Design Manual For Low Volume Roads Part B

)('(5$/'(02&5$7,&5(38%/,&2)
('(5$/'(02&5$7,&5(38%/,&2)
(7+,23,$152$'6$87+25,7<
,7 <
( 7+
25
,2
,$
15 87
+
3
2$'6 $
'(6,*10$18$/)25/2:92/80(52$'6
3$57$3$57%$1'3$57&
),1$/'5$)7$35,/
Part B
DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS
Introduction
Policy and legislative

controls
Design parameters
Geometric design standards

Part B
Design standards for
low volume roads
Materials
Pavement design
Drainage and
erosion control
Water crossings and

associated structures
Road furniture and signage

B - iii
B TABLE OF CONTENTS
B. TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................B.I
B. LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................ B.III
B. LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. B.V
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................B.1
2. POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS ............................................................................B.2
2.1 Legal Framework ............................................................................................................B.2
2.2 Road Safety .....................................................................................................................B.3
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS ......................................................................................................B.4
3.1 Climate ............................................................................................................................B.4
3.2 Terrain ..............................................................................................................................B.5
3.3 Demographics .................................................................................................................B.5
3.4 Traffic ...............................................................................................................................B.5
3.4.1 Vehicle classification .........................................................................................B.5
3.4.2 Traffic volumes ..................................................................................................B.6
3.4.3 Traffic growth ....................................................................................................B.6
3.4.4 Geometric design .............................................................................................B.6
3.4.5 Structural design ...............................................................................................B.6
3.4.6 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class ......................................................B.7
4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS ...................................................................................B.9
4.1 Traffic composition .......................................................................................................B.10
4.2 Roadside Population and non-motorised vehicles ........................................................B.10
4.3 Geometric Design Standards for LVRs...........................................................................B.11
4.4 Design-by-eye ...............................................................................................................B.17
4.5 Typical Cross Sections ..................................................................................................B.17
5. MATERIALS ......................................................................................................................B.28
5.1 Subgrades ....................................................................................................................B.28
5.1.1 Specifying the design subgrade class ............................................................B.28
5.1.2 Material depth ...............................................................................................B.29
5.1.3 Improved subgrade layers ..............................................................................B.30
5.1.4 Dealing with poor subgrade soils ...................................................................B.30
5.2 Pavement Materials .......................................................................................................B.30
5.2.1 Materials requirements for roadbase ..............................................................B.32
5.2.2 Material requirements for sub-base ................................................................B.33
5.2.3 Material requirements for gravel wearing course ...........................................B.35
5.2.4 Material Improvement ....................................................................................B.36
6. PAVEMENT DESIGN ........................................................................................................B.39
6.1 Design traffic classes ....................................................................................................B.39
6.2 Engineered natural surfaces ..........................................................................................B.39
6.3 Natural gravel roads .....................................................................................................B.40
6.3.1 Major gravel roads .........................................................................................B.40
6.3.2 Minor gravel roads ..........................................................................................B.42
6.4 Surfacing options and design standards for paved roads ............................................B.43
6.4.1 Bituminous surfaced roads ............................................................................B.43
6.4.2 Non bituminous surfaced roads .....................................................................B.44
7. DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL ...........................................................................B.51
7.1 Size of watercourse .......................................................................................................B.51
PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

B - iv
7.2 The Rational Method .....................................................................................................B.51

7.2.1 Catchment runoff coefficient, C......................................................................B.51
7.2.2 Rainfall intensity, I (mm/hour)..........................................................................B.52
7.2.3 Catchment area, A (km2) .................................................................................B.53
7.3 The SCS method ...........................................................................................................B.54
7.3.1 Catchment area ..............................................................................................B.54
7.3.2 Rainfall ............................................................................................................B.54
7.3.3 Runoff and Curve Numbers ............................................................................B.55
7.3.4 Time of concentration.....................................................................................B.57
7.3.5 Steps in the SCS procedure ............................................................................B.59
7.4 Design of culverts ..........................................................................................................B.61
7.4.1 Nomograph method for culvert sizing............................................................B.61
7.4.2 Correlation with successful practice ...............................................................B.61
7.4.3 Design of drifts and fords ...............................................................................B.61
7.5 Components of External Drainage ................................................................................B.62
7.5.1 General principles..........................................................................................B.62
7.5.2 Side drains .....................................................................................................B.62
7.5.3 Erosion control in the side drain .....................................................................B.66
7.5.4 Mitre drains or turnouts ..................................................................................B.68
7.5.5 Wet lands ........................................................................................................B.69
7.5.6 Subsoil Drains .................................................................................................B.69
7.5.7 Filters ..............................................................................................................B.69
7.5.8 Interceptor, cut-off or catch-water drains. .....................................................B.69
7.5.9 Chutes.............................................................................................................B.69
7.5.10 Slope protection .............................................................................................B.70
8. WATER CROSSINGS AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES ..................................................B.71
9. ROAD FURNITURE AND SIGNAGE .................................................................................B.72
9.1 Traffic Signs ...................................................................................................................B.72
9.2 Road Markings...............................................................................................................B.72
9.3 Marker Posts ..................................................................................................................B.72
9.4 Safety barriers................................................................................................................B.72
APPENDIX B.1 - RAINFALL INTENSITY-DURATION-FREQUENCY CHARTS .....................B.74

B-v
B LIST OF TABLES
Table B.2.1: Summary of Existing Requirements ...............................................................................B.3

Table B.3.1: Vehicle Classification ......................................................................................................B.5
Table B.3.2: Average equivalency factors for different vehicle types ...............................................B.7
Table B.3.3: Factors for design traffic loading ...................................................................................B.8
Table B.4.1: PCU values ..................................................................................................................B.10
Table B.4.2: Increased ‘shoulder’ widths (each side) for unpaved LVRs ...........................................B.11
Table B.4.3: Shoulder widths (each side) for paved LVRs .................................................................B.11
Table B.4.4: Geometric design standards for paved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300) .................................B.12
Table B.4.5: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300) .............................B.13
Table B.4.6: Geometric design standards for paved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150) ...................................B.13
Table B.4.7: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150) ...............................B.14
Table B.4.8: Geometric design standards for DC2 paved(1) (AADT 25-75) .....................................B.14
Table B.4.9: Geometric design standards for DC2 (1, 2) unpaved (AADT 25-75) ............................B.15
Table B.4.10: Geometric design standards for DC1 (AADT 1-25)......................................................B.15
Table B.4.11: Minimum standards for basic access ............................................................................B.16
Table B.4.12: Adverse cross-fall to be removed if radii are less than shown .....................................B.16
Table B.4.13: Super-elevation development lengths .........................................................................B.16
Table B.4.14: Widening recommendations (m) ..................................................................................B.16
Table B.4.15: Slope dimensions for cross-sections (ratios are vertical:horizontal) .............................B.17
Table B.5.1: Subgrade classes .........................................................................................................B.28
Table B.5.2: Dependence of design subgrade on design traffic class .............................................B.29
Table B.5.3: Material depth by road category .................................................................................B.29
Table B.5.5: Particle size distribution for natural gravel base ..........................................................B.32
Table B.5.6: Plasticity requirements for natural gravel road base materials.....................................B.33
Table B.5.7: Guidelines for the selection of lateritic gravel road base materials .............................B.34
Table B.5.8: Typical particle size distribution for sub-bases .............................................................B.35
Table B.5.9: Plasticity characteristics for granular sub-bases ...........................................................B.35
Table B.5.10: Typical standardised gravel loss ...................................................................................B.37
Table B.5.11: Recommended material specifications(1,3) for unsealed rural roads ..........................B.37
Table B.5.12: Recommended material specifications for unsealed ‘urban’ roads .............................B.38
Table B.6.1: Traffic classes for flexible pavement design .................................................................B.39
Table B.6.2: Required minimum height (hmin) between road crown and invert level of drain in
relation to climate ........................................................................................................B.40
Table B.6.3 (a): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – strong gravel (G45) ............................B.41
Table B.6.3 (b): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – medium gravel (G30) .........................B.41
Table B.6.3 (c): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – weak gravel (G15) ..............................B.41

B - vi
Table B.6.4: Typical gravel loss ........................................................................................................B.42

Table B.6.5: Design Chart for minor gravel roads ............................................................................B.43
Table B.6.6: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 1 ........................................................................B.44
Table B.6.7: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 2 ........................................................................B.44
Table B.6.8: Non-bituminous pavement surfacing options ..............................................................B.45
Table B.6.9: Substitution of pavement layer material ......................................................................B.45
Table B.6.10: Thickness designs for WBM pavements.......................................................................B.46
Table B.6.11: Thicknesses designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) pavement (mm) ...........................B.47
Table B.6.12: Thicknesses designs for various discrete element surfacings (mm) .............................B.48
Table B.6.13: Thicknesses (mm) - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement (NRC) ..................................B.49
Table B.6.14: Ultra-Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement (UTRCP) Design .......................................B.50
Table B.7.1: Runoff coefficient: Humid catchment ...........................................................................B.51
Table B.7.2: Runoff coefficient: semi-arid catchment .......................................................................B.52
Table B.7.3: Storm design return period (years) ..............................................................................B.53
Table B.7.4: Storm design return period (years) for severe risk situations .......................................B.53
Table B.7.5: Hydrological characteristic soil groups ........................................................................B.55
Table B.7.6: Runoff Curve Numbers (CN) ........................................................................................B.56
Table B.7.7: Conversion from average to wet and dry antecedent moisture conditions .................B.57
Table B.7.8: Antecedent moisture conditions ..................................................................................B.57
Table B.7.9: Manning’s roughness coefficients for sheet flow..........................................................B.58
Table B.7.10: Roughness coefficient (n) for drains .............................................................................B.66
Table B.7.11: Permissible flow velocities (m/sec) in excavated ditch drains ......................................B.67
Table B.7.12: Spacing between scour checks ....................................................................................B.68
Table B.7.13: Maximum spacing of mitre drains ................................................................................B.68
Table B.7.14: Common cut-slope ratios for LVRs. ..............................................................................B.70
Table B.7.15: Common fill slope batters for LVRs. .............................................................................B.70
Table B.9.1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves ................................................................................B.73

B - vii
B LIST OF FIGURES
Figure B.3.1: Climatic N-value map for Ethiopia .................................................................................B.4

Figure B.4.1: Selection of appropriate geometric design standards ...................................................B.9
Figure B.4.2: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Unpaved..................................................B.17
Figure B.4.3: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Paved ......................................................B.18
Figure B.4.4: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Rolling Terrain, Unpaved ............................................B.19
Figure B.4.5: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Rolling Terrain, Paved .................................................B.20
Figure B.4.6: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Mountainous Terrain, Unpaved...................................B.21
Figure B.4.7: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Mountainous Terrain, Paved .......................................B.22
Figure B.4.8: Typical cross section: DC1 – 4, Escarpment Terrain, Unpaved.....................................B.23
Figure B.4.9: Typical cross section: DC1 – 4, Escarpment Terrain, Paved .........................................B.24
Figure B.4.10: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Populated areas, Unpaved .........................................B.25
Figure B.4.13: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Expansive soils, Paved ............................B.26
Figure B.5.1: Illustration of CBR strength cumulative distribution.....................................................B.28
Figure B.5.2: Figure B.5.2: Material quality zones .............................................................................B.35
Figure B.6.1: Cross-section details ENS ............................................................................................B.38
Figure B.6.2: Typical gravel road cross section in flat terrain. ...........................................................B.39
Figure B.7.1: Velocity of flow .............................................................................................................B.51
Figure B.7.2: Relationship between Precipitation, Direct Runoff and CN .........................................B.54
Figure B.7.3: B.24 hour depth-frequency curves ...............................................................................B.59
Figure B.7.4: Unit peak discharge (Type II rainfall) ............................................................................B.60
Figure B.7.5: Manning’s Formula .......................................................................................................B.61
Figure B.7.6: Headwater depth and capacity for corrugated metal pipe culverts with inlet control
(Adapted from FHWA, 1998) ......................................................................................B.62
Figure B.7.7: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete pipe culverts with inlet control
Figure B.7.8: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete box culverts with inlet control

B - Chapter 1 - 1
1. INTRODUCTION
Low Volume Roads are defined as those roads carrying:

Up to about 300 vehicles per day; and
Less than about 1 million equivalent standard axles.
For geometric designs, roads carrying an excess of 300 vpd should be designed in accordance with
the Geometric Design Manual-2011. For roads carrying in excess of 300 vpd, but with a total traffic
loading of less than 1 Mesa, the structural pavement design should be carried out in accordance with the
standards in this document.
For structural pavement design, roads carrying in excess of 1 Mesa should be designed in accordance
with the 2011 Pavement Design Manual. For roads carrying in excess of 1 Mesa, but with a traffic volume
of less than 300 vpd, the geometric design should be carried out in accordance with the standards in this
document.
Low Volume Roads fall under the responsibility of several authorities including community/cooperative
structures, kebele and wereda administrations, and the regional and federal road authorities. This
manual provides the requirements for the design of low volume roads under the responsibility of these
authorities. The standards provide an appropriate level of service for each class of road.
The custodian of design standards for all roads, including the associated specifications and standard
drawings, is the Ethiopian Roads Authority (ERA).
There are four classes of LVR known as DC1 to DC4 based on traffic levels, with each class being defined
by appropriate geometric design standards (Part A, Figure A.1.1). Once the geometric standards are
fixed, the design approach for LVRs requires the selection of a surfacing technology, pavement design,
and drainage appropriate to the road environment.
The Environmentally Optimised Design approach (outlined in Part A) allows different solutions to be
adopted along the road. The manual also provides comprehensive guidance on the design of water
crossings and retaining structures that provide a level of service commensurate with the standard of the
road.
ERA’s General Technical Specifications contain the detailed engineering requirements supporting
the design. These may be modified and added to in exceptional circumstances depending on the
requirements of the specific project or road environment.
The design options for low volume roads, drainage and retaining structures, assume that adequate
maintenance is carried out on the road.

B - Chapter 2 - 2
2. POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS
Government policy, national legislation and development planning dictate the underlying principles
of low volume road design. This includes, for example, environmental controls, road safety legislation,
promotion of the use of labour or application of intermediate equipment based technologies to encourage
local participation and SME development. Authorities may choose to put emphasis on Complementary
Interventions, as set out in Part C.
2.1 Legal Framework

Environmental and Social Impact Assessments promote maintenance of the road corridor environment in
at least the same condition as it was before the road construction project started. Engineering designs
must make provision for protective and mitigation measures. Key documents that must be referred to
in the design of low volume road projects to assess and address environmental and social safeguards
during project planning, design and construction are.
Legal Framework - in particular Articles 35, 40, 41, 43, 44, 91, 92 – Constitution of the Federal
Democratic Republic of Ethiopia;
Proclamation No. 299/2002 – Environmental Impact Assessment;
Proclamation No. 300/2002 – Environmental Pollution Control;
Proclamation No. 295/2002 – Environmental Protection Organs;
Proclamation No. 209/2002 – Cultural Heritage;
Proclamation No 455/2005 – Expropriation of land holdings for public purposes and payment of
compensation;
Proclamation No 135/2007 – Council of Ministers regulation on the payment of compensation for
property situated on land holdings expropriated for public purposes;
Proclamation No 456/2005 – Rural land administration and land use;
Proclamation No. 94/1994 – Conservation of Forests;
Proclamation No. 192/1980 and 416/1972 – Wildlife Conservation and Conservation Areas;
Proclamation No. 197/2000 – Water Resources;
Proclamation No. 200/2000 – Healthy Environment;
Development plans of the Federal Government, Regional Governments and Weredas;
Regional States’ environmental legislation;
Environmental Protection Authority (EPA) requirements for preparation of EIAs and EMPs;
Funding agency policies, regulations and guidance notes.
The requirements of existing environmental legislation and related government proclamations are
summarised in Table B.2.1.

B - Chapter 2 - 3
Table B.2.1 Summary of Existing Requirements
No. Technical Area Existing Documentation Requirements

1 Environmental Proclamation on EIAs, EPA Full ESIA on all major urban roads, all
& Social Impact guidance note, GTP rural road programmes, upgrading
Assessment (ESIA) or rehabilitation of major rural roads.
Preliminary ESIA on other rural road
works.
2 Land Acquisition Proclamations on Compensation to be made in
(LA) and Land Acquisition and accordance with relevant proclamations
Compensation Compensation, ERA QMS and regulations.
3 Resettlement Action Funder policies and Only if project is funded by international
Plans (RAP) guidelines; ERA guideline on agency and more than 200 people are to
Resettlement Rehabilitation be relocated
Policy Framework; and
FDRE proclamation on
land expropriation and
compensation payment.
4 Environmental & EPA guidance note Full ESMP required for all road projects.
Social Management
Plans (ESMP)
2.2 Road Safety

For the prevention of accidents, adherence to the following points and principles are of particular
importance for the design of safer roads. These principles underpin the geometric design standards
contained in this manual.
Design for all road users.
• Consider pedestrians and intermediate means of transport in road design, including
carriageway width, shoulder design, side slopes and side drains, and road surface drainage;
• Provide for traffic calming, improved surfacing and segregation of vulnerable road users in
populous areas.
Provide a clear and consistent message to the driver.
• Roads should be easily “read” and understood by drivers and should not present them with
any sudden surprises;
• Ensure adequate sight distances and harmonisation of horizontal and vertical alignments.
Encourage appropriate speeds and driver behaviour.
• Ensure prominent and proper location of signage, road markings, traffic calming and other
traffic control devices.
Reduce conflicts.
• Reduce conflicts through appropriate design, eg by staggering junctions or by using guard
rails to channel pedestrians to safer crossing points.
Create a forgiving road environment.
• Allow for driver mistakes or vehicle failure, to the extent that this is possible without
significantly increasing costs;
• Ensure that demands are not placed upon the driver which are beyond his or her ability to
manage;
• Avoid situations where drivers must make more than one decision at a time.

B - Chapter 3 - 4
3. DESIGN PARAMETERS
The principal factors affecting the design of low volume roads are climate, terrain, demographics and
traffic.
3.1 Climate
The climatic descriptor which is used for the pavement design catalogues is the Weinert ‘N’ value
(Weinert, 1974). This index is calculated as follows:
N = 12.Ej/Pa Equation 3.1
where:
Ej = evaporation for the warmest month
Pa = total annual precipitation
N-values less than 4 apply to a climate that is seasonally tropical and wet (the Kolla, Woina Dega, Dega
and Wurch regions of Ethiopia), whereas N-values greater than 4 apply to a climate that is arid, semiarid
or dry (the Bereha region of Ethiopia). A map of equivalent N-values for Ethiopia is shown in Figure B.3.1
and provides the means of placing a road in the appropriate climatic zone for design purposes.
Figure B.3.1: Climatic N-value map for Ethiopia
The climatic zones demarcated by the N-values are macro-climates and it should be kept in mind that
different micro-climates may occur within these regions. This is particularly important where such local
micro-climates can play a significant role in determining the in-situ moisture content of the various
pavement layers; a factor which needs to be considered in the choice of N-Value or the subgrade class
used for design purposes.

B - Chapter 3 - 5
3.2 Terrain
Terrain class is determined by the number of 5-metre contours crossed by a straight line connecting the
two ends of the road section in question according to the following definitions:
0 to 10 five-metre contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to

Flat
the ground contours are generally below 3%.
Rolling
the ground contours are generally between 3 and 25%.
Mountainous
the ground contours are generally above 25%.
Escarpments are geological features that require special geometric standards
Escarpment because of the engineering risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than
those encountered in mountainous terrain.
It should be noted that it is not dependent on the alignment chosen for the road.
3.3 Demographics
Appropriate design approaches must be introduced in populous areas to mitigate the effects of dust and
improve the safety of road users (additional road widths, parking, bus lay-bys) and appropriate drainage
systems.
3.4 Traffic
The use of traffic data varies depending on whether it is being used for geometric design or pavement
structural design. Traffic growth needs to be taken into account in the design process.
3.4.1 Vehicle classification
Table B.3.1 shows the vehicle classification.
Table B.3.1: Vehicle Classification
Class Type Axles Description

1 Car 2 Passenger cars and taxis
2 Pick-up/4-wheel drive 2 Pick-up, minibus, Land Rovers, Land Cruisers
3 Small bus 2 ≤ 27 seats
4 Bus/coach 2 > 27 seats
5 Small truck 2 ≤ 3.5 tonnes
6 Medium truck 2 or 3 3.5 – 7.5 tonnes
7 Large 2-axled truck 2 > 7.5 tonnes
8 3-axled truck 3 >7.5 tonnes
9 4-axled truck 4 *
10 5-axled truck 5 *
11 6-axled truck 6 *
12 3-axled trailer 3 *
13 4-axled trailer 4 *
* Not needed for definition
For geometric design purposes it is also necessary to count non-motorised and intermediate means of
transport including pedestrians, bicycles, animal transport, motorcycles, tractors and trailers.

B - Chapter 3 - 6
3.4.2 Traffic volumes
The (Annual) Average Daily Traffic (AADT) is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions
and divided by 365. It is usually obtained by recording actual traffic volumes over a much shorter period
from which the AADT is then estimated.
Where there is no existing road of any sort, the existing pedestrian traffic can be used to estimate the
likely vehicular traffic after the road is constructed. Alternatively, traffic information might be available
from an economic evaluation carried out to justify the road in the first place. In the unlikely event that
there is no information available, the lowest class of engineered road (DC1) should be provided.
3.4.3 Traffic growth
Future traffic falls into the following three categories:

Normal traffic. Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new pavement
were provided.
Generated traffic. Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or improvement of
the road.
Diverted traffic. Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the project road
because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin and destination.
The AADT in both directions in the first year of analysis consists of the current traffic plus an estimate of
the diverted traffic. If the total traffic is denoted by AADT0 and the general growth rate is i per cent per
annum, then the traffic in any subsequent year, x, is given by the following equation:
AADTx = AADT0 (1+i/100)x Equation B.3.1
3.4.4 Geometric design
Four different basic geometric standards (DC1-DC4) are defined for LVRs based on the number of
4-wheeled (and more) vehicles defined in Table B.3.1. The traffic level is the sum for both directions
and is estimated at the middle of the design life period. A design life of 10 years is recommended for
unpaved roads and 15 years for paved roads hence Equation B.3.1 is used to calculate the traffic after 5
or 7 years respectively. Where the expected traffic is near to a traffic boundary, the higher classification
should be adopted.
Geometric design also requires the traffic level of pedestrians, non-motorized and intermediate forms of
traffic and this is calculated in the same way using Equation B.3.1.
3.4.5 Structural design
For structural pavement design the cumulative traffic loading of each of the motorised vehicle classes
over the design life of the road in one direction is required. For a given class, m, this is given by the
following equation:
T(m) = 0.5 x 365 x AADT(m)0 [(1+i/100)N – 1]/(i/100) Equation B.3.2
Where
T(m) = the cumulative traffic of traffic class m
AADT(m)0 = The AADT of traffic class m in the first year
N = the design period in years
i = the annual growth rate of traffic in per cent
The cumulative traffic for each class of vehicle is multiplied by the average number of equivalent standard
axles of vehicles in that class to calculate the cumulative total number of equivalent standard axles over
the life of the road.

B - Chapter 3 - 7
3.4.6 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class
The number of equivalent standard axles (ef) of an axle is related to the axle load as follows:
ef = (P/8160)n (for loads in kg) Equation B.3.3
or ef = (P/80)n (for loads in kN) Equation B.3.4
Where:
ef = number of equivalent standard axles (esas)
P = axle load (in kg or kN)
n = damage exponent (n = 4 for LVRs).
The sum of the individual ef values for each axle of the vehicle gives the equivalence factor for the
vehicle as a whole, EF(m). Guidance on the likely average EF(m) for different vehicle classes derived from
historical data is given in Table B.3.2. However, data from any recent axle load survey on the road in
question or a similar road in the vicinity is better than using countrywide averages.
The cumulative esas over the design period for each vehicle class is obtained by multiplying EF(m) by
the cumulative traffic, T(m). The total number of cumulative standard axles for all vehicle classes is then
obtained by adding together the values of EF(m) x T(m) for all the classes.
In some cases there will be distinct differences in each direction and separate vehicle damage factors for
each direction should be derived. The higher of the two directional values should be used for design.
Table B.3.2: Average equivalency factors for different vehicle types
No of Average esa per vehicle Average esa per vehicle

Class Type
axles - all loaded - half loaded(1)
1 Car 2 - -
2 4-wheel drive 2 - -
3 Minibus 2 0.3 0.15
4 Bus/coach 2 2.0 1.0
5 Small truck/PU 2 1.5 0.7
6 Medium truck 2 5 2.5
7 Large 2-axled truck 2 10 5
8 3-axled truck 3 12 3.5
12 2-axled trailer 2 10 5
13 4-axled trailer 4 12 6
Note:
1. It is common to find that vehicles have no back load hence half the vehicles are likely to be empty, or nearly so.
On narrow roads the traffic tends to be more channelised than on wider two lane roads. In such cases
the effective traffic loading is greater than that for a wider road and the design traffic loading (esas) is
calculated using the relationships given in Table B.3.3.

B - Chapter 3 - 8
Table B.3.3: Factors for design traffic loading
Cross Paved Corrected design

Explanatory notes
Section width traffic loading (esa)
The driving pattern on
Double the sum of
< 3.5m this cross-section is very
esas in both directions
channelized.
Min. 3.5m but less than The sum of esas in Traffic in both directions
4.5.m both directions uses the same lane
Single
carriageway To allow for overlap in
80% of the esas in
Min. 4.5m but less than 6 m the centre section of
both directions
the road
Total esas in the Minimal traffic overlap
6m or wider heaviest loaded in the centre section of
direction the road.
90% of the total The majority of vehicles
More than one lane
esas in the studied use one lane in each
in each direction
direction direction.
Construction traffic can also be a significant proportion of total traffic on LVRs (sometimes 20 – 40 % of
total traffic) and should be taken into account in the design of the pavement.
For very low volume roads (traffic <25 vpd), a detailed traffic analysis is seldom warranted because
environmental rather than traffic loading factors generally determine the performance of roads.

B - Chapter 4 - 9
4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS
The flow diagram in Figure B.4.1 shows the process for the geometric design of low volume roads. This
is followed by Tables of key data. Further details of the geometric design process is provided in Chapter
4 of Part D.
Step 1 Step 1
Determine AADT of motorised Determine AADT of heavy
traffic trucks (3-axles or more)
Select road class
Step 2 Step 4
Step 3
Determine daily PCUs of non Determine nature of roadside
Determine terrain class
-motorised traffic population
Step 5
Select Road Type or Types
Step 6
Select widths of
carriageway & shoulders
Determine a trial alignment

using the parameters
selected.
Figure B.4.1: Selection of appropriate geometric design standards

B - Chapter 4 - 10
4.1 Traffic composition

The proportion of heavy vehicles in the traffic stream on LVRs is often quite high. The Geometric Design
standards for DC2, DC3 and DC4 include a modification to cater for this.
In order to quantify traffic for normal capacity design the concept of equivalent PCUs is used. The PCU
values are shown Table B.4.1.
Table B.4.1: PCU values
Vehicle PCU value

Pedestrian 0.15
Bicycle 0.2
Motor cycle 0.25
Bicycle with trailer 0.35
Motor cycle taxi (bajaj) 0.4
Motor cycle with trailer 0.45
Small animal-drawn cart 0.7
Bullock cart 2.0
All based on a passenger car = 1.0
4.2 Roadside population and non-motorised vehicles

If the road is passing through a Wereda seat or a larger populated area, an extra carriageway of 3.5m
width is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian footpath
is also specified. The latter is essentially the road shoulder (Tables B.4.2 and B.4.3). In addition, the main
running surface is paved and is 7.0m wide.
When passing through a Kebele seat a 2.5m paved shoulder is specified but no additional footpath,
though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.
These standards are not justified for the lower traffic levels of DC2, which is a single carriageway, unless
the road is passing through a particularly well populated area that is not classified as a Kebele or Wereda
seat but where additional traffic may be expected. In such circumstances the shoulders should be widened
to 2.5 metres for the extent of the populated area.
If the road is passing through a Wereda seat or a larger populated area, an extra carriageway of 3.5m
width is provided in each direction for parking and for passenger pick-up and a 2.5m pedestrian footpath
is also specified. The latter is essentially the road shoulder (Tables B.4.2 and B4.3). In addition, the main
running surface is paved and is 7.0m wide.
When passing through a Kebele seat a 2.5m paved shoulder is specified but no additional footpath,
though one could be provided if required. The carriageway is also increased to 7.0m and therefore the
standard is very similar to DC4 but with wider shoulders.
These standards are not justified for the lower traffic levels of DC2, which is a single carriageway, unless
the road is passing through a particularly well populated area that is not classified as a Kebele or Wereda
seat but where additional traffic may be expected. In such circumstances the shoulders should be widened
to 2.5 metres for the extent of the populated area.
Additional shoulder widths are also provided if there is a high number of PCUs of non-motorised
vehicles,(defined as more than 300 PCUs per day on average (Tables B.4.2 and B4.3)

B - Chapter 4 - 11
Table B.4.2: Increased ‘shoulder’ widths (each side) for unpaved LVRs
Basic shoulder widths (m) High

Design standard ‘Populated’areas
Flat Rolling Mount’n Escarp’t PCUs
DC4 unpaved +3.5 +2.0
DC3 unpaved Shoulders not defined for unpaved roads. +3.5 +1.5
The figure is for increased width each side
DC2 unpaved but DC1 is unlikely in populated areas +2.5 +1.25(1)
DC1 +2.0
Notes
1. DC2 is effectively a single carriageway hence less extra width is needed for PCUs.
Table B.4.3 Shoulder widths (each side) for paved LVRs
Basic shoulder widths (m) Populated

High
Design standard section for
Flat Rolling Mount’n Escarp’t PCUs
‘parking’
DC4 paved 1.25 1.25 0.5 0.5 3.5 +2.0
DC3 paved 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 3.5 +1.5
(1)
DC2 paved 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 2.5 +1.25(2)
DC1(1) 2.0
Notes
1. Paved sections are single carriageway resulting in a wider shoulder.
2. DC2 is effectively a single carriageway hence less extra width is needed for high PCUs.
4.3 Geometric design standards for LVRs

The design standards are shown in Tables B.4.4 to B.4.10. In these Tables ‘large vehicles’ are defined as
trucks with three or more axles and gross vehicle weights greater than 10 tonnes. Two sets of tables are
shown, one for paved roads and one for unpaved roads.
Sometime there will be cases where it is impossible to meet any of the standards mainly due to severe
terrain conditions. Under such circumstances the standards must be relaxed and suitable permanent
signage used to warn road users.

B - Chapter 4 - 12
Table B.4.4: Geometric design standards for paved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)
Populated
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment
areas
Design speed km/hr 70 60 50 25 50
Width of running
m 6.5(2) 6.5(2) 6.5 6.5 6.5(1)
surface
Width of shoulders m 1.25(2) 1.25(2) 0.5 0.5 1.25(3)
Total width m 9.0 9.0 7.5 7.5 9.0
Min stopping sight
m 110 90 70 25 65
distance
Min horizontal
m 195 135 85 15(4) 85
radius for SE=4%
Min horizontal
m 170 120 75 17(4) NA
radius for SE=7%
Min horizontal
m 150 105 70 22(4) NA
radius for SE=10%
Max desirable
% 4 7 10 12 4
gradient
Maximum gradient % 7 10 12(5) 12(5) 6
Min crest vertical
K 21 12 7 4 7
curve
Min sag vertical
K 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Normal cross-fall % 3 3 3 3 3
Shoulder cross-fall % 6 6 3 3 6
Notes:
1. If there are more than 80 large vehicles then DC5 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles is >40 then this should be increased to 7.0m and shoulders reduced to 1.0m.
3. Parking lanes and footpaths may be required.
4. On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to a minimum of 15m.
5. Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradients required (<6% for minimum of 200m).

B - Chapter 4 - 13
Table B.4.5: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC4(1) (AADT 150-300)
Design Element Unit Flat Rolling Mountain Escarpment Populated areas

(3) (3)
Road width m 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0 7.0(2,3)
Min stopping sight
m 125 105 75 28 70
distance
Min horizontal radius m 245 175 110 23(4) 110
Max desirable gradient % 4 6 6 6 4
Max gradient % 6 9 9 9 6
Max. super-elevation % 6 6 6 6 6
Min crest vertical curve K 34 19 11 6 11
Min sag vertical curve m 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
Normal cross-fall(5) % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
3. If the number of large vehicles >40 then this should be increased to 7.5m.
5. Cross fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (eg poor gravel (for safety), low rainfall).
Table B.4.6: Geometric design standards for paved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)

Width of running
m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0
surface
Width of shoulders m 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0(2)
Total width m 8.0 8.0 7.0 7.0 8.0
Min stopping sight
m 110 90 70 25 65
distance
Min horizontal radius
m 195 135 85 20(3) 85
for SE=4%
m 170 120 75 18(3) NA
for SE=7%
m 150 105 70 16(3) NA
for SE=10%
(4,5) (4,5)
Maximum gradient % 7 10 12 12 6
Minimum sag vertical
m 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Notes:
5. 5 If the number of large vehicles <20 this can be increased to 15%.

B - Chapter 4 - 14
Table B.4.7: Geometric design standards for unpaved DC3(1) (AADT 75-150)

Road width m 7.0 7.0 6.5 6.5 7.0(2)
Min stopping sight
m 125 105 75 28 70
distance
Min horizontal radius m 245 175 110 23(4) 110
Max desirable
% 4 6 6 6 4
gradient
Min crest vertical
K 34 19 11 3 11
curve
Minimum sag vertical
K 4.8 3.5 2.2 1.3 2.2
curve
Normal cross-fall(3) % 6 6 6 6 6
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles is >30, then DC4 should be used.
3. Cross fall can be reduced to 4% where warranted (eg poor gravel (for safety), low rainfall).
Table B.4.8: Geometric design standards for DC2 paved(1) (AADT 25-75)
Populated
areas
Width of running surface m 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.3
Width of shoulders m 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.5(2)
Total width m 6.3 6.3 5.3 5.3 6.3
Min stopping sight distance m 85 70 50 17 65
Min horizontal radius for
m 135 85 50 15(3) 85
SE=4%
m 120 75 45 15(3) NA
SE=7%
m 105 70 40 15(3) NA
SE=10%
(4) (4)
Minimum sag vertical curve K 3.5 2.2 1.3 0.7 2.2
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles >20 then DC3 should be used.

B - Chapter 4 - 15
Table B.4.9: Geometric design standards for DC2 (1, 2) unpaved (AADT 25-75)
Populated
areas
(5)
Road width m 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0(3)
(4)
Min horizontal radius m 175 110 70 15 110
Notes:
1. If the number of large vehicles is >20 then DC3 should be used.
2. If the number of large vehicles is <10 then DC1 may be used
5. Road widths may be reduced at the discretion of the engineer and approval of the client to address specific local
conditions, especially in mountainous areas
Table B.4.10: Geometric design standards for DC1 (AADT 1-25)
Populated
areas
Desirable speed km/hr 50 40 30 20 40
Road width m 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5
(1)
Min horizontal radius m 110 70 35 15 70
(2) (2) (2) (2)
Max gradient % 12 12 12 12 6
Notes:
1. On hairpin stacks the minimum radius may be reduced to 13m.
2. Length not to exceed 200m and relief gradient required (<6% for minimum of 200m)
For the lowest category of road it may sometimes be necessary to adopt a basic access only approach.
For such roads it may be too expensive to provide a design speed but minimum absolute standards must
be applied. These are summarised in Table B.4.10.

B - Chapter 4 - 16
Table B.4.11: Minimum standards for basic access
Characteristic Minimum requirements

Radius of horizontal curvature 12m absolute but up to 20m depending on expected vehicles
Vertical curvature
K value for crests 2.5
K value for sags 0.6
Maximum gradients
Open to all vehicles 14%
Open only to cars and pick-ups 16%
Minimum stopping sight distance Flat and Rolling terrain 50m
Mountainous 35m
Escarpments 20m
For classes of road with the higher design speeds, adverse cross fall should be removed for curves with
low radii as indicated in Table B.4.12.
Table B.4.12: Adverse cross-fall to be removed if radii are less than shown
Minimum radii (m)

Design speed (km/h)
Paved Unpaved
<50 500 700
60 700 1000
70 1000 1300
85 1400 _
100 2000 _
Where super-elevation is required it should be developed gradually as indicated in Table B.4.13.
Table B.4.13: Super-elevation development lengths
Design speed (km/h) Development length (m)

30 25
40 30
50 40
60 55
70 65
80 80
In situations where low radii of curvature are necessary, the curves must be widened on the inside as
indicated in Table B.4.14.
Table B.4.14: Widening recommendations (m)
Single lane roads Two lane roads

Curve radius 20 30 40 60 <50 51-150 151-300 301-400
(1)
Increase in width 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.5 1.5 1.0 0.75 0.5
Notes:
1. See Section D.4.6.4 dealing with hairpin stacks.

B - Chapter 4 - 17
4.4 Design-by-eye
The design-by-eye method is best suited to rehabilitation or upgrading projects where a road alignment
already exists and is the preferred method for developing a design for a track or undesignated road under
a community roads programme where a walking track is being improved to enable it to carry occasional
vehicles. Nevertheless, considerable experience and skill is needed to carry out the design-by-eye method
and the approach should only be used under the guidance and supervision of an experienced engineer.
4.5 Typical Cross Sections

Typical cross sections for a range of conditions are shown in Figures B.4.2 to B.4.13. They include:
Roads on flat terrain;
Roads on rolling terrain;
Roads on mountainous terrain;
Roads on escarpments;
Roads through populated areas;
Roads on expansive soils.
Slope dimensions for the various conditions are summarised in Table B.4.15.
Table B.4.15: Slope dimensions for cross-sections (ratios are vertical:horizontal)
Side slope Safety

Material Height of slope (m) Back slope
Cut Fill classification
0.0-1.0 1:4 1:4 1:3 Recoverable
Not
Earth(1) 1.0-2.0 1:3 1:3 1:2
recoverable
>2.0 1:2 1:2 1:1.5 Critical
Rock Any height Dependant on costs Critical
Expansive 0-2.0 n/a 1:6 Recoverable
clays(2) >2.0 n/a 1:4
Notes:
1. See Cross Section
2. Certain soils may be unstable at slopes of 1:2. Geotechnical advice required.
3. The drainage ditch should be moved away from the embankment
The detailed cross-sections to scale are given in the Standard Detail Drawings (2011).

B - Chapter 4 - 18

Figure B.4.2: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Unpaved

Design Classes
Label Design Criteria
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m) 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
B Shoulder width (m) 0.6 0.5 0.75 0.75
C Min Crossfall/Camber (%) 4 4 4 4
D Backslope of ditch (v:h ratio)
See Table B.4.15
E Side slope of ditch (v:h ratio)
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Varies
H Crown height (m) 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
J Cleared width (m) 15 20 20 20
Notes:

1. Section not drawn to scale;
2. V-shape is the standard shape of the drainage ditch constructed by motor or towed grader;
3. Trapezoidal drains are commonly used and are much easier to dig and clean using labour-intensive methods. The minimum recommended width is 400mm and the typical cross-
section is shown below
!
6400
1 1-3,1'
2
4. Rectangular drains need to be lined with rock, brick stone masonry or concrete to maintain their shape;
5. More detail on side drains is provided in Part D, Section 5.4.4.

0

Figure B.4.3: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m), minimum 3.3 6.0 6.5
B Shoulder width (m) 1.5 1.0 1.25
B1 Shoulder Crossfall (%) 6 6 6
C Crossfall/Camber (%) 3 3 3
See Table B.4.15
F Depth of side ditch (m) Varies

H Crown height (m) 0.75 0.75 0.75
J Cleared width (m) 20 20 20
Notes:
2. V-shape is the standard shape of the drainage ditch constructed by motor or towed grader;
3. Trapezoidal drains are commonly used and are much easier to dig and clean using labour-intensive methods. The minimum recommended width is 500mm;
4. Rectangular drains need to be lined with rock, brick stone masonry or concrete to maintain their shape;
5. More detail on side drains is provided in Part D, Section 5.4.4.
B - Chapter 4 - 19
B - Chapter 4 - 20

Figure B.4.4: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Rolling Terrain, Unpaved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
See Table B.4.15
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Varies
G Side slope (v:h ratio) See Table B.4.15

H Crown height (m) 0.35 0.35 0.5 0.5
K Embankment toe (m) Varies
Notes:
1. Section not drawn to scale.

0

Figure B.4.5: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Rolling Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m) 3.3 6.0 6.5
See Table B.4.15

G Side slope See Table B.4.15
H Crown height (m) 0.75 0.75 0.75
K Embankment toe (m) Varies
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 21

"
B - Chapter 4 - 22
#

/+3

/+5
0+/

5;

Figure B.4.6: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Mountainous Terrain, Unpaved

Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4

See Table B.4.15
F Depth of Side ditch (m) 0.35
L Ditch width (m) Varies
Notes:

"
#

/+3

/+5
0+/

5;
0

Figure B.4.7: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Mountainous Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
B1 Shoulder crossfall (%) 3 3 3

See Table B.4.15
F Depth of Side ditch (m) 0.5
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 23

1.
B - Chapter 4 - 24

/+3

"#
/+5

$

%$ !

$"%$%"
0+/

"
Figure B.4.8: Typical cross section: DC1 – 4, Escarpment Terrain, Unpaved

Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4

See Table B.4.15
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Min 0.35
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes:

/+3

"#
/+5

$

%$ !

$"%$%"
0+/

0

"

Figure B.4.9: Typical cross section: DC1 – 4, Escarpment Terrain, Paved

Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
B1 Shoulder crossfall (%) 3 3 3

See Table B.4.15
F Depth of Side ditch (m) Min 0.5
M Slope of retaining structure Varies
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 25

B - Chapter 4 - 26

$1

0+/ $0
/+14 /+4
0 0
3 3
$0
Figure B.4.10 Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Populated areas, Unpaved

Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m), minimum 3.3 5.0 5.5 6.0
Notes:
1. Open channel type A – 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching
Open channel type B – 25 cm thick mortared stone pitching

2. Wearing course
3. Choice of open channel dependent on local conditions
4. Provide lined channels only where maintenance of road surface and camber at original levels is guaranteed.

$
#

Figure B.4.13: Typical cross section, DC1 – 4, Flat Terrain, Expansive soils, Paved
Design Classes
DC1 DC2 DC3 DC4
A Carriage width (m), minimum 3.3 6.0 6.5
See Table B.4.15

G Side slope Varies
H Crown height (m) 0.75 0.75 0.75
Notes:
B - Chapter 4 - 27
B - Chapter 5 - 28
5. MATERIALS
For materials specifications see Part D, Section 6.7.
5.1 Subgrades
Subgrades are classified on the basis of the laboratory soaked CBR tests on samples compacted to 97%
AASHTO T180 compaction. Samples are soaked for four days or until zero swell is recorded. The subgrade
strength for design is assigned to one of six strength classes reflecting the sensitivity of thickness design
to subgrade strength. The classes are defined in Table B.5.1.
For the design of earth and gravel roads, if no suitable laboratory is available, the existing subgrade can
be assessed using a DCP at the time of the year that the soil is at its wettest.
Table B.5.1: Subgrade classes
Subgrade Class
Design CBR S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
Range % 3-4 5-8 9 - 14 15 - 29 30+
No allowance for CBRs below 3% has been made because, from both a technical and economic
perspective, it would normally be inappropriate to lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing capacity.
For such materials, special treatment is required (see Section D.6.19.7).
The use of Class S2 soils as direct support for the pavement should be avoided as much as possible.
Wherever practicable, such relatively poor soils should be excavated and replaced, or covered with an
improved subgrade.
Class S6 covers all subgrade materials having a soaked CBR greater than 30 and which comply with the
plasticity requirements for natural sub-base. In such cases, no sub-base is required.
5.1.1 Specifying the design subgrade class
The CBR results obtained from the subgrade soils testing are used to determine which subgrade class
should be specified for design purposes in accordance with Table B.5.1. The variation in results may make
selection unclear. In such cases it is recommended that, firstly, the laboratory test process is checked to
ensure uniformity (to minimise inherent variation arising from, for example, inconsistent drying out of
specimens). Secondly, more samples should be tested to build up a more reliable basis for selection.
Plotting these results as a cumulative distribution curve (S-curve) in which the y-axis is the percentage
of samples less than a given CBR value (x-axis) provides a method of determining a design CBR value
(Figure B.5.1).

B - Chapter 5 - 29
Figure B.5.1: Illustration of CBR strength cumulative distribution
The actual subgrade CBR values used for design depends on the traffic class as shown in Table B.5.2. For
example, as indicated in the Table, for a design traffic class of LV5 the design CBR value should be the
lower 10th percentile (ie the value exceeded by 90% of the CBR measurements).
Table B.5.2: Dependence of design subgrade on design traffic class
Traffic class Design CBR

LV5 (0.5-1.0 mesa) Lower 10-percentile
LV3 and LV4 (0.1-0.5 mesa) Lower 15-percentile
LV1 and LV2 (<0.1mesa) 30th percentile
5.1.2 Material depth
The concept of “material depth” is used to denote the depth below the finished level of the road to
which soil characteristics have a significant effect on pavement behaviour and throughout which the
nominal subgrade strength selected for design should be maintained.
Table B.5.3 specifies typical material depths used for determining the design CBR of the subgrade. Note
that this depth may be insufficient in certain special cases where “problem” soils occur (See Part D,
Section 6.19).
Table B.5.3: Material depth by road category
Road Category Material Depth (mm)

DC 7 and DC 8 1,000 – 1,200
High volume roads
DC 5 and DC 6 800 – 1,000
DC 3 and DC 4 800
Low volume roads
DC 1 and DC 2 700
The minimum depths indicated in the Table are not depths to which re-compaction and reworking is
necessarily required. Rather, they are the depths to which the Engineer should confirm that the nominal

B - Chapter 5 - 30
subgrade strength is available. In general, unnecessary working of the subgrade should be avoided and
limited to rolling prior to constructing overlying layers
For the stronger subgrades, especially Class S4 and higher (CBR 9-14% and more) the depth check is to
ensure that there is no underlying weaker material which could lead to detrimental performance.
It is recommended that the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) be used during construction to monitor
the uniformity of subgrade support to the recommended minimum depths given in Table B.5.3.
5.1.3 Improved subgrade layers
There are many advantages to improving the CBR strength of the in situ subgrade to a minimum of
15% (Subgrade Class S5) by constructing one or more improved layers where necessary. In principle,
where a sufficient thickness of improved subgrade is placed, the overall subgrade bearing strength is
increased to that of a higher class and the sub-base thickness may be reduced accordingly. This is often
an economic advantage as sub-base quality materials are generally more expensive than fill materials,
hence the decision whether or not to consider the use of an improved subgrade layer(s) will generally
depend on the respective costs of sub-base and improved subgrade materials.
5.1.4 Dealing with poor subgrade soils
Methods of design and treatment for problem soils are described in Part D Section 6.19.
5.2 Pavement Materials

The material code and characteristics of the material types for both paved and unpaved roads are
described in Table B.5.4.

B - Chapter 5 - 31
Table B.5.4: Pavement material types and abbreviated nominal specifications

used in the paved and unpaved catalogue of designs
Code Material Abbreviated Specifications
Min. CBR: 80% @ 98/100% AASHTO T180 and 4 days soaking

Max. Swell: 0.2%
G80 Natural gravel
Max. Size and grading: Max size 37.5mm, grading as specified.
PI: < 6 or as otherwise specified (material specific).
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G65 Natural gravel
Max. Size and grading: Max size 37.5mm, grading as specified
PI: < 6 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G55 Natural gravel
Max. Swell: 0.2%
G45 Natural gravel
Min. CBR: 30% @ 95/97% AASHTO T180 & highest anticipated moisture
content
G30 Natural gravel Max. Swell: 1.0% @ 100% AASHTO T180
Max. Size and grading: Max size 63mm or 2/3 layer thickness
content
G25 Natural gravel Max. Swell: 1.0% @ 100% AASHTO T180
Max. Size and grading: Max sixe 63mm or 2/3 layer thickness.
PI: <12 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
content
G15 Gravel/soil Max. Swell: 1.5% @ 100% AASHTO T180
Max. Size: 2/3 of layer thickness
PI: < 12 or 3GM + 10 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
content
G7 Gravel/soil Max. Swell: 1.5% @ 100% AASHTO T180
Max. Size: 2/3 layer thickness
PI: < 12 or 3GM + 10 or as otherwise specified (material specific)
content
G3 Gravel/soil
Max. Swell: N/A
Max. Size: 2/3 layer thickness
Note:
Two alternative minimum levels of compaction are specified. Where the higher densities can be realistically attained in
the field (from field measurements on similar materials or other established information) they should be specified by the
Engineer.

B - Chapter 5 - 32
5.2.1 Materials requirements for roadbase
A wide range of materials including lateritic, calcareous and quartzitic gravels, river gravels and other
transported and residual gravels, or granular materials resulting from weathering of rocks can be used
successfully as road base materials.
Particle size distribution: The grading envelopes to be used for road base are shown in Table B.5.6.
Envelope A varies depending whether the nominal maximum particle size is 37.5mm, 20mm or 10mm. A
requirement of five to ten per cent retained on successive sieves may be specified at higher traffic (>0.3
mesa) to prevent excessive loss in stability. Envelope C extends the upper limit of envelope B to allow
the use of sandy materials, but its use is not permitted in wet climates. Envelope D is similar to a gravel
wearing course specification, and is used for very low traffic volumes. The grading is specified only in
terms of the grading modulus (GM) and can be used in both wet and dry climates.
Table B.5.5: Particle size distribution for natural gravel base
Per cent by mass of total aggregate passing test sieve

Test Sieve Envelope A
size Nominal maximum particle size Envelope B Envelope C
37.5mm 20mm 10mm
50mm 100 100
37.5mm 80-100 100 80-100
20mm 55-95 80-100 100 55-100
10mm 40-80 55-85 60-100 40-100
5mm 30-65 30-65 45-80 30-80
2.36mm 20-50 20-50 35-75 20-70 20-100
1.18mm - - - - -
425µm 8-30 12-30 12-45 8-45 8-80
300µm - - - - -
75µm 5-20 5-20 5-20 5-20 5-30
Envelope D
1.65 < GM < 2.65
Strength and plasticity: The strength requirement varies depending on the traffic level and climate
as outlined in the Catalogue of Structures (Chapter B.6). The soaked CBR test is used to specify the
minimum road base material strength.
The plasticity requirement also varies depending on the traffic level and climate as shown in Tables B.5.7
and B.5.8. A maximum plasticity index of 6 has been retained for higher traffic levels and also on weaker
subgrades. For designs in dry environments the plasticity modulus for each traffic and subgrade class
can be increased depending on the crown height and whether unsealed or sealed shoulders are used as
described in Part D, Section 6.17.2 and Figure D.6.22.

B - Chapter 5 - 33
Table B.5.6: Plasticity requirements for natural gravel road base materials
Traffic class (Mesas)

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
Subgrade
Property
class4
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
S2 Ip <12 <9 <6 <6 <6

PM <400 <150 <120 <90 <90
Grading B B A A A
S3 Ip <15 <12 <9 <6 <6
PM <550 <250 <180 <90 <90
Grading C(1) B B A A
S4 Ip Note(2) <12 <12 <9 <9
PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
Grading D(3) B B B A
S5 Ip Note(2) <15 <12 <12 <9
PM - <400 <350 <250 <150
Grading D(3) B B B A
S6 Ip Note(2) <15 <15 <12 <9
PM - <550 <500 <300 <180
Grading D(3) C(1) B B A
Notes:
1. Grading ‘C’ is not permitted in wet environments or climates (N<4); grading ‘B’ is the minimum requirement
2. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
3. Grading ‘D’ is based on the grading modulus 1.65 < GM < 2.65
4. All base materials are natural gravels; Subgrades are non-expansive
Lateritic road base gravels: The requirements for selection and use of lateritic gravels for bases are
slightly different to those given for other natural gravels. These are presented in Table B.5.8. A maximum
plasticity index of 9 has been specified for higher traffic levels and weak subgrades. For design traffic
levels greater than 0.3 mesa, a requirement is set that the liquid limit should be less than 30. Below this
traffic level, this requirement is relaxed to a liquid limit of less than 35. Where sealed shoulders over one
metre wide are specified in the design, the maximum plasticity modulus may be increased by 40 per cent.
A minimum field compacted dry density of 2.0 Mg/m3 is required for these materials.

B - Chapter 5 - 34
Table B.5.7: Guidelines for the selection of lateritic gravel road base materials
Traffic class (Mesas)

LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
Subgrade
Property
class <0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
Ip <15 <12 <9 <9 <6

S2 PM <400 <150 <150 <120 <90
Grading B B A A A
Ip <18 <15 <12 <9 <6
S3 PM <550 <250 <180 <120 <90
Grading C(1) B B A A
Ip <20(1) <15 <15 <9 <9
S4 PM <800 <320 <300 <200 <90
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B A
Ip <25(1) <18 <15 <12 <9
S5 PM - <400 <350 <250 <150
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B B
Ip <25(1) <20 <18 <15 <12
S6 PM - <550 <400 <300 <180
Grading GM 1.6-2.6 B B B A
Notes:
1. Maximum Ip = 8 x GM
2. Unsealed shoulders are assumed. Further modification to the limits can be made if the shoulders are sealed.
3. The compaction requirement for the soaked CBR test to define the subgrade classes is 100% Mod. AASHTO with a
minimum soaking time of 4 days or until zero swell is recorded. This is a relaxation of the soaked CBR requirement for
natural gravel base materials given in the catalogues.
Basic igneous rock (including basaltic and doleritic gravels): These materials occur extensively in
Ethiopia and their more wide-spread use could result in significant savings provided the characteristics
of the material are good enough to serve as a road base material.. The following indicative limits can
contribute to successful use of the material in road bases:
Maximum secondary mineral content of 20 per cent (determined from petrographic analysis);
Maximum loss of 12 or 20 per cent after 5 cycles in the sodium or magnesium sulphate soundness
tests, respectively;
Clay index of less than 3 in the dye absorption test;
Increase in modified glycol-soaked AIV from the wet modified AIV should be < 4% units.
Durability mill index of less than 125.
In drier climatic areas (N>4), the materials can be used unmodified up to a maximum plasticity index
of 10. However, it is suggested that the materials should not be used in wet areas unless chemically
modified. The risk of using the material can be minimised if consideration is given to:
The variability of the material deposit, with good selection and control procedures in place for the
operation of the pit and on site;
The provision of good drainage conditions (these materials are particularly sensitive to moisture);
The adequacy of the pavement design (the use of Pavement Catalogue 2 with sealed shoulders is
suggested);
The use of double surface treatments or similar.
Engineers need to use considerable judgement, experience and information from other roads in the area
to utilise these materials successfully. Risks must be identified and controlled.

B - Chapter 5 - 35
Cinder gravels: Cinder gravels have been used successfully as road base on experimental sections
constructed in the late 1970s (TRL, 1987). From these trials it was concluded that with careful selection,
cinder gravels can be used for lightly trafficked paved roads in accordance with the requirements of the
pavement design chart 2 (Table B.6.7)
5.2.2 Material requirements for sub-base
Strength requirements: A minimum CBR of 30% is required at the highest anticipated moisture content
when compacted to the specified field density, usually a minimum of 95% (preferably 97% where
practicable) AASHTO T180 compaction.
Under conditions of good drainage and when the water table is not near the ground surface, the field
moisture content under a sealed pavement will be equal to or less than the optimum moisture content
in the AASHTO T180 compaction test. In such conditions, the sub-base material should be tested in the
laboratory in an unsaturated state.
If the road base allows water to drain into the lower layers, as may occur with unsealed shoulders and
under conditions of poor surface maintenance where the road base is pervious, saturation of the sub-
base is likely. In these circumstances the bearing capacity should be determined on samples soaked in
water for a period of four days. The test should be conducted on samples prepared at the density and
moisture content likely to be achieved in the field.
Particle size distribution and plasticity requirements: In order to achieve the required bearing capacity,
and for uniform support to be provided to the upper pavement, limits on soil plasticity and particle size
distribution may be required. Materials which meet the recommendations of Tables B.5.9 and B.5.10 will
usually be found to have adequate bearing capacity.
Table B.5.8: Typical particle size distribution for sub-bases
Per cent by mass of total

Sieve Size (mm)
aggregate passing test sieve
50 100
37.5 80 – 100
20 60 – 80
5 30 – 100
1.18 17 – 75
0.3 9 – 50
0.075 5 - 25
Table B.5.9: Plasticity characteristics for granular sub-bases
Climate Liquid Limit Plasticity Index Linear Shrinkage

Moist tropical and wet tropical (N<4) < 35 <6 <3
Seasonally wet tropical (N<4) < 45 < 12 <6
Arid and semi-arid (N>4) <55 < 20 <10
5.2.3 Material requirements for gravel wearing course
The specifications identify the most suitable materials in terms of two basic soil parameters – Shrinkage
Product and Grading Coefficient – which are determined from particle size distribution and linear
shrinkage as shown in Figure B.5.2.

B - Chapter 5 - 36
An alternative to using linear shrinkage and the shrinkage product is to use the plasticity index and the
associated plasticity product. For the range of materials likely to be used for gravel wearing course, the
plasticity index can be assumed to be 2 x linear shrinkage. The linear shrinkage (shrinkage product) is
recommended as it is based on one relatively simple test which has good precision limits in the shrinkage
ranges of acceptable gravel wearing course material.
Figure B.5.2: Material quality zones
The characteristics of materials in each zone are as follows:

A: Materials in this area generally perform satisfactorily but are finely graded and particularly prone
to erosion. They should be avoided if possible, especially on steep grades and sections with steep
cross-falls and super-elevations. Roads constructed from these materials require frequent periodic
labour intensive maintenance over short lengths and have high gravel losses due to erosion.
B: These materials generally lack cohesion and are highly susceptible to the formation of loose
material (ravelling) and corrugations. Regular maintenance is necessary if these materials are used
and the road roughness is to be restricted to reasonable levels.
C: Materials in this zone generally comprise fine, gap-graded gravels lacking adequate cohesion,
resulting in ravelling and the production of loose material.
D: Materials with a shrinkage product in excess of 365 tend to be slippery when wet.
E: Materials in this zone perform well in general, provided the oversize material is restricted to the
recommended limits.
Gravel loss: Gravel loss is the single most important reason why gravel roads are expensive in whole
life cost terms and often unsustainable, especially when traffic levels increase. Reducing gravel loss by
selecting better quality gravels or modifying the properties of poorer quality materials is one way of
reducing long term costs. Gravel losses (gravel loss in mm/year/100vpd) are determined in relation to
the quality of the gravel wearing course (Table B.5.11).

B - Chapter 5 - 37
Table B.5.10: Typical standardised gravel loss
Material Quality Zone1 Material Quality Typical gravel loss (mm/yr/100vpd)

Zone A Satisfactory 20
Zone B Poor 45
Zone C Poor 45
Zone D Marginal 30
Zone E Good 10
Notes:
1. See Figure B.5.2
The gravel losses shown in Table B.5.11 probably hold only for the first phase of the deterioration cycle
lasting possibly two or three years. Beyond that period, as the wearing course is reduced in thickness,
other developments, such as the formation of ruts, will also affect the loss of gravel material. However,
the rates of gravel loss given in the Table can be used as an aid to the planning for regravelling in the
future. A more accurate indication of gravel loss for a particular section of road can be obtained from
periodic measurement of the gravel layer thickness.
Material requirements for gravel roads in rural areas: Table B.5.12 shows the recommended specifications
for materials for unsealed rural roads
Table B.5.11: Recommended material specifications(1,3) for unsealed rural roads
Maximum size (mm) 37.5

Oversize index (Io)a ≤5%
Shrinkage product (Sp)b (2) 100 - 365 (max. of 240 preferable)
Grading coefficient (Gc)c (2) 16 - 34
Soaked CBR (at 95 per cent Mod AASHTO) ≥ 15 %
Treton impact value (%)(4) 20 – 65
a Io = Oversize index (percent retained on 37.5 mm sieve
b Sp = Linear shrinkage x percent passing 0.425 mm sieve
c Gc = (Percentage passing 26.5 mm - percentage passing 2.0 mm) x percentage passing
4.75 mm)/100
Notes:
1. Specifications should be applicable after placement and compaction
2. The Grading Coefficient and Shrinkage Product must be based on a conventional particle size distribution determination
which must be normalised for 100% passing the 37.5 mm screen.
3. Only representative material samples are to be tested.
4. The Treton Impact Value (TIV) limits exclude those materials that are too hard to be broken with a grid roller (TIV < 20%)
or too soft to resist excessive crushing under traffic (TIV > 65%).
Material requirements for gravel roads in ‘urban’ areas: The specifications in Table B.5.13 are
recommended for unsealed roads in areas where there is a significant number of dwellings and local
businesses. In comparison with the limits for rural roads, the limits for the oversize index have been reduced
to eliminate stones whilst the shrinkage product has been reduced to a maximum of 240 to reduce the
dust as far as practically possible. This lower limit reduces the probability of having unacceptable dust
from about 70% to 40%.

B - Chapter 5 - 38
Table B.5.12: Recommended material specifications for unsealed ‘urban’ roads
Maximum size (mm) 37.5

Oversize index (Io) 0
Shrinkage product (Sp) 100 - 240
Grading coefficient (Gc) 16 - 34
Soaked CBR (at 95 per cent Mod AASHTO) ≥ 15 %
Treton impact value (%) 20 – 65
5.2.4 Material Improvement
Obtaining materials that comply with the necessary grading and plasticity specifications for a gravel
wearing course can be difficult. Many of the natural gravels tend to be coarsely graded and relatively non
plastic and the use of such materials results in very high roughness levels and high rates of gravel loss in
service and, in the final analysis, very high life-cycle costs.
In order to achieve suitable wearing course properties a suitable Particle Size Distribution (PSD) can be
obtained by breaking down oversized material to a maximum size of 50 mm or smaller. Atterberg limits
may be modified by granular/mechanical stabilisation (blending) with other materials. These material
improvement measures are discussed in Part D, Section 6.7.6.

B - Chapter 6 - 39
6. PAVEMENT DESIGN
6.1 Design traffic classes

For structural pavement design, five traffic classes have been defined as shown in Table B.6.1. If the
estimate of cumulative traffic is close to the boundaries of a traffic class, then the basic traffic data and
forecasts should be re-evaluated and sensitivity analyses carried out to ensure that the choice of traffic
class is appropriate. If there is any doubt about the accuracy of the traffic estimates the next higher traffic
class should be selected for the design.
Table B.6.1: Traffic classes for flexible pavement design
Traffic range LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5/T2(1)

(mesas) < 0.01 0.01 – 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 0.3 – 0.5 0.5 – 1.0
LV5/T2 is the transition traffic zone between low-volume and high-volume roads with the former traffic
class (LV5) applying to the lower boundary of the traffic range and the latter traffic class (T2) applying to
the upper boundary.
6.2 Engineered natural surfaces

The following design standards are recommended for Engineered Natural Surfaces (ENS) in the DC1
design class carrying < 25 vpd. The details of the cross-section are given in Chapter B.4 but shown
schematically in Figure B.6.1 for convenience. Further supporting information is given in Section 6.15 of
Part D.
Figure B.6.1: Cross-section details ENS
The crown height of the earth road should be at least 35 cm above the bed of the drain.
Where the topography allows, wide, shallow longitudinal drainage for earth roads are preferred.
They minimise erosion, and will not block as easily as narrow ditches. The ditches grass over in
time, binding the soil surface and further slowing down the speed of water, both of which act to
prevent or reduce erosion.
The surface of earth roads should be graded and compacted to provide a durable and level
running surface for traffic and the road surface should have a minimum camber of 4% to ensure
water runs off the surface and into the side drains.
Areas where there are specific problems (usually due to water or to the poor condition of the
subgrade) may be treated in isolation by localised replacement of subgrade, gravelling, installation
of culverts, raising the roadway or by installing other drainage measures. This is the basis of a “spot
improvement” approach.
Water should be drained away from the carriageway side drains by installing lead off (mitre) drains,
to divert the flow into open space.

B - Chapter 6 - 40
6.3 Natural gravel roads

A gravel road consists of a wearing course and a structural layer (base) which covers the in situ material.
The minimum thickness of the structural layer is maintained in service by providing a wearing course
throughout the design life of the road.
To achieve adequate external drainage, the road must also be raised above the level of existing ground
such that the crown of the road is maintained at a minimum height (hmin) above the table drain inverts.
Cross sections are shown in detail in Chapter B.4 and shown here schematically for convenience (Figure
B.6.2).
Figure B.6.2 – Typical gravel road cross section in flat terrain.
The minimum height is dependent on the climate and road design class as shown in Table B.6.2.
Table B.6.2: Required minimum height (hmin) between road crown

and invert level of drain in relation to climate
Climate
Road Class Wet (N < 4) Dry (N > 4)
hmin (mm) hmin (mm)
DC-1 350 250
DC-2 400 450
DC-3 500 300
DC-4 350 400
Gravel roads are divided into two broad categories for design purposes namely ‘major’ and ‘minor’ gravel
roads. Gravel roads in classes DC3 and DC4 are defined as major gravel roads, minor gravel roads are
classes DC1 and DC2, except where the number of heavy vehicles exceeds about 10 per day. Major
gravel roads are engineered to a higher specification.
6.3.1 Major gravel roads
For major gravel roads the approach is as follows:

The sub-grade should be prepared in the same way as for a low volume sealed road.
It is assumed that the wearing course will be replaced at intervals related to the expected annual
gravel loss and before the structural layer is exposed to traffic and itself begins to wear away;
The geometry and drainage are upgraded to acceptable minimum levels during construction.
This may require the introduction of a fill layer between the compacted in situ sub-grade and the
wearing course.
Major gravel roads are likely to incur high maintenance costs in some circumstances namely;
When the quality of the gravel is poor.
Where no sources of gravel are available within a reasonable haul distance.

B - Chapter 6 - 41
On road gradients greater than about 6%.

In areas of high and intense rainfall.
In these circumstances spot improvements will almost certainly be justified, and, in some cases, it may
prove to be more economical to build a fully paved road at the outset.
The structural design procedure for major gravel roads: The design procedure consists of the following
steps:
Determine the traffic volume and traffic loading (Section B.3.4).
Determine the strength of the sub-grade at the appropriate moisture condition (Section B.5.1.1).
Establish the quality of the gravel that is to be used (Section B.5.2.3). If only very poor gravel is
available, blending with another gravel or soil to improve its properties may be an option (Section
B.5.2.5).
Determine the thickness of gravel base that is necessary to avoid excessive compressive stresses
in the sub-grade from Tables B.6.3 (a), (b) and (c).
Calculate the thickness of the wearing course based on the expected rate of gravel loss and a
realistic choice of the frequency of re-gravelling.
Table B.6.3 (a): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – strong gravel (G45)
Subgrade Traffic Classes (mesas)

Strength Class LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5
CBR (%) (<0.01) (0.01-0.1) (0.1-0.3) (0.3-0.5) (0.5-1.0)
S2 (3-4) 175 225 250 300 350
S3 (5-7) 150 200 225 250 300
S4 (8-14) 100 150 200 200 250
S5 (15-29) 100 125 150 175 200
Table B.6.3 (b): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – medium gravel (G30)

CBR (%) (<0.01) (0.01-0.1) (0.1-0.3) (0.3-0.5) (0.5-1.0)
S2 (3-4) 175 250 290 325 370
S3 (5-7) 150 200 250 275 325
S4 (8-14) 125 175 200 220 275
S5 (15-29) 100 100 150 175 200
Table B.6.3 (c): Gravel base thickness for major gravel roads – weak gravel (G15)

CBR (%) (<0.01) (0.01-0.1) (0.1-0.3) (0.3-0.5) (0.5-1.0)
S2 (3-4) 225 325 375 NA NA
S3 (5-7) 200 250 325 350 NA
S4 (8-14) 150 225 275 300 NA
S5 (15-29) 150(1) 150(1) 200(1) 200(1) NA
Note:
1. This is the additional depth of compacted sub-grade material

B - Chapter 6 - 42
The following points should be noted:

The thicknesses required increases considerably if the gravel is weak hence stronger gravels should
generally be used if they are available at reasonable cost.
On relatively weak subgrades (S2 and S3), the use of strong gravels (G45) should be avoided
because of the poor “balance” of such pavements. Instead, the use of an improved subgrade layer
should be considered (Section B.5.1.4).
Where the available gravel is not homogeneous, it will be necessary to substitute a particular
class of gravel with one or more different classes of gravel of appropriate thickness. The following
conversion factors may be used for this purpose.
G45 = 1.5 x G15
G30 = 1.3 x G15
Thus, a 200mm layer of G45 material could be substituted with a 300 mm layer of G15 material.
For effective compaction of the gravel layer, it is necessary to restrict the loose thickness of gravel to a
maximum lift of about 200 mm. Thus, any of the gravel layers that require a compacted thickness of more
than 150 mm must be compacted in more than one 200 mm lift.
Determination of wearing course thickness: The wearing course thickness depends on the annual gravel
loss and the number of years between re-gravelling operations. The predicted annual gravel loss is given
in Table B.6.4.
Table B.6.4: Typical gravel loss
Typical gravel loss (mm/

Material Quality Zone(1) Description of Material Quality
yr/100vpd)
Zone A Satisfactory 20
Zone B Poor 45
Zone C Poor 45
Zone D Marginal 30
Zone E Good 10
Note:
1. See Figure B.5.2
The rates of gravel loss increase significantly on gradients greater than about 6% and in areas of high and
intense rainfall. On some gradients, the increase could be greater than 50% depending on the steepness
of the gradient and material quality. Spot improvements should be considered on these sections.
Re-gravelling should take place before the sub-base is exposed. The re-gravelling frequency, R, is typically
in the range 5 - 8 years. This decreases considerably if poor quality gravels have to be used. For example,
if the gravel quality is in zones B or C, the loss rate will be 45mm per year per 100vpd. Therefore a class
DC4 gravel road carrying 200vpd will lose 90mm per year and require re-gravelling every two years
The wearing course thickness = R x GL

R = regravelling frequency in years
GL = annual gravel loss.
6.3.2 Minor gravel roads
The approach to the design of minor gravel roads is as follows:

The design chart (Table B.6.5) is based on the AADT (not the cumulative esas) of the road and
assumes the traffic includes approximately 30% of vehicles of classes 3 and above (as defined in
Table B.3.1);
The subgrade materials need not necessarily comply with the requirements of a low volume
sealed road;
A nominal wearing course thickness of 150 mm of G15 is assumed for all road classes and sub-
grade conditions with the sub-base thickness being influenced by the sub-grade class;

B - Chapter 6 - 43
Drainage, but not necessarily geometry, is upgraded to acceptable minimum levels during
construction. As for Class DC3 and DC4 roads, this can be achieved by building up the formation
to an appropriate height to achieve the hmin requirements given in Table B.6.2.
The recommended sub-base thicknesses and wearing course material strengths for different sub-
grade and traffic conditions are shown in Table B.6.5.
Table B.6.5: Design Chart for minor gravel roads
Traffic Classes (AADT)

Subgrade Strength
Class CBR (%) DC1/DC2(1)
(< 75)
150 WC
S2 (3-4)
200 G15 (2)
S3 & S4 (5-14) 150 WC
S5 (15-29) Earth Road
Notes:
1. If more than 10 heavy vehicles per day, design as a major gravel road
2. If a G30 material is available the thickness can be reduced to 150 mm
6.4 Surfacing options and design standards for paved roads

The types of surfacing options and a rational procedure for selecting appropriate surface options is
contained in Part D, Chapter 7, along with the advantages and potential concerns regarding each option.
Some surface options are not appropriate for the higher traffic categories and are marked accordingly.
6.4.1 Bituminous surfaced roads
The design standards for paved roads with a bituminous surface assume a flexible pavement with a
granular base/sub-base. Table B.5.5 shows the material types for the various structural layers used in the
catalogues. For sub-bases, G30 and G25 materials are both suitable but G30 is preferred.
The design charts for roads with bituminous road surfaces are shown in Tables B.6.6 and B.6.7. The use
of the charts is described as follows.
Climatic zones N < 4

(a) Where the total sealed surface is 8 m or less, use Pavement Design Chart 1 (Table B.6.6). No road
base materials adjustments are allowed.
(b) Where the total sealed surface is 8 m or more, use Pavement Design Chart 2 (Table B.6.7). The limit
on the plasticity modulus of the road base may be increased by 20 per cent.
(c) (Where the total sealed surface is less than 8m but the pavement is on an embankment in excess of
1.2 m in height, use Pavement Design Chart 2 (Table B.6.7). The limit on the plasticity modulus of
the road base may be increased by 20 per cent.
(d) If the engineer deems that other risk factors (eg poor maintenance and/or construction quality) are
too high, then Pavement Design Chart 1 should be used.
Climatic zones N > 4

Use Pavement Design Chart 2 (Table B.6.7).
(a) Where the total sealed surface is less than 8 metres, the limit on the plasticity modulus of the road
base may be increased by 40%.
(b) Where the total sealed surface is over 8 metres and when the pavement is on an embankment in
excess of 1.2 metres in height, the plasticity modulus of the road base may be increased by up to
40% and the plasticity index by 3 units.
Once the quality of the available materials and haul distances are known, the flow chart shown in Figure
D.6.22 of Part D and the design charts can be used to review the most economical cross-section and

B - Chapter 6 - 44
pavement; this involves assessment of design traffic class, design period, cross-section and other
environmental and design considerations.
When the project is located close to the border between the two climatic zones, the lower N-value should
be used to reduce risks.
When the design is close to the borderline between two traffic design classes, and in the absence of more
reliable data, the next highest design class should be used.
It may be more economical to use a wider cross-section in the seasonal tropical and wet climate zone and
then use Pavement Design Chart 2 rather than to design a narrow cross-section and a pavement using
Pavement Design Chart 1.
The design charts do not cater for weak subgrades (CBR < 3%) and other problem soils. Design guidance
for these conditions is given in Part D, Section 6.19.2.
Table B.6.6: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 1
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G80 200 G80
S2 (3-4%) 150 G15 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30 175G30
130 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15
125 G65 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S3 (5-7%) 150 G15 100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
100 G15 150 G15 150 G15 150 G15
175 G45 150 G65 150 G65 175 G65 200 G80
S4 (8-14%)
120G30 200 G30 200 G30 200 G30
175 G45 125 G65 175 G65 175 G65 175 G80
S5 (15-29%)
125 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
S6 (>30%) 150 G45 150G65 175 G65 175 G65 200 G80
Table B.6.7: Bituminous Pavement Design Chart 2
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150 G45 150 G65 150 G80 175 G80 200 G80
S2 (3-4%) 150 G15 120 G30 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30
120 G15 150 G15 150 G15 175 G15
125 G45 150 G55 175 G65 200 G65 200 G65
S3 (5-7%)
125 G15 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30 250 G30
150 G45 150 G45 150 G55 175 G55 175 G65
S4 (8-14%)
100 G30 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30
S5 (15-29%) 150 G45 175 G55 175 G55 175 G55 175 G65
S6 (>30%) 150 G45 150 G45 150 G55 150 G55 175 G65
6.4.2 Non bituminous surfaced roads
Table B.6.8 lists the non-bituminous pavement (NBP) options with their respective design charts.

B - Chapter 6 - 45
Table B.6.8: Non-bituminous pavement surfacing options
NBP Option Code Ref. Table

Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadams WBM and DBM B.6.10
Hand-Packed Stone HPS B.6.11
Stone Setts or Pavé SSP and MSSP B.6.12
Cobblestone/ Dressed Stone CS, DS & MCS, MDS B.6.12
Fired Clay Brick CB, MCB B.6.12
Non reinforced Concrete NRC B.6.13
Ultra-thin Reinforced Concrete UTRCP B.6.14
In Tables B.6.10 to B.6.14, unbound gravel material is used for capping, subbase and road base. In many
cases the specifications for the strength of these materials is flexible and, depending on the materials
available, substitutions can be made. It is indicated in the Tables where substitutions are allowed and
where they are restricted. Table B.6.9 defines the allowable substitutions. Table B.6.9 is used by simply
taking the ratio of thicknesses of the material to be used and the material designated in the thickness
designs in Tables B.6.10 to B.6.14 and scaling the thickness given in the Tables appropriately. For example,
if the thickness of a G45 material is given as 150mm in the Tables and a G80 material was more readily
available the thickness required becomes:
150 x 65/80 = 122mm
Table B.6.9: Substitution of pavement layer material
Material Material CBR Required thickness

Designation (%) (mm)
G15 15 100
G30 30 90
G45 45 80
G65 65 70
G80 80 65
Water-bound and Dry-bound Macadam (WBM and DBM)

A Macadam layer consists of a stone skeleton of single sized coarse aggregate in which the voids are filled
with finer material. The stone skeleton, because it is a single size large material, contains considerable
voids which are filled by fine aggregate which is washed or ‘slushed’ into the coarse skeleton with
water. Dry-bound macadam is a similar technique to the original WBM, however instead of water and
deadweight compaction being used in the consolidation of fine material, a small vibrating roller is used.
WBM or DBM are commonly used as layers within a sealed flexible pavement, but in the appropriate
circumstances may be used as an unsealed option with a suitably cohesive material being used as the
fines component. The WBM or DBM may be constructed as a low cost, initial surface to be later sealed
and upgraded in a ‘stage construction’ strategy.
WBM is suitable for labour based construction and should provide a relatively high quality surface layer
similar to a good quality natural gravel surface. However, like gravel, it is worn away by traffic and rainfall
and therefore requires similar maintenance.
The structural designs for WBM are similar to those required for a gravel road as shown in Table B.6.10
with the WBM itself acting as the wearing course. A capping layers and a sub-base are required as
indicated but thicknesses can be reduced if stronger material is available.

B - Chapter 6 - 46
Table B.6.10: Thickness designs for WBM pavements
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S2 (3-4%) 150 G30 150 G30 175 G20 NA NA
150 G15 200 G15
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S3 (5-7%) 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 NA NA
100 G15 150 G15
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S4 (8-14%) NA NA
100 G30 150 G30 200 G30
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S5 (15-29%) NA NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE
150 WBM 150 WBM 150 WBM
S6 (>30%) NA NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
1. The capping layer of G15 material and the subbase layer of G30 material can be reduced in thickness if stronger
material is available (Table B.6.9)
2. On sub-grade > 15%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of material of in situ CBR
>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Figure D.6.7 and Table D.6.7.
Hand-Packed Stone (HPS)

HPS paving consists of a layer of large broken stone pieces (typically 150 to 300mm thick) tightly packed
together and wedged in place with smaller stone chips rammed by hand into the joints using hammers
and steel rods. The remaining voids are filled with sand or gravel. A degree of interlock is achieved and
has been assumed in the designs shown in Table B.6.11. The structures also require a capping layer when
the subgrade is weak and a conventional sub-base of G30 material or stronger.
The HPS is normally bedded on a thin layer of sand (SBL). An edge restraint or kerb constructed, for
example, of large or mortared stones improves durability and lateral stability.

B - Chapter 6 - 47
Table B.6.11: Thicknesses designs for Hand Packed Stone (HPS) pavement (mm)
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
150HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
S2 (3-4%) NA
175 G30 125 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 200 G15 200 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL
S3 (5-7%) NA
125 G30 200 G30 150 G30 150 G30
150 G15 150 G15
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S4 (8-14%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL NA
100 G30 150 G30 200 G30 200 G30
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S5 (15-29%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
150 HPS 200 HPS 200 HPS 250 HPS
S6 (>30%) 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL 50 SBL NA
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
2. On sub-grades > 15%, the material should be scarified and re-compacted to ensure the depth of material of in situ CBR
>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3
Stone Sett or Pavé Pavements (SSP or MSSP).

Stone sett surfacing or Pavé consists of a layer of roughly cubic (100mm) stone setts laid on a bed of
sand or fine aggregate within mortared stone or concrete edge restraints. The individual stones should
have at least one face that is fairly smooth to be the upper or surface face when placed. Each stone sett
is adjusted with a small (mason’s) hammer and then tapped into position to the level of the surrounding
stones. Sand or fine aggregate is brushed into the spaces between the stones and the layer is then
compacted with a roller. Suitable structural designs are shown in Table B.6.12.

B - Chapter 6 - 48
Table B.6.12: Thicknesses designs for various discrete element surfacings (mm)
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP 100 SSP
25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL 25 SBL
S2 (3-4%) 100 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
100 G30 150 G30 150 G30 175 G30 200 G30
100 G15 175 G15 175 G15 200 G15 200 G15
S3 (5-7%) 125 G65 125 G80 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80
100 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30 175 G30
150 G15 150 G15 150 G15 175 G15
S4 (8-14%)
150 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80 175 G80
150 G30 200 G30 200 G30 225 G30
S5 (15-29%)
125 G65 125 G80 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 150 G30
S6 (>30%)
125 G65 150 G80 150 G80 150 GBO 175 G80
NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE NOTE
Notes:
2. The capping layer can be G10 provided it is laid 7% thicker
3. The road base layers (G65 and G80) must not be weaker
4. The subbase layers can be material stronger than G30 and laid to reduced thickness as shown in Table B.6.9
>15% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3.
Cobblestone or Dressed Stone Pavement (CS, DS, MCS or MDS)

Cobble or Dressed Stone surfacing consists of a layer of roughly rectangular dressed stone laid on a bed
of sand or fine aggregate within mortared stone or concrete edge restraints. The individual stones should
have at least one face that is fairly smooth, to be the upper or surface face when placed. Each stone is
adjusted with a small (mason’s) hammer and then tapped into position to the level of the surrounding
stones. Sand or fine aggregates is brushed into the spaces between the stones and the layer then
compacted with a roller. Cobble stones are generally 150 mm thick and dressed stones generally 150-
200mm thick. These options are suited to homogeneous rock types that have inherent orthogonal stress
patterns (such as granite) that allow for easy break of the fresh rock into the required shapes by labour
based means.
The thickness designs are given in Table B.6.12 except that the thickness of the cobblestone is generally
150mm instead of 100mm shown in the Table.

B - Chapter 6 - 49
Fired Clay Brick Pavement

Fired Clay Bricks are the product of firing molded blocks of silty clay. The surfacing consists of a layer of
edge-on engineering quality bricks within mortar bedded and jointed edge restraints, or kerbs, on each
side of the pavement. The thickness designs are as shown in Table B.6.12 for LV1 and LV2. Fired clay brick
surfacings are not suitable for traffic classes above LV2.
Mortared options
In some circumstances (eg on slopes in high rainfall areas and volume susceptible sub-grade) it may be
advantageous to use mortared options. This can be done with Hand-packed Stone, Stone Setts (or Pavé),
Cobblestone (or Dressed Stone), and Fired Clay Brick pavements. The construction procedure is largely
the same as for the un-mortared options except that cement mortar is used instead of sand for bedding
and joint filling. The behaviour of mortared pavements is different to that of sand-bedded pavements
and is more analogous to a rigid pavement than a flexible one. There is, however, little formal guidance
on mortared option, although empirical evidence indicates that inter-block cracking may occur. For this
reason the option is currently only recommended for the lightest traffic divisions up to LV2 (Tables B.6.12)
until further locally relevant evidence is available.
Non Reinforced Concrete (NRC)

The non-reinforced cement concrete option for LVRs involves casting slabs of 4.0 to 5.0 metres in length
between formwork with load transfer dowels between them. In some cases, where continuity of traffic
demands it, these slabs may be half carriageway width.
Table B.6.13: Thicknesses (mm) - Non-Reinforced Concrete Pavement (NRC)
LV1 LV2 LV3 LV4 LV5

SG CBR
<0.01 0.01-0.1 0.1-0.3 0.3-0.5 0.5-1.0
160 NRC 170 NRC 175 NRC 180 NRC 190 NRC
S2 (3-4%)
150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30 150 G30
S3 (5-7%)
125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30 125 G30
S4 (8-14%)
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
S5 (15-29%)
100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30 100 G30
S6 (>30%) 150 NRC 150 NRC 160 NRC 170 NRC 180 NRC
Notes:
1. Cube strength = 30 MPa at 28 days
>30% is in agreement with the recommendations in Table B.5.3
Ultra-thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement (UTRCP)

An Ultra-thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement (UTRCP) option has been developed in South Africa for a
low maintenance surfacing suitable for LVRs. A thin (50mm) layer of reinforced concrete is used as a rigid
structural surfacing over a good sub-base layer comprising well compacted good quality material, the
top 150mm of which should have an effective CBR of 80%. The pavement layers below a UTRCP slab
must contribute significantly to the strength of the pavement as a whole.
It should be emphasised that the formal design approach for this option is still under development and
that its use within an Ethiopian LVR road environment should be undertaken with caution.
Areas where the use of UTRCP can be considered include:
Surfacing of a new road or the rehabilitation/upgrading of an existing road;
All traffic and road classes from low-volume urban streets to inlays, to “provincial” roads where
typical traffic volumes are below 2 000 vehicles per day with less than 5% heavy vehicles (at this
stage);

B - Chapter 6 - 50
Areas of steep grades and stop/start heavy traffic;

Areas where regular maintenance is unlikely.
The concrete is only 50mm thick and therefore tolerances are critical. The success of the UTRCP process is
therefore dependent on attention to detail. This applies not only to the concrete layer (concrete strength,
thickness, placing, curing) but also to the placing, supporting and joining of the steel mesh panels, as
well as the tolerances of the layer supporting the UTRCP. The need for meticulous monitoring and control
during construction cannot be over-emphasised. Competent site staff must be intensively involved in all
the processes associated with and control of all the construction activities.
Table B.6.14: Ultra-Thin Reinforced Concrete Pavement (UTRCP) Design
Traffic(2)
SG CBR%
Low Medium High
(1)
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
S2 (3-4%) 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
200 G30 250 G30 350 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
S3 (5-7%) 150 G80 150 G80 150 G80
125 G30 150 G30 200 G30
50 RC 50 RC
50 RC
S4 (8-14%) 150 G80 150 G80
150 G80
100G30 150 G30
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
S5 (15-29%)
100 G80 125 G80 150 G80
50 RC 50 RC 50 RC
S6 (>30%)
75 G80 100 G80 100 G80
Notes:
1. Concrete must have a 28-day cube strength of 30MPa
2. The currently suggested traffic divisions are
L A 30kN wheel load division suggested for urban streets,
M A 40kN wheel load division for bus routes, and
H A 60kN wheel load division for provincial roads carrying up to 2000 vpd (10% heavy)

B - Chapter 7 - 51
7. DRAINAGE AND EROSION CONTROL
The maximum water flow in a watercourse can be estimated using the following methods:
Direct observation of the size of watercourse, erosion and debris on the banks, history and local
knowledge;
The Rational Method.
The SCS method (USA Soils Conservation Services, TR-55)
A combination of these methods should be used to provide the maximum level of reliability.
7.1 Size of watercourse

Watercourses enlarge to a size sufficient to accommodate the maximum water flow. The cross-sectional
area of the water course is measured and a cross-sectional area of apertures of the structure provided that
is equal to that of the water course. If the return period of the maximum flow is much longer than that for
which the structure is being designed, the typical high water level can be estimated from lateral erosion
on the banks or debris caught in the branches of trees. The cross-sectional area of the water course to
this level is calculated and a structure provided with cross-sectional area of apertures equal to this area.
Future high water levels can also be estimated from recorded history, including measurements taken in
the watercourse or from the recollections of local residents.
7.2 The Rational Method

The flow of water in a channel, q, is calculated from the following equation.
q = 0.278 x C x I x A (m3/s) Equation B.7.1
Where:
C = the catchment runoff coefficient
I = the intensity of the rainfall (mm/hour)
A = the area of the catchment (km2)
7.2.1 Catchment runoff coefficient, C
C is obtained from Table B.7.1 and Table B.7.2.
Table B.7.1: Runoff coefficient: Humid catchment
Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.55 0.40 0.20 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.75 0.55 0.35 0.20
Rolling 4-10% 0.85 0.65 0.45 0.30
Steep >10% 0.95 0.75 0.55 0.40

B - Chapter 7 - 52
Table B.7.2: Runoff coefficient: Semi-arid catchment
Soil Permeability
Average
Ground Slope Very low Low Medium High
(rock & hard clay) (clay loam) (sandy loam) (sand & gravel)
Flat 0-1% 0.75 0.40 0.05 0.05
Gentle 1-4% 0.85 0.55 0.20 0.05
Rolling 4-10% 0.95 0.70 0.30 0.05
Steep >10% 1.00 0.80 0.50 0.10
7.2.2 Rainfall intensity, I (mm/hour)
The intensity of rainfall (I) is obtained from the Intensity-Duration-Frequency charts in Annex A. The storm
duration is equal to the Time of Concentration (Tc). Tc is the time taken for water to flow from the farthest
extremity of the catchment to the crossing site.
Tc = Distance from farthest extremity (m) / Velocity of flow (m/s) Equation B.7.2
The velocity of flow depends on the catchment characteristics and slope of the watercourse. It is
estimated from Figure B.7.1.
The storm design return period is taken from Table B.7.3. If the route is of strategic importance, or if
the alternative route in the event of a drainage failure is more than an additional 75km or if there is no
alternative route, Table B.7.4 should be used.
Figure B.7.1: Velocity of flow

B - Chapter 7 - 53
Table B.7.3: Storm design return period (years)
Geometric design standard

Structure type
DC4 DC3 DC2 DC1
Gutters and inlets 2 2 2 1
Side ditches 10 5 5 2
Ford 10 5 5 2
Drift 10 5 5 2
Culvert diameter <2m 15 10 10 5
Large culvert diameter >2m 25 15 10 5
Gabion abutment bridge 25 20 15 -
Short span bridge (<10m) 25 25 15 -
Masonry arch bridge 50 25 25
Medium span bridge (15 – 50m) 50 50 25 -
Long span bridge >50m 100 100 50 -
Table B.7.4: Storm design return period (years) for severe risk situations
Geometric design standard

Structure type
DC4 DC3 DC2 DC1
Gutters and inlets 5 5 5 2
Side ditches 15 10 10 5
Ford 15 10 10 5
Drift 15 10 10 5
Culvert diameter <2m 25 20 20 10
Large culvert diameter >2m 50 25 20 10
Gabion abutment bridge 50 25 20 -
Short span bridge (<10m) 50 50 25 -
Masonry arch bridge 50 50 25
Medium span bridge (10 – 50 m) 100 100 50 -
Long span bridge >50m 100 100 100 -
7.2.3 Catchment area, A (km2)
The area of the drainage catchment should be estimated from a map or an aerial photograph.
In the Rational Method it is assumed that the intensity of the rainfall is the same over the entire catchment
area. The consequence of applying the method to large catchments is an over-estimate of the flow and
therefore a conservative design.
A simple modification can be made to take into account the spatial variation of rainfall intensity across a
larger catchment. The effective area of the catchment is reduced by multiplying by the areal reduction
factor (ARL) given by the following equation:

B - Chapter 7 - 54
ARL = 1 - 0.04 x t-1/3 x A1/2 Equation B.7.4
Where,
t = storm duration in hours
A = catchment area in km2
7.3 The SCS method

The SCS method for calculating rates of runoff requires much of the same basic data as the Rational
Method namely catchment area, a runoff factor, time of concentration, and rainfall. However the SCS
method also considers the time distribution of the rainfall, the initial rainfall losses to interception and
storage, and an infiltration rate that decreases during the course of a storm. It is therefore potentially
more accurate than the Rational Method and is applicable when the catchment area is larger than 50
hectares.
7.3.1 Catchment area
The catchment area is determined from topographic maps and field surveys. For large catchment areas
it might be necessary to divide the area into sub-catchment areas to account for major land use changes.
7.3.2 Rainfall
The SCS method is based on a 24-hour storm event. The characteristics of storms are defined in terms
of the relationship between the percentage of the total storm rainfall that has fallen as a function of
time. Three basic types of storm are defined for three levels of maximum intensity, Type I being the least
intense and Type III being the most intense. In Ethiopia a Type II distribution is used (see ERA’s Drainage
Design Manual – 2002 or the revised version when available).
A relationship between accumulated rainfall and accumulated runoff was derived by SCS for numerous
hydrologic and vegetative cover conditions. The storm data included total amount of rainfall in a calendar
day but not its distribution with respect to time. The SCS runoff equation is therefore a method of
estimating direct runoff from 24-hour or 1-day storm rainfall.
The equation is:

Q = (P - Ia)2 / [(P - Ia) + S] Equation B.7.5
Where:
Q = accumulated direct runoff, mm.
P = accumulated rainfall (ie, the potential maximum runoff), mm
Ia = initial abstraction including surface storage, interception, and infiltration prior
to runoff, mm.
S = potential maximum retention, mm.
S is related to the soil and cover conditions of the catchment area through the Curve Numbers, CN,
described below.
S = 25.4(1000/CN – 10) Equation B.7.6
The relationship between Ia and S was found to be;
Ia = 0.2S = 50.8.(100/CN-1) Equation B.7.7
Substituting into Equation B.7.5,
Q = [P – 50.8(100/CN - 1)]2/[P + 203.2(100/CN - 1)] Equation B.7.8
Figure B.7.2 shows a graphical solution which enables Q, the direct runoff from a storm, to be obtained
if the total rainfall and catchment area curve number are known.

B - Chapter 7 - 55
Figure B.7.2: Relationship between Precipitation, Direct Runoff and CN
7.3.3 Runoff and Curve Numbers
The physical catchment area characteristics affecting the relationship between rainfall and runoff (ie the
CN values) are land use, land treatment, soil types, and land slope.
Land use is the catchment area cover and it includes agricultural characteristics, type of vegetation,
water surfaces, roads and roofs. Land treatment applies mainly to agricultural land use, and it includes
mechanical practices such as contouring or terracing and management practices such as rotation of
crops. The SCS method uses a combination of soil conditions and land-use to assign a runoff factor to
an area. These runoff factors or curve numbers (CN), indicate the runoff potential of an area. The higher
the CN, the higher is the runoff potential.
Soils are divided soils into four hydrologic groups (Groups A, B, C, and D) based on infiltration rates
(Table B.7.5). These groups are described in detail in the ERA Drainage Design Manual.
Table B.7.5: Hydrological characteristic soil groups
Soil Group General Description

A Well drained, sandy High infiltration, low runoff
B Sandy loam, low plasticity
C Clay loam, medium plasticity
D Highly plastic clay Low infiltration, high run off
Runoff curve numbers also vary with the antecedent soil moisture conditions, defined as the amount of
rainfall occurring in a selected period preceding a given storm. In general, the greater the antecedent
rainfall, the more direct runoff there is from a given storm. A five-day period is used as the minimum for
estimating antecedent moisture conditions.

B - Chapter 7 - 56
Table B.7.6 gives runoff curve numbers for various land uses. (NB: More comprehensive tables are given
in the ERA Drainage Design Manual). This Table is based on an average antecedent moisture condition
(ie soils that are neither very wet nor very dry when the design storm begins). Table B.7.7 gives conversion
factors to convert average curve numbers to wet and dry curve numbers. The recommended antecedent
moisture conditions (AMC) in Ethiopia are shown in Table B.7.8.
Table B.7.6: Runoff Curve Numbers (CN)
Land use A B C D
Without conservation treatment 72 81 88 91
Cultivated land
With conservation treatment 62 71 78 81
Pasture land Poor condition 68 79 86 89
Good condition 39 61 74 80
Meadow 30 58 71 78
Thin stand, poor cover, no mulch 45 66 77 83
Wood or forest
Good cover 25 55 70 77
Good condition, grass cover >75% of
Open spaces, lawns, 39 61 74 80
area
parks
Fair condition, grass on 50-75% 49 69 79 84
Commercial and business areas, 85%
89 92 94 95
Urban districts impervious
Industrial districts, 70% impervious 81 88 91 93
Average lot size Average % impervious
< 0.05 hectares 65 77 85 90
0.1 hectares 38 61 75 83
Residential
0.2 hectares 25 54 70 80
0.4 hectares 20 51 68 79
0.8 hectares 12 46 65 77
Paved roads with curbs and storm drains, paved parking areas, roofs. 98 98 98 98
Gravel roads 76 85 89 91
Earth roads 72 82 87 89
Open water 0 0 0 0

B - Chapter 7 - 57
Table B.7.7: Conversion from average to wet and dry antecedent moisture conditions
CN values
Average conditions Dry Wet
95 87 98
90 78 96
85 70 94
80 63 91
75 57 88
70 51 85
65 45 82
60 40 78
55 35 74
50 31 70
45 26 65
40 22 60
35 18 55
30 15 50
Table B.7.8: Antecedent moisture conditions
Region(1) Antecedent moisture conditions

D Dry
B Wet
All other regions Average
Bahir Dar area Although in region A, use Wet
Notes:
1. See Appendix B.1 for regional map
7.3.4 Time of concentration
The next step in the SCS Method is to determine the Time of Concentration. This is the time it takes water
to flow from the edge of the catchment area to the point of interest. It is a combination of three values;
A sheet flow,
B shallow concentrated flow, and
C open channel flow.
The type that occurs is a function of the conveyance system and is determined by field inspection. It is
often a combination of these so that the total travel time is the sum of the time taken for the water to pass
through all of the segments of the catchment.
Travel time is the ratio of flow length to flow velocity:
T = L/(3600V) Equation B.7.9
Where:
T = travel time, hr
L = flow length, m
V = average velocity, m/s
3600 = conversion factor from seconds to hours.
Sheet flow
Sheet flow is flow over plane surfaces. It usually occurs in the headwater of streams. With sheet flow,
the friction value (Manning’s n) is an effective roughness coefficient that includes the effect of raindrop

B - Chapter 7 - 58
impact; drag over the plane surface; obstacles such as litter, crop ridges, and rocks; and erosion and
transportation of sediment. These n values are for very shallow flow depths of about 0.03m or so. Table
B.7.9 gives Manning’s n values for sheet flow for various surface conditions.
Table B.7.9: Manning’s roughness coefficients for sheet flow
Surface n1
Smooth surfaces: concrete, asphalt, gravel or bare soil 0.011
Fallow (no residue) 0.05
Cultivated soils
Residue cover < 20% 0.06
Residue cover > 20% 0.17
Grasses
Short grass 0.15
Dense grass 0.24
Range 0.13
Woods(1)
Light underbrush 0.4
Dense underbrush 0.8
Note:
1. Consider cover to a height of 30mm. This is the only part of the cover that will affect sheet flow
For sheet flow of less than 100 metres Manning’s kinematic solution should be used to compute the travel
time T,
T = [0.091 (n.L)0.8.8/ (P2_)0.5S0.4] Equation B.7.10
Where:
T = travel time, hr
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (Table B.7.9)
L = flow length, m
P2 = 2-year, 24-hour rainfall, mm
S = slope of hydraulic grade line (land slope), m/m
Shallow Concentrated Flow

After a maximum of 100 metres, sheet flow usually becomes shallow concentrated flow. The average
velocity for this flow can be determined from the following equations in which average velocity is a
function of watercourse slope and type of channel.
Unpaved
V = 4.918 (S)0.5
Paved
V = 6.196 (S)0.5
Where:
S = slope of hydraulic grade line (watercourse slope), m/m
After determining average velocity, the travel time for the shallow concentrated flow segment is calculated
from Equation B.7.9.
Open Channel flow

Open channels are assumed to begin where surveyed cross section information has been obtained,
where channels are visible on aerial photographs, or where blue lines (indicating streams) appear on
Ethiopian Mapping Authority topographic maps (1:50,000). Average flow velocity is usually determined
for bank-full elevation. Manning’s equation or water surface profile information can be used to estimate

B - Chapter 7 - 59
average flow velocity. When the channel section and roughness coefficient (Manning’s n) are available,
then the velocity can be computed using the Manning Equation.
V = (R2/3. S1/2)/n Equation B.7.11
Where:
R = hydraulic radius, m (equal to a/Pw)
a = cross sectional flow area, m2
Pw = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the hydraulic grade line, m/m
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (Table B.7.10)
After the average velocity is computed, the travel time for the segment can be calculated using Equation
B.7.9.
Reservoir or Lake
Sometimes it is necessary to compute a time of concentration for a catchment area having a relatively
large body of water in the flow path. The travel time is computed using the equation:
Vw = (g.Dm)0.5 Equation B.7.12
Where:
Vw = the wave velocity across the water, m/s
g = 9.81 m/s2
Dm = mean depth of lake or reservoir, m
This equation only deals with the travel time across the lake, not the time at the inflow or outflow channels.
The times for these are generally very much longer and must be added to the travel time across the lake
(see ERAs Drainage Design Manual). Equation B.7.12 can be used for swamps with much open water, but
where the vegetation or debris is relatively thick (less than about 25% open water), Manning’s equation
is more appropriate.
7.3.5 Steps in the SCS procedure
The steps in using the SCS method are as follows:

1. Ethiopia has been divided into five regions based on rainfall characteristics (Annex A). Determine
which region is appropriate.
2. Determine the catchment area, A, and its soil and land use characteristics.
3. Determine the ‘curve runoff number, CN, from Table B.7.6 and any adjustment based on the likely
antecedent soil moisture conditions (Tables B.7.7 and B.7.8).
4. Calculate the value of Ia from equation B.7.7.
5. Choose the appropriate design storm recurrence frequency. This is based on the class of road and
the drainage structure being designed.
6. For the recurrence frequency chosen, determine the 24-hour rainfall (P) for the appropriate rainfall
region from Figure B.7.3.
7. Determine the direct runoff (Q) for the rainfall (P) and curve number (CN) obtained in steps 3 and 5
from Figure B.7.2
8. The catchment must be divided into uniform areas for the purpose of determining the Time of
Concentration, Tc. The flow lengths for sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, and channel flow
must be determined and the relevant equations in Section B.7.3.4 used to calculate the total time of
concentration.
9. At this stage the following data have been obtained,
Ia – the initial abstraction based on the curve number CN (step 4)
P – the design storm precipitation (step 6)
Q – the accumulated direct runoff (step 7)
Tc – the Time of Concentration (step 8)
The next step is to determine the unit peak discharge, Qu and this is done using Figure B.7.4, the
value of Ia/P and the Time of Concentration.
10. The final step is to compute the actual peak discharge from the unit value as follows,
Design peak discharge = Qu x Q x A

B - Chapter 7 - 60
Where Q is in mm and A is in units of 100 hectares.
Frequency Interval (years)

Region 2 5 10 25 50 100
24-hour depth in mm
A1, A4 60 79 93 113 127 142
A2, A3 52 67 79 95 107 118
B, C 65 84 98 118 132 147
D 67 89 105 127 144 161
Lake Tana 74 106 131 163 187 211
Figure B.7.3: 24 hour depth-frequency curves

B - Chapter 7 - 61
Figure B.7.4: Unit peak discharge (Type II rainfall)
7.4 Design of culverts

A fall of 3 - 5% should be allowed on culverts to ensure that water flows without depositing silt and
other debris. All pipes should have a minimum diameter of 600mm to ensure that they can be manually
cleaned.
7.4.1 Nomograph method for culvert sizing
The required size of a culvert opening is estimated using the nomographs in Figure B.7.5 to Figure B.7.7.
These figures apply to culverts with inlet control where there is no restriction to the downstream flow of
the water.
In flat terrain, where there is a high risk of silting, a factor of safety of 2 should be allowed in the design
of the culvert.
7.4.2 Correlation with successful practice
If a high proportion of structures along a road or in a region have been in operation for a number of years
without overtopping, it is reasonable to assume that the relationship between catchment area, catchment
characteristics, rainfall intensity and maximum water flow used in their design is valid. The design of new
culverts can be based on simply the catchment area using the same relationships.
7.4.3 Design of drifts and fords
Drifts and fords are designed for water to flow over the running surface. It is not expected that vehicles
can use them at all times. The following criteria should be considered when designing drifts:
The level of the drift should be as close as possible to the existing river bed level.
The normal depth of water should be a maximum of 150mm and the maximum 5 year flow should
be 6m3/second on the drift to allow traffic to pass.
Approach ramps should have a maximum gradient of 10% (7% for roads with large numbers of
heavy trucks).

B - Chapter 7 - 62
7.5 Components of External Drainage
7.5.1 General principles
Those parts of the natural slope drainage system that experience increased run-off as a result of road
construction should be strengthened through:
Control of road surface drainage;
Design of culverts or drifts that convey water and debris load efficiently;
Optimised frequency of drainage crossings to prevent excess concentration of flow;
Protection of drainage structures and stream channels for as far downstream as is necessary to
ensure their safety and to prevent erosion of land adjacent to the water course;
Planting of vegetation on all new slopes and poorly-vegetated areas, around the edges of drainage
structures and appropriately along stream courses.
7.5.2 Side drains
Side drains serve two main functions: collection and removal of surface water from the road and the
immediate vicinity of the road, and prevention of sub-surface water from adversely affecting the road
pavement structure. Side drains can be constructed in three forms: V-shaped, rectangular or trapezoidal.
The trapezoidal cross-section facilitates maintenance and improved traffic safety. Trapezoidal drains can
be constructed and maintained by hand. In flat terrain and reasonable soils it may be best to use wide
unlined drains with high capacity yet low flow velocity. The minimum recommended width of the side
drain is 500mm.
Design volumes of run-off in side drains and other channels are estimated using the Rational Method.
The cross sectional area of the drain must be sufficient to accommodate the expected flow of water, Q,
where:
Q = AV
Flow velocity is calculated from the Manning equation.
V = velocity in m/s
R = hydraulic depth (the area for the stream
flow divided by the wetted perimeter)
S = hydraulic gradient ( the slope of the
river bed over a reasonable distance either
side of the crossing point)
n = roughness coefficient (see TableB.7.10)
Definition of hydraulic depth
Figure B.7.5: Manning’s Formula

B - Chapter 7 - 63
Figure B.7.6: Headwater depth and capacity for corrugated metal pipe
culverts with inlet control (Adapted from FHWA, 1998)

B - Chapter 7 - 64
Figure B.7.7: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete pipe


B - Chapter 7 - 65
Figure B.7.8: Headwater depth and capacity for concrete box


B - Chapter 7 - 66
Table B.7.10: Roughness coefficient (n) for drains
Material in the drain Roughness coefficient

Sand, loam, fine gravel, volcanic ash 0.022
Stiff clay 0.020
Course gravel 0.025
Conglomerate, hard shale, soft rock 0.040
Hard rock 0.040
Masonry 0.025
Concrete 0.017
Side drains (as well as the road itself) should have a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.5%, except on
crest and sag curves. Reduction of the side drain gradient in the lower reaches of a long length of drain
should be avoided in order to prevent siltation.
7.5.3 Erosion control in the side drain
Limiting values for the velocity of flow to prevent scour in excavated drains are given in Table B.7.11.

B - Chapter 7 - 67
Table B.7.11: Permissible flow velocities (m/sec) in excavated ditch drains
Soil type Clear water Water carrying fine silt Water carrying sand and fine gravel
Fine sand 0.45 0.75 0.45
Sandy loam 0.55 0.75 0.6
Silty loam 0.6 0.9 0.6
‘Good’ loam 0.75 1.05 0.7
Lined with
established
1.7 1.7 1.7
grass on good
soil
Lined with
bunched
grasses 1.1 1.1 1.1
(exposed soil
between plants)
Volcanic ash 0.75 1.05 0.6
Fine gravel 0.75 1.5 1.15
Stiff clay 1.15 1.5 0.9
Graded loam to
1.15 1.5 1.5
cobbles
Graded silt to
1.2 1.7 1.5
cobbles
Alluvial silts
0.6 1.05 0.6
(non colloidal)
Alluvial silts
1.15 1.50 0.9
(colloidal)
Coarse gravel 1.2 1.85 2.0
Cobbles and
1.5 1.7 2.0
shingles
Shales 1.85 1.85 1.5
Rock Negligible scour at all velocities
Drain erosion is controlled by building scour checks or lining the drain.
Scour checks reduce the speed of water and help prevent it from eroding the road structure. The scour
check acts as a small dam. When the scour check is naturally silted up on the upstream side, it effectively
reduces the gradient of the drain on that side, and therefore the velocity of the water. There must be
sufficient cross-sectional area in the drain above the scour check (ie where the water has been slowed
down) to accommodate the maximum design flow.
The distance between scour checks depends on the road gradient and the erosion potential of the soils.
Table B.7.12 shows recommended values. These should be modified for erodible soils.

B - Chapter 7 - 68
Table B.7.12: Spacing between scour checks
Scour check interval

Road gradient (%)
(metres)
3 Not required
4 17
5 13
6 10
7 8
8 7
9 6
10 5
12 4
When constructing a channel lining it is important to reproduce or exceed the dimensions of the original
channel. A curved shaped cross-section to the lining is preferable to a rectangular cross-section. Measures
must be taken to control erosion downstream of the drain outlet.
Dry stone pitching for drain lining is usually only suitable where the discharge is lower than 1 m/sec per
metre width, and where sediment load is relatively fine-grained.
7.5.4 Mitre drains or turnouts
Water from the side drains should be discharged as frequently as possible. If the water can be discharged
on the same side of the road as the drain, a turnout or mitre drain is used to lead the water onto adjacent
land. Low volumes of flow and low velocities should be achieved at each discharge point to minimise
erosion. Table B.7.13 shows the maximum spacing of mitre drains related to gradient.
Table B.7.13: Maximum spacing of mitre drains
Road gradient (%) Maximum mitre drain interval (m)

12 40
10 80
8 120(1)
6 150(1)
4 200(1)
2 80(2)
<2 50(2)
Notes:
1. A maximum of 100m is preferred but not essential.
2. At low gradients silting becomes a problem.
A block-off is required to ensure that water flows out of the side drain into the mitre drain. The angle
between the mitre drain and the side drain should preferably be 30 degrees, but not greater than 45
degrees.
The desirable slope of the mitre drains is 2%. The gradient should not exceed 5% otherwise there may
be erosion in the drain or on the land where the water is discharged. The drain should lead gradually
across the land, getting shallower and shallower. Stones may need to be laid at the end of the drain to
help prevent erosion.

B - Chapter 7 - 69
In flat terrain, a small gradient of 1% or even 0.5% may be necessary to discharge water, or to avoid very
long drains. These low gradients should only be used when absolutely necessary. The slope should be
continuous with no high or low spots.
7.5.5 Wet lands
Special drainage or construction methods are needed if wet areas must be crossed. An embankment is
normally required. The embankment should include multiple drainage pipes or coarse permeable rock-
fill to keep the flow dispersed. Sub-grade reinforcement with coarse permeable rock, filter layers and
geotextiles may also be required. The objective is to maintain the natural groundwater level and flow
pattern dispersed across the wet land and, at the same time, provide a stable, dry roadway surface.
Subsurface drainage, through use of under-drains, interceptor trenches or aggregate filter blankets, is
used in localized wet or spring areas to remove the groundwater and keep the roadway sub-grade dry.
In localised areas subsurface drainage is often more cost-effective than adding a thick structural section
to the road. In extensive swamp or wet areas subsurface drainage is often less effective than raising the
roadway platform or providing a thick aggregate layer to support the road pavement.
7.5.6 Subsoil Drains
Longitudinal subsoil drains can be used to locally lower a water table. They normally consist of porous
concrete, open jointed or perforated pipe laid in a trench and backfilled with a free draining material such
as graded crushed stone or gravel. The pipe size should not be less than 15cm internal diameter. The
trench should be at least 60cm wide and 1.5m deeper than the formation level of the road.
7.5.7 Filters
A filter is as a transitional layer of small gravel or geotextile placed between a structure, such as riprap
or gabions, and the underlying soil. Its purpose is to prevent the movement of soil behind the structure
or into under-drains. Filters allow groundwater to drain from the soil without building up pressure. A
sand or gravel filter layer is typically about 150 to 300 mm thick. In some applications, two filter layers
may be needed between fine soil and very large rock. Geotextiles are commonly used to provide filter
zones between materials of different size and gradation. The geotextile can be a woven monofilament
or a needle punched non-woven geotextile, but it must be permeable. The geotextile should have an
apparent opening size of 0.25 to 0.5mm. A 200g/m2 needle-punched non-woven geotextile is commonly
used for soil filtration and separation applications.
7.5.8 Interceptor, cut-off or catch-water drains.
These drains are constructed to prevent water flowing into vulnerable locations by ‘intercepting’, ‘cutting
off’ or ‘catching’ the water flow and diverting it to a safe point of discharge, usually a natural watercourse.
Interceptor drains above cut faces should have a gradient of 2% on their full length and should be at least
3 to 5 m from the cut face. If steeper gradients in the drain are unavoidable then scour checks should be
installed or the drain should be lined. The drain should also be lined where seepage will weaken the cut
slope. Alternatively the drain should be replaced by a vegetated earth bund.
Interceptor drains should be 60 cm wide, 40 cm (minimum) deep with sides back-sloped at 3:1 (vertical:
horizontal).
7.5.9 Chutes
Chutes are structures intended to convey a concentration of water down a slope that, without such
protection, would be subject to scour. Since flow velocities are very high, stilling basins are required
to prevent downstream erosion. The entrance of the chute needs to be designed to ensure that water
is deflected from the side drain into the chute, particularly where the road is on a steep grade. On
embankments it may be necessary to lead water to the top of chutes using kerbing.

B - Chapter 7 - 70
7.5.10 Slope protection
Recommended cut and fill slopes for LVRs to avoid excessive erosion are given in Table B.7.14 and Table
B.7.15.
Table B.7.14: Common cut-slope ratios for LVRs.
Soil and rock condition (Horizontal : Vertical)

Most hard rocks (without adverse jointing) 1:4 – 1:2
Closely fractured rock 1:2 – 1:1
Well consolidated highly to completely
1:2 – 1:1
weathered rock (residual soil)
Dense coarse granular soils 1:2 – 1:1
Loose coarse granular soils 1.5:1
Plastic clay soils 2:1 – 3:1
Low cuts (less than 3 m high) 2:1
Table B.7.15: Common fill slope batters for LVRs.
Soil and rock condition (Horizontal : Vertical)

Soft clays or fills on wet areas and swamps (>3m) 2:1 - 3:1
Fills of most soils (free draining granular fill >3m) 1.5: 1 - 2:1
Fills of hard, angular rock (rock fill >3m) 1.5:1 – 1.25:1
Low fills (less than 3m high) 2:1 or flatter (for vegetation)
Techniques for slope protection against erosion are:

Intercepting ditches at the top and bottom of slopes with gutters and spillways used to control the
flow of water down the slope;
Stepped or terraced slopes to reduce the height of the slope;
Riprap or rock facing material embedded in a slope face, sometimes with planted vegetation;
Topsoiling and grassing: the slope is covered with 75mm of fine topsoil and planted with a suitable
indigenous grass;
Retaining structures such as gabions and other retaining walls;
Reinforced earth, where the embankment walls build up as the earth fill is placed, within anchors
compacted into the fill material;
Shotcreting and geotextiles: techniques that are usually expensive and should therefore be
carefully considered before being used for specific applications.

B - Chapter 8 - 71
8. WATER CROSSINGS AND ASSOCIATED STRUCTURES
The design of water crossings and associated structures for low volume are covered in Part E Chapter 8 of
the manual. This Part of the manual includes bridges up to a span of 10m. For detailed design of bridges
with spans greater than 10m, the designer should consult the ERA Bridge Design Manual – 2011.

B - Chapter 9 - 72
9. ROAD FURNITURE AND SIGNAGE
The ERA Geometric Design Manual provides the requirements for road furniture and signage. The main
elements are:
Traffic signs provide essential information to drivers for their safe and efficient manoeuvring on
the road;
Road markings to delineate the pavement centre line and edges to clarify the paths that vehicles
should follow (paved roads);
Marker posts to indicate the alignment of the road ahead.
Not all of these measures are needed on low volume roads.
9.1 Traffic Signs

Traffic signs are of three general types:
Regulatory Signs: indicate legal requirements of traffic movement and are essential for all roads.
Warning Signs: indicate conditions that may be hazardous to highway users
Information Signs: convey information of use to the driver
Warning signs should be provided where there are unexpected changes in the driving conditions, for
example where:
The geometric standards for a particular class of road have been changed along a short section
of road, for example a sharp bend, a sudden narrowing of the road, or an unexpectedly steep
gradient;
A bend occurs after a long section of straight road;
There is an unexpected school crossing;
A drift or other structure is not clearly visible from a safe distance;
The driver is approaching traffic calming measures such as speed humps.
Hazard warnings that are done by means of road markings on paved roads must be done by means of
traffic signs on unpaved roads.
Information signs are less important on lower classes of road frequented primarily by local people.
9.2 Road Markings

Pavement markings consist primarily of centre lines, lane lines, no overtaking lines and edge lines. Not all
of these are necessary on low volume roads, but on a paved two lane road a centre line is recommended.
9.3 Marker Posts

Marker posts have the function of controlling traffic to encourage safe operation of the road. There are
two types of marker posts: guideposts and kilometre posts.
Guideposts are intended to make drivers aware of potential hazards such as abrupt changes in shoulder
width, abrupt changes in the alignment, approaches to structures etc. For changes in shoulder width
and approaches to structures, guide posts should be placed at 50m intervals.
The required spacing of guideposts on curves is shown in Table B.9.1.

B - Chapter 9 - 73
Table B.9.1: Spacing of Guide Posts at Curves
Curve Radius (m) Guide Post Spacing (m)

500 35
200 20
100 12
50 8
30 5
Kilometre posts are a requirement for all trunk and link roads and are therefore only likely to be needed
on some roads of class DC4. Details are given in the section on “Road Furniture and Markings” in the
Geometric Design Manual-2011.
9.4 Safety barriers

Safety barriers are expensive and seldom justified on low volume roads. The geometric design of such
roads should be done to eliminate the need for such barriers but sometimes they might be required in
highly dangerous situations, for example, on some bends on an escarpment road that cannot be made
safe by other means.

Appendix B.1 - 74
APPENDIX B.1 - RAINFALL INTENSITY-

DURATION-FREQUENCY CHARTS
Rainfall Regions
Note:
Rainfall data used in the preparation of this figure was collected from Ministry of Water Resources
meteorology stations and analysed during the preparation of the 2002 ERA Drainage Design Manual.
The information is subject to review, and future data may indicate the need for a further refinement in
both values and regional boundaries.

Appendix B.1 - 75

Appendix B.1 - 76

Appendix B.1 - 77

Design Manual For Low Volume Roads Part B

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Design Manual For Low Volume Roads Part B

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

)('(5$/'(02&5$7,&5(38%/,&2)

Policy and legislative

Geometric design standards

Water crossings and

Road furniture and signage

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

7.2 The Rational Method .....................................................................................................B.51

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Table B.2.1: Summary of Existing Requirements ...............................................................................B.3

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Table B.6.4: Typical gravel loss ........................................................................................................B.42

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Figure B.3.1: Climatic N-value map for Ethiopia .................................................................................B.4

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Low Volume Roads are defined as those roads carrying:

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

2. POLICY AND LEGISLATIVE CONTROLS

2.1 Legal Framework

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Table B.2.1 Summary of Existing Requirements

No. Technical Area Existing Documentation Requirements

2.2 Road Safety

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

N = 12.Ej/Pa Equation 3.1

Figure B.3.1: Climatic N-value map for Ethiopia

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

0 to 10 five-metre contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to

3.4.1 Vehicle classification

Table B.3.1 shows the vehicle classification.

Table B.3.1: Vehicle Classification

Class Type Axles Description

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

3.4.2 Traffic volumes

3.4.3 Traffic growth

Future traffic falls into the following three categories:

AADTx = AADT0 (1+i/100)x Equation B.3.1

3.4.4 Geometric design

3.4.5 Structural design

T(m) = 0.5 x 365 x AADT(m)0 [(1+i/100)N – 1]/(i/100) Equation B.3.2

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

3.4.6 Equivalent standard axles per vehicle class

Table B.3.2: Average equivalency factors for different vehicle types

No of Average esa per vehicle Average esa per vehicle

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Table B.3.3: Factors for design traffic loading

Cross Paved Corrected design

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

4. GEOMETRIC DESIGN STANDARDS

Select road class

Determine a trial alignment

Figure B.4.1: Selection of appropriate geometric design standards

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

4.1 Traffic composition

Table B.4.1: PCU values

Vehicle PCU value

4.2 Roadside population and non-motorised vehicles

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

Basic shoulder widths (m) High

Table B.4.3 Shoulder widths (each side) for paved LVRs

Basic shoulder widths (m) Populated

4.3 Geometric design standards for LVRs

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS

PART B: DESIGN STANDARDS FOR LOW VOLUME ROADS