Alek - Newtonian Torsion Physics

NEWTONIAN
TORSION PHYSICS
William S. Alek
INTALEK, INC.,
7760 E. State Rte 69, Ste C5-381
Prescott Valley, AZ 86314, USA
Phone: (928) 255-0198
http://www.intalek.com/
mailto:william.alek@intalek.com
ABSTRACT: The purpose of this book is to explore concepts related to FREE Energy and the control of
Gravity/Antigravity that are based entirely within the framework of extended classical Newtonian physics called
Newtonian Torsion Physics. It is shown that the cause of gravity is a type of macroscopic torque between inertial
frames where the origin of the torque occurs within imaginary or complex space. The effect manifests in real space as
universal mass attraction, or gravity. A correlation has been discovered between mass, inductors, and capacitors,
thereby relating the imaginary or complex origin of torque to gravity, and how this same torque affects
electromagnetism. A simplified torsional mass relativity model called Natural Relativity (NR) Theory is presented and
directly related to gravity. This theory is then correlated to Einstein's Special Relativity (SR) Theory, and as a
consequence, creates a corrected “Principle of Equivalence Theorem” showing the origin of gravity and antigravity
comes from imaginary or complex space. A temporal rotation operator is introduced using Euler’s Identity, which
shows the imaginary or complex (i.e., time-past and time-future) motion of matter as positive or negative displacement
into imaginary space, which embodies the fundamental concept of time travel. The speed of light c, Planck's constant h,
permeability μ0, permittivity ε0, Boltzmann's Constant k, electric charge q, and the Fine Structure Constant α are
invariant between inertial frames and therefore, unaffected by torque because the fluctuation or curvature of the
fundamental parameters that compose these constants are shown to evaluate to unity gain. In other words, these
constants remain constant anywhere within a given torque field or gravity well. Gravitomagnetic Theory shows that the
magnetic field energy produced by a moving electron is shown to be a special relativistic mass fluctuation, and
therefore creates a real torque, which couples to gravity as a secondary gravitational effect. This motion can either have
a real velocity, or an imaginary or complex (i.e., time-past or time-future) velocity. If the velocity is complex, then the
special relativistic mass fluctuation or ± Me of an electron can be either positive or negative, and exhibits a
corresponding gravitational or antigravitational effect, which consequently produces a complex (i.e., time-past or time-
future) magnetic field. This is the origin of the effect called gravity or antigravity. In addition, the volume of the total
field energy of a complex magnetic field can either be positive or negative, which can add or subtract from the energy
produced by a real magnetic field. In the Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom, an Amperian Current is described as an
electron circulating around a nucleus at a relativistic speed. This creates a magnetic induction emerging from the center
of the nucleus. Fluctuating this field by applying an external magnetic induction causes the velocity of the electron to
become complex. The presence of NEGATIVE RESISTANCE, the production of NEGATIVE ENERGY, and the
control of GRAVITY/ANTIGRAVITY occur by fluctuating the mass of an object in complex space. The theory
presents a conceptual breakthrough for the development of energy and high-speed field propulsion technologies.
INTRODUCTION
Puthoff (1996) coined the phrase, “metric engineering”, and Puthoff, Little and Ibison (2002) consider the vacuum
to be a polarizable medium, and that it can be expressed in terms of tensor formulations of curved space-time. The
bending of light passing near a massive object is caused by induced spatial variation in the refractive index of the
vacuum near the object. This is correlated to changes in permeability μ0 and permittivity ε0 of the vacuum. Changes
occurring in the vacuum also affect the mass of objects, the length and bending of rulers, the frequency of clocks,
the energy of light, etc. This book both simplifies and links gravity with electromagnetism by presenting
formulations of curved space-time in terms of extended classical Newtonian physics, which are caused by
Newtonian Torsion Physics INTALEK, INC. Rev 3.8
relativistic fluctuations of mass M , inductance L , and capacitance C of an object. For example, when an object
with mass M naturally falls downward in a given gravity well, its’ natural relativistic mass + M increases due to
Newtonian Gravitation, or universal mass attraction. The new mass of an object M + M is displaced to a new
position within this well, then mass-energy remains conserved by returning the mass to its place of origin, or
M + M − M = M . In other words, by converting this increase in relativistic mass + M to energy + E , a force acts
upon the object, and the new mass is now displaced back to its original position that was higher vertically in the
well. The object exhibits an antigravitational effect by removing or subtracting M from M . The rate of change of
this fluctuation could cause the speed of the object to easily exceed the speed of light. This is because the relativistic
gravitational mass of the object, which is shown to be convergent, is moving at right angles to a relativistic inertial
mass, which is shown to be divergent. Since the speed of the object with relativistic gravitational mass has no
known upper limit, the resulting speed through deep space could be enormous and necessitates the use of the warp
factor equation.
EVERYTHING IN THIS UNIVERSE IS CURVED!
TWO SPHERICAL
OBJECTS WITH
IDENTICAL MASS
AND VOLUME g0
r2
WHERE r1 = r2
SPHERE 2
EYE
g0
r1 OBSERVER ON EARTH
WOULD SEE TWO
IDENTICAL SPHERES
SPHERE 1
SURFACE OF
EARTH
FIGURE 1. Two identical spheres as seen by an observer on the Earth.
Mass and volume of matter vary under the influence of different gravity. Shown in Fig. 1 above are two identical
spheres, SPHERE 1 and SPHERE 2, with equal mass and volume as seen by an observer on the Earth. SPHERE 1 is
now moved to the Moon as shown in Fig. 2 below.
CURVATURE
DUE TO
GRAVITY
OBSERVER ON MOON
WOULD SEE SPHERE 2
ON EARTH AS BEING
MORE MASSIVE AND
SMALLER IN SIZE
gMOON g0
r1 r2
SPHERE 2 EYE
EYE SPHERE 1
OBSERVER ON EARTH
SURFACE OF SURFACE OF WOULD SEE SPHERE 1
ON MOON AS BEING
MOON EARTH LESS MASSIVE AND
LARGER IN SIZE
FIGURE 2. Two identical spheres change in mass and volume relative to position of the observer.
William Alek Page 2 9/12/2007

SPHERE 1 on the left is under the influence of gravity of the Moon and SPHERE 2 on the right remains under the
influence of gravity of the Earth. Since the gravity of the Moon g MOON is approximately 1 6 the gravity of the
Earth g 0 , an observer on the Moon would measure the sphere on the Earth as having slightly more mass + M and
being slightly smaller in volume − V than the same sphere on the Moon. Likewise, an observer on the Earth would
measure the sphere on the Moon as having slightly less mass − M , and slightly larger in volume + V . This is due to
the effect of curvature of space and time upon matter caused by torsion originating from imaginary or complex space
and observed in real space as universal mass attraction, or gravity.
APPLYING THE PRODUCT RULE
Marmet (2001) considers “separately” the influence of a gravitational potential upon matter, and assumes for the
moment that kinetic energy is zero. The kinetic energy and gravitational energy are evaluated independently and
therefore are considered mutually exclusive. For Kinetic Energy systems, and given a frame of reference, the
following inertial-based parameters mass M , inductor L , and capacitor C , are considered invariant. However, for
Gravitational Energy systems, and given an equipotential surface of gravity reference, the following torsional-
based parameters relativistic mass ±ΔM , relativistic inductor ±ΔL , and relativistic capacitor ±ΔC , fluctuate or
curve between inertial frames. So, by applying the product rule, this principle is mathematically expressed as,
d da db
c(t ) = ( a b) = b + a = b a + a b ≈ b (Δ a) + a (Δ b)
dt dt dt
Where, the Inertial Term is given as,
c(t ) = b a ≈ b ( Δ a ) = 0
And the Torsional Term is given as,
c(t ) = a b ≈ a ( Δ b ) ≠ 0
The first term is regarded as inertial, and therefore is considered kinetic or fluxes, and is Newtonian-based. The
second term is regarded as torsional, and therefore, couples to gravity. When evaluated, the Inertial Term must be
equal to zero, leaving only the Torsional Term to be determined. The Torsional Term may result in a positive or
negative number meaning that Gravitational Energy may be positive or negative. This principle extends
Newtonian-based physics to include Newtonian Torsion Physics, and is formulated and analyzed in the direction of
gravity.

TORSIONAL MASS FLUCTUATION

FLUCTUATING
MASS
M ±M
−y
r∓r g0
+y
FIGURE 3. The fluctuating mass of an object due to gravity.
Applying the product rule, the complete ideal momentum model is composed of two terms,
dpY d ( M vY ) dv dM
fM (t ) = = = M Y + vY = M vY + vY M (1)
dt dt dt dt
Where, the Inertial Term is M vY , and mass M is invariant within any equipotential surface of gravity gY . The
Torsional Term is vY M , and changing mass M fluctuates between equipotential surfaces of gravity.
For a “mass fluctuating system”, the Torsional Term is NOT zero Newtons. So, given an object having mass M
moving at constant velocity vY , or vY = 0 m s , the Inertial Term is,
2
fM (t ) = M vY = 0 N (2)
This removes the Inertial Term, leaving only the Torsional Term,
fM (t ) = vY M ≠ 0 N (3)
Since M has units of resistance in mNs m 2 , its direction of change could either be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE. If
M is negative, it has units of negative resistance or,
M < 0 mNs m 2 (4)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,
PM (t ) = vY fM (t ) = vY 2 M (5)
So, for certain values of M , the total instantaneous power PM can be NEGATIVE or,
PM (t ) < 0 Watts (6)
Then, integrating PM with respect to time when the total power is less than zero watts results in NEGATIVE energy
of mass M or,
EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) < 0 Joules (7)

If M is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,
M > 0 mNs m 2 (8)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,
PM (t ) = vY fM (t ) = vY 2 M (9)
So, for certain values of M , the total instantaneous power PM can be POSITIVE or,
PM (t ) > 0Watts (10)
Then, integrating PM with respect to time results in excess POSITIVE energy of mass M or,
EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) > 0 Joules (11)
So, the energy equivalent of mass (gravitational energy) EM is,
EM (t ) = M (t ) vY 2 (12)
By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M is,
EM (t )
M (t ) = (13)
vY 2
The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M is,
EM
M = (14)
vY 2
So, the gravitational momentum model is,
EM E
fM (t ) = M vY = v = M
2 Y
(15)
vY vY
Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Torsional Force Term is,
EM
fM (t ) = (16)
y
By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EM is,
EM = fM (t ) y (17)
The total energy EM contained within matter is,
EM (t ) = M (t ) c 2 (18)

The change in this total energy EM is,
EM = M c 2 (19)
By rearranging terms, the change in total mass M is,
EM
M = (20)
c2
So, the time derivative form of the Torsional Mass Term is,
fM (t ) y
M = (21)
c2
The derivative form is,
fM dy
dM = (22)
c2
The difference form is,
fM Δy
ΔM = (23)
c2

TORSIONAL INDUCTIVE MASS FLUCTUATION

FLUCTUATING
INDUCTANCE
L±L
−y g0
+y
IL + -
vL
FIGURE 4. The fluctuating inductance of an object due to gravity.
Applying the product rule, the complete ideal inductor model is composed of two terms,
d dI dL
ν L (t ) = ( L I L ) = L L + I L = L I L + I LL (24)
dt dt dt
Where, the Inertial Term is L I L , and inductance L is invariant within any equipotential surface of gravity gY .
The Torsional Term is I LL , changing inductance L fluctuates between equipotential surfaces of gravity.
For an “inductive fluctuating system”, the Torsional Term is NOT zero volts. By applying a constant current I L
through inductor L , or I L = 0 Amps s , the Inertial Term is,
ν L (t ) = L I L = 0Volts (25)
This removes the Inertial Term, leaving only the Torsional Term,
ν L (t ) = I L L ≠ 0 Volts (26)
Since L has units of resistance in ohms, Ω , its direction of change could either be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE. If L
is negative, it has units of negative resistance or,
L < 0Ω (27)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,
PL (t ) = I L ν L (t ) = I L 2 L (28)
So, for certain values of L , the total instantaneous power PL can be NEGATIVE or,
PL (t ) < 0Watts (29)
Then, integrating PL with respect to time when the total power is less than zero watts results in NEGATIVE energy
of inductor L or,

EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) < 0 Joules (30)
If L is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,
L > 0Ω (31)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,
PL (t ) = I L ν L (t ) = I L 2 L (32)
So, for certain values of L , the total instantaneous power PL can be POSITIVE or,
PL (t ) > 0 Watts (33)
Then, integrating PL with respect to time results in excess POSITIVE energy of inductor L or,
EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) > 0 Joules (34)
Equate this to the energy equivalent of mass EM ,
EL (t ) = EM (t ) (35)
Then, the energy equivalent of mass (gravitational energy) EL is,
EL (t ) = vY 2 M L (t ) = I L 2 L(t ) (36)
By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M L is,
EL (t ) I L 2 L(t )
M L (t ) = = (37)
vY 2 vY 2
I L 2 L(t )
vY 2 = (38)
M L (t )
The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M L is,
EL I L 2 L
ML = = (39)
vY 2 vY 2
So, the gravitational inductor model is,
EL EL I L 2 L
fL (t ) = M L vY = vY = = (40)
vY 2 vY vY
Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Torsional Inductive Force Term is,

EL (t )
fL (t ) = (41)
y
By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EL is,
EL = fL (t ) y (42)
The total energy EL contained within matter is,
EL (t ) = M L (t ) c 2 (43)
The change in this total energy EL is,
EL = M L c 2 (44)
EL fL (t ) y I L 2 L I L2 L M (t ) L
ML = 2
= 2
= 2
= 2
= L (45)
c c y I L L(t ) L(t )
M L (t )
So, the time derivative form of the Torsional Inductive Term is,
fL (t ) L(t ) y
L= (46)
M L (t ) c 2
fL L dy
dL = (47)
M L c2
f L L Δy
ΔL = (48)
M L c2

TORSIONAL CAPACITIVE MASS FLUCTUATION
FLUCTUATING
CAPACITANCE
C ±C
−y
g0
+y + -
VC
iC
+ V -
FIGURE 5. The fluctuating capacitance of an object due to gravity.
Applying the product rule, the complete ideal capacitor model is composed of two terms,
d dV dC
iC (t ) = (C VC ) = C C + VC = C VC + VC C (49)
dt dt dt
Where, the Inertial Term is CVC , and capacitor C is invariant within any equipotential surface of gravity gY . The
Torsional Term is VC C , and changing capacitance C fluctuates between equipotential surfaces of gravity.
For a “capacitive fluctuating system”, the Torsional Term is NOT zero amps. By applying a constant voltage across
capacitor C , or VC = 0Volts s , the Inertial Term is,
iC (t ) = C VC = 0 Amps (50)
This removes Inertial Term, leaving only the Torsional Term,
iC (t ) = VC C ≠ 0 Amps (51)
Since C has units of conductance in mhos, , its direction of change could either be POSITIVE or NEGATIVE. If
C is negative, it has units of negative conductance or,
C<0 (52)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PC of a fluctuating capacitor C is
PC (t ) = iC (t ) VC = VC 2 C (53)
So, for certain values of C , the total instantaneous power PC can be NEGATIVE or,
PC (t ) < 0Watts (54)
Then, integrating PC with respect to time when the total power is less than zero watts results in NEGATIVE energy
of capacitor C or,

EC (t ) = ∫ PC dt = VC 2 ∫ C dt = VC 2 C (t ) < 0 Joules (55)
If C is positive, it has units of positive conductance or,
C>0 (56)
Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PC of a fluctuating capacitor C is,
PC (t ) = iC (t ) VC = VC 2 C (57)
So, for certain values of C , the total instantaneous power PC can be POSITIVE or
PC (t ) > 0 Watts (58)
Then, integrating PC with respect to time results in excess POSITIVE energy of capacitor C or,
EC (t ) = ∫ PC dt = VC 2 ∫ C dt = VC 2 C (t ) > 0 Joules (59)
Equate this to the energy equivalent of mass EM ,
EC (t ) = EM (t ) (60)
Then, the energy equivalent of mass (gravitational energy) EC is,
EC (t ) = vY 2 M C (t ) = VC 2 C (t ) (61)
By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M C is,
EC (t ) C (t ) VC 2
M C (t ) = = (62)
vY 2 vY 2
VC 2 C (t )
vY 2 = (63)
M C (t )
The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M C is,
EC VC 2 C
MC = = (64)
vY 2 vY 2
So, the gravitational capacitor model is,
EC E V 2C
fC (t ) = M C vY = v = C = C
2 Y
(65)
vY vY vY
Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Torsional Capacitive Force Term is,

EC
fC (t ) = (66)
y
By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EC is,
EC = fL (t ) y (67)
The total energy EC contained within matter is,
EC (t ) = M C (t ) c 2 (68)
The change in this total energy EC is,
EC = M C c 2 (69)
EC fC (t ) y VC 2 C VC 2 C M (t ) C
MC = 2
= 2
= 2
= 2
= C (70)
c c y VC C (t ) C (t )
M C (t )
So, the time derivative form of the Torsional Capacitive Term is,
fC (t ) C (t ) y
C= (71)
M C (t ) c 2
fC C dy
dC = (72)
M C c2
fC C Δy
ΔC = (73)
M C c2

THE GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING OF A

FLUCTUATING MASS, INDUCTOR OR CAPACITOR
y
OBJECT with
22,500.0 MASS M
GRAVITATIONAL (BEFORE)
REFERENCE
19,920 y0
RADIUS
ME
g yn = G NATURAL MASS
yn 2 FLUCTUATION DUE
TO FREE FALL Δy = y0 − y1
OBJECT with
MASS M+ΔM
INCREASED (AFTER)
GRAVITY
7,529 y1
6,378.1
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 g yn
0.0
g y0 = 1.0 g y1 = 7.0 g 0 = 9.8
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
m sec 2
FIGURE 6. The natural mass fluctuation of an object due to gravitational free fall.
Natural universal mass attraction or classic Newtonian gravity is a force f y that acts through a center of mass of the
Earth with mass M E and a test mass M separated by a distance y ,
G ME M
fy = = gy M (74)
y2
So, given,
Gravitational constant G = 6.67259 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2
Mass of the Earth M E = 5.9787 × 1024 kg
Radius of Earth yE = 6.3781× 106 m
The surface gravity g 0 of the Earth is,
G M E ( 6.67259 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g0 = = = 9.80665 m sec 2 (75)

( 6.3781×10 m )
2 2
yE 6

The gravity g y0 at GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE position y0 is,
G M E ( 6.67259 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g y0 = = = 1.00537 m sec 2 (76)

y0 2 (19.920 ×10 m )
6 2
The gravity g y1 at position y1 is,
G M E ( 6.67259 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g y1 = = = 7.03767 m sec 2 (77)

y12 ( )
2
7.529 × 10 6
m
Marmet (2001) equates force fM produced by a fluctuating test mass dM to the gravitational force f y ,
f y (t ) = fM (t ) (78)
The derivative form of a fluctuating test mass dM is,
fM dy g y M dy
dM = = (79)
c2 c2
The derivative form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of test mass dM M and the energy
equivalent of test mass dE E displaced dy within a given gravity well g y is,
dM dEM g y dy
= = 2 (80)
M EM c
Marmet states the equation above shows a “calculated change of energy levels as a function of gravitational
potential is in perfect agreement with the Pound and Rebka and also the Pound and Snider experiments”. Therefore,
energy increases as a function of downward or positive displacement within a given gravity well.
Let dYg y = g y dy , the exponential solutions of the derivative form of mass and energy equivalent of mass are,
M y1 1 1 g y1 y1
∫ M y0 M
dM = 2
c ∫ g y0 y0
dYg y (81)
1
ln ( M ) M 1 =
My g y 1 y1
Yg (82)
y0 c2 y g y 0 y0
⎛ My ⎞ 1
( ) ( )
ln M y1 − ln M y0 = ln ⎜ 1
⎜ My (
⎟ = 2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
⎟ c ) (83)
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
M y1 ⎜⎜ c2 ⎟⎟
=e ⎝ ⎠
(84)
M y0
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
c2
M y1 = M y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(85)

⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ c2 ⎟⎟
EM y1 = EM y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(86)
So, the Pound, Rebka and Snider experiment used Mossbauer spectroscopy to measure the electromagnetic
gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of 14.4 keV gamma rays emitted from Fe57 through a vertical
distance of 22.6 m . With the gamma rays emitted upward, they showed the RED SHIFT was within one percent
(1%) of this result,
⎛1 1 ⎞
G ME ⎜ − ⎟
ΔM ΔEM g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
SHIFT = = = = (87)
M EM c2 c2
⎛ ⎞
( 6.67259 ×10 −11
N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 10 24 kg ) ⎜
1
−
1
⎟
⎜ ( 6.3781226 × 106 m ) ( 6.3781000 ×106 m ) ⎟
SHIFT = ⎝ ⎠ (88)
(2.99792458 × 108 m sec) 2
SHIFT = −2.465961× 10−15 (89)
With the gamma rays emitted downward, they showed the BLUE SHIFT was,
⎛ ⎞
( 6.67259 ×10 −11
N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 10 24 kg ) ⎜
1
−
1
⎟
⎜ ( 6.3781000 × 106 m ) ( 6.3781226 ×106 m ) ⎟
SHIFT = ⎝ ⎠ (90)
(2.99792458 × 108 m sec) 2
SHIFT = 2.465961× 10−15 (91)
Now, the force fL produced by a fluctuating inductor dL is equated to the gravitational force f y ,
f y (t ) = fL (t ) (92)
The derivative form of a fluctuating inductor dL is,
fL L dy g y L dy
dL = = (93)
M L c2 c2
The derivative form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of inductor dL L displaced dy within a
given gravity well g y is,
dL g y dy
= 2 (94)
L c
Let dYg y = g y dy , the exponential solution of the derivative form of an inductor is,
Ly1 1 1 g y1 y1
∫Ly0 L
dL = 2
c ∫ g y0 y0
dYg y (95)

1
ln ( L ) L 1 =
Ly g y 1 y1
Yg (96)
y0 c2 y g y 0 y0
⎛ Ly ⎞ 1
( ) ( )
ln Ly1 − ln Ly0 = ln ⎜ 1
⎜ Ly (
⎟ = 2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
⎟ c ) (97)
⎝ 0 ⎠
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
Ly1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
c2
=e ⎝ ⎠
(98)
Ly0
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ c2 ⎟⎟
Ly1 = Ly0 e ⎝ ⎠
(99)
So, the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an inductor L is,
⎛1 1 ⎞
G ME ⎜ − ⎟
ΔL g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
SHIFT = = = (100)
L c2 c2
Now, the force fC produced by a fluctuating capacitor dC is equated to the gravitational force f y ,
f y (t ) = fC (t ) (101)
The derivative form of a fluctuating inductor dC is,
fC C dy g y C dy
dC = = (102)
M C c2 c2
The derivative form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of capacitor dC C displaced dy within a
given gravity well g y is,
dC dEC g y dy
= = 2 (103)
C EC c
Let dYg y = g y dy , the exponential solution of the derivative form of a capacitor is,
C y1 1 1 g y1 y1
∫C y0 C
dC = 2
c ∫ g y0 y0
dYg y (104)
1
ln ( C ) C 1 =
Cy g y 1 y1
Yg (105)
y0 c2 y g y 0 y0
⎛ Cy ⎞ 1
( ) ( )
ln C y1 − ln C y0 = ln ⎜ 1
⎜ Cy (
⎟ = 2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
⎟ c ) (106)
⎝ 0 ⎠

⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
C y1 ⎜⎜ c2 ⎟⎟
=e ⎝ ⎠
(107)
C y0
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
c2
C y1 = C y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(108)
So, the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of a capacitor C is,
⎛1 1 ⎞
G ME ⎜ − ⎟
ΔC g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
SHIFT = = 2
= (109)
C c c2

NATURAL RELATIVITY THEORY

M − ΔM
DECREASED
GRAVITY
CURVATURE
DECREASING DUE TO −Δy
MASS GRAVITY
GRAVITATIONAL
gy
REFERENCE
MASS M
AT REST
INCREASING +Δy
MASS
INCREASED
GRAVITY
M + ΔM TOWARDS CENTER
OF GRAVITY
FIGURE 7. A change of relativistic mass due to gravity.
The establishment of a GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE is defined as a fixed point of reference within a given
gravity well g y . This point may be located in a plane of equipotential surface of gravity, and is used throughout this
paper. Natural relativistic changes of mass, volume, frequency, energy, etc. fluctuate or curve as a function of
displacement ±Δy from this point of reference. This displacement defines a new point within a new plane of
equipotential surface of gravity g ±Δy , and the gravity at that point may be increased or decreased based upon the
sign of the displacement. Marmet (2001) invokes the principle of mass-energy conservation regarding the
displacement of matter between planes. For example, an object of mass M displaced a distance Δy changes back
to its original mass when returned to its original position within a given gravity well. Therefore, a new and
simplified relativity model is introduced. For gravitational energy systems, and given an equipotential surface of
gravity reference, the following parameters including relativistic mass ±ΔM , relativistic inductance ±ΔL , and
relativistic capacitance ±ΔC , fluctuate or curve between equipotential surfaces of gravity by displacement ±Δy .
Again, the kinetic energy of gravitational energy systems is assumed to be zero. So, given a common equipotential
surface of gravity reference g y , an increase in gravity causes a natural relativistic increase in mass, energy
equivalent of mass (gravitational energy), inductance, and capacitance. Likewise, a decrease in gravity causes a
natural relativistic decrease in the same metrics.
Given an object with a rest mass M y0 , an equivalent energy of the rest mass EM y0 , an inductance Ly0 , and a
capacitance C y0 , the new rest mass M y1 , the new equivalent energy of the rest mass EMy0 , the new inductance Ly1 ,
and the new capacitance C y1 are,
M y1 = γ NR M y0 = M y0 ± ΔM y0 (110)
EMy1 = γ NR EMy0 = EMy0 ± ΔEMy 0 (111)
Ly1 = γ NR Ly0 = Ly0 ± ΔLy0 (112)
C y1 = γ NR C y0 = C y0 ± ΔC y0 (113)

The natural relativistic gamma γ NR is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
γ NR = e ⎝ c2 ⎠
(114)
The difference forms and the exponential forms of the natural relativistic mass M y1 model, energy equivalent of
mass EMy1 model, inductor Ly1 model, and capacitor C y1 model at position ±Δy within a given gravity well g y are,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ c2 ⎟⎟
M y1 = M y0 ± ΔM y0 = M y0 ⎜ 1 ± 1 2 ⎟ = M y0 e
⎝ ⎠
(115)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜
c2
⎟⎟
EMy1 = EMy0 + ΔEMy0 = EMy0 ⎜1 ± 2 ⎟ = EMy0 e
⎝ ⎠
(116)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜
c2
⎟⎟
Ly1 = Ly0 + ΔLy0 = Ly0 ⎜ 1 ± 1 2 ⎟ = L y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(117)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ c2 ⎟⎟
C y1 = C y0 ± ΔC y0 = C y0 ⎜ 1 ± 1 2 ⎟ = C y0 e
⎝ ⎠
(118)
⎝ c ⎠
In summary, Natural Relativity (NR) Theory describes the nature of the primary gravitational effect.

SPECIAL RELATIVITY THEORY
c dt
ds0 = c dt0
A B
dr = vr dt
STATIONARY OBSERVER
OBSERVER IN MOTION
FIGURE 8. The definition of a space-time interval relative to Observer B in motion.
Einstein (1905) formulated his theory of special relativity and is described as Observer B, moving at velocity vr
relative to a stationary Observer A, undergoes a relativistic effect. This effect changes the mass, lengths, time
intervals, frequencies, and energy of the observer in motion. It’s expressed as a Pythagorean-type quantity called a
space-time interval, and evaluates as a Lorentz temporal correction shown below.
ds0 2 + dr 2 = c 2 dt 2 (119)
ds0 2 = c 2 dt 2 − dr 2 (120)
Since the velocity vr of Observer B is,
dr
vr = r = (121)
dt
dr = vr dt (122)
So,
ds0 2 = c 2 dt 2 − vr 2 dt 2 (123)
c 2 dt 2 vr 2 vr 2
ds0 = c 2 dt 2 − = c dt 1 − (124)
c2 c2
Since the speed of light c is,
ds0
c = s0 = (125)
dt

ds0 = c dt0 (126)
So, the Lorentz temporal correction relative to Observer B is,
vr 2
c dt0 = c dt 1 − (127)
c2
vr 2
dt0 = dt 1 − (128)
c2
dt0
dt = (129)
v2
1 − r2
c
Therefore, relative to Observer B in motion with a time interval dt B0 , stationary Observer A’s clock with a time
interval dt A will be ticking faster or BLUE SHIFTED, and have the following Lorentz temporal correction,
dt B0
dt A = (130)
v2
1 − r2
c
dt A > dtB0 (131)
Likewise, relative to stationary Observer A with a time interval dt A0 , Observer B’s clock at time interval dt B will be
ticking slower or RED SHIFTED, and have the following Lorentz temporal correction,
vr 2
dt B = dt A0 1 − (132)
c2
dt B < dt A0 (133)

TIME t TIME
FUTURE FORWARD
DECREASED + jvx
GRAVITY
M − ΔM
−Δy
GRAVITATIONAL
gy
REFERENCE
CURVATURE
INITIAL MASS M, DUE TO
AT REST AND t = 0 sec VELOCITY
+Δy
INCREASED vx
GRAVITY
M + ΔM
t
FIGURE 9. A change of relativistic mass due to velocity.
Given the rest mass of an object M , the special relativistic mass M v model presented by Einstein (1905) shows an
object moving at velocity vx is,
M
Mv = = γ M = M + dM (134)
v2
1 − x2
c
The gamma γ is,
1
γ= (135)
v2
1 − x2
c
Implementing the binomial expansion of the above equation,
1 vx 2 3 vx 4 5 vx 6 35 vx 8
γ SR = 1 + + + + + ... (136)
2 c 2 8 c 4 16 c 6 128 c8
Using the 1st order term of the expansion shown above where vx c , the new special relativistic gamma γ SR is,
vx 2
γ SR = 1 + (137)
2 c2
The derivative form of the special relativistic mass M v model moving at velocity vx is,
⎛ v2 ⎞
M v = γ SR M = M ± dM = M ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ (138)
⎝ 2c ⎠

The derivative form of a fluctuating mass dM is,
M vx 2
dM = (139)
2 c2
An object can move at a real (i.e., time-forward) velocity vx , at an imaginary (i.e., time-future) velocity j vx , or at a
velocity that is a combination of the two. The real and imaginary components are rotated about the temporal axis
and therefore, can be described as complex motion. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is
θ = 0° and the imaginary time-future axis is θ = 90° . The complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which
functions as a temporal rotation operator.
vx = v e jθ = v cos θ + j v sin θ (140)
So, the derivative form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of mass dM M , energy equivalent of mass
dEM EM , inductor dL L , or capacitor dC C of an object moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity j vx
is,
dM dEM dL dC vx 2
SHIFT = = = = = 2 (141)
M EM L C 2c
The exponential solution of the derivative form of mass is,
Mv 1 v2
∫ M0 M
dM = x 2
2c
(142)
vx 2
ln ( M ) M =
Mv
(143)
0 2 c2
⎛M ⎞ vx 2
ln ( M v ) − ln ( M 0 ) = ln ⎜ v ⎟= 2 (144)
⎝ M0 ⎠ 2c
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎜ 2⎟
Mv ⎜ 2c ⎟
= e⎝ ⎠ (145)
M0
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
Mv = M0 e ⎝ ⎠
(146)
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
EMv = EM 0 e ⎝ ⎠
(147)
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎜ 2⎟
⎜ ⎟
Lv = L0 e ⎝ 2c ⎠
(148)
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
Cv = C0 e ⎝ ⎠
(149)

So, the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of a mass M , an energy equivalent of mass EM , an inductor L , and
a capacitor C is,
ΔM ΔE M Δ L Δ C v x 2
SHIFT = = = = = 2 (150)
M EM L C 2c
The special relativistic gamma γ SR is,
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
γ SR = e ⎝ ⎠
(151)
The difference forms and the exponential forms of the special relativistic mass M v model, energy equivalent of
mass EMv model, inductor Lv model, and capacitor Cv model of an object moving at a real velocity vx or a
complex velocity j vx are,
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜2 ⎟
M v = M 0 ± ΔM 0 = M 0 ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ = M 0 e ⎝ c ⎠ (152)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
E M v = E M 0 ± ΔE M 0 = EM 0 ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ = EM 0 e
⎝ ⎠
(153)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
Lv = L0 ± ΔL0 = L0 ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ = L0 e ⎝ ⎠
(154)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
Cv = C0 + ΔC0 = C0 ⎜1 ± x 2 ⎟ = C0 e⎝ ⎠ (155)
⎝ 2c ⎠

DID EINSTEIN GET IT RIGHT, OR NOT?
Einstein’s General Relativity Theory (1916) equates Newton’s second law of motion, f = mi a , where mi is the
inertial mass to Newton’s gravitational force, f = mg g , where mg is the gravitational mass. Is this concept correct?
Einstein used this to formulate his equivalence principle and stated, “There is no experiment a person could
conduct in a small volume of space that would distinguish between a gravitational field and an equivalent uniform
acceleration”. Is this statement correct? Lets test Einstein’s principle in the following thought experiment:
AT REST ACCELERATING
dM g = 0 d 2M i > 0
fg fi
ON THE EARTH IN SPACE
FIGURE 10. An elevator at rest on the Earth is NOT equivalent to an elevator accelerating in space.
As shown above, the natural relativistic mass fluctuation of an elevator at rest on the surface of the Earth is zero, or
dM = 0 . However, the second order special relativistic mass fluctuation of the same elevator accelerating in space
is non-zero or d 2 M > 0 , and as a consequence, radiates electromagnetic waves. According to Woodward (1998),
radiation reaction is observed in bodies being accelerated based upon Newton’s second law of motion, f0 = m a .
Therefore, given this scenario, the gravitational mass can’t be equivalent to its’ inertial mass due to their differences
in mass fluctuations.

FREE FALL A GIVEN CONSTANT VELOCITY

DISTANCE
dM g > 0 dM i > 0
fg = 0 fi = 0
NEAR EARTH IN SPACE
FIGURE 11. An elevator in free fall above the Earth is equivalent to an elevator moving at constant velocity in space.
As shown above, an elevator traveling a distance + dy in free fall and the same elevator moving at a constant
velocity vx at right angles to free fall produce virtually no radiation reaction. So, given this second scenario, these
mass fluctuations are considered equivalent, hence, establishing a new Principle of Equivalence Theorem.
A NEW PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE THEOREM
M
1.10
INCREASING ⎛ 2 ⎞
⎜ vx ⎟
+TIME-PAST INERTIAL MASS ⎜⎜ 2 c2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
(RED SHIFT) M0 e
1.05
INERTIAL
INERTIAL MASS
TIME -FORWARD
REFERENCE
(kg)
1.00
vx
DECREASING
INERTIAL MASS
(BLUE SHIFT)
0.95
-TIME-FUTURE
0.90
±1.0 j × 108 ±7.5 j × 107 ±5.0 j × 107 ±2.5 j × 107 0.0 2.5 × 107 5.0 × 107 7.5 × 107 1.0 × 108
VELOCITY
(m/sec)
FIGURE 12. Velocity profile of a 1kg inertial mass.

The inertial RED SHIFT of an object due to velocity vx is,
ΔM v2
SHIFT = = x2 (156)
M 2c
1.0000000000
GRAVITATIONAL
REFERENCE g y0
0.9999999998
DECREASING
GRAVITATIONAL MASS
GRAVITATIONAL
MASS (BLUE SHIFT)
0.9999999996
⎛ gy y −gy y ⎞
⎜ 1 1 0 0⎟
(kg)
⎜⎜ c2 ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
M y0 e
0.9999999994
0.9999999993485
DECREASING
0.9999999992 GRAVITY INCREASING
GRAVITATIONAL
MASS (RED SHIFT)
y0
y
0.9999999990
M
0.0 2.0 × 107 4.0 × 107 6.0 × 107 8.0 × 107 10.0 × 107
6.3781× 106
DISPLACEMENT FROM
CENTER OF EARTH
(m)
FIGURE 13. Displacement profile of a 1kg gravitational mass due to Earth’s gravity well.
And since the gravitational RED SHIFT of the same object due to gravity g y is,
⎛1 1 ⎞
G ME ⎜ − ⎟
ΔM g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
SHIFT = = = (157)
M c2 c2
By equating an inertial RED SHIFT to a gravitational RED SHIFT, a new Principle of Equivalence Theorem is
determined as,
⎛1 1 ⎞
G ME ⎜ − ⎟
vx 2
g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
2
= 1 2
= (158)
2c c c2

So, an object displaced ±Δy within the Earth’s gravity well g y is equivalent to the same object moving at complex
velocity vx ,
⎛1 1 ⎞
(
vx = 2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 = 2 G M E ⎜ − ⎟ ) (159)
⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
Δy
−7.0 × 106
DECREASING
INERTIAL MASS
(BLUE SHIFT)
−6.0 × 106
−5.0 × 106
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
y0 ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
1
(BLUE SHIFT)
GRAVITATIONAL
DECREASING
MASS
Δy =
DISPLACEMENT
2 ⎟
−4.0 × 106 ⎜ 1 + y0 vx ⎟
⎜ 2G M E ⎟
⎝ ⎠
(m)
−3.0 × 106
−2.0 × 106
−1.0 × 106
10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 EARTH’S SURFACE

y0 = 6.37810 × 106 m
0
GRAVITATIONAL
0 vx
INCREASING
2000 j 4000 j 6000 j 8000 j 10000 j

(RED SHIFT)
VELOCITY
1.0 × 106
INERTIAL - (m/sec)
MASS
GRAVITATIONAL
REFERENCE
2.0 × 106
3.0 × 106
INCREASING
INERTIAL MASS
(RED SHIFT)
4.0 × 106
FIGURE 14. Equating an inertial RED (BLUE) SHIFT to a gravitational RED (BLUE) SHIFT.
As shown above, if the displacement Δy = y0 − y1 of an object is POSITIVE, then the object is moving at a real
velocity vx . However, if the displacement Δy is NEGATIVE, then the same object is moving at a complex (i.e.,
time-future) velocity −1 vx , or velocity j vx , where j = −1 . The real and imaginary components are rotated

about the temporal axis as a complex velocity. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is θ = 0°
and the imaginary time-future axis is θ = 90° . The complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which functions
as a temporal rotation operator.
So, given an object moving at a complex velocity vx , the equivalent displacement to position y1 within the Earth’s
y0 vx 2
gravity well g y , where 0 < y1 ≤ ∞ or −1 ≤ is,
2G ME
1 ⎛ vx 2 ⎞ y0
y1 = ⎜ g y0 y0 + ⎟= (161)
g y1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ y v2
1+ 0 x
2G ME
Therefore, the equivalent displacement Δy within the Earth’s gravity well g y is,
⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟
y0 1
Δy = y0 − y1 = y0 − = y0 ⎜ 1 − ⎟ (162)
y v2 ⎜ y v2 ⎟
1+ 0 x ⎜⎜ 1 + 0 x ⎟⎟
2G M E ⎝ 2G M E ⎠
The equivalent maximum complex velocity vx max at y1 = ∞ is
y0 vx 2
1+ =0 (163)
2G ME
2G ME
vx max = − (164)
y0
So, given the equivalent maximum complex velocity vx max , the minimum mass M min at y1 = ∞ is,
⎛ G ME ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎛ G ME ⎞ ⎜− ⎟
⎜ y c2 ⎟
M min = M y0 ⎜ 1 + x 2 ⎟ = M y0 ⎜ 1 − 2 ⎟ = M y0 e ⎝ 0 ⎠
(165)
⎝ 2 c ⎠ ⎝ y 0 c ⎠
In summary, this new Principle of Equivalence Theorem describes an object moving at one-half the square of a
real velocity vx is equivalent to the same object having fallen down a displacement + dy within a given gravity well
g y . This object naturally acquires more relativistic mass, inductance and capacitance as it moves at a real velocity
vx , and augments its’ own gravitation with other objects. On the other hand, the same object moving at one-half the
square of a complex velocity j vx is equivalent to the same object having fallen up a displacement −dy in the same
gravity well. This object naturally loses more relativistic mass, inductance and capacitance as it moves at a complex
velocity j vx , and diminishes its’ own gravitation with other objects. Therefore, special relativity is considered to be
a secondary gravitational effect.

Example 1. Given the velocity profile above of an object having a mass M 0 moving at a special relativistic time-
forward velocity vx , compute the new special relativistic inertial mass M v .
So, given,
Direction of time θ = 0°
Mass of object M 0 = 1.0 kg
Velocity of object v = 1.0 × 108 m sec
The time-forward velocity vx of an object is,
vx = v e jθ = (1.0 ×108 m sec ) e j 0° = 1.0 ×108 m sec (166)
The new special relativistic inertial mass M v is,

⎛
( ) ⎞
2
⎜ 1.0×108 m sec ⎟
⎛ vx 2 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
( )
2
⎜ 2c ⎟ ⎜ 2 2.99793×108 m sec ⎟
Mv = M0 e ⎝ ⎠
= (1.0 kg ) e ⎝ ⎠
(167)
M v = 1.05721 kg (168)
The inertial mass of the object was increased by,
M v − M 0 = (1.05721 kg ) − (1.0 kg ) = 0.05721 kg (169)
Example 2. Given the velocity profile above of an object having a mass M 0 moving at a special relativistic velocity
time-future j vx , compute the new special relativistic inertial mass M v .
So, given,
Mass of object M 0 = 1.0 kg
Velocity of object v = 1.0 × 108 m sec
The time-future velocity vx of an object is,
vx = v e jθ = (1.0 × 108 m sec ) e j 90° = 1.0 j × 108 m sec (170)
The new special relativistic inertial mass M v is,

⎛
( ) ⎞
2
⎜ 1.0 j ×108 m sec ⎟
⎛ vx 2 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
( )
2
⎜ 2c ⎟ ⎜ 2 2.99793×108 m sec ⎟
Mv = M0 e ⎝ ⎠
= (1.0 kg ) e ⎝ ⎠
(171)
M v = 0.94589 kg (172)
The inertial mass of the object was reduce by,
M v − M 0 = ( 0.94589 kg ) − (1.0 kg ) = −0.05411 kg (173)

Example 3. Given the gravitational profile above of an object having a mass M y0 displaced to a position −Δy
within Earth’s gravity well g y , compute the new natural relativistic gravitational mass M y1 .
So, given,
Mass of object M y0 = 1.0 kg
Object on Earth’s surface y0 = 6.3781× 106 m
Object displaced to y1 = 1.0 × 108 m
Speed of light c = 2.99792458 × 108 m sec
The acceleration due to gravity at surface of Earth is,
G M E ( 6.67260 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g y0 = = = 9.80665 m sec 2 (174)

y0 2 ( )
2
6.3781 × 10 6
m
The acceleration due to gravity at altitude y1 = 1.0 × 108 m above the Earth is,
G M E ( 6.67260 × 10 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 1024 kg )

−11
g y1 = = = 0.039894 m sec 2 (175)

y12 (1.0 ×10 m ) 8 2
Given the exponential solution of the natural relativistic mass model, the new gravitational mass is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛
( )( )( )(
⎜ 0.039894 m sec 1.0×10 m − 9.80665 m sec 6.3781×10 m
2 8 2 6
) ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
( )
2
⎜ 2.99792458×10 m sec ⎟
= (1.0 kg ) e
8
c2
M y1 = M y0 e ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(176)
M y1 = 0.9999999993485 kg (177)
The gravitational mass of the object was reduced by,
M y1 − M y0 = ( 0.9999999993485 kg ) − (1.0 kg ) = −6.516 × 10−10 kg (178)
Example 4. Assuming there are no other gravitational influences besides the Earth, compute the new minimum
natural relativistic gravitational mass M min of an object at y1 = ∞ .
So, given,
Mass of object M y0 = 1.0 kg
Object on Earth’s surface y0 = 6.3781× 106 m

The minimum gravitational mass M min at y1 = ∞ is,
⎛ G ME ⎞
⎛
( −11
)(
⎜ 6.67260×10 N m kg 5.9787×10 kg
2 2 24
) ⎞⎟
⎜− ⎟
⎜− ⎟
( )( )
2
⎜ y c2 ⎟ ⎜ 6.3781×106 m 2.99792458×108 m sec ⎟
M min = M y0 e ⎝ 0 ⎠
= (1.0 kg ) e ⎝ ⎠
(179)
M min = 0.9999999993041 kg (180)
The gravitational mass of the object was reduced by,
M y1 − M y0 = ( 0.9999999993041 kg ) − (1.0 kg ) = −6.959 × 10−10 kg (181)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE VOLUME OF OBJECTS
An object of volume Vy (length Ly , width Wy , and height Hy ) contracts as a function of position +Δy within
gravity well g y . Likewise, the same the volume Vy dilates as a function of position −Δy in the same gravity well.
So, the difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an object of volume ΔV V displaced
Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
ΔL ΔW ΔH g y y1 − g y0 y0
= = =− 1 (182)
L W H c2
The difference forms and exponential forms of the natural relativistic object of volume Vy at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
L y1 = L y0 ∓ ΔL y0 = L y0 ⎜1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = L y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(183)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
Wy1 = Wy0 ∓ ΔWy0 = Wy0 ⎜1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = Wy0 e
⎝ ⎠
(184)
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
H y1 = H y0 ∓ ΔH y0 = H y0 ⎜ 1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = H y e ⎝ ⎠
(185)
⎝ c ⎠
0
HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS THE VOLUME OF OBJECTS
An object of volume Vv (length Lv , width Wv , and height Hv ) contracts moving at a real velocity vx . Likewise,
the same object of volume Vv dilates moving at a complex velocity j vx .
So, the difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an object of volume ΔV V moving at a
real velocity vx or a complex velocity j vx is,
ΔL ΔW ΔH v2
= = =− x2 (186)
L W H 2c

The difference forms and exponential forms of the special relativistic object of volume Vv moving at a real velocity
vx or a complex velocity j vx is,
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜− 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
Lv = L0 ∓ ΔL0 = L0 ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ = L0 e⎝ ⎠
(187)
⎝ 2 c ⎠
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜− ⎟
⎜ 2 c2 ⎟
Wv = W0 ∓ ΔW0 = W0 ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ = W0 e
⎝ ⎠
(188)
⎝ 2c ⎠
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜− 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
H v = H 0 ∓ ΔH 0 = H 0 ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ = H 0 e⎝ ⎠
(189)
⎝ 2 c ⎠
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE FREQUENCY OF TIME
A mechanical oscillator vibrating at a frequency f y contracts (i.e., slows down) as a function of position +Δy
within gravity well g y . Likewise, the same mechanical oscillator vibrating at a frequency f y dilates (i.e., speeds up)
as a function of position −Δy in the same gravity well.
So, the difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an oscillator vibrating at a frequency
Δf f displaced Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
Δf g y y1 − g y0 y0
=− 1 (190)
f c2
The difference form and exponential form of the natural relativistic frequency f y of an oscillator at position ±Δy
is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
f y1 = f y0 ∓ Δf y0 = f y0 ⎜ 1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = f y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(191)
⎝ c ⎠
HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS THE FREQUENCY OF TIME
A mechanical oscillator vibrating at a frequency f v contracts (i.e., slows down) while moving at a real velocity vx .
Likewise, the same mechanical oscillator vibrating at a frequency f v dilates (i.e., speeds up) while moving at a
complex velocity j vx .
So, the difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an oscillator vibrating at a frequency Δf f
while moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity j vx is,
Δf v2
=− x2 (192)
f 2c

The difference form and exponential form of the special relativistic frequency f v of an oscillator moving at a real
velocity vx or a complex velocity j vx is,
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜− 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
f v = f 0 ∓ Δf 0 = f 0 ⎜ 1 ∓ x 2 ⎟ = f 0 e ⎝ ⎠
(193)
⎝ 2 c ⎠
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS AN INTERVAL OF TIME
A mechanical oscillator vibrating for an interval of time t y contracts (i.e., slows down) as a function of position
+Δy within gravity well g y . Likewise, the same mechanical oscillator vibrating for an interval of time t y dilates
(i.e., speeds up) as a function of position −Δy in the same gravity well.
So, the difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an oscillator vibrating for an interval
of time Δt t displaced Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
Δt g y y1 − g y0 y0
=− 1 (194)
t c2
The difference form and exponential form of the natural relativistic time interval t y of an oscillator at position ±Δy
is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
t y1 = t y0 ∓ Δt y0 = t y0 ⎜1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = t y0 e
⎝ ⎠
(195)
⎝ c ⎠
HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS AN INTERVAL OF TIME
A mechanical oscillator vibrating for an interval of time tv contracts (i.e., slows down) while moving at a real
velocity vx . Likewise, the same mechanical oscillator vibrating for an interval of time tv dilates (i.e., speeds up)
while moving at a complex velocity j vx .
So, the difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of an oscillator vibrating for an interval of
time Δt t while moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity j vx is,
Δt v2
=− x2 (196)
t 2c
The difference form and exponential form of the special relativistic time interval tv of an oscillator moving at a real
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜− 2 ⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
tv = t0 ∓ Δt0 = t0 ⎜1 ∓ x 2 =
⎟ 0 t e ⎝ ⎠
(197)
⎝ 2c ⎠

HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS LINEAR MOMENTUM
The momentum p y of an object of mass M y moving at velocity vx increases as a function of position +Δy within
gravity well g y . Likewise, the momentum p y of the same object decreases as a function of position −Δy in the
same gravity well,
p y = M y vx (198)
So, the difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of momentum Δp p of an object
displaced Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
Δp g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
= (199)
p c2
The difference form and exponential form of the natural relativistic momentum p y at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜
c2
⎟⎟
p y1 = p y0 ± Δp y0 = p y0 ⎜ 1 ± 1 2 ⎟ = p y0 e
⎝ ⎠
(200)
⎝ c ⎠
HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS LINEAR MOMENTUM
The momentum pv of an object of mass M 0 increases moving at a real velocity vx . Likewise, the momentum pv of
the same object decreases moving at a complex velocity j vx ,
pv = M 0 vx (201)
So, the difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of momentum Δp p of an object moving at a
Δp vx 2
= (202)
p 2 c2
The difference form and exponential form of the special relativistic momentum pv of an object moving at a real
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
pv = p0 ± Δp0 = p0 ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ = p0 e⎝ ⎠ (203)
⎝ 2c ⎠
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The angular momentum S y of an object of mass M y moving at velocity vx with a radius r is invariant as a
function of position +Δy within gravity well g y . Likewise, the angular momentum S y of the same object is
invariant as a function of position −Δy in the same gravity well,
S y = M y vx r (204)

So, the difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of angular momentum ΔS S of an
object displaced Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
ΔS
=0 (205)
S
The difference form and exponential form of the natural relativistic angular momentum S y at position ±Δy is,
S y1 = S y0 (206)
HOW VELOCITY AFFECTS ANGULAR MOMENTUM
The angular momentum Sv of an object of mass M 0 is invariant moving at a real velocity vx with a radius r .
Likewise, the angular momentum Sv of the same object is invariant moving at a complex velocity j vx ,
Sv = M 0 vx r (207)
So, the difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of angular momentum ΔS S of an object
moving at a real velocity vx or a complex velocity j vx is,
ΔS
=0 (208)
S
The difference form and exponential form of the special relativistic angular momentum Sv of an object moving at a
S v = S0 (209)

THE SPACE-TIME MEDIA OR THE AETHER
Zε
E
M
TI
ZG Zμ
t B
FIGURE 14. The space-time media or aether.
According to Puthoff (1996) and Puthoff, Little and Ibison (2002), the vacuum is described as having magnetic
permeability μ0 and dielectric permittivity ε0, and acts to impede the propagation of light and the motion of matter.
Direct modification of these components changes the nature of light and matter.
gy
+Δy
gy'
+Δy '
CURVATURE DUE TO GRAVITY
r1 r1 − Δr1 RAREFYING OF r2 − Δr2 r2

SPACE-TIME MEDIA
M 1 + ΔM 1 M 2 + ΔM 2
M1 M2
GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE
FIGURE 15. Two similar objects undergoing natural universal mass attraction.
The “active vacuum” of space, or space-time media (i.e., the aether) is composed of uncondensed relativistic mass.
An object M 1 made of matter (i.e., atoms) and given a GRAVITATIONAL REFERENCE point undergoes
universal mass attraction (i.e., gravitational free fall) with another object M 2 . Both objects acquire relativistic mass
by a natural means from the surrounding space-time media as a function of displacement +Δy between the two
objects. This media condenses onto both objects as more relativistic mass, thereby increasing their total mass
M n + ΔM n , inductance Ln + ΔLn , and capacitance Cn + ΔCn . This action changes the relativistic momentum of both
objects resulting with increasing force of attraction. The space-time media between these objects rarefy or
relativistic mass condenses out of the media thereby affecting both the magnetic permeability μ0 and the dielectric
permittivity ε0 of free space. This rarefaction of media is referred to as a gravity well, and as a consequence, causes
the volume of space occupied by both objects and the space between them to be reduced. The space-time media in a
rarefying state means gravity between these objects is increasing, which causes light passing near these objects to
amplify in energy Eλ y and increase in frequency f λ y as proven by the Pound and Rebka experiment (1964). This
behavior of space-time media acts as an impedance upon the natural motion of matter and the propagation of light.

THE GRAVITATIONAL COUPLING OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
DECREASED g −Δy
GRAVITY
PHOTON A
RED SHIFTING:
DECREASING
−Δy
FREQUENCY
AND ENERGY
MONOCHROMATIC
GRAVITATIONAL
gy LIGHT
REFERENCE
SOURCE
BLUE SHIFTING:
INCREASING
+Δy
FREQUENCY
AND ENERGY
PHOTON B
INCREASED g +Δy
GRAVITY
TOWARDS
CENTER OF
GRAVITY
FIGURE 16. Electromagnetic waves propagating within a given gravity well.
Shown above is the BLUE SHIFTING of an electromagnetic wave due to gravity. Relative to a GRAVITATIONAL
REFERENCE point or equipotential surface of gravity within a given gravity well g y , PHOTON A decreases in
energy Eλ y and frequency f λ y as it propagates through decreasing gravity g −Δy . Likewise, PHOTON B increases in
energy Eλ y and frequency f λ y as it propagates through increasing gravity g +Δy . This effect was demonstrated in the
Pound, Rebka and Snider experiment, which used Mossbauer spectroscopy to measure the electromagnetic
gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of 14.4 keV gamma rays emitted from Fe57 through a vertical
distance of 22.6 m . Using the difference form of fluctuating energy ΔEλ of an electromagnetic wave propagating
through gravity well g y and the gamma rays emitted upward, the RED SHIFT was within one percent (1%) of this
result,
ΔEλ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
SHIFT = = (210)
Eλ c2
(9.806581 m sec 2 )(6.3781226 × 106 m) − ( 9.806650 m sec 2 )( 6.3781000 × 106 m )

SHIFT = (211)
(2.99792458 × 108 m sec) 2
SHIFT = −2.465961× 10−15 (212)

And with the gamma rays emitted downward, the BLUE SHIFT was,
SHIFT =
( 9.806650 m sec )( 6.3781000 ×10 m ) − (9.806581 m sec )(6.3781226 ×10 m)
2 6 2 6
(213)
(2.99792458 × 108 m sec) 2
SHIFT = 2.465961× 10−15 (214)
The difference form and exponential form of the natural relativistic electromagnetic energy Eλ y at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜
c2
⎟⎟
Eλ y1 = Eλ y0 ± ΔEλ y0 = Eλ y0 ⎜1 ± 2 ⎟ = Eλ y0 e
⎝ ⎠
(215)
⎝ c ⎠
Since the energy Eλ of a single photon is,
Eλ = h f λ (216)
Then, the Planck's constant h is,
Eλ
h= (217)
fλ
The difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of frequency Δf λ f λ of an electromagnetic
wave propagating Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
Δf λ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
= (218)
fλ c2
The difference form and exponential form of the natural relativistic electromagnetic frequency f λ y at position ±Δy
is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜
c2
⎟⎟
f λ y1 = f λ y0 ± Δf λ y0 = f λ y0 ⎜1 ± ⎟ = f λ y e ⎝ ⎠
(219)
⎝ c2 ⎠
0
So, the natural relativistic Planck's constant hy ranging from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to unity gain or,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
Eλ y1 Eλ y0 e Eλ
hy1 = = ⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
= =h (220)
f λ y1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ fλ
⎝ c2 ⎠
f λ y0 e
Therefore, the natural relativistic Planck's constant hy is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity or,
hy = 6.6260755 × 10 −34 Joule ⋅ sec (221)

The speed of light c is,
c = λ fλ (222)
The difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of the wavelength Δλ λ of an
electromagnetic wave displaced Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
Δλ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
=− (223)
λ c2
The natural relativistic wavelength λ y at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
λ y = λ y ∓ Δλ y = λ y ⎜1 ∓ 2 ⎟ = λ y0 e
⎝ c2 ⎠
(224)
⎝ c ⎠
1 0 0 0
So, natural relativistic the speed of light c y ranging from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to unity gain or,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
c y1 = λ y1 f λ y1 = λ y0 e⎝ c2 ⎠
f λ y0 e⎝ c2 ⎠
= λ fλ = c (225)
Therefore, the natural relativistic speed of light c y is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity or,
c y = 2.99792458 × 108 m sec (226)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE PERMEABLILITY

OF SPACE-TIME MEDIA
The permeability μ0 of space-time media is given as,
μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m (227)
The difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of inductance ΔL L displaced Δy = y0 − y1
within a given gravity well g y is,
ΔL g y y1 − g y0 y0
=− 1 (228)
L c2
The inductance Ly of space-time media at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
Ly1 = Ly0 ∓ ΔLy0 = Ly0 ⎜1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = L y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(229)
⎝ c ⎠

The difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of length ΔL L displaced Δy = y0 − y1
=− 1 (230)
L c2
The length L y of space-time media at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
L y1 = L y0 ∓ ΔL y0 = L y0 ⎜1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = L y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(231)
⎝ c ⎠
So, the natural relativistic permeability μ y of space-time media ranging from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to
unity gain or,
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ − 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
Ly1 Ly0 e L
μy = = ⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
= = μ0 (232)
1
L y1 ⎜⎜ − 1 ⎟⎟ L
⎝ c2 ⎠
L y0 e
Therefore, the natural relativistic permeability μ y of space-time media is invariant between equipotential
surfaces of gravity or,
μ y = 4π × 10−7 H m (233)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE PERMITTIVITY

OF SPACE-TIME MEDIA
The permittivity ε 0 of space-time media is given as,
ε 0 = 8.85419 × 10−12 F m (234)
The difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of capacitance ΔC C displaced
Δy = y0 − y1 within a given gravity well g y is,
ΔC g y y1 − g y0 y0
=− 1 (235)
C c2
The capacitance C y of space-time media at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
C y1 = C y0 ∓ ΔC y0 = C y0 ⎜1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = C y0 e
⎝ ⎠
(236)
⎝ c ⎠

The difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of length ΔL L displaced Δy = y0 − y1
=− 1 (237)
L c2
The length L y of space-time media at position ±Δy is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛ g y y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜⎜ −
c2
⎟⎟
L y1 = L y0 ∓ ΔL y0 = L y0 ⎜1 ∓ 1 2 ⎟ = L y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(238)
⎝ c ⎠
So, the natural relativistic permittivity ε y of space-time media ranging from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to
unity gain or,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
⎝ c2 ⎠
C y1 C y0 e C
εy = = ⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
= = ε0 (239)
1
L y1 ⎜⎜
−
⎟⎟
L
⎝ c2 ⎠
L y0 e
Therefore, the natural relativistic permittivity ε y of space-time media is invariant between equipotential surfaces
of gravity or,
ε y = 8.85419 × 10−12 F m (240)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE VIRTUAL RESISTANCE

OF SPACE-TIME MEDIA
The space-time media has virtual resistance or impedance Z 0 , and therefore, isn't capable of absorbing or
dissipating electromagnetic energy. Its REAL resistance is infinite or, R0 = ∞ . This media serves to impede the
propagation of light and the motion of matter and is calculated as,
μ0
Z0 = (241)
ε0
Since it has been shown the permeability μ y and permittivity ε y of space-time media are invariant between
equipotential surfaces of gravity, it follows the natural relativistic impedance Z y of space-time media ranging from
position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to unity gain or,
μy
Z y1 = 1
= Z0 (242)
εy 1
Therefore, the natural relativistic impedance Z y of space-time media is invariant between equipotential surfaces
of gravity or,
Z y = 376.730 Ω (243)

HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE SPEED OF LIGHT

The speed of light c between space-time media is,
1
c= (244)
μ 0ε 0
Since it has been shown the permeability μ y and permittivity ε y of space-time media are invariant between
equipotential surfaces of gravity, it follows the natural relativistic speed of light c y through space-time media
ranging from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to unity gain or,
1
c y1 = =c (245)
μy ε y
1 1
Therefore, the natural relativistic speed of light c y through space-time media is invariant between equipotential
surfaces of gravity or,
c y = 2.997924 × 108 m sec (246)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS BOLTZMANN'S CONSTANT
The Boltzmann's Constant k is given as,
R
k= (247)
N0
Since the Ideal Gas Constant Ry and Avogadro's Number N y are invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity,
it follows the natural relativistic Boltzmann's Constant k y ranging from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to unity
gain or,
Ry1
k y1 = =k (248)
N y1
Therefore, the natural relativistic Boltzmann's Constant k y is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity
or,
k y = 1.380658 × 10−23 Joules ° K (249)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS AN ELECTRIC CHARGE

A fundamental electric charge q is given as,
f
q= (250)
E
The electric force f y increases with the square of a decreasing distance, and the electric field E y also increases with
the square of a decreasing distance at position + dy . Likewise, the electric force f y decreases with the square of a

increasing distance, and the electric field E y also decreases with the square of a increasing distance at position −dy ,
it follows the natural relativistic electric charge q y ranging from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to unity gain or,
f y1
q y1 = =q (251)
E y1
Therefore, the natural relativistic electric charge q y is invariant between equipotential surfaces of gravity or,
q y = 1.60217733 × 10−19 Coul (252)
HOW GRAVITY AFFECTS THE FINE STRUCTURE CONSTANT

The Fine Structure Constant α is,
q2
α= (253)
2ε0 h c
Since an electric charge q y , the speed of light c y , the permittivity ε y , and Planck's constant hy are invariant
between equipotential surfaces of gravity, it follows the natural relativistic Fine Structure Constant α y ranging
from position −Δy to +Δy evaluates to unity gain or,
q y1 2
αy = =α (254)
1
2 ε y1 hy1 c y1
Therefore, the natural relativistic Fine Structure Constant α y is invariant between equipotential surfaces of
gravity or,
1
α y = 7.29738 × 10−3 = (255)
137.0356

A TYPICAL ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
FLAT
SPACE-TIME
MEDIA
FIGURE 17. Propagation of electromagnetic wave in flat space-time.
E B
t t
FIGURE 18. Typical B and E Fields.

GRAVITATIONAL BLUE SHIFTING OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
E
NOTE: SPACE-TIME MEDIA IS
MODELED AS UNCONDENSED
RELATIVISTIC MASS, INDUCTANCE
AND CAPACITANCE THAT CAN BE
COMPRESSED OR RAREFIED.
RAREFYING
SPACE-TIME
MEDIA
FIGURE 19. Propagation of electromagnetic wave in rarefied space-time.
E B
t t
FIGURE 20. Increasing magnitude and frequency of B and E Fields by gravitational function.

GRAVITATIONAL RED SHIFTING OF AN ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
E
NOTE: SPACE-TIME MEDIA IS
MODELED AS UNCONDENSED
RELATIVISTIC MASS, INDUCTANCE
AND CAPACITANCE THAT CAN BE
COMPRESSED OR RAREFIED.
COMPRESSING
SPACE-TIME
MEDIA
FIGURE 21. Propagation of electromagnetic wave in compressing space-time.
E B
t t
FIGURE 22. Decreasing magnitude and frequency of B and E Fields by gravitational function.

FIGURE 23. A Global Positioning Satellite.
Example 5. A Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) transmits an electromagnetic signal at a frequency f λ SAT of
~ 10.23 MHz down to the Earth from an altitude of 20,186.8 km , and has an orbital velocity of 3.874 km sec . The
natural relativistic BLUE SHIFT due to gravity and the special relativistic RED SHIFT due to velocity changes the
frequency of this transmitted signal. So, given the corrected transmitted frequency f λ SAT , compute the BLUE
SHIFT and RED SHIFT such that a ground-based receiver will read a signal f λ RX that is precisely
10230000.000000 Hz . The signal frequency of the satellite is adjustable down to 1 μ Hz .
So, given,
Altitude of satellite Δy = 20.1868 × 106 m
Orbital velocity vx = 3.874 × 103 m sec
Corrected frequency of satellite f λ SAT = 10229999.995444 Hz
Receiver located on surface of Earth y1 = 6.3781× 106 m
The initial radius y0 of the satellite above the Earth is,
y0 = y1 + Δy = ( 6.3781× 106 m ) + ( 20.1868 × 106 m ) = 26.5649 × 106 m (256)

G M E ( 6.67260 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g y0 = = = 0.5653 m sec 2 (257)

y0 2 ( 26.5649 ×10 m )
6 2
G M E ( 6.67260 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g y1 = = = 9.80665 m sec 2 (258)

y12 ( 6.3781×10 m )
6 2
Given the exponential solution of the natural relativistic frequency model, the gravitational BLUE SHIFTED
frequency is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛
( )( )( )(
⎜ 9.80665 m sec 6.3781×10 m − 0.5653 m sec 26.5649×10 m
2 6 2 6
) ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
( )
2
⎜ 2.99792458×108 m sec ⎟
f λ y1 = f λ y0 e ⎝ c2 ⎠
= (10229999.995444 Hz ) e ⎝ ⎠
(259)
f λ y1 = 10230000.000854 Hz = f λ (260)
Given the exponential solution of the special relativistic frequency model, the RED SHIFTED frequency of the
BLUE SHIFTED frequency computed above is,
⎛
( ) ⎞
2
⎜ 3.874×103 m sec ⎟
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜− ⎟
⎜− x 2 ⎟
( )
2
⎜ 2c ⎟ ⎜ 2 2.99793×108 m sec ⎟
fλv = fλ e ⎝ ⎠
= (10230000.000854 Hz ) e ⎝ ⎠
(261)
f λ v = 10230000.000000 Hz = f λ RX (262)
So, a ground-based receiver will read a signal that is precisely 10230000.000000 Hz with a satellite frequency
f λ SAT given above.
FIGURE 24. A constellation of 24 Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) orbiting the Earth.

GRAVITOMAGNETIC THEORY
P
dB
θ
CURRENT
ELEMENT
MAGNETIC
INDUCTION
I dx
FIGURE 25. The magnetic induction produced by a positive current element.
A constant positive electric current I must create a stable magnetic field B around a wire. This stable field is due
to the flow of electric current shown above. The change of magnetic induction dB at a fixed point P produced by a
current element dx is calculated using the Biot-Savart’s Law,
μ0 I dx × r
dB = (263)
4π r3
Or,
μ0 I sin (θ ) dx
dB = (264)
4π r2
Since charge q is quantized in a single electron e − then, electric current I is defined as quantity N of charges e −
passing a fixed point per change of time dt or,
dq d ( N e )
−
I =q= = (265)
dt dt
And velocity vx of an electron passing a fixed point is defined as change of distance dx per change of time dt or,
dx
vx = x = (266)
dt

Then, the electric current I is redefined as,
d ( N e− )
I = vx (267)
dx
So, the change of magnetic induction dB at a fixed point P produced by quantity N of charges e − moving at
velocity vx is,
μ0 vx sin (θ ) d ( N e )
−
dB = (268)
4π r2
To find the magnetic induction B produced by a single electron at point P when θ = 90 and N = 1 , then
integrate,
μ0 e − vx
B = ∫ dB = (269)
4π r 2
The total energy density uB of magnetic field B contained within volume V is,
UB B2
uB = = (270)
V 2 μ0
Therefore, the total field energy U B of magnetic field B contained within volume V is,
μ0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
B2
UB = V= V (271)
2 μ0 32 π 2 r 4
The change of magnetic field energy dU B contained within a change of volume d V is,
μ 0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
B2
dU B = dV = dV (272)
2 μ0 32 π 2 r 4
The total energy EM contained within matter is,
EM = M c 2 (273)
Equate total magnetic field energy U B to the total energy EM contained within matter,
U B = EM (274)
So, the change of magnetic field energy dU B is,
dU B = dM B c 2 (275)

Therefore, the fluctuating magnetic mass dM B contained within a change of volume d V is,
dU μ 0 ( e ) vx 2 − 2
dM B = 2 B = dV (276)
c 32 π 2 r 4 c 2
ω
rmax
rmin
FIGURE 26. The volume V of an electron is modeled as a hollow spheroid.
Since the energy of an electron is finite, no field component can be present at its’ center. So, the volume of an
electron is modeled as a hollow spheroid,
π
V = 2 π ∫ sin (ω ) d ω ∫
rmax rmax
r 2 dr = 4 π ∫ r 2 dr (277)
0 rmin rmin
The fluctuating magnetic mass dM B contained within a change of volume d V of a hollow spheroid is,
μ0 ( e − ) vx 2 μ 0 ( e − ) vx 2 ⎛ r 1 ⎞
2 2
dM B =
32 π 2 r 4 c 2
d (
4 π ∫r
r
max
r
min
2
dr = )8π c 2 ⎝ ∫r r 2 ⎠
d⎜ dr ⎟
max
min
(278)
Given the radius of a fluctuating magnetic mass dM e ranging from a classic electron radius re to infinity, or
re ≤ r ≤ ∞ , the derivative form of a moving electron is,
μ0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
∞ 1
dM B =
8π c2 ∫
re r2
dr (279)
The fluctuating magnetic mass dM B is,
μ0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
dM B = (280)
8 π re c 2

So, given the rest mass of an electron M e , the difference form of the special relativistic mass M ev of an electron
moving at velocity vx is
⎛ v2 ⎞
M ev = γ SR M e = M e ± dM e = M e ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ (281)
⎝ 2c ⎠
By equating the fluctuating magnetic mass dM B to the special relativistic mass dM e ,
μ 0 ( e − ) vx 2
2
M v2
⇔ e x2 (282)
8π re c 2
2 c
The equation reduces to,
μ0 ( e − )
2
Me
⇔ (283)
8π re 2
So, given,
Permeability of free space μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H m
Fundamental charge of an electron e − = 1.602177 × 10−19 C
Classic electron radius re = 2.817941× 10 −15 m
Rest mass of an electron M e = 9.109390 × 10 −31 kg
( 4π ×10 H m )(1.602177 × 10 −19 C )

−7 2
9.109390 × 10−31 kg
⇔ (284)
8 π ( 2.817941× 10−15 m ) 2
This shows the fluctuating magnetic mass of a moving electron is identical to the special relativistic mass at any
velocity vx ,
4.554693 ⇔ 4.554695 (285)
Therefore, the fluctuating magnetic mass dM B is the fluctuating mass dM e of an electron,
dM B = dM e (286)
So, the magnetic mass M B and the mass M e of the electron is,
μ0 ( e − )
2
MB = Me = (287)
4 π re
And the fluctuating magnetic mass ΔM B and the fluctuating mass ΔM e is,
μ 0 ( e − ) vx 2 μ 0 ( e − ) v x 2
2 2
v2
ΔM B = ΔM e = = = Me x 2 (288)
8 π re c 2
4 π re 2 c 2
2c

So, the velocity of an electron is,
2 π re ΔM e 2 ΔM e
vx = 2 c =c (289)
μ0 ( e − 2
) Me
Therefore, if the fluctuating mass is positive, then the velocity of the electron is real. However, if the fluctuating
mass is negative, then the velocity is imaginary.
B = μ0 H
IF THE IF THE
MAGNETIC FIELD I MAGNETIC FIELD
+ S
ENERGY ΔU B < 0 , ENERGY ΔU B > 0 ,
AND ΔM e < 0 , THE A AND ΔM e > 0 , THE
VELOCITY vx IS VELOCITY vx IS
IMAGINARY - N REAL
PERMANENT MAGNET
MODELED AS A SOLENOID
FIGURE 27. The magnetic fluctuating mass.
Now, the difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of the magnetic mass ΔM B M B and the
mass ΔM e M e of a particle moving at a velocity vx is,
ΔM B ΔM e vx 2
= = 2 (290)
MB Me 2c
A particle can move at a real (i.e., time-forward) velocity vx , at an imaginary (i.e., time-future) velocity j vx , or at a
velocity that is a combination of the two. The real and imaginary components are rotated about the temporal axis
and therefore, can be described as complex motion. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is
θ = 0° and the imaginary time-future axis is θ = 90° . The complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which
functions as a temporal rotation operator. The complex velocity vx is,
Given the rest mass of an electron M e or the classic electron radius re , the difference forms of the special
relativistic magnetic mass M ev model of a particle moving at a complex velocity vx , where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° are,
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
M ev = M e ± ΔM e = M e ⎜ 1 ± x 2 ⎟ = M e e ⎝ ⎠
(292)
⎝ 2c ⎠
μ0 ( e − ) ⎛ vx 2 ⎞ μ0 ( e ) ⎜⎜⎝ 2 c
2 − 2 ⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎟
2 ⎟
M ev = M e ± ΔM e = ⎜ 1 ± ⎟ = e ⎠
(293)
4 π re ⎝ 2 c 2 ⎠ 4 π re

Now, apply the new Principle of Equivalence Theorem where the fluctuating magnetic mass of a moving electron
is equivalent to natural relativistic mass due to the Earth’s gravity well,
⎛1 1 ⎞
−
μ0 ( e − ) vx 2 ( g y y1 − g y y0 ) ⎜ ⎟
2
vx 2 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
ΔM e = = Me 2 = Me 1
= G ME Me
0
(294)
8 π re c 2 2c c2 c2
⎛1 1 ⎞
( )
vx = 2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 = 2 G M E ⎜ − ⎟
⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
(295)
The position y1 of an electron moving at a velocity vx within Earth’s gravity well gY where 0 < y1 ≤ ∞ or
y0 v x 2
−1 ≤ is,
2G ME
1 ⎛ vx 2 ⎞ 1 ⎛ ΔM e c 2 ⎞
y1 = ⎜ g y0 y0 + ⎟= ⎜ g y0 y0 + ⎟ (296)
g y1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ g y1 ⎝ Me ⎠
y0 y0
y1 = = (297)
y v 2
y c 2 ΔM e
1+ 0 x 1+ 0
2G ME G ME Me
The equivalent maximum complex velocity vx max at y1 = ∞ is,
2G ME
vx max = − (298)
y0
Given the equivalent maximum complex velocity vx max , the minimum gravitational mass M e min at y1 = ∞ is,
⎛ G ME ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎛ G ME ⎞ ⎜− ⎟
⎜ y c2 ⎟
M e min = M e ⎜1 + x 2 ⎟ = M e ⎜1 − ⎟ = M e e ⎝ 0 ⎠
(299)
⎝ 2c ⎠ ⎝ y0 c 2 ⎠
The equivalent maximum fluctuating gravitational mass of the electron ΔM e at y1 = ∞ is,
G ME Me
ΔM e max = M e min − M e = − (300)
y0 c 2
So, the difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of the magnetic mass ΔM B M B and the
mass ΔM e M e of a particle displaced a distance Δy within a given gravity well gY is,
ΔM B ΔM e
= =
(
g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ) (301)
MB Me c2

Given the rest mass of an electron M e or the classic electron radius re , the difference forms of the natural
relativistic mass M ey1 model of a particle displaced a distance Δy within a given gravity well gY are,
M ey1
⎛
= M e ± ΔM e = M e ⎜ 1 ±
(
g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ )⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜
⎟ = M e e⎝ c
2 ⎟⎟
⎠
(302)
⎜ c 2
⎟
⎝ ⎠
μ0 ( e − ) ⎛ (g )
y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ μ0 ( e− ) ⎜⎜ y1 1c2 y0 0 ⎟⎟
⎛ g y −g y ⎞
2 2
M ey1 = M e ± ΔM e = ⎜1 ± y1
⎟= e⎝ ⎠
(303)
4 π re ⎜ c2 ⎟ 4 π re
⎝ ⎠
In summary, Gravitomagnetic Theory shows that a moving electron produces an increase in relativistic mass that
extends from its’ classic radius re to infinity, and couples to gravity. This motion can either have a velocity vx or a
complex (i.e., time-future) velocity j vx . If the velocity is complex, then the electron will exhibit an antigravitational
effect, and produce a complex (i.e., time-future) magnetic field j B . In addition, the total field energy U B of a
complex magnetic field j B contained within a volume V is NEGATIVE.
Example 6. An electron e − moving through a wire at a time-forward velocity vx where θ = 0° produces a time-
forward magnetic induction B at a distance r .
Given,
Direction of time is forward θ = 0°
Velocity of electron e − through a wire v = 1.0 ×10−2 m sec
Rest mass of an electron M e = 9.109390 × 10 −31 kg
Radius r = 1.0 m
Radius of surface of Earth y0 = 6.3781× 106 m
The time-forward velocity vx , where θ = 0° is,
vx = v e jθ = (1.0 × 10−2 m sec ) e j 0° = 1.0 × 10−2 m sec (304)
The time-forward magnetic induction B at distance r is,
μ0 e− vx ( 4 π × 10 H m )(1.602177 ×10 C )(1.0 ×10 m sec )

−7 −19 −2
B= = (305)
4π r 2 4 π (1.0 m )
2
B = 1.602177 × 10−28 T (306)

The POSITIVE fluctuating mass ΔM e of the electron e − is,
(1.0 ×10−2 m sec )

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (307)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
ΔM e = 5.067782 × 10 −52 kg (308)
Applying the new Principle of Equivalence Theorem,
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×10 m ) 6
(309)
y0 v x 2 ( 6.3781×10 m )(1.0 ×10 m sec )
6 −2 2
1+
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10
−11 2 2 24
kg )
y1 = 6.37809999999490 × 106 m (310)
So, the equivalent POSITIVE displacement Δy is gravitational within the Earth’s gravity well is,
Δy = y0 − y1 = 5.0981× 10−6 m (311)
Example 7. An electron e − moving through a wire at a time-advanced velocity vx where 0° < θ < 90° produces a
time-advanced magnetic induction B at a distance r .
Given,
Direction of time is advanced θ = 45°
Rest mass of an electron M e = 9.109390 × 10−31 kg
Radius r = 1.0 m
The time-advanced velocity vx , where θ = 45° is,
vx = v e jθ = (1.0 × 10−2 m sec ) e j 45° = 7.071068 × 10−3 + 7.071068 j × 10−3 m sec (312)
The time-advanced magnetic induction B at distance r is,
μ0 e − vx ( 4 π × 10 H m )(1.602177 × 10 C )( 7.071068 × 10 + 7.071068 j × 10 m sec )

−7 −19 −3 −3
B= = (313)
4π r 2 4 π (1.0 m )
2
B = 1.132910 × 10−28 + 1.132910 j × 10−28 T (314)

The IMAGINARY fluctuating mass ΔM e of the electron e − is,
( 7.071068 ×10−3 + 7.071068 j ×10−3 m sec )

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (315)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
ΔM e = 5.067782 j × 10−52 kg (316)
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×106 m ) (317)
y v2 ( 6.3781× 106 m )( 7.071068 × 10−3 + 7.071068 j × 10−3 m sec )
2
1+ 0 x
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 1024 kg )
y1 = 6.3781× 106 m − 5.0986 j × 10−6 m (318)
So, the equivalent IMAGINARY displacement Δy is shown to be non-gravitational within the Earth’s gravity well
is,
Δy = y0 − y1 = 5.0986 j × 10−6 m (319)
The maximum time-future velocity vx max within the Earth’s gravity well is,
2G ME 2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 1024 kg )

vx max = − = −
( 6.3781×106 m )
(320)
y0
vx max = 1.11846 j × 104 m sec (321)
Example 8. An electron e − moving through a wire at a time-future velocity vx where θ = 90° produces a time-
future magnetic induction B at a distance r .
Given,
Direction of time is future θ = 90°
Radius r = 1.0 m
The time-future velocity vx , where θ = 90° is,
vx = v e jθ = (1.0 ×10 −2 m sec ) e j 90° = 1.0 j ×10 −2 m sec (322)

The time-future magnetic induction B at distance r is,
μ0 e − vx ( 4 π × 10 H m )(1.602177 × 10 C )(1.0 j × 10 m sec )

−7 −19 −2
B= = (323)
4π r 2 4 π (1.0 m )
2
B = 1.602177 j × 10−28 T (324)
The NEGATIVE fluctuating mass ΔM e of the electron e − is,
(1.0 j ×10−2 m sec )

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (325)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
ΔM e = −5.067782 × 10−52 kg (326)
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×10 m )6
(327)
y v2 ( 6.3781×10 m )(1.0 j ×10 m sec )
6 −2 2
1+ 0 x
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10
−11 2 2 24
kg )
y1 = 6.37800000000510 × 106 m (328)
So, the equivalent NEGATIVE displacement Δy is antigravitational within the Earth’s gravity well is,
Δy = y0 − y1 = −5.0981× 10−6 m (329)
2G ME 2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 1024 kg )

vx max = − = −
( 6.3781×106 m )
(330)
y0
vx max = 1.11846 j × 104 m sec vx (331)

THE RELATIVITY OF ORBITAL SPIN
x0 y0
ω0 r0 r
x y
P0 P
FIGURE 28. The definition of a rotating space-time interval.
A linear space-time interval is defined as,
ds0 2 + dr 2 = c 2 dt 2 (332)
Since z0 = 0 ,
r0 2 = x0 2 + y0 2 + z0 2 = x0 2 + y0 2 (333)
dr = dx + dy + dz = dx + dy
2 2 2 2 2 2
(334)
According to Fock (1964), a rotating space-time interval is defined as,
x = x0 cos ω t + y0 sin ω t (335)

y = − x0 sin ω t + y0 cos ω t (336)
( )
ds0 2 = c 2 − ω0 2 ( x0 2 + y0 2 ) dt 2 − 2ω ( y0 dx − x0 dy ) dt − ( dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) (337)
This reduces to,
ds0 2 = ( c 2 − r0 2ω0 2 ) dt 2 − 2ω0 ( y0 dx − x0 dy ) dt − dr 2 (338)

COMPLEX AMPERIAN CURRENTS
y
e−
vx e jθ
Fv
ELECTRON
IN MOTION
NUCLEUS r
B e jθ MAGNETIC x
z INDUCTION
CIRCULAR
ELECTRON
TEMPORAL
ORBIT
ROTATION
0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°
FIGURE 29. The complete complex Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.
In the Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom, electrons move at relativistic speeds in discrete circular orbits around a
nucleus. It has been determined the increase in relativistic mass of the electron is in the form of total magnetic field
energy produced by the circulating electron. So, as a consequence of this motion, a magnetic induction B is
produced at the center of the orbit. If an external magnetic field is applied to this induction, the velocity of the
electron becomes complex by partially rotating into the imaginary axis. The velocity of the electron may increase or
decrease as a function of the applied external field. If the field opposes the induction B , the real velocity will
appear to decrease as it rotates into the imaginary axis. If the electron’s velocity is fully rotated into the imaginary
axis and therefore moving at a time-future velocity j vx , a time-future magnetic field j B will emerge from the
center. The complete complex Bohr model includes the following characteristic equations shown below. These
equations contain the real and imaginary components of a moving electron that is rotated about the temporal axis as
complex motion. The rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is θ = 0° and the imaginary time-future
axis is θ = 90° . The complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which functions as a temporal rotation operator.
So, given,
Direction of time θ
Frequency of orbit f
Permeability of free space μ0
Fundamental charge of an electron e −
Classic 1st Bohr orbital radius r
Rest mass of an electron M e
Speed of light c
Gravitational constant G
Mean radius of surface of Earth y0
Mass of the Earth M E
Mean radius of surface of Sun y0
Mass of the Sun M SUN

The complex frequency of orbit f 0 , where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° is,
f 0 = f e jθ = f cos θ + j f sin θ (339)
The complex Amperian Current i of the electron is,
i = e− f0 (340)
The complex Magnetic Dipole Moment μ of the electron is,
μ = π r 2 i = π r 2 e− f0 (341)
The complex angular velocity ω0 of the electron is,
ω0 = 2 π f 0 (342)
The complex velocity vx of the electron is,
vx = r ω0 = 2 π r f 0 (343)
The complex magnetic field B at the center axis of the orbit z = 0 is,
μ0 r 2 i μ0 μ μ0 r 2 e − f 0 μ0 r 2 e − ω0 μ 0 r e − vx
B= = = = = (344)
2(r2 + z2 ) 2π ( r 2 + z 2 ) 2(r2 + z2 ) 4π ( r 2 + z 2 ) 4π ( r 2 + z 2 )
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
μ0 i μ0 μ μ0 e − f 0 μ0 e− ω0 μ0 e − vx
B= = = = = (345)
2r 2π r3 2r 4π r 4π r 2
The magnetic force Fv of the electron e − directed upon the nucleus is,
Fv = e − vx × B (346)
μ 0 ( e − ) ω0 2 μ 0 ( e − ) v x 2
2 2
μ0 μ 2
Fv = μ0 π i = 2
= μ0 π ( e ) f 0 =
− 2 2
= (347)
π r4 4π 4π r 2
The direction of electron motion vx is such that the magnetic force Fv is an attractive force between the electron
and the nucleus.
The special relativistic mass M ev of the circulating electron is,
⎛ vx 2 ⎞
⎛ v2 ⎞ ⎜ 2⎟
⎜ 2c ⎟
M ev = M e ± ΔM e = M e ⎜1 ± x 2 ⎟ = M e e⎝ ⎠ (348)
⎝ 2c ⎠

The change in relativistic mass of the electron ΔM e is in the form of the change in magnetic field energy ΔU B
produced by the circulating electron.
ΔU B = ΔEe = ΔM e c 2 (349)
The difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of the mass ΔM e M e of an electron moving at a
velocity vx is,
ΔM e vx 2 2 π 2 r 2 i 2 2 μ2 2 π 2 r 2 f 0 2 r 2 ω0 2
= 2 = = = = (350)
( e− ) c 2 ( e− ) c 2 r 2
2 2
Me 2c c2 2 c2
So, the complex velocity vx of the electron is,
2 r π Fv 2 ΔM e
vx = =c (351)
e− μ0 Me
Fv e − c ΔM e
i= = (352)
μ0 π π r 2 Me
π Fv ΔM e
μ = r2 = e− c r (353)
μ0 2 Me
The complex frequency of orbit f 0 of the electron is,
1 Fv c ΔM e
f0 = = (354)
e− μ0 π πr 2 Me
2 π Fv c 2 ΔM e
ω0 = = (355)
e− μ0 r Me
So, the complex magnetic force Fv of the electron e − directed upon the nucleus is,
μ0 ( e − ) c 2 ΔM e μ0 ( e− ) ΔEe μ0 ( e − ) ΔU B
2 2 2
Fv = = == (356)
2π r 2 Me 2π r 2 M e 2π r 2 M e
And the difference form of the inertial RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of the mass ΔM e M e of an electron is,
ΔM e 2 π r 2 Fv
= (357)
μ0 ( e − ) c 2
2
Me

vx 2 r 2ω0 2 2 π 2 r 2 f02 2π 2 r 2 i2 2μ2 2 π r 2 Fv

ΔM e = M e = Me = Me = Me = Me = Me (358)
( e− ) c 2 ( e− ) c 2 r 2 μ0 ( e − ) c 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
2c 2c c
⎛1 1 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟
ΔM e = M e
( g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ) = G ME Me ⎝ 1 2 0 ⎠
y y
(359)
c2 c
So, the complex velocity vx of the electron is,
⎛1 1 ⎞
(
vx = 2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 = 2 G M E ⎜ − ⎟) (360)
⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
⎛1 1 ⎞
ω0 =
1
(
2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 =
1
)
2G ME ⎜ − ⎟ (361)
r r ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
The complex frequency of orbit f 0 of the electron is,
1 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 1 G ME ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
f0 = = ⎜ − ⎟ (362)
πr 2 πr 2 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
e− g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 e− G M E ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
i= = ⎜ − ⎟ (363)
πr 2 πr 2 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 G ME ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
μ = e− r = e− r ⎜ − ⎟ (364)
2 2 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
The complex magnetic force Fv of the electron e − directed upon the nucleus is,
μ0 ( e − ) ( g y y1 − g y y0 ) μ0 ( e − ) G M E ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2 2
Fv = 1 0
= ⎜ − ⎟ (365)
2π r 2 2π r 2 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠

The equivalent displacement to position y1 of an electron moving at a velocity vx within Earth’s gravity well gY
y0 vx 2
where 0 < y1 ≤ ∞ or −1 ≤ is,
2G ME
1 ⎛ vx 2 ⎞ y0
y1 = ⎜ g y0 y0 + ⎟= (366)
g y1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ y v2
1+ 0 x
2G ME
1 ⎛ r 2 ω0 2 ⎞ y0
y1 = ⎜ g y0 y0 + ⎟= (367)
g y1 ⎝ 2 ⎠ y r 2 ω0 2
1+ 0
2G ME
y1 =
1
(
g y + 2 π 2 r 2 f 02 =
g y1 y0 0
) y0
2 π y0 r 2 f 0 2
2
(368)
1+
G ME
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎜ 2π 2 r 2 i2 ⎟= y0
y1 = g y0 y0 + (369)
g y1 ⎜ ( e− ) ⎟ 2π y r 2 i2
2 2
⎝ ⎠ 1+ − 2 0
(e ) G M E
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎜ 2 μ2 ⎟= y0
y1 = g y0 y0 + (370)
g y1 ⎜ ( e− ) r 2 ⎟ 2 y0 μ 2
2
⎝ ⎠ 1+
(e )
− 2
r 2G M E
⎛ ⎞
1 ⎜ 2 π r 2 Fv ⎟= y0
y1 = g y0 y0 + (371)
g y1 ⎜ μ0 ( e − ) ⎟ 2 π r 2 y0 Fv
2
⎝ ⎠ 1+
μ0 ( e − ) G M E
2
The difference form of the gravitational RED SHIFT (or BLUE SHIFT) of the mass ΔM e M e of a particle
displaced a distance Δy within Earth’s gravity well gY is,
ΔM e
=
(
g y1 y1 − g y0 y0
=
)
G ME ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
2 ⎜ − ⎟ (372)
Me c c 2 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
Given the rest mass of an electron M e , the difference forms of the natural relativistic mass M ey1 model of a particle
displaced a distance Δy within Earth’s gravity well gY are,
M ey1
⎛
= M e ± ΔM e = M e ⎜ 1 ±
(
g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ )
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎜⎜
⎟ = M e e⎝ c
2 ⎟⎟
⎠
(373)
⎜ c 2
⎟
⎝ ⎠

⎛ G ME ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎞
⎛ G M ⎛ 1 1 ⎞⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎜ −
c 2 ⎜⎝ y1 y0 ⎟⎟ ⎟⎟
M ey1 = M e ± ΔM e = M e ⎜ 1 ± 2 E ⎜ − ⎟ ⎟ = M e e ⎝ ⎠⎠
(374)
⎜ c ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝
In summary, if the real component of the magnetic field is cancelled, or B = 0 , due to an externally applied
magnetic field BEXT , the velocity of the circulating electron is complex, or j vx and a complex magnetic field j B
emerges. This complex magnetic field is believed to be present in the Aharonov-Bohm Experiment, which affected
the flow of electrons. The complex Amperian Current uses the temporal rotation operator or Euler’s identity e jθ ,
where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° . As the motion of an electron rotates from real to imaginary, or θ → 90° , the electrons special
relativistic mass ΔM e in the form of magnetic field energy ΔU B decreases. In addition, the electrons rest mass M e
as well as its charge is invariant during acceleration or deceleration.
y
e−
vx
Fv
ELECTRON
IN MOTION
NUCLEUS r
B
MAGNETIC x
z INDUCTION
CIRCULAR
ELECTRON
TEMPORAL
ORBIT
ROTATION
θ = 0°
FIGURE 30. The time-forward Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.
Example 9. In the time-forward Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom the electron e − circulates around the nucleus at
a relativistic velocity vx as shown above. This creates a magnetic induction B emerging from the center of the
nucleus.
So, given,
Direction of time is forward θ = 0°
Frequency of orbit f = 6.8 × 1015 Hz
Classic 1st Bohr orbital radius r = 5.291773 × 10 −11 m
Mean radius of surface of Earth y0 = 6.3781× 106 m

The time-forward frequency of orbit f 0 , where θ = 0° is,
f 0 = f e jθ = ( 6.8 × 1015 Hz ) e j 0° = 6.8 × 1015 Hz (375)
The time-forward Amperian Current i is,
i = e − f 0 = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 6.8 × 1015 Hz ) = 1.089481× 10-3 Amps (376)
The time-forward magnetic field B at the center axis of the orbit z = 0 is,
r2 i r 2 e− f0
B = μ0 = μ0 (377)
2(r2 + z2 ) 2(r2 + z2 )
3 3
2 2
B = μ0
i
= ( 4π × 10 H m )
−7
(1.089481× 10−3 Amps )
= 12.935946 T (378)
2r 2 ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )
The time-forward angular velocity ω0 of the electron e − is,
ω0 = 2 π f 0 = 2 π ( 6.8 × 1015 Hz ) = 4.272566 × 1016 Hz (379)
The time-forward velocity vx of the electron e − is,
vx = r ω0 = ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )( 4.272566 × 1016 Hz ) = 2.260945 ×106 m sec (380)
The time-forward magnetic force Fv of the electron e − directed upon the nucleus is,
Fv = e − vx B = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 2.260945 ×106 m sec ) (12.935946 T ) (381)
Fv = 4.685962 × 10−12 N (382)
The direction of electron motion vx is such that the magnetic force Fv is always an attractive force between the
electron and the nucleus.
( 2.260945 ×106 m sec ) = 2.590585 ×10−35 kg

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (383)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
The increased special relativistic mass M v of the electron e − is,
M v = M e + ΔM e = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) + ( 2.590585 × 10−35 kg ) = 9.109649 × 10−31 kg (384)

y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×10 m ) 6
(385)
y0 vx 2 ( 6.3781×10 m )( 2.260945 ×10 m sec )
6 6 2
1+
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 ×10 N m kg )( 5.9787 ×10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
y1 = 156.0784 m (386)
Δy = y0 − y1 = 6.377944 × 106 m (387)
y
e−
vx e j 45°
Fv
ELECTRON
IN MOTION
NUCLEUS r
EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC
Be j 45°
INDUCTION
BEXT
MAGNETIC x
z INDUCTION
CIRCULAR
ELECTRON
TEMPORAL
ORBIT
ROTATION
θ = 45°
FIGURE 31. The time-advanced Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.
Example 10. In the time-advanced Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom, the real magnetic field created by an electron
circulating at relativistic speeds is partially cancelled by an externally applied magnetic field BEXT . The electron
reacts by rotating its velocity into the imaginary axis as shown above. As a consequence of this complex velocity
v e j 45° , a complex magnetic field B e j 45° emerges.
So, given,


Mean radius of surface of Sun y0 = 6.96 × 108 m
Mass of the Sun M SUN = 1.98892 × 1030 kg
The time-advanced frequency of orbit f 0 , where θ = 45° is,
f 0 = f e jθ = ( 6.8 × 1015 Hz ) e j 45° = 4.808326 × 1015 + 4.808326 j × 1015 Hz (388)
The time-advanced Amperian Current i is,
i = e − f 0 = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 4.808326 × 1015 + 4.808326 j ×1015 Hz ) (389)
i = 7.703791× 10 −4 + 7.703791 j × 10-4 Amps (390)
The time-advanced magnetic field B at the center axis of the orbit z = 0 m is,
r2 i r 2 e− f 0
B = μ0 = μ0 (391)
2(r2 + z2 ) 2(r2 + z2 )
3 3
2 2
B = μ0
i
= ( 4π × 10−7 H m )
( 7.703791×10−4 + 7.703791 j ×10-4 Amps ) (392)
2r 2 ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )
B = 9.147095 + 9.147095 j T (393)
The time-advanced angular velocity ω0 of the electron e − is,
ω0 = 2 π f 0 = 2 π ( 4.808326 × 1015 + 4.808326 j × 1015 Hz ) (394)
ω0 = 3.02116 × 1016 + 3.02116 j × 1016 Hz (395)
The time-advanced velocity vx of the electron e − is,
vx = r ω0 = ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )( 3.02116 × 1016 + 3.02116 j × 1016 Hz ) (396)
vx = 1.598729 × 106 + 1.598729 j × 106 m sec (397)
2G ME 2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 1024 kg )

vx max = − = −
( 6.3781×106 m )
(398)
y0
vx max = 1.11846 j × 104 m sec vx (399)

The time-advanced velocity vx of the electron e − far exceeds coupling to Earth’s gravity well!
The maximum time-future velocity vx max within the Sun’s gravity well is,
2 G M SUN 2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )(1.98892 × 1030 kg )

vx max = − = −
( 6.96 x 108 m )
(400)
y0
vx max = 6.17542 j × 105 m sec vx (401)
The time-advanced velocity vx of the electron e − far exceeds coupling to Sun’s gravity well!
The time-advanced magnetic force Fv of the electron e − directed upon the nucleus is,
Fv = e − vx B (402)
Fv = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )(1.598729 ×106 + 1.598729 j × 106 m sec ) ( 9.147095 + 9.147095 j T )
Fv = 4.685962 j × 10−12 N (403)
The direction of electron motion vx is time-advanced or rotated into the future such that the magnetic force Fv is
always an attractive force between the electron and the nucleus.
The IMAGINARY fluctuating mass ΔM e of the electron e − is,
(1.598729 ×106 + 1.598729 j ×106 m sec )

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (404)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
ΔM e = 2.590585 j × 10 −35 kg (405)
The special relativistic mass M v of the electron e − is,
M v = M e + ΔM e = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) + ( 2.590585 j × 10−35 kg ) (406)
M v = 9.1093897 × 10−31 + 2.590585 j × 10−35 kg (407)
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×106 m ) (408)
y v2 ( 6.3781×106 m )(1.598729 ×106 + 1.598729 j × 106 m sec )
2
1+ 0 x
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 × 10 −11 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 ×10 24 kg )
y1 = 3.819579 × 10 −3 − 156.0822 j m (409)

or,
Δy = y0 − y1 = 6.3781× 10−6 + 156.0822m (410)
y
e−
vx e j 90°
Fv
ELECTRON
IN MOTION
NUCLEUS r
EXTERNAL
MAGNETIC Be j 90°
INDUCTION
BEXT
MAGNETIC x
z INDUCTION
CIRCULAR
ELECTRON
TEMPORAL
ORBIT
ROTATION
θ = 90°
FIGURE 32. The time-future Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom.
Example 11. In the time-future Bohr model of the Hydrogen atom, the real magnetic field created by an electron
circulating at relativistic speeds is being cancelled by an externally applied magnetic field BEXT . The electron reacts
by rotating its velocity into the imaginary axis as shown above. As a consequence of this complex velocity j vx , a
complex magnetic field j B emerges.
So, given,
Mean radius of surface of Sun y0 = 6.96 × 108 m
Mass of the Sun M SUN = 1.98892 × 1030 kg
The time-future frequency of orbit f 0 , where θ = 90° is,

f 0 = f e jθ = ( 6.8 × 1015 Hz ) e j 90° = 6.8 j × 1015 Hz (411)
The time-future Amperian Current i is,
i = e − f 0 = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 6.8 j × 1015 Hz ) = 1.089481 j × 10-3 Amps (412)
The time-future magnetic field B at the center axis of the orbit z = 0 m is,
r2 i r 2 e− f 0
B = μ0 = μ0 (413)
2(r2 + z2 ) 2(r2 + z2 )
3 3
2 2
B = μ0
i
= ( 4π × 10−7 H m )
(1.089481 j ×10−3 Amps ) = 12.935946 j T (414)
2r 2 ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )
The time-future angular velocity ω0 of the electron e − is,
ω0 = 2 π f 0 = 2 π ( 6.8 j × 1015 Hz ) = 4.272566 j × 1016 Hz (415)
The time-future velocity vx of the electron e − is,
vx = r ω0 = ( 5.291773 × 10−11 m )( 4.272566 j × 1016 Hz ) = 2.260945 j × 106 m sec (416)
2G ME 2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 1024 kg )

vx max = − = −
( 6.3781×106 m )
(417)
y0
vx max = 1.11846 j × 104 m sec vx (418)
The time-future velocity vx of the electron e − far exceeds coupling to Earth’s gravity well.
The maximum time-future velocity vx max within the Sun’s gravity well is,
2 G M SUN 2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )(1.98892 × 1030 kg )

vx max = − = −
( 6.96 x 108 m )
(419)
y0
vx max = 6.17542 j × 105 m sec vx (420)
The time-advanced velocity vx of the electron e − far exceeds coupling to Sun’s gravity well!
The magnetic force Fv of the electron e − directed upon the nucleus is,

Fv = e − vx B = (1.602177 × 10−19 C )( 2.260945 j × 106 m sec ) (12.935946 j T ) (421)
Fv = −4.685962 × 10 −12 N (422)
The direction of electron motion vx is time-future or rotated into the future such that the magnetic force Fv is
always an attractive force between the electron and the nucleus.
( 2.260945 j ×106 m sec ) = −2.590585 ×10−35 kg

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (423)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
The decreased special relativistic mass M v of the electron e − is,
M v = M e + ΔM e = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) + ( −2.590585 × 10−35 kg ) = 9.109131× 10−31 kg (424)
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×10 m )
6
(425)
y0 vx 2 ( 6.3781×10 m )( 2.260945 j ×10 m sec )
6 6 2
1+
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 ×10 N m kg )( 5.9787 ×10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
y1 = −156.0860 m (426)
Δy = y0 − y1 = 6.378256 × 106 m (427)

COMPLEX ELECTRON DRIFT VELOCITY

SEGMENT OF
COPPER WIRE
ELECTRON
DRIFT E e jθ
e−
−
e
vx e jθ A’
jθ
vx e
e−
r
vx e jθ
I e jθ A
x
TEMPORAL
ROTATION
0° ≤ θ ≤ 90°
FIGURE 33. The complete complex electron drift velocity model in a copper wire.
If a copper wire is connected to a battery, an electric field E will be set up at every point within the wire. This field
E will act on electrons and will give them a resultant motion. An electric current I is established if a net charge
qCu passes through any cross sectional area A of the conductor in time t . The electric field that acts on the
electrons doesn’t produce a net acceleration because the electrons keep colliding with the atoms that make up the
conductor. The electrons, therefore, move at an average drift velocity vx . If the electron drift velocity j vx is time-
future, the associated electric field j E and magnetic field j B are also time-future. The complete complex electron
drift velocity model includes the following characteristic equations shown below. These equations contain the real
and imaginary components of a moving electron that is rotated about the temporal axis as a complex particle. The
rotation is given as 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° , where the real axis is θ = 0° and the imaginary time-future axis is θ = 90° . The
complex number uses the Euler’s identity e jθ , which functions as a temporal rotation operator.
So, given,
Current flowing through a conductor I
Fundamental charge of an electron e −
Radius of copper wire r
Density of conductor material ( 20°C ) Datom
Number of conduction electrons per atom of conductor katom
Avogadro’s Number N 0
Atomic weight of conductor material Watom
Segment length of conductor x
Speed of light c
Rest mass of an electron M e
Radius of surface of Earth y0
Gravitational constant G
Mass of the Earth M E
Resistivity of conductor material ( 20°C ) ρ atom
The complex current I 0 flowing through a conductor, where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° is,

I 0 = I e jθ = I cos θ + j I sin θ (428)
The complex current density J 0 is,
I0 I
J0 = = 0 (429)
A π r2
The volume V of a segment of a conductor is,
V = A x = π r2x (430)
The quantity of conduction electrons natom in a volume of conductor is,
Datom N 0 katom
natom = (431)
Watom
The net charge qatom in a volume of a conductor is,
qatom = natom V e − (432)
The complex velocity vx is,
x
vx = (433)
t
The complex current I 0 flowing through a conductor is,
qatom natom V e −
I0 = = = π r 2 natom e − vx (434)
t x
vx
So, the complex drift velocity vx of an electron moving through a conductor is,
I0 J0
vx = = (435)
π r 2 natom e − natom e−
The fluctuating mass ΔM e of the electron e − is,
vx 2
ΔM e = M e (436)
2 c2
⎛1 1 ⎞
⎜ − ⎟
ΔM e = M e
vx2
= Me
(g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ) =GM Me ⎝ 1 2 0 ⎠
y y
(437)
E
2 c2 c2 c

vx 2 ⎛1 1 ⎞
= g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 = G M E ⎜ − ⎟ (438)
2 ⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
⎛1 1 ⎞
( )
vx = 2 g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 = 2 G M E ⎜ − ⎟ (439)
⎝ y1 y0 ⎠
The equivalent displacement to position y1 of an electron moving at a velocity vx within Earth’s gravity well gY
y0 vx 2
where 0 < y1 ≤ ∞ or −1 ≤ is,
2G ME
1 ⎛ vx 2 ⎞
y1 = ⎜ g y0 y0 + ⎟ (440)
g y1 ⎝ 2 ⎠
y0
y1 = (441)
y0 vx 2
1+
2G M E
The resistivity ρ Atom of a conductor is given as,
V V
E x x
ρ Atom = = = (442)
J I I
A π r2
The resistance R of a segment of conductor is,
V x x
R= = ρ Atom = ρ Atom (443)
I A π r2
SEGMENT OF
COPPER WIRE
ELECTRON
DRIFT E
e−
e− vx A’
vx
e−
r
vx
I A
x
TEMPORAL
ROTATION
θ = 0°
FIGURE 34. The time-forward electron drift velocity in a copper wire.

Example 12. A time-forward electric current I is established if a net charge qCu passes through any cross sectional
area A of the conductor in time-forward t . The electrons move at an average time-forward drift velocity vx .
So, given,
Current through copper wire I = 10.0 Amps
Radius of 10AWG copper wire r = 1.294 × 10−3 m
Density of copper conductor ( 20°C ) DCu = 8.92 × 106 gm m3
Number of conduction electrons per atom of copper kCu = 1 electron atom
Avogadro’s Number N 0 = 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms mole
Atomic weight of copper conductor WCu = 63.546 gm mole
Segment length x = 1 m
Mean Radius of surface of Earth y0 = 6.3781× 106 m
Resistivity of copper conductor ( 20°C ) ρCu = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m
The time-forward current I 0 flowing through a conductor, where θ = 0° is,
I 0 = I e jθ = (10.0 Amps ) e j 0° = 10.0 Amps (444)
The time-forward current density J 0 is,
I0 I (10.0 Amps )
J0 = = 02 = = 1.901× 106 Amps m 2 (445)
A πr π (1.294 × 10−3 m )
2
The volume V of a segment of copper wire is,
V = A x = π r 2 x = π (1.294 × 10−3 m ) (1 m ) = 5.261× 10−6 m3

2
(446)
The quantity of conduction electrons nCu in a volume of copper wire is,
DCu N 0 kCu
nCu = (447)
WCu
nCu =
(8.92 ×10 6
gm m3 )( 6.0221367 × 1023 atoms mole ) (1 electron atom )
(448)
( 63.546 gm mole )
nCu = 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 (449)
The net charge qCu in a volume of copper wire is,

qCu = nCu V e − = ( 8.4533 × 10 28 electrons m3 )( 5.261× 10−6 m3 )(1.60217733 × 10−19 C ) (450)
qCu = 7.126 × 104 C (451)
The time-forward velocity vx is,
x
vx = (452)
t
The time-forward current I 0 flowing through a copper wire is,
qCu nCu V e −
I0 = = = π r 2 nCu e − vx = π r 2 nCu e − vx = 10.0 Amps (453)
t x
vx
So, the time-forward drift velocity vx of an electron moving through a copper wire is,
vx =
I0
=
J0
=
(1.901×106 Amps m2 ) (454)
π r 2 nCu e − nCu e − ( 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 )(1.60217733 × 10−19 C )
vx = 1.403 × 10−4 m sec (455)
(1.403 ×10−4 m sec )

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (456)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
ΔM e = 9.980 × 10−56 kg (457)
The POSITIVE fluctuating mass of an electron is almost 25 orders of magnitude below its’ rest mass M e .
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×10 m )
6
(458)
y0 vx 2 ( 6.3781×10 m )(1.403 ×10 m sec )
6 −4 2
1+
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 ×10 N m kg )( 5.9787 ×10
−11 2 2 24
kg )
y1 = 6.3781× 106 m (459)
Δy = y0 − y1 = 1.8627 × 10 −9 m (460)
Given a time-forward voltage V and a time-forward current I , the resistivity ρCu of copper wire is given as,

V V
E
ρCu = = x= x = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m (461)
J I I 2
A πr
The resistance R of a segment of copper wire is,
(1 m )
= ρCu = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω m )
V x
R= = 3.193 × 10 −3 Ω (462)
π (1.294 × 10 m )
−3 2
I A
SEGMENT OF
COPPER WIRE
ELECTRON
DRIFT E e j 45°
e−
−
e
vx e j 45° A’
j 45°
vx e −
e
r
vx e j 45°
I e j 45° A
x
TEMPORAL
ROTATION
θ = 45°
FIGURE 35. The time-advanced electron drift velocity in a copper wire.
Example 13. A time-advanced electric current I is established if a net charge qCu passes through any cross
sectional area A of the conductor in time-advanced t . The electrons move at an average time-advanced drift
velocity vx .
So, given,
Current flow through copper wire I = 10.0 Amps

The time-advanced current I 0 flowing through a conductor, where θ = 45° is,
I 0 = I e jθ = (10.0 Amps ) e j 45° = 7.071 + 7.071 j Amps (463)
The time-advanced current density J 0 is,
I0 I ( 7.071 + 7.071 j Amps )

J0 = = 02 = = 1.344 × 106 + 1.344 j × 106 Amps m 2 (464)
A πr π (1.294 × 10 m )
−3 2
V = A x = π r 2 x = π (1.294 × 10−3 m ) (1m ) = 5.261× 10−6 m3

2
(465)
DCu N 0 kCu
nCu = (466)
WCu
nCu =
(8.92 ×10 6
(467)
( 63.546 gm mole )
nCu = 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 (468)
The net charge qCu in a volume of a copper wire is,
qCu = 7.126 × 104 C (470)
The time-advanced velocity vx is,
x
vx = (471)
t
The time-advanced current I 0 flowing through a copper wire is,
qCu nCu V e −
I0 = = = π r 2 nCu e − vx = 7.071 + 7.071 j Amps (472)
t x
vx
So, the time-advanced drift velocity vx of an electron moving through a copper wire is,
vx =
I0
=
J0
=
(1.344 ×106 + 1.344 j ×106 Amps m2 ) (473)

vx = 9.923 × 10−5 + 9.923 j × 10−5 m sec (474)
The fluctuating mass ΔM e of the electron e − is,
( 9.923 ×10−5 + 9.923 j ×10−5 m sec )

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (475)
2 ( 2.99792458 ×108 m sec )
2
2c
ΔM e = 9.980 j × 10−56 kg (476)
The fluctuating mass of an electron is almost 25 orders of magnitude beyond its’ rest mass M e and is imaginary.
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×106 m ) (477)
y v2 ( 6.3781× 106 m )( 9.923 × 10−5 + 9.923 j × 10−5 m sec )
2
1+ 0 x
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 × 10−11 N m 2 kg 2 )( 5.9787 × 1024 kg )
y1 = 6.3781× 106 m (478)
is,
Δy = y0 − y1 = 1.0041 j × 10−9 m (479)
Given a time-advanced voltage V and a time-advanced current I , the resistivity ρCu of copper wire is given as,
V V
E
ρCu = = x= x = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m (480)
J I I 2
A πr
(1 m )
= ρCu = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω m )
V x
R= = 3.193 × 10 −3 Ω (481)
π (1.294 × 10 m )
−3 2
I A

SEGMENT OF
COPPER WIRE
ELECTRON
DRIFT jE
e−
e−
j vx A’
j vx
e−
r
j vx
jI
A
x
TEMPORAL
ROTATION
θ = 90°
FIGURE 36. The time-future electron drift velocity in a copper wire.
Example 14. A time-future electric current + j I is established if a net charge qCu passes through any cross
sectional area A of the conductor in time-future t . The electrons move at an average time-future drift velocity
+ j vx .
So, given,
Current flow through copper wire I = 10.0 Amps
The time-future current I 0 flowing through a conductor, where θ = 90° is,
I 0 = I e jθ = (10.0 Amps ) e j 90° = 10.0 j Amps (482)
The time-future current density J 0 is,
I0 I (10.0 j Amps )
J0 = = 02 = = 1.901 j × 106 Amps m 2 (483)
A πr π (1.294 × 10 m )
−3 2

V = A x = π r 2 x = π (1.294 × 10−3 m ) (1m ) = 5.261× 10−6 m3

2
(484)
DCu N 0 kCu
nCu = (485)
WCu
nCu =
(8.92 ×10 6
(486)
( 63.546 gm mole )
nCu = 8.4533 × 1028 electrons m3 (487)
The net charge qCu in a volume of a copper wire is,
qCu = 7.126 × 104 C (489)
The time-future velocity vx is,
x
vx = (490)
t
The time-future current I 0 flowing through a copper wire is,
qCu nCu V e −
I0 = = = π r 2 nCu e − vx = π r 2 nCu e − vx = 10.0 j Amps (491)
t x
vx
So, the time-future drift velocity vx of an electron moving through a copper wire is,
vx =
I0
=
J0
=
(1.901 j ×106 Amps m2 ) (492)
vx = 1.403 j × 10 −4 m sec (493)
(1.403 j ×10−4 m sec )

2
v2
ΔM e = M e x 2 = ( 9.1093897 × 10−31 kg ) (494)
2 ( 2.99792458 × 108 m sec )
2
2c
ΔM e = −9.980 × 10−56 kg (495)

The NEGATIVE fluctuating mass of an electron is almost 25 orders of magnitude below its’ rest mass M e .
y1 =
y0
=
( 6.3781×10 m )
6
(496)
y0 v x 2 ( 6.3781×10 m )(1.403 j ×10 m sec )
6 −4 2
1+
2G M E 1+
2 ( 6.67260 ×10 N m kg )( 5.9787 ×10
−11 2 2 24
kg )
y1 = 6.3781× 106 m (497)
Δy = y0 − y1 = −9.3132 × 10−10 m (498)
Given a time-future voltage V and a time-future current I , the resistivity ρCu of copper wire is given as,
V V
E
ρCu = = x= x = 1.68 × 10−8 Ω m (499)
J I I 2
A πr
(1 m )
= ρCu = (1.68 × 10−8 Ω m )
V x
R= = 3.193 × 10 −3 Ω (500)
π (1.294 × 10 m )
−3 2
I A

COMPLEX RESISTOR
IR
+
+
Ve jθ VR R
-
-
FIGURE 37. The complete complex resistor.
Given a complex voltage source VS with a temporal rotation operator e jθ , where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° is acting upon the
voltage, a complex direct current flows through resistor R . A complex voltage VR appears across the resistor. The
resulting instantaneous power PR is dissipated or absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
Voltage supply V
Resistor R
The complex voltage supply VS is,
VS = V e jθ = V cos θ + jV sin θ (501)
The complex current I R flowing through resistor R is,
VS
IR = (502)
R
The complex voltage VR across resistor R is,
VR = I R R = VS (503)
The resistance R is,
VS
R= (504)
IR
The instantaneous power PR dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor is,
VR 2
PR = VR I R = I R 2 R = (505)
R

Example 15. Given a time-forward voltage source VS and a known resistor value R , compute the time-forward
current and power dissipated by the resistor.
So, given,
Voltage Source V = 10.0Volts
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-forward voltage VS is,
VS = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 0° = 10.0Volts (506)
The time-forward current I R is,
VS (10.0 Volts )
IR = = = 4.0 Amps (507)
R ( 2.5 Ω )
The instantaneous power PR dissipated by the resistor is,
VR 2 (10.0Volts )
2
PR = = = 40.0Watts (508)
R ( 2.5 Ω )
Example 16. Given a time-advanced voltage source VS and a known resistor value R , compute the time-advanced
current and power being dissipated and absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-advanced voltage VS is,
VS = V e jθ = (10.0 Volts ) e j 45° = 7.0711 + 7.0711 jVolts (509)
The time-advanced current I R is,
VS ( 7.0711 + 7.0711 jVolts )

IR = = = 2.8284 + 2.8284 j Amps (510)
R ( 2.5 Ω )
The instantaneous power PR dissipated and absorbed of the resistor is,
VR 2 ( 7.0711 + 7.0711 jVolts )

2
PR = = = 40.0 jWatts (511)

R ( 2.5 Ω )
The resistor is dissipating and absorbing an equal amount of heat. The resistor is therefore, temperature neutral or
adiabatic.

Example 17. Given a time-future voltage source VS and a known resistor value R , compute the time-future current
and instantaneous power absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-future voltage VS is,
VS = V e jθ = (10.0 Volts ) e j 90° = 10.0 jVolts (512)
The time-future current I R is,
VS (10.0 jVolts )
IR = = = 4.0 j Amps (513)
R ( 2.5 Ω )
The instantaneous power PR absorbed by the resistor is,
VR 2 (10.0 jVolts )
2
PR = = = −40.0Watts (514)
R ( 2.5 Ω )
COMPLEX INDUCTOR
iL
S t ≥ 0sec +
vR R
+
Ve jθ -
-
L
- +
vL
FIGURE 38. The complete complex magnetizing inductor.
voltage, when switch S closes at t = 0sec , a complex direct current iL flows through resistor R and magnetizes
inductor L . A complex voltage vR appears across the resistor and a complex voltage vL appears across inductor L .
The resulting instantaneous power PR is dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor, the instantaneous power PL
stored in the inductor, and the energy EL stored in the inductor.
So, given,
Time t
Voltage supply V
Inductor L

Resistor R
The complex voltage across the resistor R is,
vR ( t ) = iL ( t ) R (516)
The complex voltage across the inductor L is,
diL
vL ( t ) = L (517)
dt
Letting t0 = 0sec , the complex current iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L is,
diL
VS = vR ( t ) + vL ( t ) = iL ( t ) R + L (518)
dt
VS L diL
= iL ( t ) + (519)
R R dt
VS L diL
iL ( t ) = − (520)
R R dt
iL ( t ) 1 R t
∫ V
diL = −
L ∫t0
dt (521)
iL ( t ) − S
0
iL ( t )
⎛ V ⎞ R t
ln ⎜ iL ( t ) − S ⎟ =− t (522)
⎝ R ⎠0 L t0
⎛ VS ⎞
⎛ V ⎞ ⎛ VS ⎞ ⎜ iL ( t ) − R ⎟ R
ln ⎜ iL ( t ) − S ⎟ − ln ⎜ − R ⎟ = ln ⎜ ⎟ = − ( t − t0 ) (523)
⎝ R ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎜⎜ − VS ⎟⎟ L
⎝ R ⎠
VS
iL ( t ) − R R
R = e − L ( t − t0 ) = e − L t (524)
VS
−
R
VS VS − RL t VS ⎛ − t ⎞
R
iL ( t ) = − e = ⎜1 − e L ⎟ (525)
R R R⎝ ⎠

The instantaneous power PR dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor R is,
2
VS 2 ⎛ − t ⎞
R
PR ( t ) = vR ( t ) iL ( t ) = R iL 2 ( t ) = ⎜1 − e L ⎟ (526)
R ⎝ ⎠
The instantaneous power PL stored in the inductor L is,
diL
PL ( t ) = vL ( t ) iL ( t ) = L iL = VS iL ( t ) − R iL 2 ( t ) (527)
dt
− t ⎞⎛ − t ⎞⎞
2
V2⎛ − t ⎞
R
V2⎛ − t ⎞
R
V2⎛ R
⎛ R
V 2 ⎛ −Rt − t ⎞
2R
PL ( t ) = S ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ − S ⎜1 − e L ⎟ = S ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ ⎜ 1 − ⎜1 − e L ⎟ ⎟ = S ⎜ e L − e L ⎟ (528)
R ⎝ ⎜ ⎟
⎠ R ⎝ ⎠ R ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ R ⎝ ⎠
Letting t0 = 0sec , the energy EL stored in the inductor L is,
diL i (t ) 1
EL ( t ) = ∫ PL dt = L ∫ iL dt =L ∫ iL diL = L ⎡ ⎡⎣iL ( t ) ⎤⎦ − ⎡⎣iL ( t0 ) ⎤⎦ ⎤
t t 2 2
(529)
t0 t0 dt i ( t 0 ) 2 ⎣ ⎦
1 ⎡ ⎡V ⎤ LV 2 ⎡⎛ − t0 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
− t ⎞⎤ ⎡ VS ⎛ − t0 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
⎛ R R
− t ⎞
R
⎛ R
EL ( t ) = L ⎢ ⎢ S ⎜ 1 − e L
⎟⎥ ⎢ ⎜− 1 − e L
⎟⎥ ⎥ =
S
⎢⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ − ⎜ 1 − e L ⎟ ⎥ (530)
2 ⎢ ⎣⎢ R ⎝ ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ ⎝ R ⎠ ⎦⎥ ⎦⎥ 2 R 2
⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣
2
LVS 2 ⎛ − t ⎞
R
EL ( t ) = 2 ⎜
1− e L ⎟ (531)
2R ⎝ ⎠
Example 18. Given a time-forward voltage source VS , a known resistor value R and inductor value L , compute
the time-forward current and power dissipated by the resistor, and the energy stored in the inductor.
So, given,
Time 0.0sec ≤ t ≤ 1.0sec
Voltage supply V = 10.0Volts
Inductor L = 470 mH
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-forward voltage supply VS is,
The time-forward current iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5Ω )
VS ⎛ − t ⎞
R
(10.0Volts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
iL ( t ) = ⎜ 1 − e ⎟ =
L
1− e (533)
R⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
iL (1.0sec ) = 3.980 Amps (534)

The instantaneous power PR dissipated by the resistor R at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5Ω ) 2
(10.0Volts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
2 2
V2⎛ − t ⎞
R
PR ( t ) = S ⎜1 − e L ⎟ = 1− e (535)
R ⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
PR (1.0sec ) = 39.609Watts (536)
The instantaneous power PL stored in the inductor L at t = 0.130sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
V 2 ⎛ −Rt −
2R
t ⎞ (10.0Volts )
2
⎛ − ( 2.5 Ω) t −
2 ( 2.5 Ω )
t ⎞
PL ( t ) = S ⎜ e L − e L ⎟ = ⎜ e ( 470 mH ) − e ( 470 mH ) ⎟ (537)
R ⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
PL ( 0.130sec ) = 10.0 Watts (538)
PL (1.0sec ) = 0.195Watts (539)
The energy EL stored in the inductor L from t0 = 0.0sec to t = 1.0sec is,
⎛ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎞ 2
( 470 mH )(10.0Volts )
2 2
LVS 2 ⎛ − t ⎞
R − t
EL ( t ) == 2 ⎜
1− e L ⎟ = ⎜1 − e ( 470 mH ) ⎟ (540)
2 ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜ ⎟
2
2R ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
EL (1.0sec ) = 3.723 Joules (541)
Example 19. Given a time-advanced voltage source VS , a known resistor value R and inductor value L , compute
the time-advanced current and power dissipated and absorbed by the resistor, and the energy stored in the inductor.
So, given,
Inductor L = 470 mH
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-advanced voltage supply VS is,
VS = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 45° = 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts (542)
The time-advanced current iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5Ω )
VS ⎛ − t ⎞
R
( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
iL ( t ) = ⎜ 1 − e ⎟ =
L
1− e (543)
R⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎝
⎜
⎠
⎟
iL (1.0sec ) = 2.815 + 2.815 j Amps (544)

The instantaneous power PR dissipated and absorbed by the resistor R at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5Ω ) 2
( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎜⎛ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎟⎞
2 2
V2⎛ − t ⎞
R
PR ( t ) = S ⎜1 − e L ⎟ = 1− e (545)
R ⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
PR (1.0sec ) = 39.609 jWatts (546)
( 2.5 Ω ) 2 ( 2.5 Ω )
( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
2
VS 2 ⎛ − RL t − t ⎞
2R
PL ( t ) = ⎜e − e L
⎟= e −e (547)
R ⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜
⎝ ⎠
⎟
PL ( 0.130sec ) = 10.0 jWatts (548)
PL (1.0sec ) = 0.195 jWatts (549)
( 2.5 Ω ) 2
( 470 mH )( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
2 2
LVS 2 ⎛ − t ⎞
R
EL ( t ) == ⎜1 − e ⎟ =
L
1− e (550)
2 R2 ⎝ 2 ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜ ⎟
2
⎠ ⎝ ⎠
EL (1.0sec ) = 3.723 j Joules (551)
Example 20. Given a time-future voltage source VS , a known resistor value R and inductor value L , compute the
time-future current and power absorbed by the resistor, and the negative energy stored in the inductor.
So, given,
Inductor L = 470 mH
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-future voltage supply VS is,
VS = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 90° = 10.0 jVolts (552)
The time-future iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5Ω )
VS ⎛ − t ⎞
R
(10.0 jVolts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
iL ( t ) = ⎜ 1 − e ⎟ =
L
1− e (553)
R⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
iL (1.0sec ) = 3.980 j Amps (554)

The instantaneous power PR absorbed by the resistor R at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5Ω ) 2
(10.0 jVolts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
2 2
V2⎛ − t ⎞
R
PR ( t ) = S ⎜1 − e L ⎟ = 1− e (555)
R ⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎝⎜ ⎠
⎟
PR (1.0sec ) = −39.609 Watts (556)
( 2.5 Ω ) 2( 2.5 Ω )
(10.0 jVolts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
2
VS 2 ⎛ − RL t − t ⎞
2R
PL ( t ) = ⎜e − e L
⎟= e −e (557)
R ⎝ ⎠ ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠
PL ( 0.130sec ) = −10.0 Watts (558)
PL (1.0sec ) = −0.195Watts (559)
( 2.5 Ω ) 2
( 470 mH )(10.0 jVolts ) ⎛⎜ − ( 470 mH ) t ⎞⎟
2 2
LVS 2 ⎛ − t ⎞
R
EL ( t ) = ⎜1 − e ⎟ =
L
1− e (560)
2 R2 ⎝ 2 ( 2.5 Ω ) ⎜ ⎟
2
⎠ ⎝ ⎠
EL (1.0sec ) = −3.723 Joules (561)
iL
S t ≥ 0sec +
+ vR R
vL L -
-
FIGURE 39. The complete complex demagnetizing inductor.
Given energy EL stored in inductor L with a temporal rotation operator e jθ , where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° is acting upon the
voltage, when switch S closes at t = 0sec , a complex direct current iL flows through resistor R . The inductor L
demagnetizes into the resistor. A complex voltage vR appears across the resistor R . The resulting instantaneous
power PR and energy ER are dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
Time t
Initial current through inductor I
Inductor L
Resistor R

The complex current I 0 through the inductor L is,
I 0 = I e jθ = I cos θ + j I sin θ (562)
At t = 0sec , the voltage V0 across the resistor R is,
V0 = I 0 R (563)
The complex voltage vR across the resistor R is,
vR ( t ) = R iL ( t ) (564)
The complex voltage vL across the inductor L is,
diL
vL ( t ) = − L (565)
dt
Letting t0 = 0sec , the complex current iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L is,
vR ( t ) = vL ( t ) (566)
diL
iL ( t ) R = − L (567)
dt
L diL
iL ( t ) = − (568)
R dt
1 R
diL = − dt (569)
iL ( t ) L
i(t ) 1 R t
∫I0 iL ( t )
diL = − ∫ dt
L t0
(570)
iL ( t )
ln ( iL ( t ) )
R
=−
t
t t0
(571)
I0 L
⎛ i (t ) ⎞
ln ( iL ( t ) ) − ln ( I 0 ) = ln ⎜ L
R
⎟ = − ( t − t0 ) (572)
⎝ I0 ⎠ L
iL ( t ) −
R
( t − t0 )
=e L
(573)
I0
R
− t
iL ( t ) = I 0 e L
(574)

2R
−
PR ( t ) = vR ( t ) iL ( t ) = R iL 2 ( t ) = R I 0 2 e
t
L
(575)
Letting t0 = 0sec , the energy ER dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor R is,
2R
−
ER ( t ) = ∫ PR dt = R I 0 2 ∫ e
t t t
L
dt (576)
t0 t0
⎛ −L ⎞ − L t
2R
2 ⎛ −L ⎞
2R
− t0 L I 0 2 ⎡ − 2LR t0 −
2R
t⎤
ER ( t ) = R I 0 2 ⎜ ⎟ e − R I 0 ⎜ ⎟ e L
== ⎢ e − e L
⎥ (577)
⎝ 2R ⎠ ⎝ 2R ⎠ 2 ⎣ ⎦
L I02 ⎡ − t⎤
2R
ER ( t ) = ⎢1 − e
L
⎥ (578)
2 ⎣ ⎦
Example 21. Given a time-forward voltage V across inductor L , a known resistor value R and inductor value L ,
compute the time-forward current flowing through the resistor, and the power and energy dissipated by the resistor.
So, given,
Initial current through inductor I = 4.0 Amps
Inductor L = 470 mH
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-forward current I 0 through the inductor L is,
I 0 = I e jθ = ( 4.0 Amps ) e j 0° = 4.0 Amps (579)
The time-forward current iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5 Ω )
R
− t − t
iL ( t ) = I 0 e L
= ( 4.0 Amps ) e ( 470 mH )
(580)
iL ( 0.0sec ) = 4.0 Amps (581)
iL (1.0sec ) = 0.020 Amps (582)
The instantaneous power PR dissipated by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
2 ( 2.5 Ω )
−
2R − t
PR ( t ) = R I 0 e = ( 2.5 Ω )( 4.0 Amps ) e ( 470 mH )
t 2
2 L
(583)
PR ( 0.0sec ) = 40.0Watts (584)
PR (1.0sec ) = 9.592 × 10−4 Watts (585)

The energy ER dissipated by the resistor R at t = 1.0sec is,
2 ( 2.5 Ω )
LI 2 ⎡ − t⎤
2R
( 470 mH )( 4.0 Amps )
2
⎛ − t ⎞
ER ( t ) = 0 ⎢1 − e L ⎥ = ⎜1 − e ( 470 mH ) ⎟ (586)
2 ⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ER (1.0sec ) = 3.760 Joules (587)
Example 22. Given a time-advanced voltage V across inductor L , a known resistor value R and inductor value
L , compute the time-advanced current flowing through the resistor, and the power and energy dissipated and
absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
Inductor L = 470 mH
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-advanced current I 0 through the inductor L is,
I 0 = I e jθ = ( 4.0 Amps ) e j 45° = 2.828 + 2.828 j Amps (588)
The time-advanced current iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5 Ω )
R
− t − t
iL ( t ) = I 0 e L
= ( 2.828 + 2.828 j Amps ) e ( 470 mH )
(589)
iL ( 0.0sec ) = 2.828 + 2.828 j Amps (590)
iL (1.0sec ) = 0.014 + 0.014 j Amps (591)
The instantaneous power PR dissipated and absorbed by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
2 ( 2.5 Ω )
−
2R − t
PR ( t ) = R I 0 e = ( 2.5 Ω )( 2.828 + 2.828 j Amps ) e ( 470 mH )
t 2
2 L
(592)
PR ( 0.0sec ) = 40.0 jWatts (593)
PR (1.0sec ) = 9.592 j × 10−4 Watts (594)
The energy ER dissipated and absorbed by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
2 ( 2.5 Ω )
LI 2 ⎡ − t⎤
2R
( 470 mH )( 2.828 + 2.828 j Amps )
2
⎛ − t ⎞
ER ( t ) = 0 ⎢1 − e L ⎥ = ⎜1 − e ( 470 mH ) ⎟ (595)
2 ⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ER (1.0sec ) = 3.760 j Joules (596)

Example 23. Given a time-future voltage V across inductor L , a known resistor value R and inductor value L ,
compute the time-future current flowing through the resistor, and the power and energy absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
Inductor L = 470 mH
Resistor R = 2.5 Ω
The time-future current I 0 through the inductor L is,
I 0 = I e jθ = ( 4.0 Amps ) e j 90° = 4.0 j Amps (597)
The time-future current iL flowing through the resistor R and the inductor L at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
( 2.5 Ω )
R
− t − t
iL ( t ) = I 0 e L
= ( 4.0 j Amps ) e ( 470 mH )
(598)
iL ( 0.0sec ) = 4.0 j Amps (599)
iL (1.0sec ) = 0.020 j Amps (600)
The instantaneous power PR absorbed by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
2 ( 2.5 Ω )
−
2R − t
PR ( t ) = R I 0 e = ( 2.5 Ω )( 4.0 j Amps ) e ( 470 mH )
t 2
2 L
(601)
PR ( 0.0sec ) = −40.0 Watts (602)
PR (1.0sec ) = −9.592 × 10−4 Watts (603)
The energy ER absorbed by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
2( 2.5 Ω )
L I02 ⎡ − t⎤
2R
( 470 mH )( 4.0 j Amps )
2
⎛ − t ⎞
ER ( t ) = ⎢1 − e L
⎥= ⎜ 1 − e ( 470 mH ) ⎟ (604)
2 ⎣ ⎦ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ER (1.0sec ) = −3.760 Joules (605)

COMPLEX CAPACITOR
iC
S t ≥ 0sec +
vR R
+
Ve jθ -
-
C
- +
vC
FIGURE 40. The complete complex charging capacitor.
voltage, when switch S closes at t = 0sec , a complex direct current flows through resistor R and charges capacitor
C . A complex voltage vR appears across the resistor and a complex voltage vC appears across capacitor C . The
resulting power PR is dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor and the energy EC is stored in the capacitor.
So, given,
Time t
Voltage supply V
Capacitor C
Resistor R
vR ( t ) = iC ( t ) R (607)
The complex current iC through a capacitor C is,
dvC
iC ( t ) = C (608)
dt
Letting t0 = 0sec , the complex voltage vC across the capacitor C is,
VS = vR ( t ) + vC ( t ) = iC ( t ) R + vC ( t ) (609)
dvC
vC ( t ) = VS − R C (610)
dt
1 1
dvC = − dt (611)
vC ( t ) − VS RC

vC ( t ) 1 1 t
∫ 0 vC ( t ) − VS
dvC = −
R C ∫t0
dt (612)
vC ( t )
ln ( vC ( t ) − VS )
1
=−
t
t t0
(613)
0 RC
⎛ v ( t ) − VS ⎞
ln ( vC ( t ) − VS ) − ln ( −VS ) = ln ⎜ C
1
⎟=− ( t − t0 ) (614)
⎝ −VS ⎠ RC
vC ( t ) − VS
1 1
− ( t − t0 ) − t
=e RC
=e RC
(615)
−VS
−
1
⎛ −
1
t ⎞
vC ( t ) = VS − VS e
t
RC
= VS ⎜1 − e RC ⎟ (616)
⎝ ⎠
vR 2 ( t ) (V − vC ( t ) )
2
2
VS 2 − RC
PR ( t ) = vR ( t ) iC ( t ) =
t
= =
S
e (617)
R R R
The instantaneous power PC stored in the capacitor C is,
dvC (VS vC ( t ) − vC ( t ) )
2
PC ( t ) = vC ( t ) iC ( t ) = C vC = (618)
dt R
t ⎞⎛ t ⎞⎞
2
VS 2 ⎛ −
1
t ⎞ VS 2 ⎛ −
1
t ⎞ VS 2 ⎛ −
1
⎛ −
1
VS 2 ⎛ − RC
1
−
2
t ⎞
PC ( t ) =
t
⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟ − ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟ = ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎜
⎟⎜ ⎜
1 − 1 − e RC
⎟
⎟⎟ = ⎜ e − e RC
⎟ (619)
R ⎝ ⎠ R ⎝ ⎠ R ⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎝ ⎠⎠ R ⎝ ⎠
Letting t0 = 0sec , the energy EC stored in the capacitor C is,
dvC v (t ) 1
EL ( t ) = ∫ PL dt = C ∫ vC dt = C ∫ vC dvC = C ⎡ ⎣⎡ vC ( t ) ⎦⎤ − ⎣⎡ vC ( t0 ) ⎦⎤ ⎤
t t 2 2
(620)
t0 t0 dt v ( t 0 ) 2 ⎣ ⎦
1 ⎡⎡ ⎛ ⎤ CV 2 ⎡⎛ t0 ⎞ ⎤
2 2
t ⎞⎤ ⎡ ⎛ ⎞⎤
2 2
t ⎞ ⎛
1 1 1 1
− − − −
EC ( t ) = C ⎢VS ⎜ 1 − e
t0
⎢ RC
⎟ ⎥ − ⎢VS ⎜1 − e RC ⎟⎥ ⎥= S
⎢⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟ − ⎜1 − e RC
⎟ ⎥ (621)
2 ⎢ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎥ 2 ⎢⎣⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦
⎣ ⎦
2
C VS 2 ⎛ −
1
t ⎞
EC ( t ) = ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟ (622)
2 ⎝ ⎠
Example 24. Given a time-forward voltage source VS , a known resistor value R and capacitor value C , compute
the time-forward current and power dissipated by the resistor, and the energy stored in the inductor.
So, given,


Capacitor C = 470 μ F
Resistor R = 1.0 k Ω
The time-forward voltage supply VS is,
The time-forward voltage vC across the capacitor C at t = 1.0sec is,
⎛ −
1
t ⎞ ⎛ −
1
t ⎞
vC ( t ) = VS ⎜1 − e RC
⎟ = (10.0 Volts ) ⎜⎜ 1 − e
(1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
⎟ (624)
⎝ ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
vC (1.0sec ) = 8.809 Volts (625)
VS 2 − RC2 t (10.0 Volts ) − (1.0 k Ω)( 470 μ F ) t

2 2
PR ( t ) = e = e (626)
R (1.0 k Ω )
PR ( 0.0sec ) = 0.10 Watts (627)
PR (1.0sec ) = 1.419 × 10−3 Watts (628)
The instantaneous power PC stored in the capacitor C at t = 0.33sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
V2⎛ −1t t ⎞ (10.0Volts ) ⎛ − (1.0 k Ω)(1470 μ F ) t t ⎞

2 2
−
2 −
PC ( t ) = S ⎜ e RC − e RC ⎟ = ⎜e − e (1.0 k Ω)( 470 μ F ) ⎟ (629)
R ⎝ ⎠ (1.0 k Ω ) ⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
PC ( 0.33sec ) = 0.0245Watts (630)
PC (1.0sec ) = 0.0105Watts (631)
The energy EC stored in the capacitor C from t0 = 0.0sec to t = 1.0sec is,
2
( 470 μ F )(10.0Volts ) ⎛ t ⎞
2 2
⎛ t ⎞
1
C VS 2 −
1 −
EC ( t ) = ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎟ = ⎜ 1 − e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) ⎟ (632)
2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
EC ( t ) = 0.0182 Joules (633)
Example 25. Given a time-advanced voltage source VS , a known resistor value R and capacitor value C , compute
the time-advanced current and power dissipated and absorbed by the resistor, and the energy stored in the inductor.
So, given,


The time-advanced voltage supply VS is,
VS = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 45° = 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts (634)
The time-advanced voltage vC across the capacitor C at t = 1.0sec is,
⎛ −
1
t ⎞ ⎛ −
1
t ⎞
vC ( t ) = VS ⎜1 − e RC
⎟ = ( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎜⎜ 1 − e
(1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
⎟ (635)
⎝ ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
vC (1.0sec ) = 6.229 + 6.229 jVolts (636)
VS 2 − RC2 t ( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) − (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) t

2 2
PR ( t ) = e = e (637)
R (1.0 k Ω )
PR ( 0.0sec ) = 0.10 jWatts (638)
PR (1.0sec ) = 1.419 j × 10−3 Watts (639)
VS 2 ⎛ − RC t ⎞ ( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎛ − (1.0 k Ω )(1470 μ F ) t t ⎞

2 2
1
−
2 −
PC ( t ) = − e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) ⎟
t
⎜e − e RC ⎟ = ⎜e (640)
R ⎝ ⎠ (1.0 k Ω ) ⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
PC ( 0.33sec ) = 0.0245 jWatts (641)
PC (1.0sec ) = 0.0105Watts (642)
2
( 470 μ F )( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎛ t ⎞
2 2
⎛ t ⎞
1
C VS 2 −
1 −
EC ( t ) = ⎜ 1 − e RC ⎟ = ⎜1 − e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) ⎟ (643)
2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
EC ( t ) = 0.0182 j Joules (644)
Example 26. Given a time-future voltage source VS , a known resistor value R and capacitor value C , compute the
time-future current and power absorbed by the resistor, and the energy stored in the inductor.

So, given,
The time-future voltage supply VS is,
VS = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 90° = 10.0 jVolts (645)
The time-future voltage vC across the capacitor C at t = 1.0sec is,
⎛ −
1
t ⎞ ⎛ −
1
t ⎞
vC ( t ) = VS ⎜1 − e RC
⎟ = (10.0 jVolts ) ⎜⎜ 1 − e
(1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
⎟ (646)
⎝ ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
vC (1.0sec ) = 8.809 jVolts (647)
VS 2 − RC2 t (10.0 jVolts ) − (1.0 k Ω)( 470 μ F ) t

2 2
PR ( t ) = e = e (648)
R (1.0 k Ω )
PR ( 0.0sec ) = −0.10 Watts (649)
PR (1.0sec ) = −1.419 × 10−3 Watts (650)
V2⎛ −1t t ⎞ (10.0 jVolts ) ⎛ − (1.0 k Ω)(1470 μ F ) t t ⎞

2 2
−
2 −
PC ( t ) = S ⎜ e RC − e RC ⎟ = ⎜e −e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
⎟ (651)
R ⎝ ⎠ (1.0 k Ω ) ⎜
⎝
⎟
⎠
PC ( 0.33sec ) = −0.0245Watts (652)
PC (1.0sec ) = −0.0105Watts (653)
2
( 470 μ F )(10.0 jVolts ) ⎛ t ⎞
2 2
⎛ t ⎞
1
C VS 2 −
1 −
EC ( t ) = ⎜ 1 − e RC
⎟ = ⎜ 1 − e (1.0 k Ω)( 470 μ F ) ⎟ (654)
2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
EC ( t ) = −0.0182 Joules (655)

iC
S t ≥ 0sec +
+ vR R
vC C -
-
FIGURE 41. The complete complex discharging capacitor.
Given energy EC stored in capacitor C with a temporal rotation operator e jθ , where 0° ≤ θ ≤ 90° is acting upon
the voltage, when switch S closes at t = 0sec , a complex direct current iC flows through resistor R . The capacitor
C discharges into the resistor. A complex voltage vR appears across the resistor R . The resulting instantaneous
power PR and energy ER are dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
Time t
Initial voltage across capacitor V
Capacitor C
Resistor R
At t = 0sec , the voltage V0 across the resistor R is,
V0 = I 0 R (656)
vR ( t ) = R iC ( t ) (657)
The complex current iC through a capacitor C is,
dvC
iC ( t ) = −C (658)
dt
Letting t0 = 0sec , the complex voltage vC across the capacitor C is,
dvC
vC ( t ) = vR ( t ) = R iC ( t ) = − R C (659)
dt
1 1
dvC = − dt (660)
vC ( t ) RC
vC ( t ) 1 1 t
∫
V0 vC ( t )
dvC = −
R C ∫t0
dt (661)

vC ( t )
ln ( vC ( t ) )
1
=−
t
t t0
(662)
V0 RC
⎛ v (t ) ⎞
ln ( vC ( t ) ) − ln (V0 ) = ln ⎜ C
1
⎟=− ( t − t0 ) (663)
⎝ V0 ⎠ RC
vC ( t )
1 1
− ( t − t0 ) − t
=e RC
=e RC
(664)
V0
1
− t
vC ( t ) = V0 e RC
(665)
vR 2 ( t )
2
V0 2 − R C t
PR ( t ) = vR ( t ) iC ( t ) = = e (666)
R R
Letting t0 = 0sec , the energy ER dissipated and/or absorbed by the resistor R is,
2
V0 2 − t
ER ( t ) = ∫ PR dt =
t t
∫
RC
e dt (667)
t0 R t0
2 2
V0 2 ⎛ − R C ⎞ − R C t V0 2 ⎛ − R C ⎞ − R C t0 1 ⎛ − R2C t0 −
2
t ⎞
ER ( t ) = ⎜ ⎟e − ⎜ ⎟e = CV0 ⎜ e
2
−e RC
⎟ (668)
R ⎝ 2 ⎠ R ⎝ 2 ⎠ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 ⎛ −
2
t ⎞
ER ( t ) = CV0 2 ⎜ 1 − e R C ⎟ (669)
2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
Example 27. Given a time-forward voltage V across capacitor C , a known resistor value R and capacitor value
C , compute the time-forward current flowing through the resistor, and the power and energy dissipated by the
resistor.
So, given,
Initial voltage across capacitor V = 10.0Volts
The time-forward voltage V0 across the capacitor C is,
V0 = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 0° = 10.0Volts (670)
The time-forward voltage vC across the capacitor C is,
1
−
1 − t
vC ( t ) = V0 e = (10.0 Volts ) e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
t
RC
(671)

vC ( 0.0sec ) = 10.0 Volts (672)
vC (1.0sec ) = 1.191Volts (673)
V0 2 − RC2 t (10.0 Volts ) − (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) t

2 2
PR ( t ) = e = e (674)
R (1.0 k Ω )
PR ( 0.0sec ) = 0.10 Watts (675)
PR (1.0sec ) = 1.419 × 10−3 Watts (676)
The energy ER dissipated by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
CV0 2 ⎛ t ⎞ ( 470 μ F )(10.0Volts ) ⎛ t ⎞

2 2
−
2 −
ER ( t ) = ⎜1 − e RC ⎟ = ⎜1 − e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) ⎟ (677)
2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ER (1.0sec ) = 0.023 Joules (678)
Example 28. Given a time-advanced voltage V across capacitor C , a known resistor value R and capacitor value
C , compute the time-advanced current flowing through the resistor, and the power and energy dissipated and
absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
The time-advanced voltage V0 across the capacitor C is,
V0 = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 45° = 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts (679)
The time-advanced voltage vC across the capacitor C is,
1
−
1 − t
vC ( t ) = V0 e = ( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
t
RC
(680)
vC ( 0.0sec ) = 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts (681)
vC (1.0sec ) = 0.842 + 0.842 jVolts (682)

V0 2 − RC2 t ( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) − (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) t

2 2
PR ( t ) = e = e (683)
R (1.0 k Ω )
PR ( 0.0sec ) = 0.10 jWatts (684)
PR (1.0sec ) = 1.419 j × 10−3 Watts (685)
The energy ER dissipated and absorbed by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
CV0 2 ⎛ t ⎞ ( 470 μ F )( 7.071 + 7.071 jVolts ) ⎛ t ⎞

2 2
−
2 −
ER ( t ) = ⎜1 − e RC ⎟ = ⎜1 − e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
⎟ (686)
2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ER (1.0sec ) = 0.023 j Joules (687)
Example 29. Given a time-future voltage V across capacitor C , a known resistor value R and capacitor value C ,
compute the time-future current flowing through the resistor, and the power and energy absorbed by the resistor.
So, given,
The time-future voltage V0 across the capacitor C is,
V0 = V e jθ = (10.0Volts ) e j 90° = 10.0 jVolts (688)
The time-future voltage vC across the capacitor C is,
1
−
1 − t
vC ( t ) = V0 e = (10.0 jVolts ) e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
t
RC
(689)
vC ( 0.0sec ) = 10.0 jVolts (690)
vC (1.0sec ) = 1.191 jVolts (691)
V0 2 − RC2 t (10.0 jVolts ) − (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F ) t

2 2
PR ( t ) = e = e (692)
R (1.0 k Ω )
PR ( 0.0sec ) = −0.10Watts (693)

PR (1.0sec ) = −1.419 × 10−3 Watts (694)
The energy ER absorbed by the resistor R at t = 0.0sec and at t = 1.0sec is,
CV0 2 ⎛ t ⎞ ( 470 μ F )(10.0 jVolts ) ⎛ t ⎞

2 2
−
2 −
ER ( t ) = ⎜1 − e RC ⎟ = ⎜1 − e (1.0 k Ω )( 470 μ F )
⎟ (695)
2 ⎝ ⎠ 2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
ER (1.0sec ) = −0.023 Joules (696)
COMPLEX FIELD MASS FLUCTUATION TECHNOLOGIES

Since a theoretical link was established between gravity and electromagnetism, two mass fluctuation technologies
are presently under investigation. Both technologies are electrical devices with the first being inductive-based, and
the second being capacitive-based. Shown below is a simplified schematic diagram that highlights their operation.
COMPLEX TIME-FUTURE COMPLEX TIME-FUTURE

AMPERIAN CURRENTS AMPERIAN CURRENTS
DECREASED DECREASED
INDUCTOR MASS MASS
−ΔM L CAPACITOR
L
C −ΔM C
+ - - + + - + -
vL jvL vC jvC
iL jiL
iC jiC
COP > 1.0 COP > 1.0
D1 RLOAD D1 RLOAD RLOAD RLOAD

S1 S1
- + + -
vLOAD vLOAD
S1 S1 RS RS
+ VS - + VS - + VS - + VS -
MAGNETIZATION PHASE DEMAGNETIZATION PHASE CHARGE PHASE DISCHARGE PHASE
INDUCTIVE CAPACITIVE
MAGNETIZATION / DEMAGNETIZATION CHARGE / DISCHARGE
CYCLE CYCLE
FIGURE 43. Two types of complex field mass fluctuating systems.
These systems are cyclic, and alter the local gravity well. The mass of these systems is converted to excess field
energy during the magnetizing/charging phase. During the demagnetizing/discharging phase, excess electrical
energy is collected, and mass is restored after this phase. Then, the cycle begins again. As a consequence, clocks
runs faster due to broken symmetry of mass-energy conservation in the proximity of these devices because mass is
converted to NEGATIVE energy.

AN INDICATOR OF EXCESS FREE ENERGY
IMPULSE DUE TO EXCESS FLUX

IN CORE (NEGATIVE ENERGY)
CURRENT (AMPS)
i
MAGNETIZING CURRENT
(POSITIVE ENERGY)
0 TIME (SEC)
t
FIGURE 44. Excess free energy is harvested as NEGATIVE energy.
The diagram above shows that an impulse function occurs when excess residual magnetic flux is found in the core of
a coil being magnetized at the start of the next cycle, t = 0sec . If harvested, the energy of this function manifests as
NEGATIVE energy and couples to POSITIVE energy forming a complex direct current. This current consists of
both real and imaginary components where the real current i is time-forward and the imaginary current j i is time-
future. The real current component is considered to be classic HOT CURRENT and the imaginary current
component is considered to be COLD CURRENT.
Depending upon how much residual flux is available in the core, the energy in this impulse function could be quite
substantial.
FIGURE 45. Excess energy found in N. Zaev’s device.

FOUR TERMINAL DEVICE
i1 e jθ ,θ = 0° i2 e jθ ,θ ≥ 0°
TIME t1 TIME t 2
+ EIN 1 3
SOURCE COMPLEX FIELD LOAD
DIPOLE GENERATOR DIPOLE
−ΔE = −ΔM c 2 + EOUT −E
2 4
TEMPORARY
MASS
REDUCTION
TWO TERMINAL DEVICE
i1 e jθ ,θ = 0°
+ EIN TIME t1
1
SOURCE/ COMPLEX FIELD
LOAD GENERATOR
DIPOLE −ΔE = −ΔM c 2
2
+ EOUT −E TIME t 2
i2 e jθ ,θ ≥ 0° TEMPORARY
MASS
REDUCTION
(
ETOT = EIN − EOUT + E ≤ 0 Joules )
EOUT + E
COP = ≥ 1.00
EIN
DENOTES HOT TIME-FORWARD ENERGY FLOW
DENOTES COLD TIME-FUTURE ENERGY FLOW
DENOTES HOT/COLD TIME-ADVANCED ENERGY FLOW
SWITCHED OPERATION:
t1 t2
ON
Time − Forward Current i1
OFF
ON
Time − Advanced Current i2
OFF
NOTE: ASSUME IDEAL SYSTEM
FIGURE 46. Two terminal / four terminal complex field mass fluctuating systems.
The diagram above shows a typical configuration of four terminal and two terminal complex field mass fluctuating
systems. In the four terminal systems, energy from the source dipole (i.e., a battery) enters through terminals 1 and
2. Excess energy leaves through terminals 3 and 4 and charges the load dipole. In the two terminal systems, the
source dipole also acts as the load dipole. Energy leaves the source dipole through terminals 1 and 2 and excess
energy leaves through the same terminals at Time t2 later.

FIGURE 47. The SmartPAK/ZPOD 1210 Workstation.
FIGURE 48. The ZPOD in operation.

EIN EOUT
TYPICAL TRANSFORMER
ACTION
EOUT ≈ EIN
THE ZPOD: 0 t
INDUCTIVE MASS
FLUCTUATOR
EIN EOUT
P1-3
PRIMARY
SIDE THE ZPOD
(67mH)
P1-1
SECONDARY EOUT EIN
T1-16 SIDE (16.6H)
P1-2
0 t
P1-4
μo(H + M)
16 COIL/CORE EXCESS ENERGY

ASSEMBLIES
0 t
FIGURE 49. The excess energy of the ZPOD.

FIGURE 50. The eBike using SmartPAK technology.
FIGURE 51. The eBike using a SmartPAK 3610-30.

TESLA’S COMPLEX FIELD GENERATOR
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
PWR
+ VS -
A” iG A”
+
G -
N S
+ N S -
M −ΔE = −ΔM Fe c 2 M
- S N +
BG μ0 H M
iM e jθ , θ > 0° M Fe + ( −ΔM Fe )
F
t ≥ 0sec
+ -
H iK e jθ , θ > 0° H
- +
K
L
- +
L’ L’
jθ
vK e ,
θ > 0° iR e jθ ,
R θ > 0°
- +
jθ
vR e ,
θ > 0°
FIGURE 52. Nikola Tesla’s US patent 568,176.
Nikola Tesla was the first to develop the phenomenon of complex fields back in the 1880's. He devised a series of
machines patented in the 1890's that greatly amplify this phenomenon, which he later called RADIANT ENERGY.
As shown above, the pivoting magnetic domains created by Amperian Currents of the ferromagnetic material are
ordered in the direction of field BG by magnetizing coil G . Magnetizing the high inductance coils M create an
opposing field μ0 H M that acts upon the ordered domains of the material, thus canceling or partially canceling the
real magnetic field created by the Amperian Currents. An imaginary magnetic field j BM emerges due to this
cancellation and couples back into the magnetizing direct current as iM e jθ , where θ > 0° . Therefore, the
magnetizing direct current becomes complex because the circulating motions of the electrons are rotating into the
imaginary axis.

As shown above, before switch F is closed, the capacitors H are charged with a complex direct current iM e jθ
produced by an opposing flux from coils M . The complex field energy is stored in capacitors H . At the moment of
switch F closure t = 0sec , the complex direct current flows through coil K , rapidly discharging capacitors H .
A very large complex electric potential vL e jθ is observed across the secondary coil L .
SOURCE
DIPOLE
+ EIN
iG e jθ ,θ = 0°
TIME t1
1 INPUT 2
TESLA’S
COMPLEX FIELD
GENERATOR
−ΔE = −ΔM c 2
3 OUTPUT 4
iK e jθ ,θ ≥ 0°
TIME t2
−E
+ EOUT
K
DENOTES HOT TIME-FORWARD ENERGY FLOW
DENOTES COLD TIME-FUTURE ENERGY FLOW
DENOTES NEUTRAL TIME-ADVANCED ENERGY FLOW
NOTE: ASSUME IDEAL SYSTEM
FIGURE 53. Tesla’s four terminal complex field generator.

THE HUTCHISON EFFECT EXPLAINED
FIGURE 54. Metal samples from John Hutchison’s lab.
As shown above, John Hutchison successfully applied the Tesla complex field to metal samples with amazing
results. These bulk metal samples were melted at room temperature without any application of heat. The complex
fields induced cold eddy currents within the metal, which in turn, caused the metal to cold melt. As the metal
softened, John inserted bits of other metals and organic material as shown. With the field turned off, the metal re-
solidified trapping these materials within the metal lattice structure.
FIGURE 55. John Hutchison in his lab.

j iK = iK e jθ ,θ = 90°
K COMPLEX
CURRENT
L - +
- jvK +
jvL
j iL REGION OF j iL
COLD MELTING
NEGATIVE NEGATIVE
FIELD FIELD
ENERGY ENERGY
N X S N Y S
j BX j BX j BY j BY
- + - +
jvX jvY
COMPLEX METAL COLD EDDY CURRENTS
FIELD SAMPLE INDUCED IN METAL
FIGURE 56. Cold eddy currents being induced in a metal sample.
As shown above, cold eddy currents are induced in the metal block with the application of complex magnetic fields.
A complex current flowing through the coils produces these magnetic fields. The magnetic field energy surrounding
these coils is NEGATIVE, and the metal sample in the presence of this field will cold melt due to induction.
FIGURE 57. Another cold melted metal sample.

A CONCEPT VEHICLE THAT UTILIZES GMF

+ + +
+ + + + +
+ + + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + + jV + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + +
+ ++ + +
+ + + + - - + + +
+ ++ + - -
+ +
+ +
TEMPORAL
TEMPORAL
+ + FLUCTUATING +
TUNGSTEN
FLUCTUATING +
ENERGY
ENERGY
- -
+ ++ MASS MASS ++ +
M - - M
++ - -
++
+ ++ + INSULATING + +
+ + + + LAYER - - CLOCKS RUN FASTER
+ + ++ + +
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + + + + + + + ++ +
+ + + + + + + + + + +
+ + + + + RL + + + + +
+ + + +
FIGURE 58. A cutaway view of a capacitive-based mass fluctuating concept vehicle.
Shown above is a concept vehicle for tunneling through vast distances of space. The first step concerning this
antigravitational system is the disassociation of tungsten metal with the application of a complex voltage jV . This
metal is used as a fuel source of gravitational energy bound as mass within the element. As the metal disassociates,
it radiates away this gravitational energy in the form of a temporal field within the vehicle. This causes clocks to
speedup and the mass of the vehicle to decrease. The second step begins by switching off the disassociating process,
thereby turning off the temporal field. Mass converted to electrical energy is amplified as field energy in the outer
hull, which can be stored, radiated away, or used to power the vehicle. The vehicle seeks a new equipotential surface
of gravity that corresponds to its’ new mass, thus producing lift. Then, the cycle begins again.
ENERGIZING THE GRAVITATIONAL PROPULSION UNIT (GPU)
22,500.0
1kg VEHICLE
(AFTER)
DECREASED
GRAVITY
19,920 y1
RADIUS
ME
g yn = G VEHICLE
yn 2
UNDERGOES
Δy = y0 − y1
A RELATIVISTIC
MASS REDUCTION
1kg VEHICLE
GRAVITATIONAL (BEFORE)
REFERENCE
7,529 y0
6,378.1
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 g yn
0.0
g y1 = 1.0 g y0 = 7.0 g 0 = 9.8
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
m sec 2
FIGURE 59. Vehicle is undergoing a negative gravitational mass fluctuation above the Earth.

The diagram above shows a 1 kg vehicle undergoing a negative gravitational mass fluctuation in a given an
equipotential surface of gravity reference. A typical gravity profile of the Earth shown above is based on Newton’s
gravity. This system decreases the relativistic mass of the vehicle such that it displaces or vectors in height to a new
equipotential surface of gravity above the Earth.
Deactivating this system causes the same vehicle to naturally fall based on universal mass attraction.
Example 30. Assuming there are no other gravitational influences besides the Earth and given a vehicle of mass
1 kg positioned at an initial radius y0 as shown in the diagram above, compute the new gravitational mass M y1 of
the vehicle displaced Δy away from the Earth.
So, given,
Mass of vehicle M y0 = 1.0 kg
Vehicle at initial radius y0 = 7.529 × 106 m
Displacement of vehicle Δy = y0 − y1 = −12.391× 106 m
The final radius y1 of the vehicle above the Earth is,
y1 = y0 − Δy = ( 7.529 × 106 m ) − ( −12.391× 106 m ) = 19.920 × 106 m (697)
G M E ( 6.67260 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g y0 = = = 7.038 m sec 2 (698)

y0 2 ( 7.529 ×10 m )
6 2
G M E ( 6.67260 × 10 N m kg )( 5.9787 × 10 kg )
−11 2 2 24
g y1 = = = 1.005 m sec 2 (699)

y12 (19.920 ×10 m )
6 2
Given the exponential solution of the natural relativistic mass model, the new gravitational mass is,
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞
⎛
( )( )( )(
⎜ 1.005 m sec 19.920×10 m − 7.038 m sec 7.529×10 m
2 6 2 6
) ⎞⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
( )
2
⎜ 2.99792458×108 m sec ⎟
M y1 = M y0 e ⎝ c2 ⎠
= (1.0 kg ) e ⎝ ⎠
(700)
M y1 = 0.9999999996333 kg (701)
The gravitational mass was reduced by,
M y1 − M y0 = ( 0.9999999996333 kg ) − (1.0 kg ) = −3.667 × 10−10 kg (702)

CLOSED-LOOP GRAVITATIONAL FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM
DECREASED
y1
GRAVITY
VECTOR VEHICLE
TO NEW POSITION
IN GRAVITY WELL
−Δy '
x0 θ −Δy
+Δx '
GRAVITATIONAL
y0
+Δx REFERENCE
x1
ALTIMETER
ACQUIRE
HEIGHT h
MICROWAVES KNOWN SURFACE

GRAVITY g0
SURFACE OF
INERTIAL EARTH
REFERENCE
FIGURE 60. Acquire position information, then energize the GPU and vectored to new position.
The first step for a Gravitational Flight Control System, or GFCS, is to acquire vehicle height h information above a
known surface gravity g 0 . Once this height information is acquired, the second step involves calculating the current
mass fluctuation M cur . The third step requires the pilot to determine what the next desired position will be, so,
predicted mass fluctuation M pre is calculated and transmitted to a Gravitational Propulsion Unit, or GPU. The GPU
is energized causing the mass of the vehicle to fluctuate, and in turn, vectors to the desired position. This system can
run “closed-loop” by implementing a software algorithm called a high-speed Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
control loop. It acquires new height information and computes the error difference between current and desired
position. The PID calculates and transmits in real-time an error value to the GPU. The error value sent to the GPU
determines the rate of mass fluctuation. This rate may exceed the speed of light because the vehicle isn’t traversing
space by an inertial means, but by a gravitational means. Therefore, warp factor equation shown by Whitfield (1968)
could be used. The warp factor W equation is,
v =W3 c (703)
Δy
v 3 T
W= 3 = (704)
c c
Where, W is the warp factor, c is the speed of light, and v is the velocity.

1000
800
TIMES THE SPEED OF LIGHT
600
400
3
v
c
200
0 2 4 6 8 10
WARP FACTOR
W
FIGURE 61. The warp factor vs. the speed of light.
Example 31. Assuming there are no other gravitational influences besides the Earth and given a GPU with a
NEGATIVE mass fluctuation rate ΔM RATE ( t ) operating for a period of time T , compute the displacement Δy of a
vehicle leaving from the surface of the Earth at warp factor W with a vehicle mass of 1.0 kg .
So, given,
Initial mass of vehicle M y0 = 1.0 kg
Mass fluctuation rate ΔM RATE ( t ) = −1.0 × 10−4 gm sec
Operating time T = 1.0 × 10−3 s ec
Vehicle located at initial radius Y0 = 6.3781× 106 m
The new gravitational mass of the vehicle M y1 operating a GPU for a period of time T is,
M y1 = M y0 + ( ΔM RATE ( t ) × T ) = (1.0 kg ) + ⎡⎣( −1.0 × 10−4 gm sec )(1.0 × 10−3 sec ) ⎤⎦ (705)
M y1 = 0.9999999999000 kg (706)

Given the exponential form of the natural relativistic mass M Δy model, compute the new radius y1 within a given
gravity well g y is,
⎛ G ME G ME ⎞
⎜ − ⎟
⎜ y1 y0 ⎟
⎛ g y1 y1 − g y0 y0 ⎞ ⎜ c2 ⎟
⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
c2
M y1 = M y0 e ⎝ ⎠
= M y0 e ⎝ ⎠
(707)
⎛ G ME G ME ⎞
⎜ − ⎟
⎜ y1 y0 ⎟
⎜ c2 ⎟
M y1 ⎜ ⎟
=e ⎝ ⎠
(708)
M y0
⎛ M y1 ⎞ G ME G ME
c 2 ln ⎜
⎜M ⎟⎟ = − (709)
⎝ y0 ⎠ y1 y0
y0
y1 = (710)
y c ⎛ My 2 ⎞
1+ 0 ln ⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
G M E ⎜⎝ M y0 ⎠
y1 =
( 6.3781×10 m ) 6
(711)
( 6.3781×10 m )( 2.99792458 ×10 m sec ) ln ⎛ 0.9999999999000 kg ⎞
6 8 2
1+
( 6.67260 ×10 N m kg )( 5.9787 ×10 kg ) ⎜⎝
−11 2 2
1.0 kg
⎟
⎠
24
y1 = 7.4484 × 106 m (712)
Δy = y0 − y1 = ( 6.3781× 106 m ) − ( 7.4484 × 106 m ) (713)
Δy = −1.0703 × 106 m (714)
The warp factor W is,
Δy
( −1.0703 ×10 m ) 6
v 3 T 3 (1.0 ×10 sec ) −3

−1.0703 × 109 m sec
W= 3 = = == (715)
( 2.99792458 ×10 m sec ) ( 2.99792458 ×10 m sec )
3
8 8
c c
W = 1.5284 (716)
Leaving from the surface of the Earth, the vehicle is displaced over 665 miles above the Earth within 1 millisecond.
CONCLUSION
The parameters of space and time identified as mass, volume, frequency, time, temperature, and energy are functions
of gravity. Therefore, controlling the mass of a space vehicle, for example, controls gravity, but more precisely,
controls its’ current position within a given gravity well. The control of how fast mass fluctuates controls the speed
of the vehicle through this well. Whether the vehicle implementing GMF is above the surface of the Earth or

traveling at warp factor 1.53 through deep space, the physical constants where shown in previous sections to remain
invariant within the vehicle.
The vehicles’ Gravitational Propulsion Unit, or GPU, using one of the two devices that are under investigation
control mass by an electrical means, thus utilizing the theoretical link between gravity and electromagnetism
presented in this paper. Either device can change its’ own mass by converting it to excess electrical energy, and as a
consequence, the broken symmetry of mass-energy conservation causes the gravitational energy equivalent of mass
to be radiated away as a temporal field. A force is created and acts antigravitationally on the device. This changes
the frequency of clocks within the vehicle relative to clocks outside of the vehicle.
The vehicle will require a Gravitational Flight Control System, or GFCS, capable of controlling the GPU. This
control system acts as an interface between man and the GPU. The development of this system can be directly
implemented from the mathematical formulations in this paper. An additional requirement is the development of
real-time navigation software programs that maps the gravity of the entire Sol System, and includes the nearby stars.
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Alek - Newtonian Torsion Physics

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Alek - Newtonian Torsion Physics

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NEWTONIAN

EVERYTHING IN THIS UNIVERSE IS CURVED!

FIGURE 1. Two identical spheres as seen by an observer on the Earth.

William Alek Page 2 9/12/2007

APPLYING THE PRODUCT RULE

Where, the Inertial Term is given as,

And the Torsional Term is given as,

William Alek Page 3 9/12/2007

TORSIONAL MASS FLUCTUATION

FIGURE 3. The fluctuating mass of an object due to gravity.

M < 0 mNs m 2 (4)

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,

PM (t ) < 0 Watts (6)

EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) < 0 Joules (7)

William Alek Page 4 9/12/2007

If M is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,

M > 0 mNs m 2 (8)

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PM of a fluctuating mass M is,

PM (t ) > 0Watts (10)

EM (t ) = ∫ PM (t ) dt = vY 2 ∫ M dt = vY 2 M (t ) > 0 Joules (11)

So, the energy equivalent of mass (gravitational energy) EM is,

By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M is,

The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M is,

So, the gravitational momentum model is,

Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Torsional Force Term is,

By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EM is,

The total energy EM contained within matter is,

William Alek Page 5 9/12/2007

The change in this total energy EM is,

By rearranging terms, the change in total mass M is,

The derivative form is,

The difference form is,

William Alek Page 6 9/12/2007

TORSIONAL INDUCTIVE MASS FLUCTUATION

FIGURE 4. The fluctuating inductance of an object due to gravity.

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,

PL (t ) < 0Watts (29)

William Alek Page 7 9/12/2007

EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) < 0 Joules (30)

If L is positive, it has units of positive resistance or,

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PL of a fluctuating inductor L is,

PL (t ) > 0 Watts (33)

EL (t ) = ∫ PL dt = I L 2 ∫ L dt = I L 2 L(t ) > 0 Joules (34)

Equate this to the energy equivalent of mass EM ,

Then, the energy equivalent of mass (gravitational energy) EL is,

By rearranging terms, the mass equivalent of energy M L is,

The fluctuating mass equivalent of energy M L is,

So, the gravitational inductor model is,

Letting y = dy dt = vY , the Torsional Inductive Force Term is,

William Alek Page 8 9/12/2007

By rearranging terms, the fluctuating energy equivalent of mass EL is,

The total energy EL contained within matter is,

The change in this total energy EL is,

By rearranging terms, the change in total mass M is,

The derivative form is,

The difference form is,

William Alek Page 9 9/12/2007

TORSIONAL CAPACITIVE MASS FLUCTUATION

FIGURE 5. The fluctuating capacitance of an object due to gravity.

This removes Inertial Term, leaving only the Torsional Term,

Now, the instantaneous gravitationally induced power PC of a fluctuating capacitor C is

PC (t ) < 0Watts (54)

William Alek Page 10 9/12/2007

EC (t ) = ∫ PC dt = VC 2 ∫ C dt = VC 2 C (t ) < 0 Joules (55)