Elements of a Project Proposal

1. Title/Topic

2. Introduction, Background Information

It introduces the study and states the focus of the study. It begins with background
information regarding the problem under investigation. This is the stage to show quite
clearly the motivation for the study. A research problem might arise from personal
observation, experience or through the reading of the literature. Whatever the source of
inspiration, the aim of the researcher at this stage is to point out what other studies have
examined, what they have or have not found and why further investigation is warranted.
Below are two examples of, the General Introduction, Background Information and
Lead In, which are presented at the beginning of chapter 1, before the stating of the
Statement of The Problem.

Example 1

General Introduction
In recent years, there has been growing interest in eating disorders in athletes. Studies
have shown that athletes are more prone to developing eating disorders than nonathletes
(K. Chekera, A. Sabeta and R. Murwira, 1971). In addition, the highest prevalence of
eating disorders is in the female athletes competing in sports where leanness and/or a
specific weight are considered important for either performance or appearance.

Background Information
There has been considerable speculation about why athletes are at increased risk for
eating disorders. Predisposing personality or family interaction variables might be
primary, so participation in sports favoring leanness could be a consequence of
preexisting eating problems or could be coincidental. Alternatively, participation in
certain sports could be related casually to the onset of eating disorders. In all likelihood
these factors interact.

Lead In
One important area of inquiry, therefore, is to identify risk factors to help determine
which athletes are most vulnerable, or which conditions or trigger factors elicit the
pathological behavior.

Example 2

General introduction
Cardio respiratory fitness is generally recognized as a major component of physical
fitness. Indeed, cardio respiratory fitness is the most significant component of physical,
fitness in relationship to health. Direct measurement of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2
Max) is the single best measure of the cardio respiratory fitness or aerobic capacity
(Astrand & Rodahl, 1986; Mitchell, Sproule & Chapman, 1958: Taylor, Buskirk, &
Henschel, 1955). However, direct measurement is time-consuming, it requires extensive
 laboratory equipment, and does not lend itself to testing large numbers of subjects in field
settings. Because of the limitations of direct measures, numerous field tests have been
developed to estimate VO2 max.

Background Information
Prediction of VO2 max from field tests requires performing at maximal or sub maximal
effort, commonly running, stepping or bicycling. Recently, Kline, Porcari, Hintermeister
et al. (1987) developed a sub maximal field test for predicting VO2 max using a 1-mile
walk protocol. This test, which has become know as the Rockport Fitness Walking Test
(RFWT), was developed on a broad age range (30-69 years) of males and females who
were heterogeneous in terms of aerobic capacity.
[Note: Some information concerning specific correlations and errors of estimate have
been omitted to save space.] These Data indicate that the regression equations developed
by Kline, Porcari, Hinstermeister et al. are valid for adults between the ages of 30 and 69
years.

The RFWT has been cross-validated in samples of subjects 65 to 79 years old

(Fernstermaker, Ward, Plowman & Looney, 1992; O’Hanley et al., 1987) and 30 to 39
years old (Zwiren, Freedson, Ward, Ailke, & Rippe, 1991)

Lead-In
The Kline, Porcari, Hintermeister et al. (1987) equations, however have not been
validated for use with groups younger than those in the original sample.
(Thomas and Nelson 2001).

3. Statement of the Problem

A "Problem Statement" is a description of a difficulty or lack that needs to be solved or

at least researched to see whether a solution can be found. It can also be described as
either a gap between the real and the desired or a contradiction between principle and
practice.

The ultimate goal of a problem statement is to transform a generalized problem (something

that bothers you; a perceived lack) into a targeted, well-defined problem one that can be
resolved through focused research and careful decision-making.

4. Research Question(s) or Hypotheses

The problem statement is further elucidated in this section. Hypotheses and research
questions emerge from the problem statement and;
 Operationalize it in terms of specific variables and relationships to be examined and
reported.
 Hypotheses and research questions also suggest methodology for the study,
 They also serve as the basis for drawing conclusions in chapter 5.
Although ‘not written in stone’ hypotheses (either directional, research, or in the null
form) are stated when the research design is experimental or quasi – experimental in
nature. Survey research and non – experimental research are generally limited to research
 questions. Whenever possible avoid the use of ‘Yes-No’ research questions which tend to
limit the scope of your responses. Frequently, ‘Yes- No’ type research questions can be
reworded to a more useful form that results in the collection of more useful data.
For example;
‘Yes – No’
Do coaches agree on the use of performance enhancing substances in sports?

Reworded

To what extent do coaches agree on the use of performance enhancing substances in

sports?

Example two

‘Yes – No’
Do Sports Psychologists agree on the causes of aggressive behavior on the field of play?

Reworded

To what extend do Sports Psychologists agree on the causes of aggressive behavior on the
field of play?

Note: Hypotheses are tested, while research questions are answered.

Presenting the Research Hypotheses

 The hypothesis is the expected result or the anticipated outcome of a study or experiment.
 This anticipated solution to the problem may be based on some theoretical construct, on
the results of previous studies, or perhaps on the experimenter’s past experience and
observations.
 You should have some experimental hypothesis about each sub problem in the study.
 One of the essential features about the hypothesis is that it is testable.
 You must design the study in such a way that the hypothesis can either be supported or
refuted.
 The research hypothesis H1 is the hypothesis that prompts the research (Vincent 1999). It
predicts a relationship to be confirmed in the study (Cone and Foster 1996). They are the
expected results.
 The research hypothesis H1 is not the hypothesis that is normally tested by statistical
analysis.
 It is the null hypothesis Ho that is tested.
 The null hypothesis predicts no relationship or no difference between the groups (Vincent
1999).
 It says that there are no differences between treatments (or no relationships between
variables).
 It says any observed differences or relationships is due simply to chance or random
occurrences.
 The statistical analysis reports the probability that the results would occur as we observe
them if the null hypothesis is true.
 For example the statistics may indicate the probability that the null hypothesis is true is
less than 1 in 100.
  If the probability is small that the Ho is true, you reject the null hypothesis and accept the
alternate, or research hypothesis H1
 If the probability is large that Ho is true, we accept the null hypothesis.
 The null hypothesis is normally used to evaluate results because researchers are usually
not sure what the results will be when they conduct an experiment.
 You should test the null hypothesis unless strong evidence – from (i) other research, (ii)
from related literature, (iii) from the opinions of experts, or (iv) from other reliable sources
suggest that a significant difference is to be expected.
 You reject Ho and accept H1 when differences or relationships among variables are
established beyond a reasonable doubt or at an acceptable level of confidence.
 Before you collect data, you must establish a level of confidence.
 For example you may decide to reject the null hypothesis if the odds against it are better
than 95 to 5.
 Stated another way, p(the probability that the null hypothesis is true) is < .05 (p<.05)
 This means that the odds of Ho being true are less than or equal to 5 in 100 (Vincent 1999).

Characteristics of well worded hypothesis

(i) It will indicate the specific relationship to be examined and the nature of that
relationship.
(ii) It may also include the nature of the experimental design i.e. Correlational etc.
(iii) Include the population in which the relationship is to be studied.
(iv) It should not include:
o Specific measures
o Statistical tests
o Unnecessary methodological detail
o And you should keep them to a manageable number (e.g. 5 to 6 or fewer) (Cone and Foster,
1994).

5. Objectives

• Objectives summarize what is to be achieved and must be closely related to statement

of the problem
• General
– What is expected to be achieved by the study in general terms, e.g.

i. This study will compare, contrast, investigate, describe, determine, examine,

develop, clarify, or evaluate the issues being studied.
ii.The purpose of this study will be to determine the variables that explain the differences
between males and females and identify those variables that differ significantly between
the two genders.

• Specific (what is expected to be achieved in specific terms)

– What?
– Where?
– For what purpose?
• Each specific objective must closely relate to general objective
• Last objective should focus on how the results will be used
 Why should you develop objectives? They;

• Bring focus
• Avoid collection of irrelevant data
• Organize study in defined parts or phases

Stating objectives (SMART)

• Coherence and logic

• Phrase in operational terms
• Use action verbs
– Determine
– Compare
– Verify
– Calculate
– Describe
– Establish

6. Significance of the Study/Justification

This section addresses the “so what” of the study and report. It describes or explains the
potential value of the study and findings. This section, therefore, should identify the audience
for the study and how the results will be beneficial to them. Remember, research is conducted
to add to the existing knowledge base and/or solve a problem – how your particular research
will do this should be articulated in this section.

7. Definition of Terms (Optional but important)

This section of provides definitions of terms used in the proposal that are unusual or not widely
understood. In addition, common terms that have special meaning in the study should be
defined in this section. Acronyms (except those in common usage) frequently require definition
at this point. A brief introductory statement usually precedes the actual list of definitions. The
following is an example of the introduction to this section;
The following definitions are provided to ensure uniformity and understanding of these
terms throughout the study. All definitions not referenced were developed by the
researcher.
When defining terms, it is important to cite appropriate references if all or some of your
definitions are taken from other sources. As is true throughout the proposal / project, direct
quotations (less than forty words or four typed lines) should be enclosed in quotation marks
and the specific page number from the source of the quotation included in the citation.

8. Limitations (Optional but important)

Limitations are factors, usually beyond the researcher’s control, that may affect the results
of the study or how the results are interpreted. Stating limitations of the study may be very
useful for readers because they provide a method to acknowledge possible errors or
difficulties in interpreting results of the study. Limitations that are not readily apparent at
the start of the research project may develop or become apparent as the study progresses.
 In any case, limitations should not be considered alibis or excuses; they are simply factors
or conditions that help the reader get a truer sense of what the study results mean and how
widely they can be generalized. While all studies have some inherent limitations, you
should address only those that may have a significant effect on your particular study.
Example of frequently encountered limitations might include;
1. Due to the small/unique sample available for the study, results may not be generalizable
beyond the specific populations from which the sample was drawn.
2. Due to the failure of sample respondents to answer with candor, results might not
accurately reflect the opinions of all members of the included population.
3. Due to the length of the study, a significant number of respondents available in the
preliminary testing may be unavailable or unwilling to participate in the final stage of
testing.
4. It is assumed that during this study, participants’ gender will not significantly affect
their perceptions.
5. It is assumed that all respondents will answer all survey questions honestly and to the
best of their abilities.

Although stating limitations of the study assists the reader in understanding some of the
inherent problems you encountered, it is also important for you to design and conduct the
study in a manner that precludes having limitations so severe that any results of the study
are essentially useless. Research designs that control or account for the unwanted influence
of extraneous variables help assure the study results are both valid and reliable – thus
keeping limitations of the study to a reasonable number and scope.
Not including this section implies that your study has accounted for all variables, is
generalizable to all populations, and could be replicated accurately under all conditions.)

5.7 Delimitations (Optional but important)

Delimitations are factors that affect the study; they are factors over which you the
researcher generally do have some degree of control. Delimitations describe the scope of
the study or establish parameters or limits for the study. Frequently, setting limits on the
sample size, extent of the geographic region from which data are collected, response
formats included in data-collection instruments, or the time frame for the study makes the
study feasible for the researcher, and such delimitations should be noted here. Technically,
delimitations (factors which you the researcher controls) are distinct from limitations (over
which the researcher has little or no control).However, in some projects the researcher
includes delimitations within the section on limitations (although technically they are
distinct).
Examples of delimitations:
1. In order to assure manageability of the collected data, survey instruments will only use
multiple choice items and not include open-ended response items
2. Due to the large number of potential participants in the study population, the population
involved in the current study will focus only on members located within Bulawayo.

9. Budget Estimates
Specify and estimate costs

10. Gantt Chart

A Gantt chart is a simply a type of bar chart that maps out a project timeline or schedule.
Gantt charts illustrate the start and finish dates of different elements and what elements
of a project can run together or after each other. It can also list information on
milestones or major events/meetings. Some elements can run from the project onset to
the end, for example one may see a need to continuously work on his literature during
the course of the project.