Climate Smart Agriculture: Lessons Learnt, Technological Advances Made and Research Priorities

in SAT
B.M. Chittapur
In Hyderabad- Karnataka, predominantly an agrarian region known in the rest of the state as
well as in the country as ‘pulse-bowl’ and ‘rice-bowl’, climate is a real challenge for profitable and
sustainable agriculture as in the entire north Karnataka. Except for the prestigious Upper Krishna
Project and the Tunga Bhadra Project, the projects conceived to cater water needs of this
traditionally sun perched and drought prone area, life has been an eternal struggle for food and
livelihood security. Even the little industry that is slowly raising its head is agro-based and hence
their fate is also monsoon dependent and struggle for respectable life for industrial labour is also not
an easy one. Therefore, the State Government started Farm University in the region in 2009 as an
ultimate institute for greening the life of farmers through sustainable and productive agriculture.
However, the challenges before the scientific fraternity are diverse yet unique, and need concerted
efforts addressing the issues through both short term as well as long term research strategies.
Following is the prelude to the lessons Learnt, technological advances made and research Priorities
for climate smart agriculture, on which the winter school is designed deliberated.

I. Lessons learnt
1. Increase in monocropping
The first ever interspecific cotton hybrid, viz., Varalakshmi, in the world was bred at
Agricultural Research Station, Dharwad, Karnataka. Jayalakshmi (DCH 32) followed it as an alternate
to Varalakshmi. Immediately, the entire TBP command turned into cotton bowl with world record
cotton productivity. However, the success did not last long, as the greed for money led to
monocropping of cotton and consequent pest build up eliminated the crop from the region paving
way for paddy with large acreage being taken over by immigrant Andhra farmers. Even today rice
occupies premier position among crops in the region. As problems with paddy increased as an
alternate, sizable area also came under chilli, and of late once again under cotton but with Bt
cultivars with the advent of BG I and BG II hybrids. In drylands the typical climate and soil, and ever
increasing prices led way to pigeonpea, and today pigeonpea dal from this region goes to other parts
of the state as well as country. Even the multinational companies are directly trading with farmers
and sending the packed dal to other parts of the world. In the process groundnut, pundi, rabi
sorghum, millets, kharif pulses, etc., almost became extinct.
2. Escalation of Agricultural Pests
Initially everything was well with paddy but slowly bacterial leaf blight (BLB) had its toll.
Whether it is paddy, cotton, chilli or pigeonpea (so also chickpea), all are pest ridden and because of
pest outbreaks the area witnessed unabated pesticide usage and consequent mushrooming of
pesticide trade alongwith chemical fertilizers. However, indiscriminate and unscientific use of
pesticide and monocropping not just led to pest resurgence, evolution of resistant species besides
pollution of environment. Issues such as rejection of rice and chilli consignments from the importing
countries due to toxic residue hazard, mutilation and discolouration of birds; the natural predators
of insects, death of hundreds of cattle due to feeding toxicants sprayed straw, and daily admittance
of over hundreds of agricultural labours during season due to pesticide related poisoning at Raichur
Institute of Medical Sciences, Raichur etc. make regular rounds in the dailies and stand as testimony
to pesticide hazard on environment.
3. Growing Problems of Waterlogging, Salinisation and Alkalization
Water is gold; and it is not a luxury. But who cares. When it flows in the canal, similar to
paddy every arable crop here is inundated consequently not only the problem of waterlogging and
salinisation increased but it continues at alarming rates and now waterlogging, salinisation and
alkalization is the highest in the country.
4. Undependable Monsoon
 The ever undependable Indian monsoon with changing climate has its own owes on
agriculture and humanity in the region. No doubt, delayed monsoon is an accepted fact but it not
only affects selection of current season crops and/varieties because of reduced growing period but
also reduces the possibility of succeeding crop even in commands. That apart, during 2009, monsoon
not only delayed in the entire northern Karnataka, but subsequent floods due to heavy showers led
to relocation of many river bank settlements and villages. In the sugarcane belt the crop was lost due
to inundation, while in remaining areas cropping was delayed and the questions from farmers were
whether the traditional crop like pigeonpea can still be planted, what should be the durable
management practices, or else, whether they have to wait till the onset of rabi?
Delayed rains in the catchments delay in flow into reservoirs and consequently letting of
water in the canals during the season gets delayed inordinately. Then the questions are whether
same paddy cultivar could be still cultivated, if so what are the management practices and what
about the tail end farmers in the commands? Further, when the first crop is delayed whether second
crop of paddy could be still prevailed with, and if so which cultivars, and if not, what else is more
profitable, and what are the management options? In fact, the canals which once flooded the fields
for nine months are now not flowing even for six months (July end to January).
5. Issues of Plant Nutrition
Crop nutrition is one important issue more so in irrigated areas and with non-leguminous
crops. Unlike poor nutrition of rainfed areas, excess fertilization or imbalanced use of nutrients is
quite concerning. In paddy, chilli and cotton excess fertilization without exception is the rule. This is
affecting ground water quality, so also nala flows as excess water from crop fields enters nalas. NO3
pollution though not reported is not impossible. Plant nutrition is mostly driven by farmers’ Zeal to
excel others rather than crop necessity. The drive for high yields also led to mining of secondary and
micronutrients from the land and consequent emergence of their deficiencies. Who can explain the
associated pest outbreaks?
6. Climate Change; Increased Environmental Temperatures and/or CO2
Climate change is not just an aberration in rainfall, but changes in temperature and CO 2
concentration which are on the rise and which are in turn affecting crop growth, and pest outbreaks.
The responses of crops and their cultivars and so also pests to these climatic changes are quite
varying. In fact, it is reducing the choice of crops and their cultivars. Crops/cultivars which ruled
earlier are now relegated to oblivion. Crippled growing season is reducing possibility of second crop.
And, with regard to pests every year some new pest creates havoc.
` 7. Migration of Rural Poor
Agriculture in drylands of zone II and III being less lucrative and strenuous, rural youth in the
region migrate to near by cities and to distant cosmopolitans in search of better easy jobs and better
life. This is leading to shortage of agricultural labours, and loss of enthusiasm for agriculture in those
staying back.
8. Need for Mechanization
Reduced labour availability, increasing cost of labour, and some of the presumed to be
defective policies are driving farmers crazy. Machinery, both low and cost simple, and huge and
expensive from land preparation to harvest and agro-processing is need of the hour.

II Technological Advances
1. Advent of New Climate Smart Crop Varieties
North eastern transitional zone of Karnataka, kharif pulses like blackgram, green gram,
yellow gram, sesame etc., either as sole crop in a double cropping system or as intercrops with long
duration pigeonpea (cv. BSMR 736) were once common. But the failing rains in the beginning of the
season and havoc created by powdery mildew reduced their intensity and blackgram has almost
become extinct from this area once known as its fortress in the state. Today, soybean is emerging as
a most potential climate smart crop both as sole and as intercrop during rainy season with highest
acreage (1 25 000 ac). A single cultivar, JS 335, is responsible for this revolutionary change. The area
has also the advantage of absence of rust disease, which is affecting production in traditional
soybean area. Fortunately, today rust resistant cultivars are available and soybean cultivation will go
unhindered in the region at least for some period. And, fascinated farmers are already toying with
the idea of summer soybean.
In rainfed areas, cultivation of long duration pigeonpea varieties which was in vogue slowly
paved way for medium and early types due to the menace of Helicoverpa later in the season and
also high frequency of end season drought. From GS 1 and BDN 2, to Maruti (ICPL 8863), BSMR 76,
to Gulyal local, TS 3R and the latest in the list is GRG 811 which is in between Maruti and TS 3R in
duration but resistant both to wilt and sterility mosaic virus are popular now. These are climate
smart and disease smart cultivars.
Similarly in paddy, during rainy season BPT 5204 i.e. Sona masuri, a long duration (165-170
days) cultivar was common. But delayed water release and occurrence cold at flowering and
consequent spikelet sterility led to development of Gangavati sona (ICGV 05-01) which has high yield
potential, tolerant to sheath blight, neck blast and BLB during Kharif and sheath blight and brown
spot during summer, resistant to shattering and lodging, withstand salinity and importantly it is
about 10 days earlier to BPT 5204. The cultivar originally found favour for summer is becoming
popular even during rainy season due to its earliness, escaping from cold, and relatively tolerance to
bacterial blight. Similarly for summer this year IET 19251 was released which is a dual season
cultivar, matures in 115-120 days, has a potential of yielding 6 t ha -1, resistant to brown spot and
sheath rot, tolerant to false smut and moderately resistant to leaf blast, and importantly is still
earlier, and hence can even be planted during rainy season under extreme delayed planting
conditions of mid September.
Nobody can deny the climate smartness of cotton. In this TBP and UKP commands, in spite of
scarcity and delayed water release farmers could harvest 20-25 q ha -1 cotton with single irrigation.
This year in spite Kharif being dry, farmers replaced paddy in Kasabe camp of Raichur, and with
single irrigation they are excepting 20 q ha -1 kapas yield in first picking and additional 3-4 q ha -1 in
subsequent pickings (Pyati, 2015). Other crops like maize, pearlmillet and sunflower being
photoinsensitive have shown promise. Pearlmillet and sunflower are predominant in rainfed region.
Labour being a problem, BGM 2, a chickpea cultivar, growing to a height of 50 cm with pods
borne terminally is found suitable for machine harvesting and hence released for general cultivation
by the UAS, Raichur during 2014.
2. Climate Smart Land Preparation Practice
Under conservation agriculture, farmers were introduced to laser leveller and today it is the
much sought after machinery both by rainfed farmers and of command areas because of its ability to
increase water use efficiency which is of paramount importance. Uniform water distribution,
reduced runoff and erosion are attracting farmers. High potential of cotton mentioned previously in
paddy fallows in Kasabe camp is due to laser levelling (Pyati, 2015). This also enabled large plots in
case of paddy and thus eliminated mid bunds resulting in overall increased yield and saving of water
compared to traditional system where due to uneven land more water was required.
3. Drainage, Biodrains and Conjunctive Use of Saline Water
Irrigation and drainage go hand in hand otherwise production will hamper due to
waterlogging and salinity. In UKP project experiments under Indo-Dutch project at Islampur, near
Hunsagi, revealed that open drains at 50 m distance after three years get chocked and become
inefficient unless cleared and maintained every year (IDNP, 2003). While, sub surface drainage (SSD)
at 30 m apart at 0.9 to 1.0 m depth with a slope of 0.1 to 0.2 % and maximum length of laterals of
295m using 8-10 cm dia PVC pipes covered with 60 mesh nylon net and let into a natural nala was
effective in reducing salinity and water table front and raised cropping intensity form 72 to 157 per
cent. Later the work was extended on farmers’ fields under Water productivity project of RKVY, GoK.
In TBP SSD drains (perforated PVC pipes with filters of 0.10 m dia) spaced at 150 m intervals
laid at a depth of 0.75 m from the surface revealed that soil salinity decreased from 8.4 ds/m to 2.51
dS/m and water table receded from 50 cm to 87 cm after 2 years of installation (Vishwanath, 2015).
Further, rice yields increased from 2.18 to 7.0 t/ha which is about 69 per cent more over its initial
value with a cropping intensity changing from 143 to 191 percent.
Conjunctive use of poor quality water revealed that use of saline water up to 4 dS/m in
direct mode had no adverse effect on cotton yield. Use of saline water (4-6 dS/m) during canal lean
period and then switching over to good quality water wherever available conclusively established
that early establishment (June) with available saline water (with 4 irrigations) and later switching
over to canal (August) water produced highest kapas yield (22.1q/ha) compared to a crop receiving
good water but sown during August (12.6 q/ha). The salt balance remained favourable and did not
cause any concern.
Further, evaluation of tree/grass species for the control of seepage, rising water table and
soil salinity in commands (bio-drainage) revealed that A. nilotica was the most promising at all
salinity levels ranging from < 5 to > 15 dS/m whereas C. equisetifolia promising initially registered
high mortality and cease of growth after 6-8 years. In contrast, H. binata less promising initially
became promising after 6-8 years. In terms of seepage control, A. nilotica and C. equisetifolia were
effective in arresting emerging seepage flows from the canals. A. nilotica and C. equisetifolia
intercepted seepage over 80 per cent and remained most promising over other species. The grasses
in between complimented the effects. The water table receded significantly underneath the
plantation while increased at the rate of 10 cm rise outside the plantation area. A. nilotica followed
by C. equisetifolia also improved soil organic carbon and porosity, while bulk density decreased.
Trees improved hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate and brought about a significant change in
soil stability by improving aggregates, decreased soil and water erosion.
Under extreme conditions of high water table (WT) and salinity (WT: 0.75 to 1.0 m and
saline 10-12 dS/m), Acacia ferugenia, Albizzia lebbeck, Glyricidia maculata and Casuarina
equisetifolia were most tolerant, while Dalbergia sissoo, Inga dulse, Eucalyptus hybrid and
Pongamea pinnata were moderately tolerant to salinity level up to 10-12 dS/m and WT up to 0.75
m. That apart all the tree species also enriched the soil nutrient pool (NPK) and organic carbon.
Among fruit species mango, custard apple, guava and pummelo were found not suitable for soils
having salinity in the range of 8-15 dS/m and WT 0.40-0.70 m. Jamun and sapota survived and
grew better under relatively lower salinity and shallower water table conditions, whereas wood
apple was promising under relatively high salinity but deeper water table conditions. Pomegranate
and ber maintained a moderate survival and steady growth rate in low salinity and shallow water
table conditions.
4. Conservation Agriculture
CYMMIT funded experiments on farms and on farmers fields were promising on
conservation agriculture under rainfed agriculture were promising. It was found that pigeonpea
could be cultivated without tillage (land ploughing,) whether bed raised or flat being immaterial
provided previous crop residue is retained on the field (Anon., 2014). Because of beneficial effects of
residue on physiochemical and biological properties such a practice had saving in draft/energy,
reduced pest incidence apart from improved economics.
5. Set row cultivation
Rain water management practices are tailored to store and conserve as much rainfall as
possible in the place where it falls by reducing runoff and increasing storage capacity of the soil
profile. The most efficient and cheapest way of conserving rainfall is to hold it in-situ. Among these,
set row cultivation practices, help to increase the infiltration rate of the soil and reduce the run off.
The water stored in the soil is readily available to plants and substantially increase the yield of crops
with the normally available rain water. An experiment was conducted during 2004-07 at Regional
Agricultural Research Station, Bijapur to study the effect of tank silt + crop residue in set furrows and
row spacing on pearlmillet – sunflower sequence cropping system in vertic–inceptisol (Yadahalli, et
al., 2014 a and b). Application of tank silt in set furrows (45-90-45 cm or45-135-45 cm) significantly
increased the soil moisture content at sowing and at all the growth stages. At sowing, application of
tank silt + crop residue in set furrows with wider row spacing (135 cm) recorded significantly higher
volume of water (28.58 cm) than farmer’s practice (16.39 cm) in top 100 cm soil depth, consequently
it reduced the water deficit in the crop root zone and also runoff and soil loss. Further, application of
tank silt + crop residue in set furrows eroded least runoff (3.86 and 26.39 mm, respectively) over
other treatments. Higher soil moisture available in these treatments might be utilised by the crop
through higher AET (366.5 and 294.4mm, respectively) as compared to other treatments. Water
deficit was less in tank silt + crop residues application in set furrows (29.1 and 149.3mm,
respectively) than other treatments. Application of tank silt + crop residue in set furrows with paired
row planting of 45-135-45 cm (1737 kg/ha) recorded significantly higher pearlmillet grain yield,
which was 77.24 per cent higher than farmer’s practice (980 kg/ha). However, it was on par with
tank silt + crop residue in set furrows with wider row spacing (135 cm) and paired row spacing (45-
90-45 cm). In subsequent sunflower crop, application of tank silt + crop residue in set furrows with
wider row spacing (135 cm) enhanced the rabi yield (717 kg/ha) over farmer’s practice (312 kg/ha).
Thus the system enabled double cropping in area where single cropping in shallow to medium soil is
a rule. Similar findings were reported by Arjun Sharma and Guled (2012a and b).
6. Sand mulching
In spite of high moisture holding capacity, utilization of black soils for crop production is
limited to a few crops because of poor aeration and ill drainage due to high clay content (64%). Sand
mulching has been practiced by farmers in some pockets of North Karnataka on deep black soils and
such a system found to help harvest two crops in northern dry zone of Karnataka namely greengram-
rabi sorghum/safflower. This system also does not warrant yearly ploughing. Soil cracking during hot
summer was either minimum or not visible. Experiments conducted at Dry farming Centre, Bijapur
and Main Research Station, Dharwad, indicated distinct advantage with sand mulching (Guled, 1999
and Sudha, 1999 and Surkod, 2015).
Sand mulching in Gadag-Koppal region of Karnataka is practiced in kurl soils. It is observed
that the soil moisture under sand mulch could be 85 to 95 per cent compared to unmulched soil
because of increased rain water retention and reduced evaporation. Approximately 100-120 tractor
load of sand per acre is required. The increase in grain yield of greengram was from 2.5 to 10.0 q ha -
1
, sunflower 3 to 12.5 q ha -1, rabi sorghum 2 to 10 q ha -1. The amount spent on sand mulching could
be recovered within a year, besides the cropping intensity could be increased by 200 per cent.
Benefit with sand mulch exceeded those due to compartment bunding and tied ridges at Regional
Research Station, Bijapur (Surkod, 2015). Similarly, a uniform layer of pebbles on the soil surface
reduces the evaporation loss. It also helps to control runoff. No gullies can be seen in the pebble
mulched fields. The soil moisture will be maintained for longer period that is why yields are always
higher in areas naturally covered with pebbles on the surface. Double cropping is also possible in
pebble mulched areas.
The benefits are directly proportional to the quantity of sand applied and its thickness.
Guled (1999) attributed the beneficial effects to runoff control and increased wetting time. Haung
(1983) attributed improved crop yield to increased soil temperature, conservation of rain water,
reduced evaporation, wind and water erosion which in turn increased water content at any time
under sand mulch compared to unmulched soil. However, limitation of availability and huge
transportation costs work against this measure.
Application of gravel sand + crop residue in set furrows, however, recorded significantly
lower sunflower yield (288 kg/ha) than other treatments (Yadahalli, 2008). This might be due to
application of gravel sand + crop residue in set furrows to a 30 cm depth at such depth the moisture
or water present was leached out into deeper layer. Therefore, the availability of moisture in the
rooting zone was lower during the crop growth period. Kirkham et al. (1967) and Unger (1971) found
that the surface sand mulch is more effective than a sub surface layer in preventing evaporation and
leaching whereas a gradual decline in the yield was observed with increase in thickness of sand
mulch up to 30 cm. Similar observations were made by Sudha (1999) who revealed that 10 cm thick
cover of sand gave lower groundnut pod yield compared to 5 cm sand mulch. The authors further
concluded that sand application of 5 to 7.5 cm to fine textured soil is beneficial for its reclamation
and for increased yield level.
7. Cropping methods
i. Seed hardening: Seed hardening involves seed soaking in chemical solution or water for a
specified period (2 to 16 hrs) at room temperature followed by shade drying 24 hrs). Seed soaking in
wheat (24 hr), groundnut (4 hr), green gram (4hr), Bengal gram and sorghum has been found to
result in higher yields. In northern Karnataka, seed soaking with 10 % cow urine for 8 hrs has given
on par yield as that of chemical seed treatment with CaCl 2. At Kovilpatti, water soaking for 4 hrs with
Rhizobium found to increase blackgram and chickpea yields (Arunachalam, 1996). Dharmlingam and
Jegathambal (1996) soaked seeds in organic substances (leaf extracts of Prosopis and Pungam leaf in
100 ml water for 16 hrs using 1:06 w/v, seed:solution ratio)and then coated air dried seeds with a
fine leaf powder of Pungam leaf @ 300 g kg -1 seed using 5 % maida gruel as adhesive. Seed coating
was done by mixing the seed with maida gruel (300 ml kg -1 seed). Organic farmers are coming out
with many innovative materials and methods. Recently, IARI has come out with seed line application
of hydrogel to tide over drought and has already caught the attention of farmers in Maharashtra and
Karnataka.
The following seed hardening practices are suggested in UAS, Dharwad for drought proofing.
1. Soaking of sorghum in 2 % CaCl2 or 0.5 % KH2PO4 for 10 hrs followed by drying.
2. Overnight soaking of seeds of pearlmillet and fingermillet in 1.0% CaCl 2 solution followed by
shade drying.
3. Soaking the seeds of pearlmillet with 0.5% KH 2PO4 or 2% CaCl2 or CCC @ 5ppm solution for
10 hrs followed by air drying.
4. Soaking chickpea seeds in CaCl 2 (2%) solution for 1 hr, pigeonpea for 2 hrs and greengram
and blackgram for 4 hrs followed by shade drying is suggested.
5. Soaking the groundnut seeds in 1 % CaCl2 solution for 6 hrs and shade drying.
6. The delinted cotton seeds are to be soaked in CCC (Chloro-choline-chloride) 1000 ppm
(0.1%) for 6 hrs. followed by air drying.
7. Soaking sunflower seeds in disodium hydrogen phosphate (36 mg/l) for 6 hrs followed by air
drying.

ii. Transplanting: Transplanting vegetables like chilli, tomato etc. under assured moisture or
paddy under irrigation is a common practice. Transplanting of fingermillet under late sowing
conditions or in case of pearlmillet to fill the gaps as a contingency measure has been suggested.
Recently, in the north-eastern transitional and dry zones of Karnataka, transplanting of 25-30 days
old poly bag (of 5-6” dia/height, for successful establishment the boll of earth with roots should be
intact) raised pigeonpea is found to produce more yield than the conventional drilling/dibbling.
Nipping of 5-6cm top at 20-25 days after transplanting may be followed in case of excessive
vegetative growth which improves branching and flowering leading to higher harvest index.
Particularly under drip method of irrigation, the practice found to give nearly three times higher
yields (16 – 18 q ac-1) over normal drill sowing (5-6 q ha -1). The width of the row could be increased
to 6- 8 feet under drip and the inter row space could be made use for introducing intercrop. The
practice is attracting the attention of neighbouring state farmers.
Rajkumar and Gurumuthy (2008) revealed the scope of transplanting in cotton. Subsequent
studies in TBP and UKP confirmed high seed cotton yield (32 %) with transplanting of cotton at 90 cm
X 90 cm space over farmers’ practice of dibbling due increased sympodials, bolls and seed cotton
yield per plant. The cost of transplanting was covered by the increased income (39 %) realized in the
technique (Honnali and Chittapur, 2013). Importantly, transplanting ensures efficient use of water
and growing season and is more advantageous in UKP region, where release of water is always
delayed resulting in low productivity.
iii. Late kharif /rabi pigeonpea: Pigeonpea becoming bread and butter of dryland farmers
and its assumed status as commercial crop forcing farmers to continue with the crop even under
delayed sowing situations and some farmers are also venturing into rabi situation under irrigation.
Some cultivators are even enquiring the possibility of summer pigeonpea. Therefore, experiments
were carried out during 2010 to 2012 throughout Hyderabad –Karnataka (Anon., 2012). Late kharif
sowings during August and September indicated superior performance of the crop during 1 st and 2nd
fortnights of August with improved cultivars. Interestingly, during rabi under protective irrigation
performance of the crop was either first or next to groundnut in terms of yield and economy. When
an effort was made to recommend the practice crop pathologists strongly opposed the idea for the
fear of that such delayed sowing and consequent debris of live vegetation may encourage sterility
mosaic virus outbreak as once experienced at Agriculture Research Station, Kalaburagi, Karnataka.
iv. Direct seeded rice (DSR): DSR though not new to farmers in many areas of Karnataka e.g.
Western Ghats (Belgaum, Dharwad and Karwar districts) where farmers grow rice as DSR. During
recent years due to severe water and labour shortages and high cost of production constraints;
farmers in many areas of Hyderabad-Karnataka regions, are facing challenges of low productivity,
profitability and even low cropping intensity. With the joint efforts of CIMMYT and University of
Agricultural Sciences, Raichur, development and validation of DSR technology had shown promise
for its out-scaling through innovative strategies in the areas where water supplies are limited and
farmers do not get sufficient water at right time and constrained with ON-OFF canal water supply.
Moreover, erratic and insufficient monsoon have further aggravated conditions leading insufficient
water in barrages, delayed, erratic & untimely canal supplies leading to delayed transplanting
(beyond August). Therefore a participatory intervention on DSR in the Upper Krishna Project (UKP)
and Tunga Bhadra Project (TBP) in addressing such predicaments was initiated (GoK-CGIAR Project
Progress Report (2013)-CIMMYT). Response to early dry seeding or take advantage of early rains
received before canal supplies was met with imminent success with farmers. Success of Kasabe
camp, Raichur today has spread over 60, 000 acres in TBP and UKP commands. In addition to
increase in net income, timely sowing, reduced seed rate by half, reduced fuel consumption by 40-50
lit/ha, reduced water use by 25-35%, reduced GHGs, increased NUE are the other benefits.
v. Cropping system diversification and intensification: Paddy being a banned crop for its
heavy irrigation requirement in UKP command, experiments conducted to find out suitable alternate
crops revealed superiority of transplanted Bt cotton with maximum seed cotton equivalent yield
over rice-rice, while Bt cotton-seame /greengram (summer), maize – chickpea and chilli + onion were
at par with prevailing rice-rice system (Honnali and Chittapur, 2014). However, Protein yields were
higher with maize-chickpea while carbohydrate yield was higher with rice-rice while the highest land
utilization index was observed with Bt cotton – sesame cropping system. Thus, arable cropping is
more sustainable and productive than the present system of rice-rice.
Identification of crops does not end with crop cultivars. Fig, pomegranate, custard apple
even date palm are catching up with large plantations. Farmers from Ballari, Karnataka first ventured
with pomegranate and ber by bringing planting material from Jaisalmer during 80’s. Today the
region has become a major place for export for pomegranate. While, University is yet to make a
head way in date palm, a grower near Ballari has 15 acres of seven year old date palm plantation
which he established as an alternative to increased salinity and alkalinity as well as for water scarcity
that is going to happen in near future. Similarly, one cannot get such a quality acid lime as you get in
northern dry zone. In this area where ber prevailed earlier and Anab-e-shahi made a presence on the
degraded lands with no soil except the dug out pit/trench filled soil, Thomson seedless is ruling the
day. Today farmers follow Australian or French production practices for grape and hundreds of acres
of wine yards along with winery are coming up in this region. Are these new crops not climate
smart?
Mango, amla, tamarind, custard apple, sweet lemon, biofuels plants, mentha, safed masli,
coleus, beet root etc., are other new climate smart crops promising bounty to farmers (Table 1).
Table 1. Promising unconventional crops in northern Karnataka
Common name Reference
Safed masli Chlorophytum borivlianum Somanath ()
Stevia Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. Aladkatti ()
Aswagandha Withania somnifera Dunal Chandranath()
Coleus Coleus forfkohlii briq. Mastiholi ()
Senna Cassia angustifolia Rathod (2009)

vi. Promising Crops for paddy fallows: Relay cropping is such an innovative strategy to
replace traditional monocrop of cotton, transplanted double cropping of rice and rice-fallow with
direct seeded rice-mustard, direct seeded rice-maize, direct seeded rice-chickpea, and direct seeded
rice-greengram. In addition, maize-fallow system is being intensified with maize-zero tillage
chickpea. In recent years, traditional rice-rice system in South India is challenged by non-availability
of water to grow 2nd rice crop. Maize has emerged as an obvious choice, as it can be grown with less
than 1/3 amount of water and has potential to maintain farm profitability at par or better. However,
the spring maize is prone to heat stress during reproductive phase, as temperature peaks during
month of March/April during which availability of water is also invariably a challenge. Maize
production linearly decreases with every accumulated degree day above 30°C (Lobell et al. 2011).
However, the efforts made under Conservation agriculture and Heat resilient maize projects of
CYMMIT, Mexico and UAS, Raichur attracting farmers towards maize. Half a dozen of maize hybrids
are already identified for release (Kuchunur, 2015).
Sesame exports are on the rise, however Kharif produce being poor as the crop is caught in
the rains at maturity, while summer sesame is becoming popular as it is disease-free and of good
quality. Paddy fallows being one avenue both in irrigation commands and in hilly region.
Experiments revealed high potential of the crop; nevertheless cultivars performance and response to
agronomic practices vary. At Agricultural Research Station, Mugad, Karnataka, of the three cultivars,
DS 1 and E 8 were comparable (1200 and 1164 kg ha -1 seeds, respectively) and were superior to DSS
9 (944 kg ha-1) both in terms of seed yield and income, while increasing dose of fertilizer had no
significant influence on any of the parameters studied (Prasanna kumar et al., 2014). Higher
population with 30/40 cm X 10 cm spacing recorded higher seed yield and net income compared to
30/40 cm X 20 cm planting geometries. Among all, DS 1 recorded significantly higher seed yield
(1393 kg ha-1) with recommended NPK (40:25:25 kg ha -1, respectively) and spacing (30 cm X 10 cm).
Combined application of etheopan and Planofix hastened flowering (37.13 dys) while chemical
fertilizer alone + nipping of plants at 25 days delayed flower initiation (39.3 dys) than INS (RDF +FYM)
+ borax (37.63 days). Chemical fertilizer alone + FeSO 4 further delayed time of peak flowering (41.9
days) (PrasannaKumar, 2011). Seed yield with INS was higher (1300 kg ha -1) than with fertilizers
alone (1040 kg ha-1) and top dressing with DAP at 25 kg ha -1 after 25 DAS proved advantageous.
In a trial on farmers’ fields wherein four mustard varieties were evaluated for their
production potential in 100 acres in the paddy fallows during 2014-15 at Vijaynagar and Maramma
camp of Raichur district under RKVY project (Krishnamurthy, 2015). The yield ranged from 460-494
kg/ha in Pusa mustard-30, 361-615 kg/ha in Pusa mustard -25, and 250-360 kg/ha in NRCBH-101
against 150-200 kg/ha in local variety. While, in a trial at Agricultural Research Station, Siruguppa
Pusa mustard 25 (688 kg ha-1), Pusa mustard 26 (681 kg ha-1), Pusa agrani (642 kg ha-1), among the
eight cultivars evaluated (yield ranged from 688 to 357 kg ha -1) found promising (Basavennappa,
2015).
8. In situ Green manuring
Maize – safflower sequence is one of the predominant cropping sequences under rainfed
conditions of northern transitional zone of Karnataka and both cops being exhaustive, organic
recycling through green manuring was considered as wide spacing followed in maize provides an
opportunity to introduce a green manure crop as intercrop (1 maize:2 green manure) which can be
cut and spread in the inter space after 50 DAS (Nooli, et al., 2002). Though maize yields were not
affected adversely the safflower greatly benefited from green manuring. Further, sunnhemp
recorded significantly higher phytomass (11.38 t/ha), biomass production (2.02 t/ha) and, N
accumulation (60.08 kg/ha) than dhaincha (37.87 kg/ha) and cowpea (37.57 kg/ha). Performance of
maize intercropped with annual green manure species was near normal except in the years of stress
and inadequate rainfall. The residual effect of legumes also had a considerable effect on succeeding
chickpea particulaly with sunnhemp. Incorporation of sunnhemp also recorded significantly higher
organic carbon content in soil after harvest of chickpea.
In another experiment, among the intercropped multicut green manures in maize, Medicago
sativa (Lucerne) recorded significantly higher plant height (40.2 cm), greatest accumulation of total
green matter (6.16 t/ha) and total dry matter yield (1.08 t/ha) followed by Stylosanthes hamata and
S. scabra. Similarly, total N and P accumulation (34.26 and 5.01, kg/ha, respectively) were
significantly higher in Medicago sativa. Consequently, maize yields with Medicago sativa,
Stylosanthes hamata or Stylosanthes scabra and sole maize were at par in normal years but was
significantly poor compared to sole maize in the year of stress and inadequate rainfall. Similarly,
experiments on in situ green manuring revealed its possibility in chilli+cotton (Hongal, ), hybrid
cotton (Biradar, ) and paddy (Halepyati, Matiwade and Manjappa) in the transitional and hilly zone
of Karnataka
8. Efficient cropping and farming systems
i. Selection of efficient system: In addition to practical aspects of management, the major factor
that will determine a farmers’ choice is productivity. But, where different systems are made up of
different crops, variety of options is available for comparison. For instance, yield comparisons could
be made in a cereal – pulse – legume combination such as sorghum + pigeonpea, mung – sorghum,
and maize – chickpea systems. This may not be meaningful in case of sorghum – safflower system
involving a cereal – oilseed crop. Other possible comparisons could be nutritional output, biological
efficiency (i.e. the efficiency with which systems utilize environmental resources), net total energy
accumulated in the system, or economic assessment. The later approach has relevance in cash crops
and in subsistence situation. Willey (1987) has given a very good account of productivity analysis of
some cropping systems grown on a Vertisol at ICRISAT .
Among the sorghum + pigeonpea, mung – sorghum, maize – chickpea and sorghum –
safflower, sorghum + pigeonpea has slightly lower net returns than maize – chickpea but because of
lower input costs (mainly because of not to establish a second crop), it has greater rate of returns to
inputs hence could be more attractive proposition. In contrast, sorghum – safflower has high costs
(mainly because both crops have a high fertilizer requirement) and, therefore, a lower net return
and lower rate of returns than the other two double cropping systems.
Another important aspect that needs consideration in selection of cropping system for a dry
farming situation is the risk of failure. One of the problems in trying to ensure full use of potential
growing period is that as the required growing period for a given system increases, the potential of
end season water stress also increases. For instance, on Vertisols with 990 mm rainfall, after 91 days
rainy season sorghum crop, there is still quite a high probability (73 %) of having sufficient water
stored in the soil profile for a sequential second crop (assumed to be 100 days).
After taking in to account those years when there is sufficient water, but surface soil
conditions are too dry to establish the crop, this probability drops to 60 per cent. If the rainy season
sorghum has 105 day growing period, the probability of getting good growing condition or sufficient
stored soil water for second crop; the overall probability of success, therefore, drops substantially to
only 27 per cent. On the other hand, a relay system of planting based on the 105 day first crop and
14 day overlap does of course give the same probability of success as a sequential system based on
91 day crop (provided there is no injury to second crop at harvest of first crop). The advantage of
sorghum + pigeonpea system in which pigeonpea acts as an already established second crop is very
striking; there is extremely high probability of success and the 105-day first crop can be
accommodated as easily as the 91-day crop.
ii. Border/strip planting to evade pests: In Indian chilli, the vast spectrum over 293 insect
and mite species’ debilitating the crop in the field as well as storage, enhanced pesticide usage with
concomitant residue hazard often resulting in rejection of consignment. In this context, studies on
barrier (different coarse grains) cropping on the performance of chilli and of leaf curl revealed that
dry yield increased to the extent of 150 to 120 per cents in the leeward and windward sides of the
barrier, respectively over the crop without barriers (Shivprasad et al., 2010). The leaf curl index (LCI)
was lower in the chilli crop under barriers compared to no barrier (control plot) due to increased
population of predators. Coccinelids and Chrysopids were more under maize barriers and spiders
under sorghum barrier. Further, significantly higher dry pod yield was recorded with integrated N
supp RPP (2 sprays of dimethoate @ 1.7 ml l -1 water + 2 sprays of dicofol @ 2.5 ml l -1 + carboryl @ 4
gl-1) , due to reduced the leaf curl disease to the extent of 58 % over RP and almost by 279 % over
crop without any protection measures.
Similarly in pigeonpea, intercropping of one row of sunflower or pundi after every six rows of
pigeonpea is found advantageous in creating favourable microclimate for predator and parasitoid
population for controlling H. armigera. Sunflower stalks retained in the field after harvest of heads
alone act as animate perches for alighting predatory bird black drongo which reduces Helicoverpa
population (Potdar, 2010). Besides minimizing Helicoverpa and pesticide usage (of the five
recommended only the last two were sufficient), sunflower also increased income due to its seed
yield.
iii. Integrated farming systems: The integrated farming system (IFS) is ‘an agriculture that is
sustainable and efficiently productive and allows the welfare of man, animal and plant’. IFS is also an
approach of obtaining high productivity with substantial fertilizer economy. It relies on organic
recycling for maintaining soil productivity and livestock plays a key role in the system wholeness. The
dairy and small ruminants (goat/sheep) are prominent. Because 85 % of Indian farmers and 98.4 %
Raichur farmers practicing crop based cropping system research on IFS was initiated in Agricultural
Research Station coming Falling under UAS, Raichur, in eighties and after the formation of the
University the efforts were renewed both for rainfed and irrigated situations on the farms under
RKVY, GoK project and under ICAR project, and on SC and ST farmers under SCP/TSP project and on
100 acres blocks under each RSK, through RKVY, IFS funding. Crossbred cows, shirohi, Jmnapari and
barberi goats, Giriraj poultry, horticulture crops involving flowers, fruits, and vegetables, agricultural
crops comprising commercial and food species, timber species on bunds, bio-digester, and
vermicompost units formed predominant components of IFS unit.
In a study farming system revealed higher system productivity, net returns and gross returns
with cropping + goat, + poultry + fishery system with 206 man days ha -1 year-1, while IFS comprising
cotton + onion, maize + fodder cowpea- chickpea, drumstick, curry leaf, banana registered
significantly higher cotton equivalent yield over conventional cropping of cotton alone. Integration of
cow component increased milk yield from the system. Poultry also found to go well with certain
other system combination (Naik, 2014). Further, it was found that the overall food security was
improved with integration of allied enterprises viz., goat, poultry, fishery and horticultural crops.
Nevertheless, system being dynamic and interactive with availability of resources, family
requirement, policies, customs and market price need continuous upscaling and moderation for a
situation and no model can be recommended as a sustainable eternal module. UAS, Raichur among
farm universities, however, takes pride to be leader in developing sustainable models.
III. Research Priorities
No doubt climate due to its rapid changing rate and hostility with far stretching impacts on
agriculture is a research priority and can not be ignored. Impacts of rising temperature, carbon
dioxide level in the atmosphere and rainfall aberration need to be assessed, resilient technologies be
developed and forecast on the impending biotic and abiotic threats, and agriculture disaster in
addition to international commodity market situation and price trends particularly through digital
media is given priority. Selection or breeding crops for changing climate and their tailoring in to a
productive cropping system with accompanied crop management is also important. There is also
need for establishment of a exclusive department for Climatology and Agriculture meteorology. The
digitization of information and advances in electronics and remote sensing calls for exhaustive
research on precision agriculture for input efficiency as well as efficient production of quality
produce for domestic needs and export requirements under ever changing climate. Of late use of
pesticides becoming major method of protecting crops, pesticides being always toxic, the research
on residue analysis in products and environment for use recommendation, advisory and monitoring
will assume importance hence not only periodic assessment and forecast but also product quality
monitoring before it enters in to food/processing chains locally and internationally would be the
necessity now on. When world is going ahead with nano technology research particularly in
medicinal science, agricultural scientist can not wait any further or stay back as it would be a priority
in future for quality life and environment. Similarly, the research activities on conservation
agriculture, input use efficient technologies (micro irrigation) and watershed management could be
strengthened and carried out with full throttle. With regard to the latter farm universities in
Karnataka, with the Word bank funding carrying out the project for detailed land resources
inventorization, hydrological investigations and developing land suitability maps for agricultural and
horticultural crops under Sujala-III, ‘Support for improved program integration under rain-fed areas.’
The so developed information could be used at any time and by any agency/ institute working for
the food and livelihood security, and conservation and utilization of natural resources as well. Last
and not the least priority would be research on food processing and engineering and
biotechnological research; otherwise any research on technological evolution in agriculture will not
be complete. And, migration of rural youth from agriculture or suicide of farmers will be a deterrent
to agriculture because the learned ones of the society, the journalists, the engineers, the doctors are
returning to agriculture with hope, for peace and tranquillity. Believe it, agriculture sustainability
cannot be a mirage but will be the eternal principle and elixir for survival of civilized mankind.

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