Chapter 2

GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 Geometric Design
 Deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the highway
such as cross section elements, sight distance requirements, curves,
gradients and intersection geometry
 Aims to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operation and maximum
safety at reasonable cost
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
DESIGN SPEED
 Directly affects the sight distance, horizontal curve and vertical curve
requirements.
 A speed that is adopted for all geometric design requirements.
 Considered as the highest continuous speed at which individual vehicles can travel
with safety on the highway with favourable weather and traffic conditions.
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
TOPOGRAPHY
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
DESIGN VEHICLE
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
DESIGN VEHICLE
Offtracking
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
DESIGN VEHICLE
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
HUMAN FACTORS

Driving Task
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
HUMAN FACTORS
PIEV TIME
1. Perception – the time to see or discern
an object or event
2. Identification – the time to understand Driver’s reaction times increase as a
the implications of the object’s or function of decision complexity and the
event’s presence amount of information to be processed
3. Emotion – the time to decide how to
react For design – 2.5 sec
4. Volition – the time to initiate the
action: for example, the time to engage For operations or control – 1.0 sec
the brakes
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
HUMAN FACTORS
Design and Placement of Driver Information based on Positive
Guidance Approach
1. Primacy: Determine placement of signs according to the importance of their information,
and in such a way as to avoid presenting the driver with information when and where it is
not essential
2. Spreading: Where all information required by the driver cannot be placed on one sign or
on a number of signs at one location, spread it out over space so as to reduce the
information load on the driver
3. Coding: Color and shape coding of traffic signs
4. Redundancy: Say the same thing in more than one way. Example: The STOP sign has a
unique shape and message; both of which convey the message to stop.
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Types of Highway Flow Facilities

 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Dual
Carriageway
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
Single Carriageway

Shoulder
Shoulder

Travel lanes
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
PAVEMENT SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS

 Friction between wheels and the

pavement surface
 Smoothness of the road surface
 Light reflection characteristics of the top
of pavement surface
 Drainage of water
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
CROSS FALL (CROSS
SLOPE OR CROWN)
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
KERBS
 Boundary between the pavement
and shoulders or footpaths

 Functions:

1. To facilitate and control

drainage
2. To strengthen and protect
the pavement edge
3. Aesthetics
4. To facilitate traffic flow
 Factors Affecting Geometric Design
KERBS
 Boundary between the pavement
and shoulders or footpaths

 Functions:

1. To facilitate and control

drainage
2. To strengthen and protect
the pavement edge
3. Aesthetics
4. To facilitate traffic flow
 Sight Distance
• The length of roadway visible to a driver
• For safety, roadway design should provide
sight distance of sufficient length so that
the drivers can control the operation of
their vehicles to avoid striking an
unexpected object in the travel way
 Sight Distance

1. Stopping Sight Distance

2. Decision Sight Distance
3. Passing Sight Distance
4. Intersection Sight Distance
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• The minimum distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design
speed, safely without collision with any other obstruction
• Also known as the safe stopping sight distance
• It is the sum of two distances (AASHTO, 2004):

 Braking Reaction Distance (dBR): the distance traversed by the

vehicle when the driver first perceives an object on the road
necessitating the need to make a stop and actually applying a braking
force

d BR  0.278vt
Where: v = speed in kph and t = braking time in seconds (the
perception-reaction time = 2.5 sec)
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

 Braking Distance (dB): the distance the vehicle needs to stop after
the braking force is applied

2
v
d B  0.039
a
2
v
SSD  0.278vt  0.039
a
Where: v = design speed in kph and a = deceleration rate in m/s2
(usually, 3.4 m/s2)
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Effect of Grade

v2
db 
2 g ( f  G)

a
f 
g
Where: v = design speed in kph; g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s2; f =
coefficient of friction between the pavement and the tires; a =
deceleration rate and G = grade of the roadway (+G → upgrade, -G →
downgrade)
 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
Example 2.1

For an arterial road having a design speed of 130 kph, compute the stopping
sight distance. What is the stopping sight distance of the section of the
roadway having an uphill grade of +8%?
 Decision Sight Distance (SSD)
 The distance needed for a driver to Decision Sight Distance by Design Speed
detect an unexpected or otherwise (OHDS, 2010)
difficult to perceive information source
or condition in a roadway environment
that may be visually cluttered,
recognize the condition or its potential
threat, select an appropriate speed and
path and initiate and complete the
maneuver safely and efficiently.
 Always significantly more than the
stopping sight distance
 Recommended decision sight distances
for a range of design speeds and
avoidance maneuvers are shown in the
table
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
 The minimum distance ahead if the vehicle which is necessary to be clear for the safe
passing or overtaking.
 Only necessary for two-lane single carriageway roads.
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

The initial maneuver distance (d1): The distance while passing vehicle occupies
distance traversed during a perception and the left lane, (d2): passing vehicles were found
reaction time and during the initial in the study to occupy the left lane from 9.3 to
acceleration to the point of encroachment 10.4 sec (AASHTO, 2001). This distance can
on the left lane. The distance traveled be computed as:
during the initial maneuver period is
computed as:

d1  0.278t1  v  m 
at1  d 2  0.278vt2

 2 

Where: t1 = time of initial maneuver in sec; a = Where: t2 = time when the passing vehicle occupies the
average acceleration in kph/sec; v = average speed of left lane in sec; and v = average speed of passing vehicle
passing vehicle in kph; and m = difference in speed in kph
of passed vehicle and passing vehicle in kph
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

Clearance length, (d3): distance between

the passing vehicle at the end of its
maneuver and the opposing vehicle. The
clearance length between the opposing and
passing vehicles at the end of the passing
maneuvers was found in the passing study
(AASHTO, 2001) to vary from 30 to 75 m.

Distance traversed by an opposing

vehicle, (d4): distance traversed by an
opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time
the passing vehicle occupies the left lane, or
2/3 of d2 PSD  d1  d 2  d 3  d 4
 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
Example 2.2

Compute the passing sight distance for a section of the highway having a design
speed of 80 kph, assuming the following conditions:

• Speed of overtaken/passed vehicle = 65 kph

• Time of initial maneuver = 3.6 sec
• Ave. acceleration of passing vehicle = 2.25 kph/s
• Total time the passing vehicle occupies the opposing lane = 9.3 sec
• Clearance length = 75 m
Horizontal Curves
 Horizontal Alignment

COMPONENTS
Circular Curve
Transition/spiral

Tangent/straight sections
 Horizontal Alignment
Components:

1. Tangent or Straight line segments

2. Circular curves
3. Transitions or spiral

Horizontal Curve
 Provides a transition between two tangent lengths of roadways
 Necessary for gradual change in direction
 Horizontal Curve
Types
 Horizontal Curve
Elements of a Simple Curve Length of Curve, Lc
RI
Lc 
180
or if 1 station  20 m
20 I
Lc 
D

Degree of Curve, D

20 2R
 → Arc basis: used in highways
D 360
 Horizontal Curve
Elements of a Simple Curve Length of Tangent, T
I
T  R tan
2
External Distance, E

I  I 
E  R sec  R  R sec  1
2  2 
Middle Ordinate, M
I  I
M  R  R cos  R 1  cos 
2  2
 Horizontal Curve
Example 2.3

A 5° curve has a central angle of 60° with PC located at sta 100 + 300. Calculate the
following elements of the horizontal curve:

• The length of curve

• Tangent distance
• Station PT
• External distance and
• Middle ordinated
 Horizontal Curve
Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves Horizontal sightline offset (HSO)

Centerline of the
inside lane

Line of sight
 Horizontal Curve
Sight Distance for Horizontal Curves
When: L > SSD
  28.65S  
HSO  R1  cos   
  R 

When: L < SSD

L2 S  L 
HSO 
8R

Where: S = stopping sight distance (SSD) in

m; R = radius of the curve in m; and
HSO = Horizontal sightline offset
 Horizontal Curve
Example 2.4

A building for rest area is located 12 m from the centerline of a single carriageway highway.
If the building is situated at the inside of a 10° horizontal curve and assuming the length of
curve to be greater than the sight distance and 3.75 m lane width,

1. Calculate the minimum sight distance along the curve?

2. What should be the maximum speed recommended for this curve?
3. If the designer wants to increase the design speed to 15 kph higher than the
recommended speed, how far should the building be from the centerline of the
curve?
 Horizontal Curve
Superelevation rate or banking
 The rise in the roadway surface elevation as you move
from the inside to the outside edge of the road. For
example, a superelevation rate of 10% implies that the
roadway surface elevation increases by 1 m for every 10 m
of roadway width.
 Counteracts the centripetal acceleration produced as the
vehicle round a curve
 Superelevated pavement aids the riding quality and safety
as vehicles navigate the horizontal curves.
 The primary reason for superelevating curves is to retard
sliding, allowing more uniform speed along the curve.
Secondary reason is to allow the use of smaller radii curves
(minimize land use)
 Horizontal Curve
Superelevation rate or banking
W v2

g R
tan   e
tan   f W
2  
W v
  
g R tan   tan  θ
tan(   )  
W 1  tan  tan  W v2 W Resultant

v2 e  f g R
 ; ef  0
gR 1  ef
v2
 e f
gR
 Horizontal Curve
Side Friction Factor, f
Table 4.2Maximum Side Friction Values
 A function of speed, roadway surface, weather (OHDS, 2010)
condition, tire condition and based on comfort
(drivers brake, make sudden lane changes and Design Speed fmax
changes within a lane when acceleration (kph)
around a curve becomes uncomfortable 50 0.19
 To physically “corner” on a curve, a vehicle 80 0.14
needs (demands) side friction 130 0.08
 fmax used for curve design is sufficiently
conservative to provide a substantial margin v2
for safety over f values at the point of an f  127 R  0.01e  (AASHTO, 2004 and OHDS, 2010)
impending skid
 Horizontal Curve
Minimum Radius, Rmin

 A limiting value for horizontal curves for a given design speed and is determined with the
maximum rate of superelevation “e” and the maximum allowable side friction “fmax”
v2
Rmin   (AASHTO, 2004 and OHDS, 2010)
1270.01e  f max 
 Horizontal Curve
Design Considerations

 Safety
 Economically practical

Mostly, design speed is used as the overall design control

 Horizontal Curve
Transition Curves

 A driver entering a curve from a straight section of the road has to steer a transition to the
arc curvature. For large radius curve, it is not a problem, but as the radius decreases, it
becomes more noticeable.
 Transition curves (spiral or easement) are introduced to ease the alignment from straight to
curved section without any abrupt change of line.
 A properly designed transition curve provides a natural and easy to follow path for drivers
such that the lateral force increases and decreases gradually and uniformly as a vehicle
enters and leaves a circular curve.
 Transition curves are not necessary when large radius circular arcs are used.
Maximum Horizontal Circular Curve Radii for which
Transitions are required (OHDS, 2010)
Design Speed Maximum Radius
(kph) (m)
20 24
30 54
40 95
50 148
60 213
70 290
80 379
90 480
100 592
110 716
120 852
130 1000
 Horizontal Curve
Transition Curves

• The minimum necessary length of a spiral whose radius changes from infinity (tangent)
to a value R is given by the expression:
0.0214v 3
Lmin 
RC
Where: Lmin = minimum length of spiral in m; v = design speed in kph; R = curve
radius in m; and C = rate of increase of lateral acceleration (m/s3)

• The value of C varies between 0.3 and 0.9 depending on the design speed.
 Horizontal Curve
Application of Superelevation
 Horizontal Curve
Application of Superelevation
 Horizontal Curve
Application of Superelevation

Road Cross Section at

Normal Crossfall
 Horizontal Curve
Application of Superelevation
 Horizontal Curve
Application of Superelevation

• When a straight section is crowned (normal crossfall), the first stage is to rotate the side
of the camber on the outside of the curve about the centerline to produce a crossfall of
0%. This distance is called the “tangent runout” (Lt or TR). In all cases, this should be
achieved on the straight before the start of any curvature.
• In practice, the rotation is generally about the centerline for single carriageway roads and
about the inside edge of the median for dual carriageways.
 Horizontal Curve
Minimum Length of Tangent Runout, Lt
 The length of roadway needed to accomplish a change in outside lane crossfall from
normal slope to zero
eNC  Lr
TR  Lt 
ed

Where: eNC = normal crossfall (%); ed = design superelevation rate (%); and Lr =
minimum length of superelevation runoff
 Horizontal Curve
Superelevation Runoff Length Where: Lr = Minimum runoff length (m); ∆ =
• The distance to run from 0% to full maximum relative gradient difference
or design superelevation is given (%); n1 = number of lanes to be rotated
about the chosen axis; bw = adjustment
by:
Lr 
wn1 ed
bw factor for number of lanes rotated (one
 side of axis); w = width of one lane (m);
• The adjustment factor (bw) is given by: and ed = design superelevation rate (%)

1  0.5n1  1
bw 
n1
 Horizontal Curve
Maximum Relative Gradient
Relative Gradient, ∆
(AASHTO, 2004 and OHDS, 2010)
• The maximum longitudinal slope Maximum Relative
• Depends on design speed: higher Design Speed (kph)
Gradient (%)
speed = gentler slope
20 0.80
30 0.75
40 0.70
50 0.65
60 0.60
70 0.55
80 0.50
90 0.47
100 0.44
110 0.41
120 0.38
130 0.35
 Horizontal Curve
Location of Runoff Length
• WITH SPIRAL: spiral length should be used for transition runoff
• NO SPIRAL: the application of runoff length should be:
 66% (or 2/3) on the tangent straight 2/3 Lr 1/3 Lr
 34% (or 1/3) On the circular curve

With Spiral Without Spiral

 Horizontal Curve
Example 2.5

Design the application of superelevation of the horizontal curve along in a three-lane dual
carriageway Arterial Road having the following data:

• Normal Crossfall = 2%
• Design Superelevation rate = 6%
• Design Speed = 130 kph
• C = 0.5
• PC is at STA 100 + 300
• Elevation of the centerline = 100 m
With Spiral
POINTS A&B C D E&F

STATIONING

CROSS SECTION

ELEV. OF OUTER
EDGE (m)

ELEV. OF INNER
EDGE (m)
Without Spiral
2/3 Lr 1/3 Lr
POINTS A&B C D E&F

STATIONING

CROSS SECTION

ELEV. OF OUTER
EDGE (m)

ELEV. OF INNER
EDGE (m)
Vertical Curves
 Vertical Curves
Critical Considerations
1. Speed differential and Grade (Length of need)
2. Vehicle operations (speed, distance and grade relationship)
3. Minimum sight distances

Vertical curves should be simple in application and should result in a design that is safe,
comfortable in operation, pleasing in appearance and adequate for drainage purposes
(AASHTO, 2004)
Facts
1. Vertical curves used in highway design are parabolic
2. There is a uniform rate of chance throughout the curve
3. Vertical curves are almost always symmetrical
Types of Vertical Curves
HP

L
x  G1  
 A
A  G1  G2

Elements of Vertical Curves

Example 2.6

Calculate the layout notes

of a summit curve with Elevation Elevation
Stations x y Remarks
the following data: on Tangent on Curve
PVC
• Length of Curve: 200
m
• Stationing of PVC: 10
+ 500
• Elevation of PVC:
100 m ASL
• G1: +5%
• G2: -2.5%
 Sight Distance
Stopping Sight Distance
h1 = 1.08 m; h2 = 0.6 m

Passing Sight Distance

H1 = 1.08 m; h2 = 1.08 m
SL
AS 2
L

100 2h1  2h2 
2

SL

L  2S 

200 2h1  2h2 
2

Summit or Crest Vertical Curves

Example 2.7

A 280-m vertical summit curve with tangent grades of + 5.3% and -4.5% is to be designed
on a single carriageway Arterial road. Compute:

a. The stopping sight distance

b. The passing sight distance
Criteria for establishing the length of the vertical sag curve
(AASHTO, 2004)

1. Headlight sight distance

2. Passenger comfort
3. Drainage control
4. General Appearance

Sag or Valley Vertical Curves

 Sight Distance

Headlight Sight Distance

For safety, sag curves should be long enough so that the light beam distance is nearly
the same as the stopping sight distance (SSD)
SL
AS 2
L
120  3.5S
SL
120  3.5S
L  2S 
A

Sag or Valley Vertical Curves

 Sight Distance

Passenger Comfort
Effect of passenger comfort of the change in vertical direction is greater on
sag than on crest due to opposing gravitational and centripetal forces
It is affected appreciably by vehicle body suspension, vehicle body weight,
tire flexibility and other factors

Av 2
L
395

Sag or Valley Vertical Curves

 Sight Distance

Drainage
Affects the design of Type
III vertical curves where
curb sections are used
For drainage, the length of
sag curve is determined
from the chart

Sag or Valley Vertical Curves

 Sight Distance

Appearance
Rule of thumb

L  30 A

Sag or Valley Vertical Curves

Example 2.8

A sag curve connecting tangent grades of -3.5% and +1.5% is to be designed on a highway
with a design speed of 100 kph. Determine the length curve considering:

a. Headlight sight distance

b. Passenger comfort
c. Drainage
d. Appearance