International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Review
Medical Waste from COVID-19 Pandemic—A Systematic Review
of Management and Environmental Impacts in Australia
Lynda Andeobu *, Santoso Wibowo






Citation: Andeobu, L.; Wibowo, S.;
Grandhi, S. Medical Waste from
COVID-19 Pandemic—A Systematic
Review of Management and
Environmental Impacts in Australia.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,
19, 1381. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph19031381
Academic Editors: Vikas Kumar and
Maribel Casas
Received: 22 October 2021
Accepted: 21 January 2022
Published: 26 January 2022
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This article is an open access article
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031381
and Srimannarayana Grandhi
School of Engineering and Technology, Central Queensland University, Melbourne 3000, Australia;
s.wibowo1@cqu.edu.au (S.W.); s.grandhi@cqu.edu.au (S.G.)
* Correspondence: l.andeobu@cqu.edu.au
Abstract: The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has created a global medical emergency. The
unforeseen occurrence of a pandemic of this magnitude has resulted in overwhelming levels of
medical waste and raises questions about management and disposal practices, and environmental
impacts. The amount of medical waste generated from COVID-19 since the outbreak is estimated to
be 2.6 million tons/day worldwide. In Australia, heaps of single-use gowns, facemasks/face shields,
aprons, gloves, goggles, sanitizers, sharps, and syringes are disposed everyday as a result of the pan-
demic. Moreover, the establishment of new home/hotel quarantine facilities and isolation/quarantine
centres in various Australian states and territories have increased the risks of transmission among
people in these facilities and the likelihoods of general waste becoming contaminated with medical
waste. This warrants the need to examine management and disposal practices implemented to reduce
the transmission and spread of the virus. This study reviews the various management and disposal
practices adopted in Australia for dealing with medical waste from the COVID-19 pandemic and
their impacts on public health and the environment. To achieve the aims of this study, prior studies
from 2019–2021 from various databases are collected and analysed. The study focuses on generation
of medical waste from COVID-19, management and disposal methods, current problems/challenges
and environmental and public health impacts. Considering the enormous risks involved and the
significance of appropriate handling and disposal of medical waste from COVID-19, this study
provides insights on short and long term responses towards managing COVID-19 waste in Australia.
The study contributes to Australia’s efforts against the transmission and spread of COVID-19 and
provides recommendations for the development of workable and sustainable strategies for mitigating
similar pandemics in the future.
Keywords: COVID-19; medical waste; waste management; disposal methods; challenges; environmental
impacts; Australia
1. Introduction
The Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has become a threat and a major global
challenge [1]. An outbreak of coronavirus disease was discovered in Wuhan City, Hubei
Province, China in early December 2019. In late January 2020, the World Health Organiza-
tion (WHO) declared the outbreak a public health emergency of international concern and
subsequently declared it a pandemic in March 2020 [1–3]. By May 2020, the virus had spread
to more than 188 countries and regions, and as of September 2020, the number of countries in-
fected with coronavirus had risen to 216 [1,4]. Globally, there have been 206,662,675 confirmed
cases of COVID-19 and 4,353,058 deaths while 3,984,596,440 COVID-19 vaccine doses have
been administered as of 15 August 2021 [1]. As with other countries around the world,
Australia is not excluded from the impact of COVID-19 pandemic. The first four cases
of COVID-19 in Australia were detected on 25 January 2020. By 15 August 2021, there
had been 38,657 confirmed cases of COVID-19 and 953 deaths while 15,012,023 vaccine
doses had been administered [5]. Due to the increasing number of infections and mutations
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 2 of 25

of more transmissible variants worldwide, the Australian government has imposed lock-
downs, border closures, travel restrictions, and self-isolation orders to reduce the spread of
the virus. Other preventive measures such as social distancing, facemasks, and frequent
handwashing have been implemented to reduce the transmission of the disease [6]. The
WHO and other international health agencies and disease control centres have also issued
various guidelines for the prevention of COVID-19 transmission [4,7].
In Australia, the screening of passenger flights from Wuhan to Sydney commenced on
23 January 2020. A few days later, the first four cases of COVID-19 infection in Australia
were discovered [6–8]. As a result, several border security measures and restrictions
on international arrivals entering Australia from China and other countries were put in
place. On 3 March 2020, the government issued a notification to citizens and permanent
residents of the country travelling for nonessential reasons [7,9]. On 21 March 2020, border
restrictions were extended to all other nonpermanent residents and noncitizens [7,10,11].
These border closures and restrictions are ongoing and are anticipated to be gradually
lifted in the coming months at an unspecified date [7,10]. With the number of people
infected with COVID-19 growing, the first known cases of community transmission were
identified on 2 March 2020 [9]. By Friday, 13 March 2020, 156 coronavirus cases had
been detected in Australia [7,8]. This escalation in infections prompted the Australian
government to commence a 14-day quarantine for both citizens and permanent residents
returning to Australia from overseas in publicly funded hotel accommodation under the
management and supervision of public health authorities and police [7,8,10]. Currently,
some of Australia’s states and territories are in their second, third, and fourth wave since
the beginning of the pandemic [10,12].
As Australia responds to the problems and challenges associated with COVID-19
pandemic, management of medical waste generated from COVID-19 has become a major
concern [6,7,13]. With the growing number of confirmed cases in Australia, the amount of
COVID-19 waste generated in testing sites, hospitals, households, quarantine facilities, and
aged/disability care facilities has exponentially increased [6]. In addition to medical waste
generated from these sources, the extensive use of personal protective equipment (PPEs)
(single-use gowns, facemasks/face shields, aprons, gloves, goggles, sanitizers, sharps,
and syringes) has added to the increasing amounts of medical waste from the COVID-19
pandemic [7,14]. Since COVID-19 can survive on surfaces and objects from a few hours to
several days, PPE is considered an infectious waste and is treated as medical or hazardous
waste [1,2]. Thus, the emergency nature of the pandemic and the response actions that
followed has created enormous amounts of infectious COVID-19 waste generation. This
warrants the need to examine the management and disposal practices implemented in
Australia to effectively manage the virus. Previous studies [6,7,13,15] stated that the
transmission and spread of the virus may increase due to inappropriate management
and disposal of medical waste generated from COVID-19. Consequently, ensuring that
COVID-19 waste are efficiently and safely disposed of has become an important part of the
fight against the pandemic.
According to current evidence, transmission of COVID-19 occurs through (a) direct
human-to-human contacts, (b) indirect contact with surfaces in the immediate environment,
(c) SARS-CoV-2 infective droplets in the atmosphere, and (d) (objects used on infected
persons such as thermometer or stethoscope and COVID-19 waste generated from health-
care facilities concerned with diagnosis and treatment [1,16]. Hence, it is important to
cautiously manage objects and waste generated from COVID-19 patients. Firstly, the enor-
mous amount of medical waste generated during the pandemic has become a burden [1],
and there are high chances of such waste being potentially infected with SARS-CoV-2
virus [2,16]. If not appropriately managed and treated scientifically, there is a high risk of
secondary transmission of the virus [2]. The frontline staff such as healthcare workers and
waste workers coming into contact with COVID-19 waste could become infected if incor-
rectly handled [17]. Moreover, uncontrolled dumping in landfills could further elevate the
chances of spreading the virus to the general public [18]. Secondly, the COVID-19 pandemic
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 3 of 25

has led to enormous utilization of personal protective equipment (PPEs), particularly face
masks and gloves. According to UNEP [2], more than 2.8 billion face masks are expected
to be used by 2022. These huge quantities of PPEs are plastics, and their uncontrolled
burning would result in release of toxic gases and fumes in the environment. Further,
uncontrolled dumping could pollute ecosystems like rivers, beaches, and oceans [2]. Thus,
it is necessary to have a well-implemented strategy to deal with COVID-19 waste in order
to maintain progress towards achieving various sustainable development goals (SDGs)
including Goal-3 (good health and wellbeing), Goal-6 (clean water and sanitation), Goal-8
(decent work and economic growth), Goal-12 (responsible consumption and production),
and Goal-13 (climate action) [17,19].
This study examines the various management and disposal practices adopted in
dealing with medical waste from the COVID-19 pandemic and its impacts on public health
and the environment. To achieve the aims of this study, prior studies from 2019–2021 from
various databases are collected and analysed. The study focuses on generation of medical
waste from COVID-19, management and disposal methods, current problems/challenges,
and environmental and public health impacts. In view of the enormous risks involved
in managing medical waste from COVID-19 and the significance of proper handling and
disposal of these wastes, this study provides insights on short and long term responses
towards COVID-19 waste management during the pandemic and also provides alternative
management approaches and recommendations for the development of workable and
sustainable strategies for mitigating similar pandemics in the future.
While there are prior studies [6,7,10,13,15,20] on the COVID-19 pandemic in Australia,
no study has investigated management and disposal practices adopted in handling medical
waste from COVID-19 and its impacts on public health and the environment. There are
several major issues relating to COVID-19 waste management practices in many countries,
including Australia: (a) absence of workable and sustainable medical waste management
strategies, (b) lack of adequate knowledge and awareness, (c) absence of strict regulation
and legislation, (d) insufficient funding, and (e) implementation [2,3,21]. As a result, the
management of medical waste from COVID-19 has become an area of significance to
researchers, academics, institutions, and governments. Despite the critical nature of this
issue, little attention is attributed to it, particularly in developing and poorer nations [3,22].
Corburn et al. [13], Nzediegwu and Chang [23], and Mihai [24] noted that there is a strong
need for further research to be made on COVID-19 waste management practices, the
technologies adopted, and the environmental impacts.
Generally, handling and treatment of infectious medical waste depends on (a) the
type of waste, (b) the place of waste generation, and (c) the type of infectious disease [1].
The WHO [18] and UNEP [25] have classified medical waste from COVID-19 as infectious
waste. Consequently, tons of infectious medical waste generated every day in Australia
from COVID-19 must be handled and managed carefully to prevent the spread of pathogens
and to protect public and environmental health, in addition to being separated from other
solid waste materials [6,7]. Infectious waste comprises 10–25% of all the waste produced
in hospitals and medical centres and cannot be disposed of with the normal domestic
waste. According to the WHO [18], infectious waste are defined as infectious waste
materials generated as a result of medical care or research containing pathogens that
have the potential to transmit infectious diseases. Infectious waste materials can become
noninfectious after they have lost infectivity through intermediate treatment, such as
incineration, autoclaving, melting, or sterilisation.
According to Capoor and Parida [14], the WHO [18], and Mihai [24], management
of COVID-19 infectious waste is a vital and urgent public service and plays a key role in
preventing possible secondary impacts on public health and the environment. Hence, spe-
cial attention should be paid to handling COVID-19 waste during this pandemic [23,24,26].
Hu et al. [27], and Cobourn et al. [28] added that massive amounts of medical waste from
COVID-19 are continuously generated and disposed into the natural environment; and
inappropriate waste management practices can increase the risk of contamination, particu-
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 4 of 25

larly in developing countries. In recent years, there has been increasing public awareness on
the need to improve medical waste management practices and its segregation from general
waste management [1,14,29,30]. Disappointingly, in many countries, efforts to influence
governments’ consideration that enormous investments are required to effectively manage
medical waste have been unsuccessful [31–36]. This study will contribute to creating more
public awareness for the adoption of safe and sustainable medical waste management prac-
tices directed towards decreasing environmental contamination and reducing the frequency
of transmission of coronavirus diseases, particularly in the current COVID-19 pandemic.
A key motivation of this study is to identify the problems/challenges relating to the
management of medical waste from COVID-19 and recommend safe and sustainable short
and long term solutions for managing medical waste from COVID-19 to significantly reduce
transmission and environmental impacts. Accordingly, this study (a) reviews previous re-
search on medical waste from COVID-19 pandemic, (b) identifies problems and challenges
that negatively impacts on management of medical waste from COVID-19, (c) provides
an overview of management practices in Australia, and (d) identifies areas for future
research. This study utilizes outcomes of previous studies, considers Australia’s specific sit-
uations, and identifies future research areas to present best practices and recommendations
for handling and managing medical waste from the pandemic.
This research is organized into sections. The first section presents existing literature
on medical waste and the COVID-19 pandemic, the problem statement, research aims,
and justification for this study. The second section outlines the methodology adopted and
the justification for considering a systematic literature review. The third section provides
current management practices relating to medical waste generated during the pandemic as
well as the environmental and public health impacts. The fourth section presents the results
of this study and analysis of the results. The final section provides the findings of this
study, limitations associated with the current study, best practices, and recommendations
for effectively managing medical waste from COVID-19 and future research opportunities.

2. Research Methods
Search Strategy and Selection Criteria
This study adopts a systematic literature review (SLR) approach using articles from
previous studies on medical waste and infectious waste relating to COVID-19. The purpose
of this review is to systematically search high-quality theoretical research materials so
as to contextualize the scope of this research and identify research gaps in this study. In
conducting the literature search, relevant articles from 2019–2021 were reviewed. Major
databases (Science Direct, Springer, Web of Science, Taylor and Francis, Research Gate,
Google Scholar) and other major academic publishers were searched. Research papers
and the current Guidelines and Recommendation of World Health Organization (WHO),
Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP), United States Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA), and European Union Guidelines for COVID-19 Waste
Management and Infection Control Practices were included in this study. Structured
keywords such as “medical waste”, “infectious waste”, “COVID-19”, “management and
disposal methods”, “problems and challenges”, and “environmental and public health
impacts” were used to document research results on topics relevant to this research. The
criteria followed in selecting the articles from the databases for this study are as follows:
• Does the paper discuss topics relating to medical waste from COVID-19?
• Does the paper discuss generation and treatment of medical waste relating to COVID-19?
• Does the paper discuss topics relating to management and disposal of medical waste
from COVID-19?
• Does the paper discuss problems and challenges of medical waste from COVID-19?
• Does the paper discuss topics relating to COVID-19 and public health?
• Does the paper discuss topics relating to environmental impacts of COVID-19 waste?
Initially, 338 articles were obtained, although some were excluded because they anal-
ysed explicit topics that were beyond the scope of this research. Finally, 142 articles were
 • Does the paper discuss topics relating to management and disposal of medical waste
from COVID-19?
• Does the paper discuss problems and challenges of medical waste from COVID-19?
• Does the paper discuss topics relating to COVID-19 and public health?
• Does the paper discuss topics relating to environmental impacts of COVID-19 waste?
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 5 of 25
Initially, 338 articles were obtained, although some were excluded because they ana-
lysed explicit topics that were beyond the scope of this research. Finally, 142 articles were
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3. Overview of Medical Waste

3. Overview of Medical Waste
Across the world, the management and disposal of medical waste is of growing con-
Across the world, the management and disposal of medical waste is of growing con-
cern. This is due to the hazardous nature of medical waste and the potential threat to
cern. This is due to the hazardous nature of medical waste and the potential threat to
humans and the environment [1,37,38]. While medical care is critical to our wellbeing
humans and the environment [1,37,38]. While medical care is critical to our wellbeing and
and saves lives, the waste generated from medical practice in hospitals, clinics, age care
saves lives, the waste generated from medical practice in hospitals, clinics, age care facil-
facilities, health care teaching institutes, research institutions, blood banks, laboratories,
ities, health care teaching institutes, research institutions, blood banks, laboratories, and
and veterinary institutes can be harmful due to their high potential to transmit diseases and
veterinary institutes can be harmful due to their high potential to transmit diseases and
contaminate the environment [30,37,39]. According to Wilder-Smith and Freedman [40],
contaminate the environment [30,37,39]. According to Wilder-Smith and Freedman [40],
Malekahmadi and Yunesian [32], and USEPA [41], medical waste from human activities
Malekahmadi and Yunesian
has been identified [32],largest
as the third and USEPA
known[41], medical
source waste
of dioxin from human
emission activities
and contributes
has been identified as the third largest known source of dioxin emission and
10% of total mercury emissions to the environment. In the past few years, the generation of contributes
10% of total
medical mercury
waste emissions toincreased.
has significantly the environment.
This hasInbeenthe intensified
past few years,
withthethegeneration
emergence
of medical waste has significantly increased. This has been intensified
of COVID-19 pandemic [42]. As a result, management and disposal of medical with the emergence
of waste
of COVID-19
continues pandemic
to be [42]. As ain
a major challenge result,
manymanagement and disposal
parts of the world, of Australia.
including medical ofAccord-
waste
continues
ing to Peng toetbeal.a[42]
major
and challenge
Sutha-Irin in many
[43], someparts
of theofimpediments
the world, including
of managing Australia.
medical
waste are (a) lack of awareness among healthcare professionals and the general public
regarding inappropriate handling of medical waste, (b) the absence of a national policy
and regulatory framework, and (c) financial constraints. All of these factors increase the
risk of environmental and public health vulnerabilities [18]. With the COVID-19 pandemic
escalating and its impacts on public health and the economy intensifying each day, gov-
ernments are advised to treat medical waste from COVID-19 with caution to reduce the
transmission and spread of the virus [3,10,14,42].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 6 of 25

3.1. Definition and Classification of Medical Waste

Medical waste is generated from the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of humans
and animals. According to the WHO [1] and EPA South Australia [44], medical waste is
defined as waste consisting of any matter that is discarded in the course of medical, dental,
veterinary practice, or research and that poses a significant risk to the health of a person
who comes into contact with it. Medical waste generated from healthcare activities includes
needles and syringes, soiled dressings, body parts, diagnostic samples, blood, chemicals,
pharmaceuticals, medical devices, and radioactive materials [45].
Medical waste is classified into two categories, namely, hazardous and nonhazardous
waste [1,34,35,46–48]. The classification of medical waste indicates that (a) of the total
amount of waste generated from healthcare activities, about 80% is general waste; (b) the
remaining 20% is considered hazardous material that may be infectious, toxic, or radioac-
tive; (c) approximately 16 million injections are administered yearly worldwide and waste
generated are not appropriately disposed; and (d) medical waste contains harmful micro-
organisms that can infect hospital patients, healthcare workers, and the general public [1,33].
Hazardous waste is categorized on the basis of the risk of infection and injury during its
management and disposal process. These categories include sharps (blades and contami-
nated needles), infectious waste (blood, body fluids, and dressings), and pathological waste
(microbiological cultures, blood samples, and anatomical body parts) [18,49]. Hazardous
(infectious) waste often contain pathogens such as bacteria, fungi, viruses, and parasites in
adequate concentration, and can cause disease in vulnerable hosts [50,51].
Prepandemic, policies on medical waste targeted only the medical community; thus,
public awareness and consciousness on medical waste are insufficient [14]. The onset of the
current COVID-19 pandemic has created the need for public awareness and the importance
of its separation from general waste, which needs to be addressed to control coronavirus
transmission [6]. Table 1 provides medical waste categories and their examples as defined
by the WHO.

Table 1. Categories of medical waste.

Medical Waste Categories Description and Examples

Waste suspected to contain pathogens, e.g., laboratory cultures; waste from isolation
Infectious waste wards; tissues (swabs), materials, or equipment that have been in contact with infected
patients; excreta
Pathological waste Human tissues or fluids, e.g., body parts; blood and other bodily fluids; foetuses
Sharps Sharp waste, e.g., needles, infusion sets, scalpels, knives, blades, broken glass
Waste containing pharmaceuticals, e.g., pharmaceuticals that are expired or no longer
Pharmaceutical waste
needed, items contaminated by or containing pharmaceuticals (bottles, boxes)
Waste containing substances with cytotoxic properties, e.g., waste containing
Cytotoxic waste
cytostatic drugs (often used in cancer therapy), cytotoxic chemicals
Waste containing chemical substances, e.g., laboratory reagents, film developer,
Chemical waste
disinfectants that are expired or no longer needed, solvents
Wastes with high content of heavy metals Batteries, broken thermometers, blood-pressure gauges, etc.
Pressurized containers Gas cylinders, gas cartridges, aerosol cans
Waste containing radioactive substances, e.g., unused liquids from radiotherapy or
Radioactive waste laboratory research contaminated glassware, packages, or absorbent paper; urine and
excreta from patients treated or tested with unsealed radionuclides; sealed sources

Generally, some categories of medical waste, including those from COVID-19 patients,
are classified as infectious waste and are highly transmissible [16,52]. Waste generated from
hospitals, laboratories, testing centres, households quarantine facilities, graveyards, and
crematoriums, in which a person infected with COVID-19 virus has been tested, isolated,
or treated are categorized as COVID-19 waste [53,54]. In the past two years, the risk catego-
rization of COVID-19 waste has been changing due to various concerns as the pandemic
progressed. While there are other categories of medical waste, infectious waste, including
those from COVID-19, are particularly harmful because they contain pathogens that possess
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 7 of 25

the risk of infection to humans with long-term effects [27]. Due to the ever-increasing num-
ber of COVID-19 infections worldwide, the dangers of COVID-19 transmission through
(a) direct and indirect human-to-human contacts, (b) SARS-CoV-2 infective droplets in the
atmosphere, and (c) COVID-19 waste from healthcare facilities concerned with diagnosis,
research, or treatment and waste generated by COVID-19 infected or suspected persons
isolated/treated in households or other facilities have become apparent [1,25,27,55].
Prior studies of the WHO [18], Graff et al. [56], Qiao [57], Scheinberg et al. [58],
Chen et al. [59], and Salvaraji et al. [60] have focused on assessing the risks of transmission
associated with medical waste from COVID-19 pandemic. The inappropriate treatment
of COVID-19 waste poses serious risks of transmission to the general public, particu-
larly waste workers, healthcare workers, and patients, through exposure to infectious
pathogens [56,58,59]. In addition, poor management of COVID-19 waste emits harmful
contaminants into the environment [61]. Hence, environmental risks and occupational
risks assessment due to COVID-19 waste has become an important part of handling and
reducing the risk of transmission [57,59,62].
To ensure the provision of treatment and medical care to the rising number of COVID-19
patients, healthcare infrastructure around the world has been largely expanded [19]. People
in various parts of the world are now using face masks and gloves to protect themselves
from contracting COVID-19 virus [19,54]. These swift changes over a short period of
time have resulted in a sudden increase in the quantity of COVID-19 waste meant for
disposal [25]. For example, some countries have reported up to a 10–20 times upsurge
in waste generated during the pandemic when compared with those generatedbefore the
pandemic [45,55,63]. Clearly, the existing waste management systems worldwide, including
those in Australia, are under pressure and are not designed to handle such a surge of waste
generated; hence, the safe handling and disposal of COVID-19 waste is viewed as one of
the biggest risks of the current pandemic [18,19,63].
Prior to the current pandemic, access to waste collection was not available to more
than two billion people worldwide, while approximately three billion lacked controlled
waste disposal facilities; this reflects the state of waste management systems in many
parts of the world, particularly in developing countries [25,54]. With the increase in
COVID-19 waste generated, cases of open burning and uncontrolled disposal of waste
cannot be overlooked [1]. This has, in turn, led to higher risk of pollution, littering, and
environmental degradation, including increased possibilities of secondary transmission of
the virus from COVID-19 waste [18,64,65].
Waste management and disposal is an essential service, which is continuously required
across cites, even in areas categorized as hotspots for COVID-19 [1,54]. Safety of waste
handlers should be given priority; the role of waste handlers has been classified under
essential services by various countries because timely and proper collection, treatment,
and disposal of waste are essential during the pandemic [25,58]. In developing countries,
where waste handlers are not equipped with needed PPEs, the extent of risk is often
higher [58]. Moreover, due to the nature of waste generated from COVID-19 patients in
home isolation/quarantine, which is often mixed with other municipal waste, members
of a household are at risk of contracting COVID-19 infection from incorrectly dumped
infectious waste such as used face masks, gloves, and other infectious municipal waste [56].
Further, research on the risk of COVID-19 transmission has revealed that the life span
of SARS-CoV-2 droplets containing the virus survive for almost 3–7 days on surfaces and
wastes from plastics, stainless steel, copper, and cardboard. This has resulted in concerns
regarding contaminated face masks and gloves that are thrown away as general waste [56].
Thus, the transmission of highly contagious pathogens such as the COVID-19 virus has
created enormous pressure on medical waste management, treatment, and disposal due to
the volume of waste generated daily [18,65]. This has prompted many countries, including
Australia, to adopt safety measures to fight the disease through efficient management and
disposal [25]. The WHO and other international organizations have set guidelines for
management of medical waste, including COVID-19 waste, as discussed in Section 4. These
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 8 of 25

guidelines help to manage the highly contagious COVID-19 waste emanating from the
current pandemic [22].
The scientific community and governments across the world had little knowledge
about the nature and extent of the pandemic and its associated impacts [18]. To ensure that
waste management systems are robust and resilient during the pandemic, comprehensive
information about COVID-19 waste generation must be ascertained with strict compliance
on the recommended practices and guidelines for management and disposal [53,63].
Consequently, risks from COVID-19 infectious waste have been highly rated and
categorized as hazardous, requiring careful treatment and disposal during the pandemic.
These risks are particularly critical since vaccination protocols are still in the developmental
phase and there are many countries across the world with low vaccination rates [51,66].
An overview of medical waste policy and the regulatory framework in Australia is pre-
sented in the next section.

3.2. Overview of Australia’s Medical Waste Policy and Regulatory Framework

There are 168 national laws and regulations that address waste management
worldwide [50]. Of the 168 laws and regulations, only 57 deal with medical waste streams,
while the remaining 111 address other waste streams [31]. In Australia, there is no national
law or regulation on medical wastes. At the national level, the National Waste Policy speci-
fies the general policies and strategies on waste, one of which is to collaborate with relevant
jurisdictions to create a national definition and classification system for wastes, including
hazardous and nonhazardous medical wastes, that aligns with international conventions.
At state and territory levels, each state/territory has “put in place its own policies and
regulations that deal with the management of waste (including medical waste), which
also aligns with international conventions” [67,68]. For example, the Clinical and Related
Waste Management Policy of 2016 in Western Australia addresses both the hazardous and
nonhazardous waste streams of medical waste [69]. In South Australia, the Environment
Protection (waste management) Policy 1994 addresses all categories of waste (excluding of
radioactive waste) and is regulated under the Radiation Protection and Control Act 1982
(EPA South Australia, 2003). To harmonize and to support safe and cost-effective medical
waste management practices in transportation, storage, treatment, and disposal, the health-
care industry in collaboration with the waste management industry have developed the
Code of Practice for the management of medical wastes [67,70]. Guidelines and procedures
for the management of COVID-19 waste recommended by the WHO and other interna-
tional organizations for treating and disposing of potentially infectious COVID-19 waste
are discussed in the next section.

4. Current Medical Waste Management Guidelines of Regulatory Agencies

Globally, the waste management and recycling sector has been greatly impacted by the
current COVID-19 pandemic due to large-scale quarantine, patient care, diagnosis, treat-
ment, and isolation [50,54,64]. While the major source of medical waste from COVID-19 are
from healthcare establishments such as hospitals and laboratories, other sources could be
home quarantine facilities, temporary establishments, sample collection and testing centres,
graveyards, and crematoriums [17,54]. Due to the enormous medical waste produced
during the current pandemic, the WHO and other international organizations including the
European Centre for Diseases Prevention and Control (ECDC), United States Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), Basel Convention Regional Centre for Asia
and the Pacific, and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) have provided guidelines and
practices for managing medical waste including COVID-19 waste to prevent and/or reduce
the risk of infection.

4.1. World Health Organisation (WHO)

The provision of safe water, sanitation, waste management, and hygienic conditions
is vital for preventing and protecting human health during outbreaks of all infectious
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 9 of 25

diseases including the current coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Regularly applying water,
sanitation, hygiene (WASH), and waste management practices in communities, healthcare
facilities, homes, schools, marketplaces, and other public places will help prevent transmis-
sion of infectious pathogens including SARS-CoV-2. WHO stated that application of WASH
and appropriate waste management practices are critical to preventing and/or reducing
the spread of COVID-19, and issued guidelines for their implementation [61].
The recommendations of the WHO for WASH and waste management in healthcare
settings are particularly essential for providing adequate care for patients and protecting
healthcare workers, waste handlers, caregivers, and patients from the risks of infection.
According to the WHO [71], while the WASH recommendations will not prevent COVID-19
transmission, following standard WASH related actions such as (a) engaging in frequent
hand hygiene using appropriate techniques, (b) implementing regular environmental
cleaning and disinfection practices, (c) managing excreta (faeces and urine) safely, (d) safely
managing medical waste produced from COVID-19 cases, and (e) safely managing dead
bodies are particularly critical.
The WHO [71] states that additional treatment or disinfection or prescribed waste
management procedures are not required specifically for COVID-19 waste since waste
arising from healthcare facilities with or without COVID-19 patients are not different. The
WHO emphasized appropriate segregation of waste since general and noninfectious waste
are a major component of waste in healthcare facilities and can be disposed of as general
municipal waste. They also recommend on-site treatment of infectious medical waste
generated in the course of treatment of patients, preferably through high temperatures,
autoclaving, and dual-chamber incineration.
In addition, the WHO advocated the need for expanding waste treatment infrastruc-
ture using alternate and more efficient technologies due to the sudden surge in the quantity
of waste generated, especially the discarded PPEs. Safe burial of healthcare waste may
also be practiced, as an interim solution, until more sustainable options are implemented.
However, manual disinfection is not a recommended option for treating waste since it is
unreliable and inefficient [61].

4.2. European Centre for Diseases Prevention and Control (ECDC)

ECDC is aimed at strengthening defence and control against infectious diseases in-
cluding COVID-19 disease. Excerpts of guidelines issued by the European Union based
on the advice of the European Centre for Diseases Prevention and Control (ECDC) with
respect to medical waste including COVID-19 waste management are as follows:
A waste bag should be available in the patient’s room that is quarantining and self-
isolating at home. Items such as paper tissues, gloves, masks, and other wastes discarded
by the patient must be promptly placed in the bag. Another waste bag should be for the
caregiver for discarding his/her used face masks and gloves. These bags shall be placed in
a separate garbage bag.
Waste arising from healthcare facilities, laboratories, and other activities related with
COVID-19 patients should be managed according to the provisions of EU law on medical
waste and relevant national regulations related to infectious waste as well as instructions
delivered by ECDC and national health authorities [72].

4.3. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

The Occupational Safety and Health Administration of the United States have also
issued advice with respect to the management of medical waste including COVID-19
waste [73]. Excerpts of guidelines issued by the Occupational Safety and Health Adminis-
tration are as follows:
According to OSHA, infectious medical waste related to COVID-19 should be managed
as regulated medical waste, for which the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDCs) Guidelines for Environmental Infection Control in Health-Care Facilities are to
be referred.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 10 of 25

OSHA recommends placing and containing the medical waste in a leak-proof and
sturdy biohazard bag for disposal. For containment of sharps, syringes, and needles,
puncture-proof containers are recommended to be used. OSHA also advocates following
standard engineering and administrative controls, safe working practices, and use of PPEs
to prevent exposure of workers to any type of infectious waste as well as any contaminants
in the waste being managed. Such controls would safeguard workers from injury due
to sharps or other items that may cause injury or expose the workers to infections. Con-
taminated or potentially infectious general waste (municipal waste) should be managed
similarly to that of noncontaminated municipal waste [74].

4.4. Basel Convention Regional Centre for Asia and the Pacific
The Basel Convention Regional Centre for Asia and the Pacific published the detailed
guidelines titled Handbook of Emergency Disposal and Management of Medical Waste
for the management of medical waste during the COVID-19 pandemic and the centre
recommends the following:
- Waste should be packed and sealed in double-layer bags and properly labelled.
- Collection of waste generated from clinics and ward rooms for treatment and diagnosis
of COVID-19 patients shall be as per the assigned classification of medical waste.
- Waste generated in households by COVID-19 patients such as used masks, gloves,
tissues, and other wastes shall be managed as medical waste, collected in sealed bags,
and disposed through incineration [65,71].
- For emergency disposal during the COVID-19 pandemic, the waste should be disposed
based on category and through decentralization. Waste not meant for emergency
disposal should be disposed through centralized medical waste disposal facilities.
Waste PPEs generated from COVID-19-related activities shall be treated and managed
as medical waste. They shall be segregated as per the prescribed standards and
collected and disposed within 24 h [61].

4.5. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)

The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) published the Guidelines for Handling,
Treatment and Disposal of Waste Generated during Treatment/Diagnosis/Quarantine of
COVID-19 Patients. The guidelines detail responsibilities and duties of various stakeholders
involved in the management of medical waste, from generators to regulatory bodies.
Excerpts of guidelines issued include the following:
- General waste generated in healthcare establishments should not be mixed with
biomedical waste. It should be collected and managed separately in accordance with
the provisions of the Solid Waste Management Rules 2016.
- For quarantine camps, home quarantine, and home-care facilities where COVID-19
patients are isolated for treatment, only used masks, gloves, swabs, tissues, syringes,
etc. shall be handled as biomedical waste and stored in yellow-coloured bags.
- Isolation wards and temporary medical establishments should keep separate colour-
coded, foot-operated bins for segregation of biomedical waste, including COVID-19
waste, as per the provisions laid down in the Bio-medical Waste Management Rules 2016.
- Dedicated bins labelled as ‘COVID-19 Waste’ should be used. Double-layer bags
should be for medical waste collection [75].
The guidelines and recommendations of the WHO and other international organi-
zations have been widely implemented in various countries, including Australia. While
certain procedures and techniques for collection, treatment, and disposal of COVID-19
waste vary from country to country, the basic underlying principle of their management are
the same as most countries’ national legislations on medical waste. They are based on the
following: (a) safe management of waste from medical care activities—A WHO Publication;
(b) Technical Guidelines on the Environmentally Sound Management of Biomedical and
Healthcare Waste, adopted in 2002 under the Basel Convention; and (c) Water, sanitation,
hygiene (WASH), and waste management for SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 11 of 25

In Australia, the National Biohazard Waste Industry (BWI) committee, a division of

the Waste Management and Resource Recovery Association of Australia (WMRR), is the
peak body for the management of medical and related waste in Australia. In the wake of
the declaration of COVID-19 as a pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO), the
committee developed additional guidelines based on WHO recommendations to assist in
providing direction to hospitals, aged care facilities, and healthcare providers in managing
COVID-19-affected materials, and to support those managing medical waste, both within
and outside of these facilities [67]. The next section presents COVID-19 waste management
and disposal practices in Australia.

5. COVID-19 Waste Management and Disposal Practices in Australia

As COVID-19 virus continues to spread globally, international organizations such as
the WHO and UNEP have emphasised the need to manage and dispose medical waste
from COVID-19 with care to minimize the risk of unending transmission of the virus [1,66].
With Australia’s stay at home orders and strict lockdowns in some states and territories, the
nation is facing increases in household and medical waste. This has created challenges and
put enormous pressure on waste management and disposal agencies [7,10]. Ensuring that
waste management services in Australia’s states and territories are keeping up with industry
and local standards in terms of safety, hygiene, and efficiency is therefore critical [7,15,75,76].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022,The
18, xmanagement and disposal of coronavirus-related wastes commences with appropriate 12 of 26
estimation of the amounts generated. Figure 2 shows the sources of contaminated waste
from COVID-19 pandemic and safe management and disposal.

Figure 2.
Figure 2. Sources
Sources of contaminated
contaminated waste
waste from
from COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic
pandemic and
and paths
paths for
for safe
safe management
management
and disposal.
and disposal. Image
Imagedeveloped
developedfor this
for study.
this Data
study. adapted
Data from
adapted the WHO
from [1] and
the WHO [1] Australian Gov-
and Australian
ernment Department
Government Departmentof Health [76].[76].
of Health

5.1.
5.1. Generation
Generation
In
In other toto adequately
adequatelymanage
managemedical
medicalwaste
waste, relevant
, relevant information
information on on health-
healthcare
care waste generation is necessary to support the formulation of waste management
waste generation is necessary to support the formulation of waste management strategies
strategies
[29,31,77]. [29,31,77].
The amounts Theofamounts of medical
medical waste wasteare
generated generated are used the
used to estimate to estimate
requiredthe
ca-
required capacities
pacities for for (a) containers,
(a) containers, (b) storage(b) storage
areas, andareas, and (c) transportation
(c) transportation and treatment
and treatment technol-
ogies. It also assists in establishing a baseline on rates of generation in different facilities,
procurement specifications, planning, budgeting, and revenue requirements for treat-
ment, recycling, optimization of waste management systems, and environmental impact
assessments [77–79].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 12 of 25

technologies. It also assists in establishing a baseline on rates of generation in different

facilities, procurement specifications, planning, budgeting, and revenue requirements
for treatment, recycling, optimization of waste management systems, and environmental
impact assessments [77–79].
In Australia, a number of factors are responsible for the variations in COVID-19 waste
generation and these include (a) the type of facility, (b) the size of the facility, (c) the number
of people receiving treatment, and (d) the type of treatments provided at the various
facilities [42,77]. Prior to the pandemic, in 2019, Australia produced about 67 million tons of
medical waste [6,15]. Due to the pandemic, the amount of medical waste generated globally
has significantly increased [16,23,42]. Currently, in Australia, on average, medical waste
generated from COVID-19 fills one 240-litre wheelie bin per week. States and territories with
higher numbers of active cases of coronavirus are now filling as many as twelve of 240-litre
bins per day, with an approximate of 84 bins per week [6,10]. Thus, effective management
of medical waste from COVID-19 and other health-care waste requires appropriate methods
of collection, segregation, storage, transportation, treatment, and disposal [25,42,45,77],
and these are discussed below.

5.2. Collection
In Australia, medical waste generated from other patient care and COVID-19 are
collected by local waste collection agencies and guided by the state and local policies
and procedures [76]. All medical waste generated from confirmed COVID-19 infections
are classified as infectious waste and should be clearly marked in lined containers and
sharp-safe boxes for collection [69,80–82]. The infectious COVID-19 contaminated waste
generated should be adequately disinfected and then separated and packed in their respec-
tive recommended waste disposal bags [18,19]. To ensure adequate protection, double-
layered leakproof bags are to be used for the collection of waste generated from COVID-19
patients [69,80]. These COVID-19 waste containers are not to be kept in public areas to
prevent the possibilities of contamination when others use the same containers [18,80].
When waste collectors are collecting COVID-19 waste from hospitals, testing sites,
healthcare facilities, laboratories, and infected patients under quarantine, they are to be
provided with appropriate PPEs [45]. Based on medical waste management policies and
regulations, red bags are to be specifically used for the collection of PPEs such as face masks,
face-shield, goggles, aprons, plastic gowns, and gloves [1]. Nonchlorinated yellow plastic
bags are to be used for collection of bedding contaminated with body fluids or blood. Since
waste from COVID-19 are not only generated from hospitals, but also from other sources
such as testing sites, airports, quarantine centres, and households, COVID-19-contaminated
waste produced from these sources are to be collected separately in yellow-coloured bags
for local waste collection agencies. After collection, adequate hand hygiene should be
performed to avoid virus transmission [1,80].

5.3. Segregation
One of the most crucial phases of medical waste management is the segregation
phase [49,50,82]. In many developed countries, including Australia, the rules and im-
plementation of medical waste segregation are widely practiced [51]. This scenario is
different in developing countries. For example, prior studies [31,36,83] on Asian develop-
ing countries reported that there is lack of appropriate compliance in segregation and the
implementation of standards, creating variations from country to country. Khan et al. [31]
asserted that absence of proper medical waste segregation could increase the volume of
infectious waste, which has the potential to convert general waste into infectious waste.
Segregation is useful since it prevents the contamination of nonhazardous waste by
hazardous waste, thereby making the whole waste stream hazardous. Moreover, appropri-
ate segregation will reduce the toxicity and volume of the waste streams and make it easier
to transport. Waste is segregated depending on the quantity, composition, and disposal
method of the waste stream [66,71].
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 13 of 25

Many countries have national legislation that prescribes the waste segregation cate-
gories to be used and a system of colour coding for waste containers [18,66]. According
to the standard rules and regulations in Australia, medical waste are to be contained in
colour-coded and labelled bags or containers [84]. Medical waste from COVID-19 are
categorized by the colour “yellow”, incinerated, and cannot be disposed of into the general
waste or recycling waste streams [80,84]. Colour coding makes it possible for hospital staff
handling waste to place waste items into the right containers with ease and to maintain
segregation of the wastes during transport, storage, treatment, and disposal. Colour cod-
ing also helps to provide a visual indication of the potential risk posed by the waste in
a particular container [2,4,45].
When disposing nonsharp medical waste from COVID-19 such as contaminated
PPEs, they should be placed in a yellow biohazard bag, which complies with Australian
Standards [5,70]. These yellow biohazard bags should be tied off at the point of segregation
and disposed of into a yellow 2-wheeled mobile garbage bin (MGB). These bins should be
stored according to the prescribed standards. Medical waste from COVID-19 generated
at the airports can be disposed of in quarantine bins and should refer to local policy [81].
Medical sharps from COVID-19 are not to be placed directly into MGBs. Instead, sharps
must be disposed of into designated sharps containers that meet Australian Standards.
These sharps containers must not be overfilled and should be sealed when it reaches the
designated fill line [5].

5.4. Storage and Transportation

Transportation is an important aspect of managing medical waste from COVID-19.
Before transportation, all waste contaminated with COVID-19 must be sealed in bags. The
bags must be properly labelled/barcoded before transportation [1,80]. The waste materials
from the collection site should be transported to the storage area in a separate trolley
labelled with COVID-19. The trolleys used for transportation of COVID-19 waste are to
be disinfected with 1% sodium hypochlorite after delivery [1]. For safe transportation,
an appropriate transfer route; a dedicated trained driver; and a designated vehicle are to
be used [69,80]. In addition, on-site transport of COVID-19 waste should take place during
off-peak times whenever possible. Established routes should be used to prevent staff and
patients from being exposed and to minimize the passage of the loaded trolley through
patient care and other clean areas [80]. Specific and regular transportation routes as well
as collection times should be fixed. Most of the states and territories have introduced
a manifest system/tracking system when transporting COVID-19 waste off-site. The
following information are often documented: (a) waste type, (b) waste sources, (c) pick-up
date, (d) destination, (e) driver’s name, (f) number of containers, (g) receipt of waste from
responsible person at the pick-up area [18,67].
COVID-19 waste and general waste should not be collected at the same time. All
workers coming into contact with COVID-19 must be adequately protected with required
PPEs [18]. A designated storage area located away from patients and public access
should be established. It should also be well secured, ventilated, and inaccessible to
pests. A separate waste storage bin labelled with COVID-19 should be used to store and
keep COVID-19 waste in a special temporary storage room to avoid mixing with other
types of wastes; this will help the waste treatment staff to easily identify the waste and
treat it accordingly. COVID-19 waste should be disinfected (0.5–1% chlorine solution)
immediately after waste delivery and not be stored for more than 24 h after collection [69].
Figure 3 shows a flow chart of COVID-19 waste management [1,25].

5.5. Treatment and Disposal Methods

Medical waste, particularly those contaminated with COVID-19, must be treated by
strictly following approved guidelines and regulations [1,2] (The objective of COVID-19
waste treatment is to make the waste as safe as possible for hospital staff and the general
public and to minimize environmental impact. Generally, any method used for the treat-
 off-peak times whenever possible. Established routes should be used to prevent staff and
patients from being exposed and to minimize the passage of the loaded trolley through
patient care and other clean areas [80]. Specific and regular transportation routes as well
as collection times should be fixed. Most of the states and territories have introduced a
manifest system/tracking system when transporting COVID-19 waste off-site. The follow-
ing
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19,information
1381 are often documented: (a) waste type, (b) waste sources, (c) pick-up date, 14 of 25
(d) destination, (e) driver’s name, (f) number of containers, (g) receipt of waste from re-
sponsible person at the pick-up area [18,67].
ment COVID-19
of COVID-19 waste and or
waste general waste should
other infectious not be
medical collected
waste at the same
in Australia should time. All
(a) render
workers coming into contact with COVID-19 must be adequately protected
the waste noninfectious, (b) render the waste unrecognizable, (c) significantly reduce the with required
PPEs
volume [18].ofAthe
designated
waste, (d)storage areainlocated
not result away from
unacceptable patients
levels and public
of hazardous access
or toxic should
by-products,
be established. It should also be well secured, ventilated, and inaccessible
and (e) be environmentally acceptable [69,80,85]. A number of methods are used to pests. A sep-
for the
arate waste storage bin labelled with COVID-19 should be used to store
treatment and disposal of COVID-19 waste and other infectious medical waste. The treat- and keep COVID-
19 waste
ment andin disposal
a special methods
temporary storage depends
adopted room to avoid mixing with
on a number other such
of factors typesasofthewastes;
source
this will help the waste treatment staff to easily identify the waste and
of the waste, the various components and hazards linked with the waste stream, and the treat it accordingly.
COVID-19
capabilities waste
andshould be disinfected
limitations (0.5–1% chlorine
of the technology adopted solution)
to treatimmediately
the waste. The aftertreatment
waste
delivery and not be stored for more than 24 hours after collection
methods used should be armed with automated process controls, including continuous [69]. Figure 3 shows a
flow chart of COVID-19 waste management [1,25].
monitoring, recording, and shutdown mechanisms [1,66,69].

Figure3.3.AAflow
Figure flowchart
chartofofCOVID-19
COVID-19waste
wastemanagement.
management. Developed
Developed forfor this
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andWHOWHO[61].
[61].

There is and
5.5. Treatment no single medical
Disposal waste treatment technology capable of treating all categories
Methods
of medical waste. However, waste management agencies should evaluate treatment alterna-
tives based on their safety, effectiveness, environmental impact, costs and compliance with
required standards [18,66]. Thus, it is the duty of the waste generator to have approved
processes in place and ensure that waste segregation is compatible or suitable for the
proposed treatment or disposal technology adopted [18,19,69]. Some of the treatment and
disposal options used to manage medical waste including COVID-19 waste are as follows:
(a) approved landfill, (b) autoclave (steam sterilization) and shredding, (c) chemical disin-
fection, (d) grinding/shredding (with sodium hypochlorite), (e) grinding/shredding (with
hydrogen peroxide and lime), (f) microwave disinfection and shredding, and (g) approved
incineration [66,69,85]. Table 2 provides a summary of the various treatment and disposal
methods for medical waste, including COVID-19 waste.

5.6. Emerging Technologies for the Treatment and Disposal of Medical Waste
The growing mountain of medical waste (including COVID-19 waste) is creating
considerable public health and environmental challenges worldwide (see Section 6). The
situation is worrying in less-developed countries due to inappropriate treatment and
disposal methods, inadequate physical resources, and lack of research on medical waste
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countries globally and created a huge burden on healthcare systems [86,88]. Apart from the
health-related effects of COVID-19, the pandemic has impacted on the economies of many
nations, including Australia. Due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, Australia has seen
a radical increase in the use of facial masks and other PPEs, plastic disposables, sanitising
liquids, and disinfectants [7]. With the current upsurge in the number of confirmed
cases, particularly in Sydney and Melbourne, the amount of COVID-19 waste generated,
including infected face masks, face shields, gloves, gowns, and other noninfected waste
have increased substantially. This has swiftly changed the dynamics of medical waste
management in the states and territories [7] Accordingly, it is critical that federal and
state governments ensure that waste management agencies are keeping up with industry
and local standards and procedures to reduce the transmission and spread of coronavirus
disease [10,15].
According to ADB [4], a COVID-19 patient can generate on average around 3.4 kg
of medical waste/day, and this has gradually increased in quantity as the pandemic has
progressed. Indeed, a Sydney local council reported a 35% increase in medical waste due
to the pandemic [10,15]. Other countries are facing similar challenges, in fact, during
this pandemic, medical waste generated in the Hubei Province in China increased from
40 tons/day to 240 tons/day (an increase of 600%) [4,89,90]. In the USA, UK, and Japan,
governments are currently facing challenges in retaining waste management staff, medical
staff, maintaining a COVID-19-safe environment for workers, handling COVID-19 waste
generated by quarantine patients at home, and creating space for additional medical waste
generated by the pandemic [14]. Currently, PPEs are utilized by the general public including
households, care centres, testing sites, staff in public and private offices, airport staffs, and
railway staff. These new users are either unaware or untrained on the potential risk of
inappropriately disposing of PPEs [77].
Apart from the challenges in managing medical waste from coronavirus (PPEs and
other COVID-19-related waste), the pandemic has also caused extensive job losses and
threatened the wellbeing of millions of people as businesses have shut down to control
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 16 of 25

the transmission and spread of the virus. Around the world including Australia, flights
have been cancelled and transport systems have been impacted [7]. In addition, there
are a number of environmental problems that have arisen due to the large amounts of
COVID-19 waste generated that need to be addressed [6].
Although Australia has one of the most affordable, comprehensive, and accessible
healthcare systems in the world, the nation is facing challenges in the management and safe
disposal of COVID-19 waste due to the unforeseen nature of the current pandemic [6,7].
With contaminated objects rapidly becoming hosts for the transmission and spread of
coronavirus, healthcare providers must ensure that medical waste wastes generated from
COVID-19 are managed and treated with caution and in compliance with strict federal and
state-based guidelines and regulatory requirements. Maintaining and enhancing Australia’s
standard of care during this pandemic requires safe and efficient waste management
solutions that can cope with the enormous COVID-19 waste generated [6,15]. Thus, as
the management of medical waste is closely regulated by state and federal governments,
healthcare providers, quarantine facilities, testing sites, and aged care facilities must adopt
sustainable, compliant, safe, and reliable practices to deal with COVID-19 waste challenges.
Effective and safe COVID-19 waste management will not only help reduce the transmission
and spread of the virus, but will also support regulatory and compliance requirements,
protect public health, meet corporate social responsibility (CSR) requirements, improve
operational efficiency, and keep costs low [7,15].

7. Environmental and Public Health Impacts

The COVID-19 pandemic has impacted on the environment and public health both
directly and indirectly, and assessing these impacts is an enormous task [26,86]. The environ-
mental impacts resulting from the current pandemic include changes in (a) traffic and mo-
bility trends, (b) air pollution, (c) noise level and pollution, and (d) waste generation [6,91].
Worldwide, lockdowns and restrictions have also led to reductions in global emissions and
drastically changed patterns of energy demand [59,86]. However, regardless of the adverse
socioeconomic impact, COVID-19 is perceived as a blessing in disguise in some instances
because it effectively reduced the level of environmental pollution [92]. For example, air
travel fell to the lowest in 75 years by about 96%, resulting in a reduction of environmental
pollution by up to 30% with a positive impact on environmental quality [86,93,94]. As
with the transportation sector, manufacturing and industrial plants, which significantly
contribute to environmental pollution, saw a decline in activities and reduction in emissions
due to restricted economic activities [63,86].
In Australia, the mobility and traffic trends for workplaces, retail and recreation centres,
public transport, hubs, supermarkets, pharmacies, and parks plummeted significantly
throughout the first and second waves of COVID-19 [6]. These reductions in mobility and
traffic trends were as a result of enforced lockdowns leading to mainly working from homes;
staying within 5 km from homes; and closing of pubs, shops, retails, and recreation venues.
Moreover, during the lockdowns, social distancing restrictions and peak-hour bottlenecks
in most congested areas of Australia (e.g., Melbourne and Sydney) vanished [6,7]. Prior
studies [17,65,95,96] show that daily global CO2 emissions decreased by 17% in April 2020
compared with the previous year, although pollution levels have started rising again as
economies recover. For example, during the lockdowns in Victoria, imposing stringent
social distancing measures and curfew policies required people to leave their homes for
shopping within specific times, returned students to remote learning, and obligated many
people to work from home [6]. When compared with the first lockdown in Australia, harder
restrictions during the second lockdown led to a reduction in CO2 emissions; some public
transport services; traffic levels; and the closure of many retail stores, restaurants, and
factories in several areas. These changes led to a reduction in environmental noise levels
and pollution in affected states and territories [7].
Further, during the lockdowns, due to social distancing and curfew policies, it has
been observed that greenhouse gas emissions reduce to record levels [6,97]. According to
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 17 of 25

UNCTAD [98], the global pandemic and the lockdowns that followed led to a 5% decrease
in greenhouse gas emissions in the first half of 2020 when compared with the same period
in 2019. Liu et al. [93] reported that global CO2 emissions reduced by approximately 8.8%
for the same period. In China, considerable reductions in nitrogen dioxide levels were
observed in major cities due to shutdowns of some industrial facilities and power plants,
strong social distancing measures, and curfews [99]. Similarly, in Europe, it has been
reported that air pollution and noise levels have significantly reduced [100,101].
Since the start of the pandemic, efforts to reduce single-use plastics seem to have
overturned. This is largely due to the increased use of plastic packaging materials, a surge
in online shopping and deliveries, and a shift to buying take-away packaged food instead
of eating in restaurants [6,102–104]. The high demand for plastic products observed
during the pandemic led to the suspension of policies on the production of plastic packing
materials [17,54]. The suspension is mainly due to (a) increased demand for PPEs in the
healthcare system and communities, (b) the recommended or mandatory policies on face
masks around the world, and (c) the need for plastic packaging materials due to increased
online shopping and home delivery services [54,96]. Thus, much of the disposable plastic
waste generated from PPEs during the pandemic are recyclable; however, due to fear of
virus transmission, PPEs from medical staff and COVID-19 patients in hospitals and at
home cannot be recycled [54,98,105].
In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic has triggered huge pressure on landfills in
many countries, particularly in developing countries, where solid waste materials and
hazardous waste are dumped in poorly managed and open landfills, leading to threats
to public health and the environment [96]. The WWF [95] stated that the majority of the
world’s discarded waste from COVID-19, particularly PPEs, ends up in landfills, rivers,
and oceans, compounding the existing plastics threat to the planet’s ecosystems. According
to a study conducted by the WWF [95], if 1% of face masks generated during the pandemic
are inappropriately disposed of, about 10 million face masks will end up polluting the
environment each month.
Another environmental concern due to the pandemic is the shedding of coronavirus
in stool, which could lead to contamination of community drinking, surface and ground
waters if sewage lines are not properly constructed or fail to operate properly [27,106,107].
Sewage overflow during heavy rainfall can cause human exposure from sewage water.
Moreover, there are concerns of the long-term effect on COVID 19 viral RNA shedding
in faecal matter in patients, which could have implications for public health and the
environment [14,27,52].
Thus, the sustainable management of PPEs and other medical waste from COVID-19
has become a key environmental challenge [41,95,98,108]. The lack of a harmonized interna-
tional strategy and approach to manage PPE production and disposal as well as COVID-19
medical waste lifecycle threatens the advancement toward achieving key components of
the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). These environmental chal-
lenges particularly impact on SDG -3 good health and wellbeing, SDG -6 (clean water and
sanitation), SDG-8) decent work and economic growth), SDG-12 (responsible consumption
and production), and SDG-13 (climate action) [17,95,98].

8. Results and Discussion

This study adopts a qualitative approach for studying the various management and
disposal practices adopted in Australia for handling medical waste from the COVID-19
pandemic, and its impacts on public health and the environment. A secondary data
from 2019–2020 has been considered for reviewing existing literature on medical waste
from COVID-19. Finally, problems and challenges associated with managing COVID-19
waste are discussed and recommendations in the short and long term towards managing
COVID-19 waste presented.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 18 of 25

Analysis of Content Results

Given the background review and analysis in the previous sections, it is obvious
that Australia adopts a multilevel system in the management of waste including medical
waste from COVID-19 pandemic. Findings from the analysis show that the management of
COVID-19 waste is primarily the responsibility of states and territories governments, which
regulate and manage waste in accordance with their individual policies, legislation, and
programs. The Commonwealth in collaboration with the Waste Management and Resource
Recovery Association of Australia (WMRR) is responsible for national legislation, strategies,
and policy frameworks that reflect obligations under international agreements [67,109].
Strategies to establish consistency in medical waste management through collaboration
have existed since 1992 when the Commonwealth responded to problems of inconsistent
approaches to waste management (including medical wastes) policy by state and local
governments [67,110].
This study found that to ensure that COVID-19 waste transported within Australian
states and territories are properly identified, treated, and disposed of in an ecologically
sound manner, the National Environmental Protection Measure (NEPM) was formulated
to supervise movement of controlled waste [67]. However, the extent to which the NEPM
is applied is still decided by each jurisdiction. Moreover, in the states and territories, when
new disposal service contracts are established, medical waste generators are often not
educated of the different technologies used by the waste management agencies that may
require different segregation practices. Notwithstanding the issues highlighted above, defi-
nitions and guidelines on medical waste management and disposal have been developed
by each state and territory [15,67].
In addition, a manifest system for tracking the movement of COVID-19 waste is in
place, and states and territories apply the polluter-pays principle (PPP), whereby healthcare
facilities pay for COVID-19 waste management. Currently, strategies for effectively manag-
ing medical waste are being developed via the National Waste Policy in association with
the Commonwealth, the National Environment Protection Council (NEPC), and individual
states and territories governments. It is anticipated that management of medical waste
from COVID-19 will improve as these guidelines are implemented [15,67].
The results of this analysis also show that due to the infectious nature of COVID-19
waste, all states and territories have to strictly adhere to occupational health and safety
(OHS) requirements and practices based on the local, WHO, UNEP, and Basel Convention
models. Medical staff and waste management staff are most at risk during COVID-19
pandemic since they are exposed to infection and injury from hazards, especially sharps.
To protect medical workers, each state and territories’ government has to provide required
PPEs for medical staff and training on personal protection, and inform and train medical
staff on good hygiene practices and safety measures [61,66,67].
Although Australia has a well-developed and efficient healthcare system, with the
rapidly rising number of confirmed cases in some states and territories and the amounts of
COVID-19 waste generated in healthcare facilities and testing sites, achieving a sustainable
and efficient management of COVID-19 waste has remained a challenge during the
pandemic [7,15]. As a result, waste management agencies are currently optimizing their
existing systems to accommodate the radical increase in COVID-19 waste. With the cur-
rent lockdowns and restrictions in major states/territories and some regional areas, large
amounts of household waste and infectious waste from home quarantine have also in-
creased. This unexpected surge has put extraordinary pressure on existing medical waste
management systems and requires drastic action by policy makers [15,55].
As previously noted, some categories of medical waste, including those from COVID-19
patients, are classified as infectious waste and are highly transmissible [27,52]. Due to the
nature and transmissibility of infectious waste (including COVID-19 waste), nations across
the world have clearly defined and differentiated between infectious medical waste and
municipal waste. This differentiation has prompted separate methods and procedures for
handling, treatment, and disposal [52,54]. Due to the increasing number of COVID-19 waste
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 19 of 25

generated worldwide from healthcare establishments such as hospitals and laboratories,

and other sources such as aged care facilities, home quarantine, temporary establishments,
sample collection and testing centres, graveyards, and crematoriums [17,54], COVID-19
waste could comprise of both municipal waste as well as infectious medical waste de-
pending on the source of its generation. Generally, any waste generated from households
in which a person infected with COVID-19 virus has been isolated and is undergoing
treatment from home is categorized as COVID-19 waste [54,65]. In contrast, medical waste
generated from any healthcare facility that is not related to any COVID-19 activity including
diagnosis, research, or treatment does not fall under COVID-19 waste [17,54]. Hence, man-
agement of COVID-19 waste requires increased attention and caution to prevent adverse
health and environmental consequences due to exposure of infectious pathogens and toxic
substances [54,58].
The results of this analysis further shows that the environmental impacts resulting
from the current pandemic include changes in traffic and mobility trends, air pollution,
noise level and pollution, and waste generation. These changes were particularly obvious
in Melbourne and Sydney during the first and second wave of the pandemic. Findings
indicate huge demand for PPEs, particularly masks and facial shields, during the pandemic.
This has created enormous waste from PPEs; thus, the sustainable management of PPEs
and other medical waste has become a key environmental challenge [6,7,60]. Although
COVID-19 has had a huge impact on overall public health in Australia, the lowering
of emissions and environmental pollution from various methods of transportation and
heavy industrial and manufacturing equipment brought about a reduction in pollutants
such as nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ) in the atmosphere, which is often responsible for some
human diseases (inflammation and respiratory disease, hypertension, coronary heart
disease, etc.) and environmental degradation [6]. Furthermore, findings show that there
have been improvements in air quality and better visibility in states and territories due to
the COVID-19 lockdowns and these changes are linked to a better quality of life and health.

9. Conclusions, Recommendations, and Future Research

9.1. Conclusions
This study has reviewed the current COVID-19 situation in Australia, the management
and disposal of COVID-19 waste, and the direct and indirect impacts of the pandemic
on public health and the environment. Based on the literature review and analysis, the
following medical waste management needs have been identified: (a) improve consis-
tency in medical waste definitions in various jurisdictions; (b) develop national medical
waste management procedures, guidelines, and regulations; (c) synchronise and stream-
line established technologies for the treatment of medical waste at the national level;
(d) create a harmonized system for the supervision and monitoring of healthcare sector; and
(e) improvement and innovation in the healthcare sector in response to future pandemics.
Thus, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a far-reaching impact on the world (including
Australia) and has created a huge burden on healthcare systems. Apart from the health-
related effects of COVID-19, there are further impacts of the lockdowns on all aspects of
human life and the economy. Australia has adopted different strategies in response to
the management of the huge amount of infectious waste produced during the COVID-19
pandemic. In response to the pandemic, healthcare waste management strategies included
several additional measures to ensure appropriate containment to avoid transmission and
spread of the disease. Australia has also adopted the best possible management approaches
based on the nation’s capacity, resources, and commitment and is rated among countries
with excellent containment of COVID-19.
While lockdowns effectively reduced the transmission and spread of COVID-19,
stringent control measures aimed at reducing disease mortality and morbidity are often
accompanied by negative consequences in many sectors of the economy. The impacts
are often multidimensional and long-term and, therefore, an important factor for policy
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 20 of 25

makers to consider when choosing which intervention packages to implement in future

disease outbreaks.
With the current situation in Australia and the challenges involved in managing medi-
cal waste from COVID-19 pandemic, this study provides insights on short and long term
responses towards managing COVID-19 waste. The study contributes to Australia’s efforts
against the transmission and spread of COVID-19 and provides alternative management ap-
proaches and recommendations for the development of workable and sustainable strategies
for mitigating similar pandemics and disease outbreaks in the future.
Finally, the current coronavirus pandemic has put the resilience of the government
and people of Australia to the test. The COVID-19 pandemic has continued to exert
extraordinary pressures on many economic activities, including those that are crucial to
our well-being. Therefore, protecting human lives, livelihoods, and the environment are at
the centre of all actions and decisions to deal with the pandemic at both individual and
collective levels.
A limitation of this study is that it is limited to Australia. Although the accuracy of
some of the analysis in the present study is inescapably subjective, this study is a starting
point for further research into various aspects of medical waste management during the
COVID-19 pandemic.

9.2. Recommendations
Actions to ensure the safe and environmentally sound management of COVID-19
waste can prevent undesirable health and environmental impacts arising from the release of
chemical or biological threats and drug-resistant pathogens into the environment, helping to
protect the health of patients, medical workers, and the general public. To more-effectively
manage COVID-19 waste, the Commonwealth government in partnership with the states
and territories government should focus on short and long term priority areas that improve
medical waste management to prevent the spread of COVID-19 and to develop resilience
to and readiness for similar events in the future. The following recommendations are
suggested based on the findings of this study.

9.2.1. Short Term Responses

◦ All medical workers including formal municipality waste management employees
should be encouraged to comply with OHS requirements and the mandatory use
of PPEs.
◦ During disease outbreaks such as the COVID-19 pandemic, a robust arrangement is
needed with clear roles and responsibilities assigned for the collection, treatment, and
disposal of COVID-19 waste from healthcare facilities, households, and public places.
◦ During COVID-19 waste management, emergency response such as contingency plans
should be developed as well as further improvement in medical waste management
through review and enforcement of existing policies and regulatory frameworks.
◦ Ongoing assessment of the current medical waste systems to identify the capacities
and gaps in the respective states and territories and increase the usage of recom-
mended treatment technologies towards maximum capacity.
◦ Due to a surge in the generation of potentially infected PPEs (face masks, face shields,
disposable plastics, etc.), further guidelines should be sought for COVID-19 waste
generated from households, quarantine facilities, and other public places, in addition
to international regulations and guidelines adopted for the safe management of
COVID-19 waste.
◦ Proper segregation, packaging and storage of potentially infected materials using the
approved double bag should be maintained. Collection frequency should be adjusted
based on priority with possible reduction on collection of recyclables.
◦ Appropriate use of PPEs when handling COVID-19 waste, hand hygiene, as well as other
precautionary practices to protect the health and safety of waste management workers.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 1381 21 of 25

◦ Since the informal sector plays a crucial role in managing COVID-19 waste, greater
awareness on mitigating risks of coronavirus infection, social distancing, and hand-
washing should be continually emphasized.

9.2.2. Long Term Responses

◦ Re-evaluation of the existing policies and regulations should be undertaken by the
states’ and territories’ governments to appraise respective responses to COVID-19
waste management to better respond to similar future pandemics and clarify the
actions that need to be taken.
◦ The current medical waste management system should be further organized with
capabilities to handle household/quarantine COVID-19 waste with clear labelling
and special bins.
◦ Innovative medical waste management infrastructure should be established with the
required capacity and features to manage medical contaminated waste treatment to
help overcome a similar disease outbreak or pandemic in the future.
◦ Financial resources and access to funding should be clearly identified to support the
improvement of medical waste infrastructure.
◦ Public awareness and continuous training of medical staff and municipal employees
on the positive impact of the appropriate management of hazardous or infectious
medical waste should be enhanced.

9.3. Future Research

Future research should use a quantitative approach or other research methods to study
medical waste from COVID-19 and its impact on public health and the environment. This
will provide additional knowledge in understanding sustainable medical waste manage-
ment during the pandemic and significantly facilitate the approach developed for dealing
with similar possible pandemics in the future.

Author Contributions: L.A.: Conceptualisation, Methodology, Formal analysis, Investigation, Re-

sources, Writing—Original Draft; S.W.: Visualisation, Validation, Writing—Review and Editing,
Supervision; S.G.: Visualisation, Validation, Writing—Review and Editing, Supervision. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

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