SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

1. Family: Forms, functions and dark side

FORMS OF FAMILY:-
Conjugal (nuclear or single) family
The term "nuclear family" is commonly used, especially in the United States of
America, to refer to conjugal families. A "conjugal" family includes only the
husband, the wife, and unmarried children who are not of age. [20] Sociologists
distinguish between conjugal families (relatively independent of the kindred of the
parents and of other families in general) and nuclear families (which maintain
relatively close ties with their kindred). Other family structures, such as blended
parents, single parents, and domestic partnerships have begun to challenge the
normality of the nuclear family.
Matrifocal family
A "matrifocal" family consists of a mother and her children. Generally, these
children are her biological offspring, although adoption of children is a practice in
nearly every society. This kind of family occurs commonly where women have the
resources to rear their children by themselves, or where men are more mobile than
women. As a definition, "a family or domestic group is matrifocal when it is
centered on a woman and her children. In this case, the father(s) of these children
are intermittently present in the life of the group and occupy a secondary place.
The children's mother is not necessarily the wife of one of the children's fathers."
Extended family
The term "extended family" is also common, especially in the United States. This
term has two distinct meanings:

1. First, it serves as a synonym of "consanguinal family" (consanguine means

"of the same blood").
2. Second, in societies dominated by the conjugal family, it refers to "kindred"
(an egocentric network of relatives that extends beyond the domestic group)
who do not belong to the conjugal family.
These types refer to ideal or normative structures found in particular societies. Any
society will exhibit some variation in the actual composition and conception of
families.
Family of choice
The term "family of choice," also sometimes referred to as "chosen family," is
common within the queer community, both in academic literature and in colloquial
vocabulary. It refers to the group of people in an individual's life that satisfies the
typical role of family as a support system. The term differentiates between the
"family of origin" (the biological family or that in which people are raised) and
those that actively assume that ideal role. The family of choice may or may not
include some or all of the members of the family of origin. This terminology stems
from the fact that many LGBT individuals, upon coming out, face rejection or
shame from the families they were raised in. The term family of choice is also used
by individuals in the 12 step communities, who create close-knit "family" ties
through the recovery process.
Blended family
The term blended family or stepfamily describes families with mixed parents: one
or both parents remarried, bringing children of the former family into the new
family. Also in sociology, particularly in the works of social psychologist Michael
Lamb, traditional family refers to "a middleclass family with a bread-winning
father and a stay-at-home mother, married to each other and raising their biological
children," and nontraditional to exceptions from this rule. Most of the US
households are now non-traditional under this definition.
In terms of communication patterns in families, there are a certain set of beliefs
within the family that reflect how its members should communicate and interact.
These family communication patterns arise from two underlying sets of beliefs.
One being conversation orientation (the degree to which the importance of
communication is valued) and two, conformity orientation (the degree to which
families should emphasize similarities or differences regarding attitudes, beliefs,
and values).
Monogamous family
A monogamous family is based on a legal or social monogamy. In this case, an
individual has only one (official) partner during their lifetime or at any one time
(i.e. serial monogamy). This means that a person may not have several different
legal spouses at the same time, as this is usually prohibited by bigamy laws, in
jurisdictions that require monogamous marriages.
Polygamous family
Polygamy is a marriage that includes more than two partners. When a man is
married to more than one wife at a time, the relationship is called polygyny; and
when a woman is married to more than one husband at a time, it is
called polyandry. If a marriage includes multiple husbands and wives, it can be
called polyamory, group or conjoint marriage.
Polygyny is a form of plural marriage, in which a man is allowed more than one
wife. In modern countries that permit polygamy, polygyny is typically the only
form permitted. Polygyny is practiced primarily (but not only) in parts of
the Middle East and Africa; and is often associated with Islam, however, there are
certain conditions in Islam that must be met to perform polygyny.
Polyandry is a form of marriage whereby a woman takes two or more husbands at
the same time. Fraternal polyandry, where two or more brothers are married to the
same wife, is a common form of polyandry. Polyandry was traditionally practiced
in areas of the Himalayan Mountains, among Tibetans in Nepal, in parts of China
and in parts of northern India. Polyandry is most common in societies marked by
high male mortality or where males will often be apart from the rest of the family
for a considerable period of time.

FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY:-
(1) Stable satisfaction of Sexual needs:
This is the most important essential function of family. Family has been
performing these functions since the inceptions of human civilization. It is a well
known fact that sex urge is the most important and powerful instinct and natural
urge of human being. It is the primary duty of family to satisfy the sexual urge of
its members in a stable and desirable way. Through the mechanism of marriage
family regulate the sexual behavior of its members. Because satisfaction of sex
instinct brings the desire for lifelong partnership of husband and wife. Satisfaction
of this sex needs in a desirable way helps in the normal development of
personality. Ancient Hindu Philosopher Manu and Vatsayan opine that satisfaction
of sex needs is the primary objective of family. If it is suppressed it creates
personality maladjustments.

(2) Procreation and Rearing of Children:

It is another important sectional function of family .Necessary arrangement of
stable satisfaction of sexual urge resulted in procreation. Family provides the
legitimate basis for production of children. It institutionalizes the process of
procreation. By performing this function of procreation family contributes to the
continuity of family and ultimately human race. Hence perpetuation of human race
or society is the most important function of family. Not only is the production of
children but also child rearing another important function of family. Family is the
only place where the function of child rearing is better performed. It provides food,
shelter, affection, protection and security to all its members. It plays a vital role in
the process of socialization of child. It provides healthy atmosphere in which the
personality of the child develops properly. Family takes care of the child at the
time of need. Hence it is rightly remarked that family is an institution par
excellence for the procreation and rearing of children. It has no parallels.

(3) Provision of Home:

Family performs another important function of providing a home for common
living to all its members. It is only in a home that children are born and brought up.
Even if children are born in hospitals in modern time still they are taken care of
and properly nourished in a home only. Because family and a home have no
substitute. In a home all the members of family live together and a child is brought
up under the strict vigilance of all its members.

(4) Socialization:
It is another important essential function of family. It is said man is not born
human but made human. New born human baby became human being after they
are socialized. Family plays an important role in the socialization process. It is one
of the primary agents of socialization. Living in a family human baby learns
norms, values, morals and ideals of society. He learns culture and acquires
character through the process of socialization. His personality develops in the
course of his living in family. From family he learns what is right and wrong and
what is good or bad. Through socialization he became a social man and acquires
good character.

(5) Educational functions:

Family performs many educational functions for its members. As a primary
educational institution family used to teach letters, knowledge, skill and trade
secret to all its members. It looks after the primary education of its members and
moulds their career and character. Mother act as the first and best teacher of a
child. Besides he learns all sorts of informal education such as discipline,
obedience, manners etc. from family. Of course at present many of the educational
functions of family are taken over by school, college and universities sill family
continues to play an important role in providing the first lessons and primary
education to its members.
DARK SIES OF A FAMILY

5. RELIGION: FORMS AND FUNCTIONS

FORMS OF RELIGION
In the opening sentences of The Sociology of Religion Max Weber (1922) states,
"To define 'religion,' to say what it is, is not possible at the start of a presentation
such as this. Definition can be attempted, if at all, only at the conclusion of the
study".
He could offer only the broadest of definitions: religion encompasses those human
responses that give meaning to the ultimate and inescapable problems of existence
—birth, death, illness, aging, injustice, tragedy, and suffering.

To Weber, the hundreds of thousands of religions, past and present, represented a

rich and seemingly endless variety of responses to these problems. In view of this
variety, he believed that no single definition could hope to capture the essence of
religion.

Like wise Emile Durkheim believed that religion is difficult to define. In the first
chapter of his book The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, Durkheim
cautions that when studying religions, sociologists must assume that "there are no
religions which are false".

In sacramental religions, followers seek the sacred in places, objects, and actions
believed to house a god or a spirit. These locations may include inanimate objects
such as relics, statues, and crosses, animals, trees or other plants, foods, drink such
as wine and water, places, and certain processes such as the way people prepare for
a hunt or perform a dance. Sacramental religions include various forms of Native
American spirituality.

In prophetic religions, the sacred revolves around items that symbolize historic
events or around the lives, teachings, and writings of great people. Sacred books,
such as the Christian Bible, the Muslim Qur'an, and the Jewish Tanakh, hold the
records of these events and revelations. In the case of historic events, God or some
other higher being is believed to be directly involved in the course and outcome of
the events (such as a flood, the parting of the Sea of Reeds, or the rise and fall of
an empire).

In mystical religions, followers seek the sacred in states of being that can exclude
all awareness of their existence, sensations, thoughts, and surroundings. In such
states, mystics become caught up so fully in the transcendental experience that
earthly concerns seem to vanish. Direct union with the divine forces of the
universe assumes the utmost importance.

FUNCTIONS OF RELIGION
(1) Religion Rationalizes and Makes Bearable Individual Suffering in the
Known World:
By soothing the emotions of man in times of suffering and disappointments
religion contributes to the integration of his personality. In the midst of all hopes
and achievements man often suffer from disappointment and sufferings due to non
fulfillment of worldly desires. Religion console and compensate him and helps him
to bear his frustrations and integrate his personality. Religion sustains his interest
in life and makes bearable all individual sufferings.

Being influenced by religion he looks towards the positive side of everything

which further expands his self. Religion assures him a greater reward in after life.

(3) Religion brings social cohesion:

Religion helps to knit the social values of a society into a cohesive whole. A social
value comes from religious faith and it is the foundation on which social values
rest. Religion teaches the values of love, service and discipline. Besides values like
children should obey their parents, people should be honest and virtuous, women
should be faithful to men etc. brings cohesion in society. By the common
possession of these values individual controls the actions of self and others and
thereby led to the perpetuation of society. Thus religion is the ultimate source of
social cohesion.

(4) Religion acts as an agency of social control:

The most noteworthy role of religion is that it acts as an important agency of social
control. It exercises control over individual behavior and on society. Religion
regulates the behavior of people in its own way. Different religious organizations
like temple, church, Mosques etc. exercises control over individual behavior at
different levels. It checks the deviant tendencies of man. By the method of reward
and punishment it exercises greater control over individual’s behavior.

(5) Religion acts as an agency of socialization:

Religion not only exercises control over individual behavior but also socializes him
from the very beginning. It insulates different virtues in him. It socializes him as
per the norms of society.

(6)Religion brings social welfare:

Every religion believes in the principle that “Service to humanity is service to
God”. It teaches people to serve the masses and help the poor and needy. Every
religion teaches its followers to give alms to the poor and spend some amount of
one’s income for the needy and the destitute. It creates Philanthropic attitude
among the people. Being guided by these different religious organizations, pious
people engage themselves in different welfare activities. By this way religion
became able to promote individual and social welfare.

(7) Religion establishes Solidarity in Society:

Every religion gives stress on mutual co-operation and the spirit of brotherhood.
Followers of a particular religion have common belief, common sentiment and
participate in common ritual which integrates them. Durkheim opines that religion
brings solidarity in society.

(8) Religion provides peace of mind:

Religion consoles people at the time of crisis. At the time of failure and danger
religion act as a ray of hope for people and there by brings peace of mind. It
creates self-confidence in man and enables him to face the problems of life with
courage and strength.

(9) Religion promotes literature:

Religion greatly contributes to the growth of art, music and literature. Intense
desire to please God for personal benefits led people to extol them in devotional
song, painting, architecture and sculpture. This led to the creation of beautiful
temple, mosques and finest music and paintings.

(10) Religion provides opportunity for friendship and healthy recreation:

At the time of religious gatherings and festivals people meet each other and
friendship develops among them. Every religion organizes bhajana and kirtans,
religious lectures which provides mental peace and pleasure to people. All these
provide for healthy recreation to people.

(11) Religion influences economic life:

Famous Sociologist Max Weber opines that religion deeply influences and
determines economic life of people. He observed how protestant faith of Christian
religion led to the development of capitalism in the countries practicing protestant
faith and not among countries following other faiths.

Religion widens one’s self to the maximum extent. It enables man to unite himself
with the Almighty and his self is made triumphant. He considers himself as the
noblest creation of God.

(12) Religion controls the behavior of its followers through preaching’s, teachings,

festivals and community activities.
(13) Religion propagate social harmony and unity through education and social
welfare.
(14) Religion influences political system of the country. Religion played
significant role in the ancient and medieval political systems. Kings and Emperor
was worshipped like God and they were considered as the representative of God on
earth. Even at present religion directly or indirectly influences the political
activities of different countries. Example-Pakistan.
(15) Religion also directs scientific invention and discoveries and thereby
promotes science.
(16) Malinowski opines that religion serves as a tool of adaptation. It provides
mental stability to individual’s life.
(17) Religion plays an important role in organizing, planning and directing social
life.

4. KINSHIP: MEANING AND TYPES

MEANING OF KINSHIP
Kinship is the relation by the bond of blood, marriage and includes kindered ones.
It represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most
societies plays a significant role in the socialization of individuals and the
maintenance of group solidarity.

It is very important in primitive societies and extends its influence on almost all
their activities. A.R Radcliffe Brown defines kinship as a system of dynamic
relations between person and person in a community, the behavior of any two
persons in any of these relations being regulated in some way and to a greater or
less extent by social usage.

TYPES OF KINSHIP
(i) Affinal Kinship:
The bond of marriage is called affinal kinship. When a person marries, he
establishes relationship not only with the girl whom he marries but also with a
number of other people in the girl’s family. Moreover, it is not only the person
marrying who gets bound to the family members of the girl but his family
members also get bound to the family members of the girl.

Thus, a host of relations are created as soon as a marriage takes place. For
example, after marriage a person becomes not only a husband, but he also becomes
brother-in-law and son-in- law. Here it may be noted that in English language a
number of relations created by marriage are referred by the same term. Thus, the
same term ‘brother-in-law is used for bahnoi, sala, jija and sadahu. On marriage a
person also becomes foofa, nandoi and mausa.

Likewise a girl on marriage becomes not only a wife but also becomes daughter-in-
law, she also becomes chachi, bhabhi, devrani, jethani, mami etc. Thus, marriage
creates a host of relationships which are called affinal kin.

(ii) Consanguineous Kinship:

The bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship. The consanguineous kin are
related through blood whereas the affinal kin are related through marriage. The
bond between parents and their children and that between siblings is
consanguineous kinship. Siblings are the children of the same parents.

Thus, son, brother, sister, uncle (chacha), elder uncle (taoo), nephew and cousin
are consanguineous kin. i.e., related through blood. In this connection it may be
pointed out that blood relationship may be actual as well as supposed.

Among polyandrous tribes the actual father of a child is unknown. An adopted

child is treated as if it were one’s own biologically produced child. Thus, blood
relationship may be established not only on biological basis but also on the basis of
social recognition.

3. CASTE AND CLASS: ORIGIN,

CHARACTERISTICS AND DIFFERENCE
DIFFERENCE B/W CASTE AND CLASS
1. Castes are found in Indian sub-continent only, especially in India, while classes
are found almost everywhere. Classes are especially the characteristic of industrial
societies of Europe and America. According to Dumont and Leach, caste is a
unique phenomenon found only in India.

2. Classes depend mainly on economic differences between groupings of

individuals—inequalities in possession and control of material resources—whereas
in caste system non-economic factors such as influence of religion [theory of
karma, rebirth and ritual (purity-pollution)] are most important.

3. Unlike castes or other types of strata, classes are not established by legal or
religious provisions; membership is not based on inherited position as specified
either legally or by custom. On the other hand, the membership is inherited in the
caste system.

4. Class system is typically more fluid than the caste system or the other types of
stratification and the boundaries between classes are never clear-cut. Caste system
is static whereas the class system is dynamic.

5. In the class system, there are no formal restrictions on inter-dining and inter-
marriage between people from different classes as is found in the caste system.
Endogamy is the essence of caste system which is perpetuating it.

6. Social classes are based on the principle of achievement, i.e., on one’s own
efforts, not simply given at birth as is common in the caste system and other types
of stratification system. As such social mobility (movement upwards and
downwards) is much more common in the class structure than in the caste system
or in other types. In the caste system, individual mobility from one caste to another
is impossible.

This is why, castes are known as closed classes (D.N. Majumdar). It is a closed
system of stratification in which almost all sons end up in precisely the same
stratum their fathers occupied. The system of stratification in which there is high
rate of upward mobility, such as that in the Britain and United States is known as
open class system. The view that castes are closed classes is not accepted by M.N.
Srinivas (1962) and Andre Beteille (1965).

7. In the caste system and in other types of stratification system, inequalities are
expressed primarily in personal relationships of duty or obligation—between
lower- and higher-caste individuals, between serf and lord, between slave and
master. On the other hand, the nature of class system is impersonal. Class system
operates mainly through large-scale connections of an impersonal kind.
 8. Caste system is characterized by ‘cumulative inequality’ but class system is
characterized by ‘dispersed inequality.’

9. Caste system is an organic system but class has a segmentary character where
various segments are motivated by competition (Leach, 1960).

10. Caste works as an active political force in a village (Beteille, 1966) but class
does not work so.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CLASS
1. Class system is based on occupation, wealth, education, age, sex
2. Hierarchy of status group. In general there are 3 class – upper middle & tower.
Status, prestige & role is attached. Upper class are less in no in comparison to the
other two whereas their status & prestige is most. This is like a pyramid. Karl max
(Rich & poor) preliterate &
3. Feeling of superiority & inferiority. In these 3 classes there are such feelings the
upper class people feel they are superior to the other two whereas the lower class
feels it is inferior to the upper class.
4. Class consciousness – wherever a class is formed this feeling a consciousness is a
must. There should be feeling of in group i.e. I belong class conflict is due to this
the people of the preliterate class feel the upper class exploits them their they unite
revolt. The behavior action is determined by this class consciousness.
5. Sub-classes, class is divided into different groups. Similar to caste system, the class
system is divided.
6. Class system is an open system.
7. There's social restriction in this too. In general there is endogamy in a class. To
maintain their status & position they mix among themselves & it is seldom that
marriage between upper & lower class is wished. Distinction between Caste &
class. They are the two phenomena of social stratification (Stratification is division
of society on the basis of birth).

CHARACTERISTICS OF CASTE SYSTEM

1) Segmental division of society:
Under Caste System society is divided into several small social groups called
castes. Each of these castes is a well developed social group, the membership
which is based on birth. Since membership is based on birth, mobility from one
caste to another is impossible. Each caste has its own traditional social status,
occupations, customs rules and regulations.
2) Hierarchy:
According to Prof Ghurye each of the linguistics areas, there are about 200 castes
which can be graded and arranged into a hierarchy on the basis of their social
precedence. At the top of this hierarchy is the touchable caste.
3) Restriction of commensurability and social intercourse:
Every caste imposes restrictions on its members with regard to food drink and
social inter-course. The general rule is that the member of caste should accept
‘Kachcha food’ the food in the preparation of which waster is added only from
either their own caste of caste ritually higher that their own. They are also required
to observe certain restrictions while accepting water from members of other castes.
4) Differential civil and religious privileges and disabilities:
In a caste society, there is an un-equal distribution of privileges and disabilities
among its members. While the higher caste people enjoy all the privilege, the
lower caste people suffer from all kinds of disabilities.
5) Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation:
Choice of occupation is not free under Caste System. Each caste or a group of
allied castes is traditionally associated with a particular occupation. Occupations
are hereditary and the members of a caste are expected to follow their traditional
occupation without fail.
6) Restriction of marriage:
Castes are divided into sub-castes and each sub-caste is an endogamous group.
Endogamy, according to some thinkers is the essence of Caste System. Every caste
or sub-caste insists that its members should marry within the group.