unit Conversion AA Appendix B. Glossary BA Appendix C. Physical Properties of Water and Gravitational Acceleration C1 Index follows Appendix C. CONTRIBUTORS Ignacio Arango, Ph.D. Chief Soil Engineer, Bechtel Corporation, 45131/B34, P.O, Box 3965, San Francisco, CA 94119 (cuap, 3) Roger E. A. Arndt, Ph.D, Professor of Hydromechanics and Director, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Minnesota, Mississippi River al 3rd Avenue SE, Minneapolis, MN 5414 (cuaPs, 1 and 4) John J, Cassidy, Ph.D, Chief Hydraulic Engineer, Bechtel Corporation, 45131/B34, P.O, Box 3965, San Francisco, CA 94119 (cHap. 3) James L. Gordon, P.E. Vice President, Hydro, Monenco Consultants Limited, 2045 Stanley Street, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2V4 (CHAP. 7) John S. Gulliver, Ph.D, Associate Professor, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, De- partment of Civil and Mineral Engineering, University of Minnesota, Mississippi River at 3rd Avenue SE, Minneapolis, MN 55414 (cars, 1, 2, 5, and 9) Jack S, Mattice, Ph.D. Senior Project Manager, Ecological Studies Program, Environment Division, Electric Research Institute, 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CA 94303 (CHAP. 8) David N. Raffel Founder, Owner, and Chief Engineer, PROTRANS Consultants, P.O, Box 12608, El Paso, TX 79912 (cuap. 10) David C. Willer Engineering Consultant, 224 Northereek Circle, Walnut Creek, CA 94598, Formerly Vice President, Tudor Engineering Company, San Francisco, CA 94105 (CHAP, 6) Judson L. Woods Planning Engineer, Harza Engineering Company, 150 South Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606 (ctiar. 9) Walter 0. Wunderlich, P.E, Civil Engineering Consultant, 3221 Essuary Drive, Knoxville, TN 37918 (CHAP, 11) PREFACE This book was written to fill a need in the hydropower industry; a text for me- chanical, electrical, and civil engineers to develop background in the multidisci- plinary field of hydropower development, and at the same time a reference book for the many practicing hydropower engineers, Because hydropower development involves so many disciplines, this book cannot serve as an all-encompassing hand- book, but will, we hope, be the first place an engineer looks to find a short explanation of the particular phenomenon in question, some design and operational guidelines, and references to other, more specific publications, Thus, the Hydro- power Engineering Handbook is midway between a text and a more traditional handbook, providing interdisciplinary information that addresses a wide variety of topics, relates them to hydropower engineering, and references other sources of information on a given subject. This approach has proved most successful in a four- day short course on hydropower development we have offered over the past eight years, and we hope will be successful as a handbook. A number of handbooks on hydropower engineering ceased publication in the 1960s because of inexpensive oil and the subsequent decline of hydropower de- velopment. Those valuable reference books that hydropower engineers use to this day are currently available in only a few libraries and are not accessible to most engineers. Additionally, a significant amount of updating is needed and new tech- niques and instrumentation need to be described. Environmental impacts, for ex- ample, which only became a significant issue during the 1970s, today represent a major portion of any hydropower development project. The operation of hydro- power systems for maximum benefit has also changed considerably in the past twenty years with the advancements in computer technology and improvements in optimization techniques. ‘The instrumentation for plant maintenance has signifi- cantly greater capabilities and is more difficult to operate than thirty years ago. ‘These are a few of the areas where new techniques predominate. Throughout the Handbook, each chapter incorporates newly developed procedures in the engi- neering of hydropower projects. The contributors were selected for their expertise in the various disciplines that hydropower engineering comprises and their experience in applying the discipline to hydropower development projects. Brief identification of each, with addresses, is given under Contributors. They, as well as the editors, are eager to hear your response to the book, and questions or suggestions that you may have that can assist in improving the quality and applicability of the Handbook. The logic of the book follows the normal hydropower development sequence, beginning with pre- liminary investigations, equipment design and specification, site design, environ- mental impacts, and finally plant operation. The book can serve as a university- level text on hydropower, with numerous examples and case studies, as well as a reference text for practicing engincers, xi xii PREFACE, ACKNOWLEDGMENTS We would like to thank the Legislative Commission on Minnesota Resources for their overall support of the hydropower research program that led to the Handbook. ‘Thanks are also due to Diana Dalbotten and Donna Efltmann for editing and word processing the manuscript under severe time constraints, and to V. Ramanathan, who provided expert assistance in editing and in the collection and presentation of data, Finally, we would like to thank each of our families for assuming a greater share of the responsibility at home during the completion of this book. John S, Gulliver Roger E. A. Arndt HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING HANDBOOK CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING John S, Gulliver Associate Professor, University of Minnesota, Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, St, Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, Minneapolis, Minnesota Roger E. A. Arndt Direcior and Professor, University of Minnesota, Department of Civil and Mineral Engineering, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulic Laboratory, Minneapolis, Mirmesota Hydropower engineering encompasses many branches of engineering afid other disciplines for the purpose of hydropower development. Mechanical engineering is involved in the design, manufacture, and selection of the turbine, bearings, valves, gears, governors, etc., needed to convert hydraulic to mechanical energy. Electrical engineering is involved in the design, manufacture, and selection of the generators, control systems, switchgear, transformers, ctc., required to convert mechanical to electric energy. Civil engineering is involved in matters needed to place the machinery in position to extract the available hydraulic energy, such as: site hydrology; hydraulics; inspection and preparation; and dam, powerhouse, and conveyance facilities design and construction’. The environmental impacts of a hydroplant are assessed and mitigated by ecologists and civil engineers. The economic analysis is performed by engineers, planners, developers, and others. An individual plant is operated and maintained under the supervision of mechan- ical and electrical engiticers. Finally, the schedule and planning of operation to optimize power production within a system is performed by civil engineers (for reservoir operation) and electrical engineers (for complete system operation). Al- though these categories are not all-encompassing, and there is a substantial vari- ation and overlap between disciplines, the varicty of engineering activities which go into developing a hydropower facility is readily apparent. In addition, hydropower development is an endeavor which is not very ame- nable to standardization, making each project an interesting engineering chal- lenge. The engincering team must work with the conditions at a given site to de- velop a hydropower facility which is functional and economically sound. Because of the uniqueness of each site, a wide varicty of dams, turbines, intakes, gener- ators, fishways, etc., is found at various hydroelectric facilities, At each site 11 1.2 CHAPTER ONE there arc numerous opportunities, often requirements, for innovative applications or designs. Hydropower development engineering is thus interesting and profes- sionally rewarding, in spite of the many difficulties one can encounter in devel- oping a given site. 1.1 HISTORY Falling or flowing water has been used to perform work for thousands of years, the particular uses varying with the social and political conditions of the times. Although the Romans knew of waterwheels, these laborsaving devices were not used extensively until the fourteenth century [1]. Early tasks included grinding grain, sawing wood, powering textile mills, and later operating manufacturing plants. Mills or factories were located at the hydropower sites in order to directly utilize the available energy. The power output of these early plants, usually lim- ited to 100 or so kW (134 hp), is compared with other power sources in Fig. 1.1 [2]. By the end of the eighteenth century, there were approximately 10,000 waterwhecls in New England alone [1]. ‘Stoam turbine Water turbine Internal combustion ‘ngine Maximum output of power devices (kilowatts) woo 1760 1800 1860 1900 1950 2000 Year FIGURE 1.1 The maximum power output of selected power devices over the period 1700-1970. (From Chappel [2].) During the nineteenth century, hydropower became a source of electrical en- ergy. Although some form of hydroelectric turbine development can be traced back as far as 1750, Benoit Fourneyron is credited with developing the “‘first”” modern turbine ir 1833.-A more extensive history of turbine development is dis- cussed in Chap. 4. The first hydroelectric plant in the United States is usually documented as coming on-line September 30, 1882, in Appleton, Wisconsin. There is some dispute over this, however; Merritt [3] cites the Minneapolis Brush Electric Company as beginning operation of a hydroelectric plant some 25 days INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING 13 earlier, The generation of electricity from falling water expanded the need for larger hydroelectric plants because the energy did not need to be used on site, The transmission of power over long distances became economical in the United States in 1901 with the installation of alternating current equipment at Niagara Falls in New York State, by George Westinghouse, further expanding the potential uses of hydropower. As Fig. 1.1 indicates, the power capabilities of water turbines became larger as the need grow, In the 1930s, large dams and ever-increasing turbine capacities became the norm. The power capacity of steam turbines was also increasing rap- idly, and the relative cost of electricity continued to fall, Finally, in the period 1940-1970, the cost of operating and maintaining older, smaller hydroelectric plants became greater than the income they could produce, and many were re- tired. This is seen in Fig, 1.2, where smail hydropower capacity decreased as overall hydropower capacity climbed rapidly in the United States [4]. A similar trend occurred in European countries, Hydropower development in other parts of the world was insignificant before 1930, as indicated by world hydropower pro- Olea epee reper Vacca) 110 (A) FIRST HYDROELECTRIC PLANT BEGAN OPERATION IN 1882 (®) FIRST PUMPED STORAGE PLANT BEGAN OPERATION |. 426 (ROCKY RIVER) (©) GRAND COULEE PLANT (5469 MEGAWATT CAPACITY) BEGAN OPERATION IN 1841 |. (0) PASSAGE OF PURPA LEGISLATION TO ENCOURAGE SMALL HYDRO DEVELOPMENT (€) ADDED BY AUTHORS BASED ON FERC [APPLICATIONS AND LIGENSES ISSUED | 80 PUMPED STORAGE LARGE HYDROPOWER - 30 (215 MW) INSTALLED.CAPACITY (GIGAWATTS) 420 410 poyen HM 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 YEAR FIGURE 1.2 Installed hydroelectric capacity in the United States, 1882-2000, (From Federal Energy Regulatory Commis- sion [4).) 14 CHAPTER ONE 1600 1400 1200] 1000) 800 Hydropower capacity (GW) 600F 200 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 Year FIGURE 1.3 World hydropower production. Projection from 1983 World Energy Conference. Past production assembled from various sources. duction (Fig. 1.3), The acceleration of worldwide hydropower development is projected to continue, although the rate of hydropower developmient in Europe, the United States, and Japan is expected to decrease, as discussed in the next section. 1.2. HYDROPOWER POTENTIAL On a worldwide basis, hydropower represénts approximately one-quarter of the total electrical energy generated. Predictions to the year 2000 indicate that this fraction will remain constant, while hydroelectric energy will grow by 85 percent over the 1979 generation levels [5]. According to Armstrong [6], there are approx- imately 2200 GW (2.95 x 10° hp) of developed and potential hydropower existing in the world. The total potential is that cOnsidered developable based upon phys- ical, economic, and environméntal considerations. It represents 12 percent of the total energy in the world’s. rivers [6]. The available and developed energy and INTRODUCTION TO HYDROPOWER ENGINEERING 15 i Wo Toa inated ond astalate Capabiiy : ne 14821000 TJ Yearly Proton %~ (2,200,000 MW Generating Capacity 2,570,000 TJ 708,000 TY | 99, al 80% Capacty Factor) (163,000 wan] (45,000 (1%) (2%) 8 9,620,000 4 | 6,810,000 Ty | 5,650,000 T. 5,620,000 Ts | 3,942,000 TY (610,100 M¥V|(431,900 WN) |958,300 MW))356,400 M¥y|250,000 Min (28% of toa) (20%) (16%) (16%) (11%) 7 a g Remaining 60 potential 8 8 a 30 Estimated 20 8B ‘Stage of Development, % of Insaled and Instalable Capabilties 8 s Under 10 ae 10 ; Mile Asia South Altea Noth USSR Europe Ocoania America ‘America FIGURE 1.4 World hydropower resources as determined by the World Energy Co 1976. (From Armstrong [6].) power (assuming a 50 percent capacity factor) in 1976 is given by continent in Fig. 1.4. The tremendous potential, planned or remaining, in Asia, Africa, and South America is apparent, amounting to half the world’s total hydropower po- tential. On the other hand, hydropower developed or under construction in Eu- rope and North America is at 65 and 47 percent of total potential, respectively. Most hydropower developed in these two continents in the future is likely to be pumped storage. A 1983 study of the World Energy Conference (WEC) predicted that hydro- power production would grow from 17 percent of the 2.2 million MW (2949 mil- lion hp) produced in 1976 to between 29 and 34 percent in the year 2000 and to between 48 and 68 percent in the year 2020 (Fig. 1.3). Thus hydropower capacity throughout the world is predicted to expand by approximately 350 percent in 44 years. International Water Power and Dam Construction {7] has recently com- pleted a world survey of hydroelectric resources, which indicated that 549 GW (7.4 million hp) of hydropower had been developed by the end of 1988, This cor- responds fairly well with the WEC projections. An extensive effort in quantifying hydropower resources in the United States has been undertaken recently. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) [4] has classified deyclopable hydropower potential by water resources regions, normally river basin, as shown in Fig. 1.5 and listed in Table 1.1. This study indicated that there are 1384 sites developed with a total capacity of 63,000 MW (84,450,000 hp) or a mean of 45.7 MW (61,260 hp) per site. There are 2093 undeveloped sites with a potential capacity of 111,000 MW (149 million hp), or a mean of 53 MW (71,045 hp) per site. 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