Supervision - The Reluctant Profession - Mosher, Ralph L

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SUPERVISION:
THE RELUCTANT
PROFESSION
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SUPERVISION:
THE RELUCTANT
PROFESSION,i
PROFESSION 0
RALPH L. MOSHER AND DAVID E. PURPEL
Graduate School of Education

Harvard University
with the assistance of
KIYO MORIMOTO
KIYC) MORIMQTC)
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MIFPLIN COMPANY -. BOSTON

HOUGHTON MIFFLIN
NEW YORK
NEW YORK •- ATLANTA
ATLANTA •~ GENEVA,
GENEVA, ILL.
ILL. ~• DALLAS
DALLAS -• PALO
PALO ALTO
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Copyright © 1972 by Houghton Mifflin
Mifflin Company.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in

any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying
and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the U.S.A.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-158636
0—395—12509—X
ISBN: 0-395-12509-X
FOREWORD
Perhaps the most

Perhaps the significant thing
most significant thing about
about this
this book
book is
is that
that its
its
authors truly
authors truly comprehend
comprehend the the importance
importance of of supervision;
supervision;
they have,
they have, as
as aa result,
result, committed
committed themselves
themselves to
to aa profoundly
profoundly
searching study. They
searching study. They have pondered the
have pondered the existing
existing evidence
evidence onon
what
what supervision has meant until now, what it has tried to do
supervision has meant until now, what it has tried to do
and how
and how well
well itit has
has worked.
worked. Driven to the honest conclusion
that it has
that has rarely
rarely had much success,
success, they have simply refused
to stop, because they know we must develop a system of
supervision that does work. There is too much at stake to
allow us not to.
Most directly at
Most directly at stake
stake is
is the
the ability
ability of
of our
our teachers
teachers to
to teach
teach
effectively. That demands mastery of technique—suggesting
that
that we
we had better stop
had better stop apologizing
apologizing for
for the
the craft
craft of
of pedagogy
pedagogy
—and, perhaps even more, a quality of human relationship
whose source is
whose source is the
the person
person inside
inside the
the teacher.
teacher. But
But even
even more
more
fundamentally at issue is the curriculum itself, the program
of the school and its very purposes. If, as a profession, we are
unable to diagnose, plan and act at this level, we are done for.
It is the
It is the special
special quality of Supervision:
quality of Supervision: TheThe Reluctant
Reluctant Pro-
Pro¬
fession that its
fession that its authors
authors grasp
grasp the
the full
full range
range of
of essential
essential de-
de¬
mands—not just one or two fragments—and have stretched
their minds to find whole answers. They have not found all
yet——no one has—but they are willing to con-
those answers yet—no con¬
sider all the variables, to analyze a massive volume of re- re¬
search and to test their products against rigorous standards in
their own working situations.
Thus, they have a deep respect for competence in the
classroom, for the art and the craft of practical pedagogy.
They are willing to speak bluntly of “trying
"trying to educate teach-
teach¬
ers about the curriculum and how to teach it.” it." They have
struggled to develop a style of supervision that will genuinely
help a teacher teach
help teach with
with greater
greater skill. And they are aware of
the great
the great benefits to
to be gained
gained from videotaping, interaction
analysis and
analysis and other
other modern means of analyzing the act of
teaching.
Yet, at
at the
the same
same time,
time, they
they are deeply aware that what the
teacher is
teacher is as
as aa person,
person, and
and how
how he relates with those he
teaches, is more important than even the best “methods.”
"methods."
~ v
Therefore, they have explored carefully the possibilities in-
in¬
herent in the sophisticated use of counseling technique and of
modern group work.
Finally, they know that the school is a huge and hard-to-
change institution with a tremendous social responsibility.
Supervision cannot possibly be considered adequate unless it
also offers leadership in building the structures, conditions
and, above all, the curricula our times demand.
None of these great themes can be treated exhaustively in
one short book, but the writers have probed each one hon-
hon¬
estly. In the first two chapters they stipulate their definitions
with unusual diligence, and build a careful background of
philosophical values and pragmatic observations. In the third
chapter they set down what may well be the best existing
interpretation of the research on teacher effectiveness and
supervision. (Though this chapter focuses specifically on re- re¬
search, the running bibliographical notes throughout the book
would make an admirable guide to the study of supervision.)
Chapters Four to Seven, the heart of the book, are devoted
to various actual procedures of supervision. Chapter Four
approaches them in a general, preliminary way and wrestles
with issues generic to supervision, regardless of method.
Chapter Five concentrates on "clinical supervision," which
the reader may well see as traditional, analytical observation
and consultation at their modern best. The chapter is rich in
specific detail. Chapters
specific detail. Chapters Six
Six and
and Seven
Seven shift
shift to
to aa more
more “psy-
"psy¬
chological” orientation, whose primary concern is the teacher-
chological"
as-person. The first of these chapters focuses on individual
work through ego-counseling; in the second the emphasis is
on the use of a group which limits its attention to professional
problems of teaching and learning, but nonetheless echoes the
more personally-oriented processes of encounter groups,
T- groups and the like.
T-groups
In none of
In none of these
these chapters
chapters is
is there
there any
any attempt
attempt to
to “sell”
"sell" aa
particular approach as "the way."
way.” One feels, rather, that the
writers are
writers are probing
probing aa huge
huge problem
problem toto see
see how
how much
much itit may
may
be solved in one way, how much in another. And -this this is par-
par¬
ticularly true of the final chapter, where the tremendous
ticularly true of the final chapter, where the tremendous
vi
vi l
problems of institutional
problems of adaptation are
institutional adaptation are defined
defined far
far more
more pre-
pre¬
cisely than is any solution.
This
This is, in other
is, in other words,
words, aa book for readers
book for readers whowho are
are willing
willing
to face
to face upup to great challenges
to great challenges and and speculate
speculate boldly
boldly about
about
solutions. A book for the real student. It is a modern book, re-
solutions. A book for the real student. It is a modern book, re¬
jecting aa good
jecting good deal
deal of
of the outworn conventional
the outworn conventional wisdom
wisdom and and
opting pretty
opting consistently for
pretty consistently for more sophisticated and,
more sophisticated and, there-
there¬
fore, often
fore, often more complex lines
more complex lines of solution consonant
of solution consonant bothboth
with recent
with recent research
research and
and with
with the spirit of
the spirit of human
human relation-
relation¬
ships
ships in our times. It provides a good deal of realistic and
in our times. It provides a good deal of realistic and de-
de¬
tailed procedural guidance,
tailed guidance, and yet its its greatest strength is its
fine analysis of
fine analysis of problems
problems andand possibilities.
possibilities.
Supervision has fallen on hard times in recent years. Even
if old-style
if old-style supervision
supervision had been much
had been much more more effective
effective than
than it
it
was,
was, it it would
would today
today bebe unsuited
unsuited toto our
our patterns
patterns of
of relating.
relating.
We have
We have valuable
valuable newnew resources
resources and
and insights
insights at
at our
our disposal.
disposal.
They need
They to be
need to used. If
be used. If supervision
supervision is is to
to gain
gain real
real leverage-
leverage—
and II believe
and this to
believe this to be essential to
be essential the actualization
to the actualization of of educa-
educa¬
tion’s potential—it
tion's potential—it willwill be through such
be through such bold,
bold, honest,
honest, pioneer-
pioneer¬
ing efforts
ing efforts as
as Professors
Professors Mosher
Mosher and Purpel have
and Purpel have made
made inin this
this
book.
Fred T. Wilhelms
Senior Associate
Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development
vii
I’I__
M
I
INTRODUCTION
This book reflects

This book reflects the
the writers'
writers’ personal
personal and
and professional
professional
careers over the past 15 years. That odyssey has included
training elementary school teachers in depressed mining towns
in Cape Breton; supervising Harvard Master of Arts in Teach-
Teach¬
ing candidates
candidates in
in aa wide
wide variety
variety of
of public
public schools; training
independent school
school headmasters in in contexts
contexts ranging from the
magisterial to the noveau riche, and struggling, with graduate
students and colleagues at Harvard, to clarify what we mean
by supervision. During this 15-year span we have taught
courses in education, supervised in the field, administered
teacher education programs and counseled teachers. The cen- cen¬
tral focus of these efforts has always been the education of
teachers for their work in the classroom. That experience and
that priority permeate this book.
The book also reflects a belief that our reluctant profession
needs most of all a range of ideas and practices for the super-
super¬
vision of teachers. We do not arrive at this position theoreti-
theoreti¬
cally. Indeed, what we know about supervision derives pri- pri¬
marily from practice. The complexity of teaching and teachers
simply will not yield to any single concept or practice of
supervision. If we have a single bone to pick with our re- re¬
luctant profession, it is with those people who look for, or
offer, single or simplistic prescriptions for educating teachers.
The writers have acted on all of the ideas set forth in this
book, and we know they are not enough. But they are some- some¬
thing. In particular, they represent our efforts at the hard
thinking and hard practice which we believe can bring about
progress in this field.
The book is divided, invisibly but undeniably, into three
parts. The first part—Chapters One through Four—is back- back¬
ground. Chapter One offers working definitions of supervi-supervi¬
sion and teaching, and an overview of the book's central
themes. Chapter Two surveys the historical origins of super-super¬
vision and discusses traditional philosophical stances toward
it, notably "scientific'
”scientific’ supervision, which emphasizes careful
empirical research and administrative efficiency, and "demo-
"demo¬
cratic" supervision, which stresses teacher autonomy and
talent. The chapter goes on to identify traditional functions of
1x
IX
supervision and
supervision and factors which have
factors which deterred the
have deterred development
the development
of vigorous supervisory programs in the public schools.
Chapter Three is a survey of current research on teaching
and supervision, intended to familiarize the reader with what
is currently “known”
"known" about both. Chapter Four offers a con- con¬
ceptual framework for the educational and social responsi-
responsi¬
bilities of supervision, and enumerates the personal, social
and cognitive skills we feel are necessary to undertake these
responsibilities effectively.
Chapters Five through Seven each discuss in detail a par- par¬
ticular method of supervision, giving considerable attention
to both theory and technique. Supervisory techniques are too
often discussed in a vacuum, without theoretical support or
validation. We feel that the conceptual bases of the super- super¬
visory methods under discussion are fully as important to the
field as are the accompanying recommendations for practice.
Specifics, however, are not slighted—effective
slighted-effective supervision,
like effective teaching, requires a wide repertoire of instruc-
instruc¬
tional methods, some quite complex. Chapter Five describes a
supervisory program which has tried to put into practice the
values and assumptions implicit in traditional models of
supervision. Chapter Six deals with the implications for super-
super¬
vision of counseling theory and technique. We assume that
what the teacher is personally affects how he teaches and
what pupils learn, and believe strongly that supervision must
develop ways to respond to the teacher as a person and as an
autonomous professional. A method based on counseling
theory and technique is outlined in considerable detail. Chap-
Chap¬
ter Seven, “Supervising Teachers in Groups,"
Groups,” by our col- col¬
league Kiyo Morimoto, also focuses on the teacher’s
teacher's personal
development, but in the context of a group rather than an
individual conference. The chapter discusses the composition
and characteristics of such groups, the process by which
teachers learn about
about themselves
themselves and
and methods suitable for
facilitating such learning.
Chapter Eight represents the book's
book’s final section. It calls
for supervision to reassert vigorous leadership in reformulat-
reformulat¬
ing the content and methods of education, outlines a new role
x
x
for supervisors and
for supervisors and suggests
suggests some some new new directions
directions for for cur-
cur¬ Q
riculum
riculum innovation.
innovation. It It is
is in this area
in this area ofof educational
educational leadership
leadership
that supervision
that supervision has has been
been most reluctant. The
most reluctant. The need
need for
for alter-
alter¬
native forms of education is critical,
native forms of education is critical, yet it is only black yet it is only black
parents, aa few
parents, few independent
independent schools schools and and radical
radical educators
educators whowho
respond. Obviously it is easier to criticize
respond. Obviously it is easier to criticize existing schools existing schools
than to
than propose alternatives.
to propose alternatives. Yet Yet onon both
both issues
issues supervision
supervision
has been
has been conspicuously
conspicuously silent. silent. In this challenge
In this challenge lies,
lies, we
we be-
be¬
lieve,
lieve, the ultimate test of whether supervision will remain aa
the ultimate test of whether supervision will remain
very proper
very proper and and very
very perennial
perennial bridesmaid.
bridesmaid. The The writers
writers have
have
no illusions that this book is, or could be,
no illusions that this book is, or could be, a definitive answer.a definitive answer.
But, under any
But, under any circumstances,
circumstances, aa book book cannot
cannot transcend
transcend itsits es-
es¬
sential subject
sential subject matter.
matter. What
What we have tried
we have tried toto do
do is
is to
to recog-
recog¬
nize the
nize the problems facing supervision,
problems facing supervision, to to ask
ask hard
hard questions
questions andand
to offer
to offer some
some examined
examined practices
practices which which suggest
suggest one one way
way out
out
of reluctance.
of reluctance. That, That, wewe hope,
hope, is is aa contribution
contribution to to leadership.
leadership.
Ralph L. Mosher
and
David E. Purpel
xi
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CONTENTS
Foreword v
V
Introduction ix
Chapter One Definitions and Directions 1

Chapter Two The Tradition and the Challenge 13
Chapter Three Research on Teaching and Supervision 35
Chapter Four Theoretical Issues and Professional Skills 63
Chapter Five Clinical Supervision:
The Analysis of Teaching 77
Chapter Six Implications for Supervision of
Counseling Theory and Technique 113
Chapter Seven Supervising Teachers in Groups 149
Chapter Eight New Directions and New Leaders
for Supervision 181

References 207
297
Index 217
Z17
x111
xiii
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CHAPTER ONE
DEFINITIONS AND
DEFINITIONS AND DIRECTIONS
DIRECTIONS
Despite the numberless speeches, textbooks and journal arti-

arti¬
cles devoted to discussion of supervision in elementary and
secondary schools, many educators still wonder whether there
really is such a thing as "supervision”
“supervision” and are puzzled at the
widespread concern—attested to by the appearance of yet anan¬
book--about such an elusive concept. One of the most
other book—about
frequent statements we hear about supervision is “in "in our
school we don"t
don't have any.” And even if we assume that su- su¬
pervision is an identifiable entity, there remain conflicting
definitions and attitudes toward it within the teaching pro-
pro¬
fession. Supervision has been variously defined as the im- im¬
provement of instruction, teacher development, curriculum
leadership and school administration.1
administration.‘ Differences of opinion
’The variety of proposed definitions of supervision is reflected in a sample
‘The
of titles in this field: Edmund Amidon and Elizabeth Hunter, Improving Teach-
Teach¬
ing: The Analysis of Classroom Verbal Interaction; Iohn John Adolph Bartky,
Supervision as Human Relations (Boston: D. C. Heath & Company, 1953); W.
H. Burton and L. J.
I. Brueckner, Supervision: A Social Process (New York: Apple-
ton-Century-Crofts, 1955), and Iane
Jane Franseth, Supervision as Leadership
(Evanston: Row Peterson, 1961). “I
1
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F, ~
2. /
2 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: TI-IE
The R1-:LUcrAz~rr PROFESSION
Reluctant Profession
exist
exist not
not only
only about the objectives
about the objectives of
of supervision but also
supervision but also
about the way it should be undertaken. The long-standing
conflict in this
conflict this field
field between
between "scientific"
“scientific” and “democratic”
"democratic"
supervision, to be discussed later, is an example of such a
controversy. Though lip service is routinely paid to the im- im¬
portance of supervision, the most widespread attitude is
probably suspicion—suspicion
suspicion-—-suspicion that supervision is at best in-
in¬
effectual and at worst a harmful form of interference with the
work of the teacher. By and large, educators are confused in
their understanding of supervision and ambivalent in their
feelings about it.
SUPERVISION: DEFINITIONS
The concept of supervision is a simple one, describing a proc-

proc¬
ess common to all professions and occupations. The super-super¬
visor is charged with making certain that another person does
a good job. Sergeants exist to insure that those under their
command are good soldiers; football coaches are supposed to
make sure that their teams win games, and foremen see that
assembly workers turn the right screws in the right ways. In
such clear-cut situations, the purpose and methods of super-
super¬
vision are self-evident: a good job is instantly recognizable
as such when it is achieved. (As Vince Lombardi said: “Win-
"Win¬
ning is the only thing.")
thing/') So too is the level of worker exper-
exper¬
tise needed to achieve the desired goal. When, however, we
try to apply this simple notion of supervision to the profes-
profes¬
sion of teaching, where objectives are less explicit and skills
less precisely measurable, things become considerably more
confused.
The conflicting pressures on the school supervisor to teach;
to work with student teachers and beginning teachers and to
evaluate experienced teachers; to supervise across subject
areas; to direct curriculum projects, and to discharge a host
Drrrmrrons
Definitions AND
and DIRECTIONS
Directions /
/ 3
3
of administrative and clerical tasks, complicate the problem

of defining the job. It almost becomes the case that super-
super¬
vision in schools is most accurately defined as what the par-
par¬
ticular supervisor does or says he does.
The difficulty
difficulty of
of defining
defining supervision
supervision in relation to educa-
educa¬
tion also stems, in large part, from unsolved theoretical prob-
prob¬
lems about teaching. Quite simply, we lack sufficient under-under¬
standing of the process of teaching. Our theories of learning
are inadequate, the criteria for measuring teaching effective-
effective¬
ness are imprecise, and deep disagreement exists about what
knowledge-—-that is, what curriculum—is most valuable to
knowledge—that
teach. There is no generally agreed-upon definition of what
teaching is or of how to measure its effects. The systematic
improvement of instruction, and clarification of the place and
practice of supervision in such improvement, must ultimately
wait upon basic research on questions of this kind. When we
have achieved more understanding of what and how to teach,
and with what special effects on students, we will be much
less vague about the supervision of these processes.
We must, in the meantime, adopt
adopt. operational definitions of
supervision and of teaching which are sufficiently flexible to
allow us to work usefully toward the eventual clarification
of both processes. Because we believe that there is currently
“right” view of supervision, we have agreed upon a two-
no "right” two¬
pronged definition which reflects our view of what super- super¬
visors should do. We consider the tasks of supervision to be
teaching teachers how to teach (in which working with teach- teach¬
significant suhfunction),
ers as people is a significant subfunction), and professional
reforniulating public education—rnore
leadership in reformulating education—more specifi-
specifi¬
cally, its curriculum, its teaching and its forms. Others have,
of course, defined supervision differently, as, for example, the
administration of instruction or the administrative and per- per¬
sonnel reorganization of schools, but we believe the most
significant conception of supervision is incorporated in our
definition.
-0
I, F
44 /
/ Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
T1-11: RELUCTANT Prtorsssrou
PRACTICAL PEDAGOGY
Considerable support can be found in the literature for a def- def¬

inition of supervision as "effecting the improvement of class-
class¬
room instruction.”
instruction." If one of the basic purposes of the school
is formal instruction, it is a prime function of supervision
(particularly as it has developed historically) to improve the
quality of that instruction. When supervision is concerned
with what
what is
is taught,
taught, how iLvis
it,_\is taught,
taught, and
and with the effects of
teaching on the learner, it is itself a special kind of teaching,
involving a unique set of students (called teachers) and a
unique content (called curriculum). The term “supervisor”
"supervisor" in
this context describes a teacher who is deliberately trying to
educate classroom teachers about the curriculum and how to
teach it. This suggests a relatively specific process: the sys-sys¬
tematic instruction of teachers in the implementation of a
particular curriculum (for example, PSSC physics). Such a
definition, seemingly restrictive and operational, nonetheless
does not clarify how supervision differs in objective and func-
func¬
tions from school administration or from teaching, or whether
its content is in any respect different from curriculum. Sub- Sub¬
sequent chapters will deal with these issues in detail.
Working With Teachers as People

It is a crucial component in the process of teaching teachers,
we believe, to work with teachers as people. Our reasoning is
founded on the belief that what the teacher is personally af-
af¬
fects what he does, how he teaches and what the pupils do
and learn. In
and learn. order to
In order to improve classroom instruction,
improve classroom instruction, imple-
imple¬
ment aa curriculum
curriculum or
or affect children's
children’s formal
formal learning, the
supervisor must take into account the powerful contributing
effect of the teacher's personality and his relationship with
the child. No less significant is the effect of the teacher’s
teacher's per-
per¬
sonality on the child's
child’s informal learning. Certainly one of the
critical factors
critical factors in
in determining
determining the
the "potency"
“potency” ofof aa school
school is
is
the personal qualities of the adults who participate in it.
DEFINITIONS
Definitions AND
and DIRECTIONS
Directions /
/ 5
5
Teachers, as
Teachers, as people,
people, exert
exert an
an enormous influence on chil-
chil¬
dren’s attitudes,
dren's attitudes, self-concepts
self-concepts and
and sense
sense of personal worth.
Any educator knows this. It is harder for the profession to
admit that
admit that teachers,
teachers, as
as people, can
can blight as well as foster
the personal growth of children. The writings of Rosenthal,
Kohl, Holt, Silberman and others confirm the important truth
of this observation. In this sense, every teacher is a "psycho-
“psycho¬
educator." Many writers on education argue that the
logical educator.''
effects of this "hidden curriculum." (on poor children in city
"hidden curriculum,”
schools, for example) are more significant and harmful than
is the program of formal education. Thus it is extremely im- im¬
portant that supervision be able to understand and to respond
to teachers as persons. Entire "schools”
“schools” of supervision theory
have developed around this broad question. But too fre- fre¬
quently their prescriptions for supervision have been essen- essen¬
tially ideological (i.e., advocating “democratic”
"democratic” supervision
“human relations”), rather than practical.
or supervision as "human
We view the supervisor's
supervisor’s work with the teacher as a person
as a very subtle process, but a manageable and decidedly
nonideological one.
LEADERSHIP IN THE REFORMULATION OF EDUCATION
It is a second major function of supervision to provide pro-

pro¬
fessional leadership in reformulating public education. By this
we mean that supervision must contribute curriculum mate-mate¬
rials, a practical knowledge of pedagogy and new ideas and
procedures for educating children better. The “curriculum,”
"curriculum,”
in simplest terms, is those experiences, materials and tech-
tech¬
niques that constitute what the students are supposed to
and/or actually learn. It is both the intended educational
program and what actually happens to the students as a re- re¬
sult of their exposure to the program. We will use the term
very broadly to designate traditional school subjects like his-
his¬
tory, reading and biology and, as well, programs designed to
teach such things as character, physical fitness and manual
1'1
1-I’
6 / SUPERVISION: Tm: RI-ILUCTANT Pnorrssrou
6 / Supervision: The Reluctant Profession
dexterity.
dexterity. It
It is not enough
is not enough for
for aa supervisor to be
supervisor to be very
very good
good
at
at analyzing
analyzing teaching
teaching or developing curriculum
or developing with teachers.
curriculum with teachers.
Supervision, so delimited, is confronting only two—albeit
Supervision, so delimited, is confronting only two—albeit
crucial—aspects of of education.
education. InIn our
our view, the problems of
public
public education are both sufficiently complex
education are both sufficiently and sufficiently
complex and sufficiently
grave to require substantially more than improved classroom
teaching and more mature teachers. Practical know-how, vi- vi¬
sion and ideas are all necessary to improve the educational
system as a whole.
TEACHING: DEFINITIONS
Our working definition of teaching is comparably pragmatic.

We make use of several definitions of teaching throughout
this book, the particular formulation depending to some de- de¬
gree on the supervisory function being discussed. When dis- dis¬
cussing supervision as teaching teachers how to teach or as
the analysis of classroom instruction, we define teaching
simply as what teachers do. A "teacher,”
“teacher,” in the strictest
generic sense, is someone who deliberately tries to persuade
someone else to change his thinking or behavior in a specific
direction. A variety of approaches may be used to this end,
including clarification, analysis, force, bribery and seduction.
These teaching approaches—be they rational, irrational or
coercive—are aimed at changing people, i.e., “students,”
"students," al-
al¬
though the actual changes that occur in students as a result
of these approaches can be (and often are) different from
those intended. Notwithstanding the variety of methods
available, teaching as typically practiced consists mainly of
talk between the teacher and the students. As Smith and
Meux succinctly state, “Teaching
"Teaching behavior is primarily ver-
ver¬
bal“
bal" (1959, p.129). Flanders, for example, has estimated that
approximately two-thirds of classroom time in this country is
spent by teachers talking to students (1964, pp. 196-231).
Ways to analyze and affect this process are essential, then, if
we want to improve how children are presently taught. But
we also know that teaching is basically a social process in-
DEFINITIONS
Definitions AND
and D1121-tcrtous
Directions / 7
volving talk and interaction between at least two people, a

teacher and
teacher and aa student.
student. This
This definition
definition of
of teaching
teaching as
as aa funda-
funda¬
mentally social
mentally social oror interpersonal process is our basic rationale
for arguing that supervisors work with teachers as people. If
we combine
combine these
these two
two definitions,
definitions, the
the result is a model of a
process sufficiently observable, sufficiently consistent, suffi-suffi¬
ciently typical of most classroom practice and sufficiently re- re¬
lated to what children learn in school to be productively
studied.
It would be tempting to stop here, but the definition is too
limiting. For one thing, it still focuses on “teaching.”
"teaching.” Al-
Al¬
though in most schools, for most teachers and most students,
teaching is the predominant means of instruction, it is still
only one of a large number of possible ways of making learn-
learn¬
ing possible. We believe that the crucial task facing education
as aa profession
as profession is
is to
to recognize and to develop the full range
of conditions under which people can be taught and/or learn.
We see supervision as contributing to this search. Clearly, it
is not possible to define in advance what these new concep-
concep¬
tions of education will be. We therefore put no definitional
limits on this supervisory function, except to oppose educa-
educa¬
tion at the cost of systematic physical pain, humiliation or in-
in¬
doctrination. George Leonard’s
Leonard's Education and Ecstasy (1968),
for example, is unlikely to be considered a book about super-
super¬
vision. We think it is one. Leonard's
Leonard’s ideas about affective and
technologically-oriented education are examples of creative
imagination applied to the forms education may take in the
future. Alas, that kind of vision does not characterize text-text¬
books on supervision (including this one). We regard such
conceptualizing about education plus the research and devel-
devel¬
opment work necessary to make such visions concrete as the
ultimate supervisory function.
THEMES
The implications of these operational definitions of super-

super¬
vision and teaching can be briefly illustrated by reference
I, 1' I
8 /
8 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE RELUCTANT
Reluctant PROFESSION
Profession
to some
to some of the assumptions
assumptions underlying our
our viewpoint and
choices of
choices of emphasis.
emphasis. Perhaps
Perhaps the most fundamental
the most fundamental is
is the
the
issue of who the client of the supervision process is. Super-
Super¬
vision serves the child and his learning as well as the larger
community. Our
community. concern with
Our concern with the
the process
process of
of teaching,
teaching, with
with
teacher’s development and the school it-
the curriculum, the teacher's it¬
self derives in part, of course, from their complexity as vari-
vari¬
ables in a process, and the need to study and understand their
interaction both abstractly and in their concrete applications.
supervision’s essential spirit and ethic derives from its
But supervision's
obligation to provide optimal occasions for learning for the
individual child.
Several other themes follow naturally. Throughout the
book it is argued that what and how we teach our children
needs careful review and basic improvement. Virtually all
texts and theories of supervision say the same thing in one
way or another. Where and when instruction is accomplished
with less
with less than
than optimal
optimal effect,
effect, improvement
improvement is necessary, and
it would be difficult to argue that our schools currently offer
many examples of optimal effect. Teachers are paid for their
services and thus may justifiably be assessed and asked to
modify practices which are found wanting. The protection
of the client necessitates and justifies evaluation and require-
require¬
ments to modify teaching practices.
A view
A view of
of the school
school as
as the
the focus and
and crucible
crucible of projected
changes in education is also an inherent theme of this book.
We view the school as an institution whose resources are un- un¬
equal to
equal to its
its current
current task, to say
task, to nothing of
say nothing of the
the roles
roles projected
projected
for it. The
for it. The public
public school
school does
does not
not enjoy
enjoy the
the institutional
institutional au-
au¬
tonomy, the selectivity
tonomy, the selectivity about
about who
who and
and what
what toto teach
teach or
or the
the
intellectual and
intellectual and research
research resources of the
resources of the university.
university. It
It lacks
lacks
the funding
the funding resources
resources ofof government
government andand industry’s
industry's induce-
induce¬
ments
ments to
to talent. What it
talent. What it does
does have is an
have is an enormous
enormous primary
primary
responsibility: the education
responsibility: the education of
of all
all children.
children. It
It must
must respond
respond
to the
to the most poignant hopes
most poignant and aspirations
hopes and aspirations of
of the
the parents
parents of
of
these children.
these children. It
It is
is expected,
expected, too,
too, to
to remedy
remedy aa remarkable
remarkable
DEFINITIONS
Definitions AND
and Dnzrcrrous
Directions /
/ 9
9
range
range of of social
social problems,
problems, which
which run run thethe gamut
gamut from
from driver
driver
education to
education to the
the effects
effects ofof racial
racial segregation.
segregation. The The school
school isis
expected to
expected to be
be anan instrument
instrument of of national
national objectives.
objectives. Appro-
Appro¬
priately enough,
priately enough, it it is continuously asked
is continuously asked toto reevaluate
reevaluate itsits
basic educational
basic educational values
values and
and policy.
policy. In In brief,
brief, the
the school
school must
must
respond to powerful, impinging forces for
respond to powerful, impinging forces for change. The recent change. The recent
extensive curriculum
extensive curriculum activity
activity within
within the the basic
basic educational
educational
system (i.e.,
system (i.e., curriculum
curriculum reform,
reform, organizational
organizational changes,
changes, thethe
involvement
involvement of of big
big business
business and and of of the
the federal
federal government)
government)
is both aa symptom and
is and anan augury
augury of of those
those forces.
It is essential that the school
It is essential that the school have the have the personnel
personnel andand tech-
tech¬
nical tools to
nical tools to effect
effect significant
significant improvement,
improvement, on its own terms,
of both
of both curriculum
curriculum and and teaching.
teaching. In In our
our view, one of the
basic jobs of of the supervisor
supervisor is is toto be aa specialized practitioner,
a curriculum
a curriculum and and instructional
instructional leader leader within
within the
the school.
school. No
No
such specialty
such specialty is is currently
currently applying
applying its its expertise to problems
of curriculum
of curriculum and and teaching
teaching generated by the school. The re- re¬
sponsibilities discussed in this
sponsibilities this bookbook as appropriate for the
supervisor could
supervisor could strengthen
strengthen the the existing
existing roles of the depart-
depart¬
ment chairman
chairman and and the
the principal.
principal. Certainly
Certainly there should be
concern for splitting the managerial from the curriculum
leadership responsibility
leadership responsibility of of both
both the department chairman
and the principal.
and principal. Clearly,
Clearly, too,
too, thethe functions
functions we discuss pro- pro¬
vide additional
vide additional ideas and and practice
practice for the supervision of both
beginning and experienced teachers, a specialty for which
there appears
there appears to to be compelling
compelling presentpresent need (Edelfelt, 1966).
The fundamental goal of the competencies we shall discuss,
however, is to provide leadership personnel and capabilities
in curriculum and instruction within the school. We assume
that our educational system needs both external challenge
and vigorous internal renewal. We do not believe that the
aspirations of the public, the government, the universities or
of schoolmen themselves for the educational system can be
met realistically without personnel capable of substantial edu- edu¬
cational leadership within the school itself. Unless teachers
accept this challenge and acquire skill in the analysis of the
-1
I
-r
10 / Supervision:
10 / SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
RELUCTANT PROFESSION
Profession
educational program, the children in the schools will continue

to be short-changed.
We have become, over the last several years, increasingly
concerned about the effects on children of the school, the
curriculum and teaching and more radical and comprehensive
in our vision of what must be done. The criticisms of Paul
Goodman and Edgar Friedenberg; the accounts of the teach- teach¬
ing experiences of Herbert Kohl and Jonathan
Ionathan Kozol; docu-
docu¬
mentary films such as Frederick Wiseman's "High School” School"
and the findings of the Coleman Report on the Equality of
Educational Opportunity raise deeply troublesome questions
about public education. Controversy over “community
"community con¬con-
trol” of the schools, divisive teacher strikes, student protests,
trol"
the racial polarization in urban schools—and our experience
of the creeping paralysis of the educational program in many
of these schools—are other symptoms of malaise. The reader
may find this a dark view, a realistic one, or both. We are
not, however, “school
"school is dead"
dead” theologians. We believe that
public education is in trouble (deeply so in the city, subtly
so in the suburbs), and this book is, in part, an assessment of
how much must be done. Our confidence that it can be done
is attested to by our decision to write this book.
Our views on the functions most crucial to supervision
have been directly influenced by this vision of the educational
system. By emphasizing personnel training, curriculum devel- devel¬
opment and teacher development, we are saying that change
in education is, to a significant degree, a matter of better
trained teachers and better curriculum. To this end, a basic
objective of supervision should be curricular and instructional
leadership. If one acknowledges that most of our schools are
still characterized by a static curriculum and unexamined
teaching, this is in itself a radical goal. But, in another sense,
it will remain essentially static if educational leadership is
designed primarily
designed primarily toto rationalize
rationalize existing
existing curricula
curricula and
and
forms of teaching. Such leadership has the effect of strength-
strength¬
ening the existing educational system. We believe there is a
DEFINITIONS
Definitions AND
and Dmrcrtous
Directions /
/ 11
11
significant need
significant need and
and place
place for
for such
such leadership.
leadership. Ninety-nine
Ninety-nine
percent of
percent of American
American education takes place,
education takes place, after all, in
after all, in "the
"the
existing educational
existing educational system."
system.”
We are, however,
We are, however, willing
willing toto question
question whether
whether such such leader-
leader¬
ship is
ship is sufficient,
sufficient, given
given the
the profound deficiencies of,
profound deficiencies of, and
and sub-
sub¬
stantial demands
stantial demands made made on on the schools. Whether
the schools. Whether educational
educational
engineers, even
engineers, even efficient
efficient ones,
ones, can
can transform
transform the the curriculum,
curriculum,
the process and
the process and the
the context
context ofof education
education is is aa moot
moot question.
question.
Technocrats
Technocrats rarely have visions,
rarely have visions, and
and without
without vision
vision the
the chil-
chil¬
dren perish.
dren perish. IsIs supervision
supervision up up toto that
that challenge?
challenge? We We must
must
concede that this
concede that this book will not
book will not guarantee
guarantee that that supervision
supervision
alone can
alone can make such aa great
make such great leap
leap forward.
forward. But But questions
questions of of
this order are
this order are perhaps
perhaps more important than
more important than the the immediate
immediate
response
response of supervisors or of other schoolmen and writers
of supervisors or of other schoolmen and writers of
of
books
books on on supervision.
supervision. Indeed,
Indeed, raising
raising them
them emphasizes
emphasizes the the
legitimacy
legitimacy andand intellectual rigor of
intellectual rigor of educational
educational supervision,
supervision,
which otherwise might
which otherwise might bebe in
in danger
danger of of qualifying
qualifying as as the
the sec-
sec¬
ond most dismal science.
1'
CHAPTER TWO
THE TRADITION
AND THE CHALLENGE
The field of
The of supervision
supervision has
has traditionally
traditionally confronted a num-
num¬
ber of persistent and thorny problems whose source is the
competing clienteles of the supervisor—society, teachers,
schools and
schools and students.
students. Supervisors
Supervisors are subject to the needs
and demands
and demands of of all of
of these
these groups and to the fundamental
and complex
complex questions
questions thatthat emerge
emerge from them. For example,
who should
should define
define the
the proper
proper objectives
objectives of the teacher? Does
he work to to satisfy
satisfy the
the community?
community? the school board? the
superintendent? the
superintendent? the principal? the
the department chairman? the
university? himself? Is the teacher an autonomous, self- self¬
generating, well-trained professional who should have re- re¬
sponsibility for determining
sponsibility determining whatwhat knowledge
knowledge is to be taught
and how? Or should the critically important and sensitive
work of
work of the
the teacher
teacher bebe supplemented
supplemented by direction, guidance
and assessment? Who protects the community and children
from the incompetent or irresponsible teacher? To whom can
teachers turn for assistance and guidance in improving their
performance?
13
14 / Supervision:
THE RrLuc'rANr Pnorrssron
THE HISTORY AND TRADITIONS OF SUPERVISION
Books on supervision often approach these questions by

chronicling the
chronicling the evolution
evolution of predominant
predominant practices or
or objec-
objec¬
tives of supervision. The reader will find useful and compre-
compre¬
hensive chapters on the evolution of supervision in this coun-
coun¬
try in
try in Gwynn's
Gwynn’s Theory
Theory and
and Practice of Supervision
Practice of Supervision (1961,
(1961,
pp. 3-19) and in Lucio and McNeil's Supervision: A Syn-
Syn¬
thesis of Thought and Action (1962, pp. 3-21). Cremin’s Cremin's The
Transformation of the School (1961), while it does not dis- dis¬
cuss supervision per se, is valuable for understanding the
broad educational forces at work in the evolution of super- super¬
vision. All of this material suggests that supervision originated
as inspection of schools, and that this remained its major em- em¬
phasis until about 1920. Lucio and McNeil say that “super- "super¬
vision has no independent thought of its own" own“ (1962, p. 11).
It is also evident that supervision began with no identity of
its own, as an adjunct of school administration. Local and dis- dis¬
trict superintendents had to delegate responsibility for ad- ad¬
ministration and inspection as the public schools expanded
and became more specialized in their curriculum and staffing
at the
at the end of of the
the nineteenth century.
century. Historically, too, super-super¬
vision in in the public schools
schools has beenbeen thethe simultaneous ward
of many
of many institutions:
institutions: thethe school
school board,
board, thethe superintendency,
state normal
state normal schools,
schools, state
state departments
departments of of education, state
universities and and regional college
college accrediting
accrediting associations. The
history of
history of supervision reveals surprisingly
surprisingly exact precedents
for the
for the muddy contemporary
contemporary definitions
definitions of of supervision sum- sum¬
marized in Chapter One. In this sense, to read
marized in Chapter One. In this sense, to read about supervi¬ about supervi-
sion in
sion in 1920
1920 isis to read about
to read supervision in
about supervision in 1970.
1970. It
It is
is also
also
clear that
clear that supervision
supervision grewgrew and and took
took onon new
new functions
functions in in aa
rather haphazard
rather haphazard way. way. For example, "the
For example, “the improvement
improvement of of
instruction”
instruction" and and "course
“course of of study construction” were
study construction" were widely
widely
recognized as major objectives of supervision by 1920
recognized as major objectives of supervision by 1920
(Gwynn 1961, p. 9).
The next
The next stage
stage in the growth
in the growth of of this
this field,
field, which
which lasted
lasted
THE TRADITION AND
The Tradition and rue
the CHALLENGE
Challenge / 15
/15
from about 1920 to

from to 1950,
1950, produced
produced two major theories of
supervision which
supervision which still
still maintain
maintain influence
influence and vitality. (As
Lucio and
Lucio and McNeil
McNeil note, “The similarity between the educa-
"The similarity educa¬
tional views
tional views of
of leaders in
in the
the early
early scientific
scientific movement and
the views
views ofof persons
persons currently
currently doing
doing research with autoin-
structional materials is
structional is striking”
striking” (1962,
(1962, p. 10). These are the
traditions of "scientific”
“scientific” and "democratic”
“democratic” supervision.
SCIENTIFIC SUPERVISION
The scientific approach to supervision emphasizes careful

empirical research and administrative efficiency. These values,
in effect, represent faith in the possibility of objectively meas-
meas¬
uring critical behavior related to effective teaching, and imply
an assumption that teaching behavior can be carefully con-
con¬
trolled and regulated for optimal operation. Scientific super-
super¬
vision has spawned vast numbers of empirical questionnaires
and analytical studies, all designed to produce a science of
teaching. Supervisors who operate in this tradition see it as
their job to encourage and conduct research and to interpret
the findings to teachers as a basis for improving their teach-
teach¬
ing. In addition to the importance of research, there is em-em¬
phasis on efficient administration and tight organization.
These practices, which originated in the scientific manage-
manage¬
ment of industry, are regarded as a means of bringing economy,
order and stability to the schools. A significant characteristic
of the efficiency-oriented theory of administration is the im-
im¬
portance placed on hierarchy, organization and evaluation-
critical values in any institution bent on "efficiency" and
“productivity.”
"productivity."
Lucio and McNeil have described this approach lucidly
and succinctly:
Scientific management proposed to alter the personal relations be-

be¬
tween supervisors and teachers. Instead of the supervisors directing
the methods of the teachers in a personal and arbitrary manner, . . .
V1
16 / Supervision:
THE Reluctant
RELUCTANT Profession
PROFESSION
the
the primary
primary task
task of
of the
the scientific
scientific supervisor was to
supervisor was to discover
discover educa-
educa¬
tional "laws"
“laws” and apply them through the labors of the teacher. The
teacher would be expected to find the controlling law through co- co¬
operation with
operation with the
the supervisor. Neither was
supervisor. Neither was to be personally
to be personally over
over the
the
other, for both were under the law of science . . .
It was the supervisory staff which was to have the largest share in
the work of determining proper methods. The burden of finding the
best methods was too great and too complex to be laid on the shoul-
shoul¬
ders of teachers. The teacher was expected to be a specialist in the
practice that would produce the "product";
“product”; the supervisor was to
specialize in the science relating to the process. Supervisors were to
(1) discover best procedures in the performance of particular tasks
and (2) give these best methods to the teachers for their guidance
(1962, p. 8).
DEMOCRATIC SUPERVISION
Democratic supervision, which has its roots in the Progressive

education tradition, emphasizes the dignity of the individual
teacher. It originated, in part, as a reaction to the previous
predominance of the inspection and evaluation function in
administration and supervision. (Democratic supervision im- im¬
plicitly still wars against this earlier tradition. The image of
the supervisor as a person whose main job is to suppress inin¬
dividual creativity, create fear and conformity and fire imagi-
imagi¬
native teachers seems to have remarkable emotional longevity
in the profession.) Democratic supervision was also influenced
by a parallel movement in progressive education. Guidance,
defined asas vocational
vocational and
and educational
educational counseling
counseling leading to
wise occupational
occupational choice,
choice, greater
greater individual fulfillment and
“the creation of aa more efficient and
"the creation and humane industrial sys-
sys¬
tem,”
tem," became a significant new educational ideology in the
period 1910-1920 (Cremin 1965, p. 5). As seems to be true
of many
many innovations in education,
education, aa practice
practice devised for
students was
was soon
soon applied
applied to
to teachers as
as well.
well. Supervision be-
be¬
gan to be
gan to be conceived
conceived of
of as
as guidance.
guidance. Kyte
Kyte defined
defined supervision
supervision
THE
The TRADITION
Tradition AND
and THE
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 17
17
in 1930
in 1930 as
as “the
"the maximum development of
maximum development of the
the teacher
teacher into
into
the most
the professionally efficient
most professionally efficient person
person she
she is
is capable
capable of
of be-
be¬
coming”
coming" (1930, p. 45).
The interested
interested reader isis referred to
to Lucio
Lucio and McNeil (1962)
(1962)
for discussion
for discussion of of other
other influences onon the tradition of demo-
demo¬
cratic supervision in the 1930's and 1940’s.1940's. Sufficient for our
purposes is their statement that "supervision became asso- asso¬
ciated with precepts respecting human personality and en- en¬
couraging wide participation in the formulation of policy"
(p. 11).
(p. 11). We
We can
can thus
thus summarize
summarize thethe basic
basic principles
principles of
of demo-
demo¬
cratic supervision:
1. The integrity of the individual teacher must be protected

and upheld at all times.
2. Supervision should be primarily concerned with releasing
and sustaining the talent of the individual teacher.
3. Supervision techniques should stress warmth, friendliness,
leadership as a shared responsibility, full staff involve-
involve¬
ment in educational planning and teacher solidarity;
they should strenuously avoid threat, insecurity and
didacticism.
Although subject to modification and criticism, this tradition
remains powerfully influential and vital today. It is probably
supervision's strongest reflex and most abiding emotional
stance.
It is clear that democratic and scientific supervision repre-
repre¬
sent deeply differing views on both the means and the ends of
supervision. Historically, as one or the other tradition gained
sway, varying degrees of emphasis have been placed on the
role of supervision in evaluation and inspection, in curriculum
development and in teacher development. It will be useful to
describe and appraise each of these traditional functions of
supervision, granting that there is overlap among them, and
recognizing that supervisors disagree on their priorities and
emphases.
18 /
18 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
RELucrANr Profession
PROFESSION
SUPERVISION AS INSPECTION
Inspection involves the assessment of teachers for the pur-

pur¬
poses of (a) maintaining common standards of instruction,
and (b) deciding on the retention or promotion of individual
teachers. As noted above, inspection was the predominant
function of supervisors until 50 years ago and is still emo-
emo¬
tionally identified with supervision by many teachers. Super-
Super¬
vision as inspection is, by and large, strenuously resisted by
teachers: when so perceived, it has been referred to as
”snoopervision“ and "authoritarianism."
"snoopervision" “authoritarianism.” This reaction re- re¬
flects the fear and insecurity generated by the threat inherent
"hire-fire“ system. However, it seems
in any evaluation and "hire-fire"
clear that the community has a right—indeed, right-indeed, a duty-—to
duty—to
assess the quality of its teachers and to maintain high stan- stan¬
dards of teaching. Such assessment is essential in the context
of a compulsory school system organized and supported by
society for social goals. If educators could agree on the prin- prin¬
ciple that inspection is a requisite of our form of educational
system, we might find it easier to handle the problems that
arise from its application.
The possible
possible dangers
dangers of inspection are are real and serious: the
stultification of
stultification of the initiative
initiative andand creativity
creativity of teachers; the
imposition of curriculum and teaching policy by fiat, the gen- gen¬
eration of fear and conformity on the part of teachers, and
the like. However, the danger of not developing institutional
procedures to to maintain
maintain teaching quality is is even more serious:
an inadequate
an inadequate or or harmful
harmful education
education for
for children.
children.
The difficulty
The difficulty lies
lies not
not soso much in the
much in the basic
basic purpose
purpose ofof in-
in¬
spection as
spection as inin the
the manner
manner in in which itit is
is performed. When it
becomes arbitrary and
becomes arbitrary and productive
productive of of fear
fear and
and servility,
servility, it
it isis
not simply inspection,
not simply inspection, it it is
is poor
poor inspection.
inspection. ManyMany educators
educators
find it distasteful
find it distasteful to to assess their colleagues,
assess their colleagues, and and many
many argue
argue
that evaluation
that evaluation is is aa barrier to to communication.
communication.
Nonetheless,
Nonetheless, it it is
is possible
possible to to carry
carry out
out inspection
inspection without
without
provoking fear
provoking fear and
and conformity
conformity and and without
without overzealousness.
overzealousness.
THE TRADITION AND
The Tradition and THE
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 19
19
We do
do not
not say
say this glibly.
glibly. The maintenance
maintenance of standards of
instruction is
is an
an important responsibility
responsibility which can be exer¬
exer-
cised in
cised in aa manner helpful to to the
the teacher. Supervision involves
assistance as
assistance as well as
as assessment,
assessment, and and should, far more often,
emphasize the former. The very complex question which re- re¬
mains—how to assess
mains—how assess the
the competence
competence of of teachers—will be
examined at length in Chapter Three, but the case for the
necessity of assessment must be confronted. We are certainly
not ensuring the children's protection by making no assess- assess¬
ments of teachers or by making them indirectly and poorly.
SUPERVISION AS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT
Supervision as teacher development focuses on the individual

teacher as well, but not with the intent of evaluating him; its
purpose is to help him develop as a person and as a teacher.
The supervisor tries to define the working environment for
the teacher by clarifying the rules, traditions and values of
the school; in this role, the supervisor sees himself primarily
as a person who helps the teacher to help himself. There is an
assumption implicit in this approach that the teacher has the
talent, interest and ability to do a good job, and that the
supervisor's job is to reduce administrative barriers as well as
personal inhibitions, doubts, fears and insecurities.‘
insecurities.1 Often the
supervisor works in a group setting and tries to establish a
warm, friendly, and nonthreatening rapport.
Those who stress this function of supervision reason from
several assumptions:
1. That the individual teacher is the key agent of education.
*We are talking, in this section, about traditional conceptions of supervision

‘We
which continue to influence the field. Cremin provides a fascinating account
of the Denver program of curriculum revision in the 1920's under Superin-Superin¬
tendent Jesse Newlon. Cremin sees the Denver program as an outstanding
example of public school progressivism, curriculum-making by teachers and
national curriculum dissemination. Significantly, Newlon had “a "a profound
faith in the average classroom teacher” (Cremin 1965, pp. 299-303).
—\
20 / SUPERv1s1oN: THE RELUCTANT PROFESSION
2. That
2. That given proper support
given proper support and
and strength,
strength, the
the teacher’s
teacher's
talents can achieve full expression.
3. That
3. That this
this talent
talent is
is sufficient
sufficient in
in the
the teacher and in the
teaching profession to warrant extensive efforts to
provide the resources of supervisory assistance.
Teacher development is a legitimate and important func- func¬

tion of supervision, since the basis of excellent schools is
talented and secure teachers. The teacher needs the concrete
resources of books, materials, films and the like in order to do
his job, but he needs equally the understanding and support
of his colleagues, inner convictions and self-confidence. Super-
Super¬
visors should certainly help to develop these resources, but
without abandoning their responsibilities to society and to
children. Thus, concern for teacher welfare must, in the final
analysis, be subordinated to concern for the children’s
children's wel-
wel¬
fare. Given this caveat, we can see the value of helping teach-
teach¬
ers make full use of their own resources. Extensive research in
industry, clinics and schools has revealed a high correlation
between the interpersonal relationship of supervisor and
supervisee and effective performance. Thus, when a super- super¬
visor adopts
visor adopts the point of
of view that
that the
the teacher
teacher is the key fac-
fac¬
tor in the education process, he has implicitly acknowledged
the significance of his own personal relationship with the
teacher. The supervisor must avoid making this relationship a
threat or burden rather than a basis for assistance.
SUPERVISION AS CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
While the emphasis in both the inspection and teacher de- de¬
velopment
velopment functions
functions ofof supervision
supervision is is clearly
clearly onon individual
individual
teachers, curriculum development
teachers, curriculum development seems
seems toto stress
stress the
the mate-
mate¬
rials,
rials, units and content
units and content of
of instruction.
instruction. There
There is,is, however,
however,
considerable overlap in
considerable overlap in these
these areas,
areas, both
both explicit
explicit and
and subtle.
subtle.
As Alice Miel
As Alice Miel has
has summarized
summarized it, it, “changing
"changing the the curriculum
curriculum
means changing
means changing the
the people."
people.” InIn brief,
brief, when
when the the supervisor
supervisor
THE TRADITION AND
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 2.1
21
serves
serves asas aa curriculum
curriculum developer,
developer, he he organizes
organizes curriculum
curriculum
materials, involves teachers
materials, involves teachers in in their
their production
production andand imple-
imple¬
mentation and
mentation and acts
acts as
as aa resource
resource person
person for for individual
individual teach-
teach¬
ers. Clearly
ers. Clearly the
the development
development of curriculum is
of curriculum is of
of prime
prime im-im¬
portance to
portance to teaching,
teaching, and
and virtually all contemporary writers
in the
the field argue
argue that
that supervision should
should always include this
function. There
There is aa question,
question, however,
however, whether this function
can and/or
can and/or should
should be be performed
performed inin such
such aa way
way asas to
to avoid
avoid
the observation and assessment of individual teachers. It
the observation and assessment of individual teachers. It is
is
noteworthy that
noteworthy that the
the most
most influential professional organization
influential professional organization
for supervisors
supervisors is is the Association for for Supervision and Cur- Cur¬
riculum Development (italics
riculum (italics ours).
ours).
CURRENT CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS
The first
The first part of
of this
this chapter
chapter has dealt
dealt with the traditions
within which
which supervision
supervision operates
operates and
and with persisting con-
con¬
troversies over theories, policies and functions. The second
part will deal with ways in which supervisors are currently
trying to meet their responsibilities.
As we said in Chapter One, supervision as practiced in our
public schools has no single, universally-accepted conceptu-
conceptu¬
alization or definition. It is possible, however, to make some
generalizations about recent and present practices:
1. With the notable exception of many urban school systems,

professional educators have purposely deemphasized the
assessment or inspection function of supervision.
2. Professional educators generally subscribe to the validity
and necessity of a “supervision program.”
"supervision program."
3. School systems have generally put limited resources into

their supervisory programs.
4. By and large, teachers massively resist supervision, are
suspicious of it and are reluctant to consider its positive
dimensions.
22 / SUPERVISION: THE RELUCTANT Paorrsston
Assuming that
Assuming that this
this appraisal
appraisal is relatively
relatively accurate, there
remains the problem of understanding the contradictory and
shallow condition
shallow condition of
of supervision
supervision in
in the
the latter
latter half
half of
of the
the
twentieth century.
twentieth century. Why the ambivalence
ambivalence and
and the confusion?
Why is there not more evidence of dynamic and forceful
supervisory programs?
TEACHER QUALITY
Probably the most significant factor in the present condition

of supervision is one that is rarely discussed (and almost
never candidly)—the quality of teachers. As noted earlier, de-
de¬
termining the quality of teachers is a very real problem that
is central to supervision. It is, however, a generally accepted
but unpublished view that insofar as teaching can be judged,
most teachers are not excellent; indeed, most are considered
competent or adequate at best. How can it be otherwise when
the teaching profession enjoys such comparatively low status
and rewards? Repeated studies show that teachers almost
invariably score lower on standardized intelligence scales than
do other professionals. We know of no public school adminis- adminis¬
trator who believes that he has an essentially brilliant staff,
and many who are very much dissatisfied with their staffs.
This is
This is not
not to
to deny
deny the
the existence
existence of of thousands
thousands of talented and
creative teachers nor of tens of thousands of dedicated teach- teach¬
ers, but the consensus is that teachers in the elementary and
secondary schools
secondary schools byby and
and large
large do
do not meet meet their own stan-
stan¬
dards. Ironically, this
dards. this quality gap seems seems to to impede supervi-
supervi¬
sion, rather
sion, rather than
than giving it it greater
greater authority.
authority. In one sense, the
magnitude of
magnitude of the
the need
need for
for supervision—for
supervision—for teaching teachers
how to
how to teach—is
teach—is so so immense that that itit almost
almost screams “impos-
"impos¬
sible”; on
sible”; on the
the other
other hand,
hand, there
there isis the
the anguish
anguish supervisors
must feel
feel admitting
admitting that
that their
their colleagues
colleagues (and(and by implication,
they themselves)
themselves) are are not
not adequate
adequate to to the
the task. The problem
of the
of the talent
talent shortage
shortage has
has produced
produced disquieting
disquieting questions for
supervisors: if
supervisors: if teachers
teachers are so so bad,
bad, howhow cancan we possibly do
THE
The TRADITION
Tradition AND
and THE
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 23
23
the job? Or, if they're so good, why do we need supervisors

at all?
It may be that a first-rate education for every individual in
this country is too ambitious a goal, given current available
resources. However, as long as we have made a commitment
to it, let us stand behind it and judge our progress by the
standard of an excellent education for everyone. It is readily
apparent that every American child is not receiving a first-
rate education and that, as we said earlier, public education is
in trouble, deeply so in the inner city and more subtly so in
the suburban school. One factor contributing to this defi- defi¬
ciency is the inferior quality of instruction. Of course, the
demands we make on teachers mav be outrageous and, inin¬
deed, many are, especially in terms of the workload. Equally
obvious, however, is the need for a much greater number of
sensitive and talented people eager to commit themselves
to teaching.
TEACHER RESISTANCE
There is another roadblock to clear and vital supervision

programs: teacher resistance. The need for supervision-—the
supervision—the
need to insure that children receive a first-rate education and
to assist teachers in providing it—would exist even were there
substantially less doubt about the ability of teachers. Theo-
Theo¬
retically, every professional should expose his work to the
scrutiny of his colleagues so that their criticism can stimulate
him to improve his performance. This is what teachers de- de¬
mand of their students and what they should demand of
themselves. Yet many, if not most, teachers at all levels from
kindergarten through -graduate school (writers of texts on
supervision are probably no exception!) are very reluctant to
subject their work to professional criticism. Authors, poets,
scientists, scholars, actors and researchers are subject to the
active interchange of mutual criticism based on the public
presentation of their creations. Public examination of teach-
n
24 / Supervision:
24 / Sur>ERv1s1oN: The
THE RELucTANT
Reluctant PRoEEsstoN
Profession
ing, however,
ing, however, is
is considered
considered an
an invasion
invasion of academic
academic freedom
or of
or of the
the teacher's
teacher's personal discretion.
discretion. Why,
Why, theoretically, it
should be
should more threatening
be more or unprofessional
threatening or unprofessional for
for aa tenured
tenured
teacher to
teacher to subject
subject his
his teaching
teaching performance to examination
and criticism than for an author to present a piece of writing
to a scholarly journal is mystifying, but this view does exist
and with great force. Teacher resistance to all forms of super- super¬
vision derives in part from the historical identification of
supervision with inspection and in part from the strength of
the counter-tradition of democratic supervision.
The premises of democratic supervision--concern
supervision—concern for the
individual teacher, full staff involvement in educational planplan¬
ning, shared leadership and the like—have already been dis- dis¬
cussed in this chapter. While these principles have much to
be said for them, their application has been associated hishis¬
torically with a paralysis of rigorous supervision. By rigorous
supervision we mean the evaluation of teacher effectiveness
and the systematic analysis of classroom teaching. Indeed, the
effect of the whole theory has been, in part, to disarm super- super¬
visors and gain further independence and security for the
teacher. If it is the case that many teachers have a desire to
work without havinghaving the quality
quality of of their
their work seriously ques-
ques¬
tioned and
tioned and to to maintain
maintain their
their employment
employment without fear of
termination, democratic
termination, democratic supervision
supervision provides
provides the philosophic
rationale for
rationale for such
such an arrangement.
arrangement. According to its tenets,
such an
such an arrangement is is not
not only
only good
good forfor teachers, but also
makes for
for better teaching.
teaching. The application
application of this notion, in
combination with
combination with tenure
tenure laws,
laws, can
can make
make teaching a virtual
sinecure.
Tenure
Tenure lawslaws vary
vary from
from state
state toto state,
state, but
but in
in general
general they
they
provide permanent employment
provide permanent employment to teachers after
to teachers after aa proba-
proba¬
tionary period (usually
tionary period (usually three years). Provisions
three years). Provisions are are made
made for
for
dismissal
dismissal forfor reasons
reasons of of incompetence
incompetence or or improper
improper conduct,
conduct,
but dismissal for
but dismissal for the
the former
former is is rare
rare and
and can
can involve
involve costly
costly and
and
extended public hearings.
extended public hearings. Tenure
Tenure laws laws protect
protect outstanding,
outstanding,
mediocre
mediocre and incompetent teachers alike, and represent one
and incompetent teachers alike, and represent one
THE TRADITION AND
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 25
25
of the most frustrating barriers to the improvement of teach-

teach¬
ing. They
ing. They exemplify
exemplify the
the way in
in which a response to one set
of problems—the
of problems—the protection of
of teachers
teachers from political manip-
manip¬
ulation—can create a further set of problems.
ulation-can
UNACCREDITED EXPERTISE
There is still another major deterrent to the development of a

vigorous and dynamic supervision program in the schools;
simply stated,
simply stated, it is
is the
the difficulty
difficulty of
of determining expertise.
Much of Chapter Three is devoted to this issue. There is a
shocking dearth of data, principles and technical information
--the
—the raw material of a science of teaching—whose mastery
would produce genuine experts in pedagogy. Much of what
is “known” about teaching (and, by extension, about super- super¬
vision) is in the realm of wisdom and insight culled from ac- ac¬
cumulated experiences and intuitions. It is, therefore, difficult
for the supervisor to establish an identity as a bona fide fide ex-
ex¬
pert who knows something that teachers do not, and who is
therefore uniquely equipped to help the teacher. Teachers are
fond of quoting researchers--accurately—on
researchers—accurately—on how little we
know about what makes for effective teaching and how futile
efforts to identify “good"
“good” teachers have been. This paucity of
scientific expertise lends itself to declarations of professional
egalitarianism and individual freedom. It also lends support
teachers’ resistance to assessment. Teachers can cite the
to the teachers'
rhetoric of science as well as that of democracy to insist that,
since there is no "objectively scientific"
scientific” method of valid assess-
assess¬
ment, there should be no assessment whatever.
WHO IS A SUPERVISOR?
The questions of what supervision is and should be are ob-

ob¬
viously very complex, and fraught with conceptual and ide-
ide¬
ological difficulties. Furthermore, those who expect a precise
answer to the question of who actually does supervision are
I
V"v
26 / SUPERvIsIoN: THE RELUCTANT PRo1=Ess1oN
also in for a disappointment. It is extremely difficult to find

actual existing positions that embody the kinds of functions
we have ascribed to supervision. In fact, very little reliable
information exists on who supervises and on what supervisors
do to fulfill their responsibilities in the school systems of the
United States. Few systematic studies have been done on how
supervisory practices are conducted. Much of the material
that is published about supervisory practice is based on ex- ex¬
trapolation from experience and observation. Analysis based
on such extrapolation is certainly useful, and probably has
a rough degree of significant validity, but it has obvious
limitations.
With this extremely large reservation and the related prob- prob¬
lem of obvious differences in size, organization and traditions
of individual school systems, we can proceed to attempt a
broad description of supervisory practice. The following roles
may be said to involve significant supervisory functions:
1. The Superintendent of Schools is the chief executive
officer of the schools and has obvious responsibility for the
quality of instruction. As the other burdens of his office have
grown, the complexities of instructional expertise have also
increased, and
increased, and the
the superintendent
superintendent has has tended to delegate this
responsibility to an
responsibility an Assistant Superintendent
Superintendent for Curriculum
or Instruction,
or Instruction, or or an
an Assistant
Assistant Superintendent
Superintendent for Elementary
(or Secondary)
(or Secondary) Schools.
Schools. Frequently, this this delegation develops
into aa sizeable
into sizeable office
office of Instruction and and Curriculum with a
staff of
staff of curriculum
curriculum coordinators or directors,
directors, such as a Direc-
Direc¬
tor of Mathematics Education or a Director of Physical Edu-
tor of Mathematics Education or a Director of Physical Edu¬
cation. There
cation. There might
might be,be, as
as well,
well, a a similar
similar office
office with
with responsi-
responsi¬
bility
bility for counseling and
for counseling and guidance
guidance services.
services. Such
Such divisions
divisions
tend to
tend to emphasize
emphasize theirtheir service
service functions;
functions; i.e.,
i.e., as
as resources
resources to to
help and
help and assist
assist teachers
teachers and
and guidance
guidance counselors.
counselors.
2.
2. The School Principal is, of course, the
The School Principal is, of course, the chief
chief executive
executive
officer of
officer of the
the individual school and
individual school and is responsible for
is responsible for the
the
quality of
quality of instruction
instruction there. The principal's
there. The principal's supervisory
supervisory role
role
has tended to parallel that of the superintendent:
has tended to parallel that of the superintendent: he cus- he cus-
THE TRADITION AND
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 27
27
tomarily delegates
tomarily delegates this
this responsibility
responsibility to
to an
an assistant
assistant principal
principal
or the
or the department
department chairman.
chairman. It
It appears
appears that
that the
the evaluation
evaluation
function of
function of supervision
supervision tends
tends toto bebe exercised
exercised atat the
the indivi-
indivi¬
dual school level. Clearly, the central office plays a significant
dual school level. Clearly, the central office plays a significant
part in
part in the
the process of evaluating
process of evaluating teachers;
teachers; principals
principals and and
department chairmen
department chairmen participate
participate in in assisting
assisting teachers. How-
How¬
ever, the management of schools is apparently so demanding
that it
that it typically does not
typically does not allow
allow school-based
school-based supervisors
supervisors to to
expend significant energy
expend energy on
on improving instruction.
3. State
State Departments of of Education and regional school dis- dis¬
tricts typically
tricts typically make available
available to
to schools personnel and mate- mate¬
rials for the improvement of instruction. This is usually done
in an
an effort both
both to disseminate
disseminate good
good practices and to ensure
equality of
equality of educational
educational resources within
within a given region.
4. A number of other agencies also have supervisory re- re¬
sponsibilities, though some may dispute their significance in
the light of a particular definition of supervision. For ex- ex¬
ample, schools of education employ supervisors for their stu- stu¬
dent teaching programs. Local school boards exert a kind of
supervisory influence, particularly in the hiring and firing of
personnel and the broad delineation of the curriculum. Less
explicit but perhaps more powerful is the influence of texttext¬
book authors and editors and curriculum packagers. Although
these people remain anonymous to the classroom teacher,
they directly and strongly affect instructional practice.
It may be instructive to the reader to know how other con- con¬
temporary writers see the problem of defining a supervisor:
Ben M. Harris (1963) complains of the limited data on su- su¬
pervisory practice in America and cites one estimate that one
percent of the total instructional staff is involved in super- super¬
vision. However, he goes on to warn that “these "these figures are
a bit misleading, since guidance personnel of various kinds
are not included in these figures. Furthermore, titles and job
descriptions are so diverse that it is unlikely that all figures
[are reported] accurately. Some personnel are reported as su- su¬
pervisors whose responsibilities are largely administrative and
,\
28 / Supervision:
28 / SUPERvIsIoN: The
THE RELUCTANT PRoEEssIoN
managerial” (p.
managerial" (p. 120).
120). Harris
Harris tries
tries to
to make
make sense
sense of
of this
this sit-
sit¬
uation by
uation by suggesting that we
suggesting that we reserve
reserve the
the term supervisor "for
term supervisor "for
those whose primary responsibilities are for for providing leader-
leader¬
ship in supervisory activities . . .” (p. 120). The key word
ship in supervisory activities . . (p. 120). The key word
here is
here is "primary."
“primary.” ToTo clarify
clarify his
his position, Harris attributes
three characteristics to a supervisor:
1. The
The supervisor does
does not
not usually have
have responsibility
responsibility for the oper-
oper¬
ation of a production unit of the organization, such as a district
ation of a production unit of the organization, such as a district
or school.
2. He usually has responsibilities in several production units of the
organization.
3. He
3. He usually
usually has major responsibility
has major responsibility within
within one
one or
or more
more task
task areas
areas
of supervision
supervision and has
has only
only incidental
incidental responsibilities
responsibilities in
in other
task areas (p. 23).
To be more concrete, Harris regards the Director of Curric-

Curric¬
ulum, but not the Principal, as a supervisor. "The elementary
coordinator is a supervisor, but the athletic director is a su-
su¬
pervisor only if athletics is included among the major instruc-
instruc¬
tional goals of the school and if the director does more than
team” (p. 23).
coach a team"
Lucio and McNeil (1962) also discuss the difficulty of ac-
ac¬
curately describing supervisory roles. They designate the
“assistant superintendent, director, supervisor,
positions of "assistant
consultant” as the key supervisory person-
coordinator, and consultant" person¬
nel in an urban school district. However, they are quick to
point out
point out that
that these positions areare “not clear cut as far as titles
"not clear
are concerned;
concerned; an an administrator in one one school
school system may be
called aa director,
called director, and
and aa person doing
doing the
the same
same type of work in
another school system
another school system may be called
may be called aa supervisor"
supervisor” (p.
(p. 25).
25).
They
They go on to
go on to claim
claim that,
that, "It
"It is
is the
the extended
extended distribution
distribution
of supervisory
supervisory functions
functions among
among administrators
administrators and teachers
and the acceptance
and the acceptance of of administrative functions by
administrative functions by supervisors
supervisors
which
which have led to
have led to much
much of of the
the confusion
confusion as as to
to who
who is is aa su-
su-
THE
The TRADITION
Tradition AND
and THE
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 29
29
pervisor“ (p. 28). It will

pervisor" (p. will be recalled that, historically, super-
super¬
vision developed as an adjunct of administration.
I.
J. Minor Gwynn
Gwynn (1961)
(1961) also
also notes
notes the rapid expansion of
supervisory and
supervisory and administrative
administrative responsibilities
responsibilities and the con-
con¬
fusion attendant upon it. In an effort to introduce some order
to the chaos he comes up with a rather novel (and perhaps
desperate) definition: "The term supervisor will be used with
the connotation that a supervisor in the school is one of the
personnel who
who spends
spends l/31/3 or
or more
more of
of his time in working to
improve the teaching—learning
teaching-learning situation" (p. 33).
Clearly, we are far better served, at least for the present, to
discuss what supervision is and ought to be rather than try- try¬
ing to ascertain who is doing the supervision. In later chap- chap¬
ters we describe certain supervisory orientations which have
staffing and organizational implications. We are skeptical that
many significant or even modest programs exist which em- em¬
body these orientations.
CHALLENGE—THE NEW SUPERVISION

THE CHALLENGE-THE
This then is the broad context of supervision: society de- de¬

mands a huge number of highly talented people for its schools
but attracts only a fraction; there is a tradition of fear and
resistance to the examination and analysis of teaching by col-col¬
leagues; a relatively sophisticated rationale exists for avoiding
the application of traditional supervisory procedures; insuffi-
insuffi¬
cient teaching expertise coexists with a system of protective
tenure laws, highly developed sensitivity to the failure to
establish objective methods of teacher assessment and un- un¬
certainty about who is doing what in the name and cause of
supervision.
We are now experiencing a revival of interest in supervi-
supervi¬
sion, and current discussions are refreshing for their relative
freedom from sloganeering and pieties. Several forces seem to
be behind this renewed interest:
30 / Supervision:
THE Reluctant
RELucTANT PRoEEssIoN
Profession
PUBLIC SENSITIVITY
The enormous
The enormous recent
recent increase
increase in
in public sensitivity to
public sensitivity to the
the im-
im¬
portance of education and the quality of pre-college teaching
is crucial. The public has, by and large, come to value educa-
educa¬
tion (particularly
tion (particularly college
college education)
education) highly,
highly, and most people
are concerned
are concerned about
about their
their children's
children's chances
chances for college en-
en¬
trance. With the perpetually increasing selectivity practiced
by prestige colleges, parents are especially anxious about the
ability of elementary and secondary school teachers to “get
"get
their children in."
in.”
This explosion of interest in college education has been ac- ac¬
companied by savage attacks on the public schools, particu-particu¬
larly during the Sputnik era. Although the schools have
generally accepted and tried to meet the criticisms of Bestor,
Rickover and others, the public is probably not convinced
that the schools are doing a high-quality job. And trenchant
new criticisms of the schools are being made. Friedenberg,
Holt and others find fault with suburban schools; Kozol, Kohl
and Schrag portray city schools as halls of darkness. Aca- Aca¬
demic criticism of the public schools is undertaken by Cole- Cole¬
man, Newmann and Oliver, Sprinthall and Mosher. Parents,
particularly black parents, demand control (and upgrading) of
their children's education. Student demands for relevance in
their education, which
which began at
at the
the university level five years
ago, are now burgeoning in the public school.
This increased
increased public
public concern
concern isis felt by school administra-
administra¬
tors, who,
who, in turn,
turn, have their
their own
own doubts.
doubts. One way to re- re¬
spond to this concern is to develop a powerful supervision
program
program by by means
means ofof which the schools
which the schools can
can institutionalize
institutionalize
review, assistance and assessment of instruction.
THE CURRICULUM REVOLUTION
The curriculum
The curriculum revolution
revolution has created
created much ferment, partic-
partic¬
ularly in
ularly in the sciences and
and mathematics. "Packaged
“Packaged curricula”
curricula"
THE TRADITION and
The Tradition AND THE
the CHALLENGE
Challenge /
/ 31
31
such as
such as the
the Physical
Physical Science
Science Study
Study Committee
Committee physics
physics course
course
and the Secondary
and the Secondary School
School Mathematics
Mathematics Group
Group program
program have
have
been adopted
been adopted by
by thousands
thousands ofof schools. The demand for black
studies curricula
studies curricula which adequately portray
which adequately portray the
the experience
experience
and contributions
and contributions ofof blacks
blacks in
in this
this society
society is a second
second wave
in this
this curriculum
curriculum revolution.
revolution. It is
is not within the scope of
this book to discuss the validity of these revisions, but we
should note their effects. The fact that they have been adopted
so widely
so widely has
has created
created the vast problem of retraining teachers
in the new curricula. It has also emphasized the dilemma of
teacher autonomy: who decides whether or not to teach PSSC?
the teacher? the principal? the department? And to what de- de¬
gree can and should the package be modified? The formula-
tors of these curricula are very much concerned with teacher
training, despite the efforts of a few to develop "teacher-"teacher-
proof” materials. They are concerned not only that teachers
fully understand the new materials but also that they use
appropriate teaching techniques.
Curriculum reforms have also spurred many schools and
individual teachers to reassess the components of their curric-
curric¬
ulum. Thus teachers are talking about the developing cur- cur¬
riculum, clearly a crucial aspect of supervision. And certainly,
once school personnel and curriculum developers have inin¬
vested resources in new programs, their second thoughts inin¬
volve measurement of the effectiveness and appropriateness
of the new curricula. Hesitant school leaders, of course, hesi-hesi¬
tate in part because of these issues.
CRITICISM OF THE CURRICULUM
Another important trend in education of special concern to

supervisors is renewed interest in the basic curriculum struc-
struc¬
ture. Many people, spurred by the crisis in ghetto education,
the college admissions panic and the increasing stresses on
children, are engaged in a basic reappraisal of the system of
formal education. There is increasing demand for relevance
32 /
32 / Supervision:
SuPERvIsIoN: THE RELucTANT Profession
The Reluctant PRoEEssIoN
and meaning, particularly from the students themselves. Ed-

Ed¬
ucational leaders will encounter more frequent challenges to
the validity of basic curriculum and demands for alternative
patterns.
CHANGES IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION
A third powerful impetus to the increased interest in super-

super¬
vision has been growing concern for the professionalization
of teaching. Many regard the professional teacher as free and
independent of hierarchy. To others, however, professional-
professional¬
ization means insistence on high standards and basic concern
for the client (here, the student). Thus there are calls for the
policing of these standards by professional colleagues.
Expanded Teacher Roles

Paralleling and partaking of this trend toward professional-
professional¬
ization is a growing effort to develop new career patterns for
teachers. Typically, and ironically, the ladder to success for
a teacher has always been to leave teaching and enter admin-
admin¬
istration, guidance or higher education. School administrators
as well as teachers are trying very hard to develop new roles
which can combine teaching with other exciting and varied
responsibilities. These roles would not only provide for a
variety of responsibilities but would also enable administrators
to escape the restriction of fixed teachers'
teachers’ salary schedules.
Supervisory responsibilities are one viable way of meeting
these requirements, and many school systems are developing
new roles which combine teaching with the supervision of
teachers.
Shortage of Teachers
Still another
Still another factor
factor contributing
contributing to
to the
the upsurge
upsurge of interest in
supervision has been the tremendous demand for and short- short¬
age of
age of superior
superior teachers.
teachers. The
The huge
huge expansion
expansion of our schools,
and their
and their inability to
to obtain
obtain and
and keep
keep aa sufficient number of
THE TRADITION AND
the CHALLENGE
Challenge / 33
/ 33
qualified teachers, is
qualified teachers, a familiar
is a familiar issue.
issue. This
This shortage
shortage hashas led
led
to concern
to concern aboutabout maintaining
maintaining at at least
least minimal
minimal standards
standards withwith
whatever staff
whatever staff is
is available,
available, aa concern
concern very very closely
closely related
related to to
the points
the points notednoted above
above aboutabout increased
increased sensitivity
sensitivity andand the
the
need for standards of teaching effectiveness.
need for standards of teaching effectiveness. More recently More recently
the shortage
the shortage has has become
become more more specialized,
specialized, resulting
resulting in in in-
in¬
creased concern
creased concern for for quality
quality rather
rather thanthan aa significant
significant quanti-
quanti¬
tative gap.
These
These thenthen areare some
some of of the
the forces
forces thatthat account
account for
for the
the re-
re¬
newed
newed interest
interest in supervision: almost
in supervision: almost obsessive
obsessive public
public con-
con¬
cern for
cern education; growing
for education; growing disenchantment
disenchantment with with the
the basic
basic
curriculum; curriculum
curriculum; curriculum revisions;
revisions; attacks
attacks on on the
the schools;
schools; thethe
movement
movement to professionalize teachers;
to professionalize teachers; the the search
search for
for new
new
career patterns
career patterns in teaching,
teaching, and and thethe talent
talent shortage. Each has
contributed to
contributed to a reassessment
reassessment and, and, in in some cases,
cases, to the de-de¬
velopment of
velopment of supervisory
supervisory programs.
programs. No No doubt
doubt there
there are
are other
other
factors, possibly
factors, possibly including
including a a subtle
subtle yet yet potentially
potentially crucial
crucial
shift among
shift among educators
educators toward toughness,
toughness, rigor and objectiv- objectiv¬
ity. (One
ity. (One is reminded
reminded of of the
the French
French adage, “Plus "Plus gaca change,
plus c'est
plus c’est lala meme
méme chose,"
chose,“ andand of of the
the tradition of scientific
supervision.)
It remains
remains to to be seenseen whether
whether this increased interest will
manifest itself
manifest itself inin important and and valid changes. The challenge
for the
for the supervisor is is still
still to
to meet
meet the the conflicting demands of
the community, the teachers and the students.
Q
%___
E J____
T_‘F
___J1
J _|
_l
I
_ I1
I"
‘H
I:Ji
_ _F__ |_F__h_ H
‘
___l____
Iii
“___?
______-_ ___
F_
F
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH ON TEACHING
AND SUPERVISION
The basic questions in any supervisory conference are three:

“What knowledge is of most worth to the learner?“
learner?" “Who is
teacher?“
the effective teacher?" and “What is effective teaching?“
teaching?" If
this is the essential agenda of supervision, it is crucial to de-
de¬
“known” about these questions,
termine what is, in fact, “known"
particularly the latter two. (The philosophical issue of what
children should be taught will be addressed in the final chap-
chap¬
ter.) The supervisor must know which of his observations on
curriculum and teaching have research support, which are
drawn from experience or practice and which are assump- assump¬
tions, value judgments or prejudices about what and how
children should be taught. It seems obvious, too, that the
supervisor must be familiar with what is known about the
effects of supervision. The purpose of this chapter, then, is
to summarize current research on teaching and supervision as
background against which the reader can better assess the
discussion and recommendations concerning methods of su- su¬
pervision to follow in Chapters Five, Six and Seven.
~ 35
35
36 /
36 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
RELucTANT PRoEEssIoN
Profession
RESEARCH ON TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS
The literature on teacher effectiveness is almost unmanage-

unmanage¬
ably extensive. (For useful representative reviews, see Domas
and Tiedeman (1950) and Getzels and Jackson
Iackson (1964).) Yet,
"[after
”{after 40 years of research] we do not know how to define,
prepare for, or measure teacher competence"
competence” (Biddle 1964,
p. 3) (italics ours). No statement in this book has deeper
implications for supervision. This situation is explained in
part by the extreme complexity of the basic questions dealt
with in supervision, the time and research effort involved in
accumulating even negative information about these ques- ques¬
tions, and the fact that no authoritative definitions currently
exist of the effective teacher or of effective teaching. How-
How¬
ever, recent work in this field is moving toward more clarity
about how better to formulate both these questions, and some
quite significant and provocative research is now going on.
WHAT THE TEACHER IS
The literature on teacher effectiveness is filled with informa-

informa¬
tion about
tion about what the
the effective
effective teacher is
is not and what varia-
varia¬
bles not
not to study,
study, and
and with
with examples
examples ofof ineffective research.
Efforts to
Efforts to identify
identify the effective
effective “teacher
“teacher personality“
personality" are il-
il¬
lustrative. With few
lustrative. few exceptions,
exceptions, research
research attempts to correlate
measures of the the teacher’s attitudes or
teacher's attitudes or values, adjustment,
needs, personality
personality factors or
or intelligence with ratings of teach-
teach¬
ing effectiveness have
ing effectiveness not produced
have not produced significant
significant results
results (Get-
(Get¬
zels and
zels and Iackson
Jackson 1964, pp.
pp. 506-82).
506-82). The
The same
same is
is true
true for
for cor-
cor¬
relations of
relations of the
the teacher's
teacher’s cultural
cultural background,
background, socioeconomic
socioeconomic
status, sex,
status, sex, marital
marital status
status and
and the
the like
like with ratings of class-
class¬
room effectiveness (Fattu 1963, pp. 19-27).
In short, “Despite
In short, “Despite the critical importance
the critical importance ofof the
the problem
problem
and aa half-century
and of prodigious
half-century of research effort,
prodigious research effort, very
very little
little is
is
known for
known certain about
for certain about the
the nature
nature and
and measurement
measurement of of
teacher personality or about the relation between
teacher personality or about the relation between teacher teacher
REsEARcH ON TEAGHING
Research On Teaching AND
and SUPERvIsIoN
Supervision / 37
personality and teaching effectiveness [or pupil achievement]

(Getzels and Jackson
Iackson 1964, p. 574). Why is this so?
Shortcomings of Research on the Teacher

1. Much of the research which has been conducted has
lacked an adequate conceptualization of teacher personality
or of its interaction with teaching. Many studies have been
founded on little more than “shotgun"
“shotgun” empiricism. A hypo-
hypo¬
thetical example may illustrate the shortcomings of dozens of
such studies: the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inven- Inven¬
tory is administered to a sample of undergraduate majors in
education. Scores on this personality measure are statistically
correlated with supervisors’
supervisors' ratings of the subjects’
subjects' student
teaching. Findings, generally nonsignificant or inconclusive,
are then reported. What is not offered is any conception (let
alone a plausible one) about why or how these measures of
static psychological variables in the teacher might be expected
to tell us about his effectiveness in the classroom. This is
another way of saying that a theory of instruction or, more
simply, a conceptual linking of particular personality vari- vari¬
ables to teaching, is crucially missing in most studies.
2. A recurrent weakness of such research is the lack of
validity and reliability in the instruments used to rate teach-
teach¬
ing (an analogous problem exists with regard to the personal-
personal¬
ity measures employed). These are, typically, checklists which
focus on aspects of what the teacher does (e.g., knowledge of
content, quality of preparation, discipline and control of class,
ability to communicate and explain, poise and confidence, re- re¬
lationships with administration and staff, and the like). The
rating scales are usually unspecific about the particular effects
produced by the teaching and rely on massive inferences by
the supervisor. That such ratings are usually based on obser-
obser¬
vation by a supervisor of a fraction of one percent of a teach-
teach¬
er's entire teaching compounds the problem of their validity.
er’s
3. Further, studies of teacher personality and classroom
effectiveness generally involve no control on the subject or
'5
38 / Supervision:
38 / SuI>ERvIsIoN: The
THE Reluctant
RELUCTANT PRorEssIoN
Profession
content of
content of what is being
what is being taught
taught or
or on
on the
the kind
kind (i.e.,
(i.e., age,
age,
mental ability
mental ability and
and sex)
sex) of
of pupil being taught.
pupil being taught. A
A personality
personality
variable would
would have
have to
to be
be very significant
significant to show consistent
distinctive effects for all content areas and all pupils.
For example, teaching effect (measured, let us say, by sub-
sub¬
ject matter
matter achievement
achievement in
in physics)
physics) will
will vary with the method
of teaching
of teaching used
used (e.g.,
(e.g., aa lecture as compared
lecture as compared to
to “indirect”
“indirect"
teaching), the
teaching), the mental ability and
and sex
sex of
of the student and a
variety of class characteristics (e.g., the degree of class co-
co¬
hesiveness or the amount of interpersonal hostility between
the students in the particular physics class). What students
learn in the classroom is affected by a number of such vari-
vari¬
teacher’s personality. Several
ables which are unrelated to the teacher's
implications of this observation merit noting:
In dealing with the issue of teaching effectiveness as a
whole, specific subject matter cannot be separated from meth-
meth¬
odology or from the type of pupil being taught. Both research
and supervisory observation become somewhat more manage-manage¬
able (and honest) if the problem is phrased as, “What is ef- ef¬
fective teaching of these specified social studies ideas to these
particular eighth-grade pupils?“
pupils?"
It appears, too, that attempts to study the teacher inde-inde¬
pendently, as the assumed cause of all that happens in the
classroom, are unproductive. Research on the teacher, or what
he does, as an isolated phenomenon has had little payoff. We
are not denying that there are relationships—in
relationships-in theory and in
practice-between what the teacher is and what the student
practice—between
learns. Rosenthal's recent research dramatically establishes
the effect of teacher expectations or attitude on pupil per- per¬
formance (Rosenthal and Iacobson
Jacobson 1968). However, correla-
correla¬
tional research has not to date been able to establish as em- em¬
pirical fact or in a causal way how this interaction or effect
occurs, or how it can be predicted or controlled in teaching.
It also appears that the differences between effective and
ineffective instruction are likely to be relatively specific and
fine. For example, Flanders (1964) reports that only a twenty
REsEARcH ON TEACHING
Research On Teaching AND
and SUPERVISION
Supervision /
/ 39
39
percent difference
percent difference favoring "indirect”
“indirect” as compared to “direct”
"direct"
patterns
patterns of of teacher
teacher verbal
verbal behavior
behavior had had significant
significant conse-
conse¬
quences for pupil learning. It is unlikely that such fine dif-
quences for pupil learning. It is unlikely that such fine dif¬
ferences will
ferences will be
be registered by the
registered by the available
available gross
gross instruments
instruments
developed for
developed for other
other research
research purposes.
purposes. The
The negative
negative point
point ofof
the literature is that conventional studies of the personality
the literature is that conventional studies of the personality
of the
of the teacher
teacher as as a means
means ofof determining
determining who to select as
teachers, how to
teachers, to train
train prospective
prospective teachers
teachers or who among
them will
them will be
be effective
effective in the
the classroom,
classroom, are largely futile.
NEW THEORETICAL
NEW THEORETICAL AND RESEARCH APPROACHES
AND RESEARCH APPROACHES
Despite the unsatisfactory results of most research, some

present work in this area promises significant ideas and re-re¬
search findings on teaching. Bruner (1966), distinguishing
between learning theory and theory of instruction, has sug-
sug¬
gested the need for the latter and presented some preliminary
arguments toward a theory of instruction.‘
instruction.1
Ryans (1960) found, by statistical analysis, common pat-
pat¬
terns or norms which differentiate teaching behavior (warm,
friendly teaching versus aloof, restricted teaching; business-
business¬
like versus unplanned instruction; stimulating, imaginative
teaching versus dull, routine teaching). Flanders (1964) has
'Also see a review of Bruner's Toward a Theory of Instruction by David P.
‘Also
Ausubel (1966).
It has been assumed in teacher training that teaching will become scientific
(that is, explicit classroom operations which lead to predictable learning out-
out¬
comes) only as basic psychological research on learning proceeds. Bruner's
point is that a theory of instruction and knowledge of how to make specific
learning happen are equally important. Certainly teaching, as it is typically
performed, gives evidence of an overly simple view of the conditions under
which an individual
which an individual learns,
learns, i.e.,
i.e., by
by listening
listening to a teacher
to a teacher talk.
talk. (Flanders
(Flanders esti-
esti¬
that happens in American classrooms involves a
mates that two-thirds of all that
teacher talking to students.) Recent developments in programmed instruction
underscore the point that individuals learn in many different ways. More elab-
elab¬
orate theory and practices of instruction are necessary in our classrooms. The
implications for the conception of teaching as a craft which a master teacher
can tell an apprentice how to practice seem fairly obvious.
40 / SuPERvIs1oN: THE RELUGTANT PRoEEssIoN
developed a method for analyzing teaching defined as verbal

interaction or talk between the teacher and the pupil, and has
found that teaching characterized by particular traits (e.g.,
a high ratio of teacher statements accepting students’
students' feel-
feel¬
ings, giving praise and clarifying or making use of a student's
ideas to teacher statements giving directions or criticism) is
significantly related to pupil learning of subject matter. Anal-
Anal¬
ogous work done by Arno Bellack (1966), B. O. Smith (1959)
and others is opening up entirely new avenues of research on
instruction. The data from such studies have been used to
test existing ideas, and constitute knowledge from which new
hypotheses about teaching are being derived and a theory of
instruction might ultimately develop. Some of these category
systems are relatively comprehensive and reliable—they ab- ab¬
stract the enormous complexity of what happens in class-class¬
rooms into manageable and plausible terms which allow re- re¬
searchers in
searchers in different
different situations
situations to
to produce
produce comparable data
about teaching. Some systems are flexible enough to be modi-
modi¬
fied for
fied for quite
quite different
different research
research purposes.
purposes. Flanders’
Flanders' system,
system,
for example, has been modified by Amidon (1965) and Hough
Blumbergz2 for research on
(1965) for research on teaching, by Blumberg
supervision and
supervision and by Amidon (1965) for
for research on counseling.
In the area of learning outcome, Bloom et al. (1956) have
developed a sophisticated way to translate content objectives
into specific, measurable pupil “behaviors.”
"behaviors." The effect of
classroom social climate on individual learning is also sub-
sub¬
ject to current research (Walberg and Anderson 1968). All of
these studies, and related work, ought to be required reading
for supervisors.
THE EFFECTIVE
THE EFFECTIVE TEACHER:
TEACHER: WHAT
WHAT WE
WE “KNOW”
"KNOW"
The effective teacher

The effective teacher is
is not
not necessarily the one
necessarily the one with
with an
an hon-
hon¬
ors A.B.
ors A.B. (or
(or Ph.D.!), aa Graduate
Graduate Record
Record Examination score in
1Arthur Blumberg
2Arthur Blumberg 1967: personal
personal communication
communication to
to Richard
Richard Weller.
Weller.
REsEARcH ON Teaching
Research On TEACHING AND
and SUPERVISION
Supervision /
/ 41
41
the ninety-fifth percentile, 30 graduate hours in educational

psychology, an A in student teaching or an Ivy League All-
American record. The effective teacher is the one who re-
re¬
sponds appropriately to specific factors in the classroom-
factors such as the individual learner's intellectual ability,
the organization of his knowledge and how he thinks. This
is a first-order definition, emphasizing teacher behavior in
interaction with specific
interaction specific factors
factors in
in the classroom. Another
definition of
definition of effective teaching
teaching focuses
focuses on its “products”
"products” or
results. Effective teaching is the ability to produce agreed-
upon educational effects. It is evident that research (or super-
super¬
vision) employing this definition requires advance agreement
on what educational effects the teacher is to produce (in Eng-
Eng¬
lish, for example, the objective of the teaching may be knowl-
knowl¬
edge of anything from Beowulf to Joyce or improvement in
specific reading skills). Obviously, these effects will and
should vary. This is a basic point to which we will return in
a moment.
The notion of “ability produce” as a characteristic of
"ability to produce"
the teacher is implied in this second definition and needs brief
elaboration. Having just served as undertakers to psycholog-
psycholog¬
ical variables in relation to teaching effect, are we now being
taxidermists? Perhaps the concept of an “independent
"independent vari-
vari¬
able,” borrowed from research, will be useful here. Teacher
able,"
properties, such as intelligence and empathy, are hypothetical
psychological constructs. They are assumed to characterize
the teacher in a consistent way and to explain his behavior in
response to a variety of teaching situations. The trick in re-
re¬
search is
search is to
to avoid already-debunked
already-debunked static personality (or
other) variables. The question recurs: What abilities? Let us
suggest two
suggest two such
such “abilities,” at least
"abilities," at least one of which is a new
construct and
and both
both of
of which
which can
can be
be related
related logically to a con-
con¬
ceptualization of teaching.
The first is "cognitive flexibility—rigidity,”
flexibility-rigidity," by which is
meant, very simply, the teacher's ability to think on his feet
—to
— to adapt teaching objectives, content and instructional
42 / Supervision:
42 / SuPERvIsIoN: The
THE Reluctant
RELucTANT Profession
PRoEEssIoN
method as
method as he
he teaches
teaches to the
the reactions and
and learning difficulties
of the
the pupils.
pupils. As aa psychological concept,concept, cognitive
cognitive flexibility
refers to open-mindedness, adaptability, resistance to prema- prema¬
ture perceptual closure and related characteristics. So de- de¬
fined, cognitive flexibility is hypothesized as one factor-—
fined, cognitive flexibility is hypothesized as one factor—
among aa number
among number of of variables—contributing
variables—contributing to the teacher’s teacher's
effect (Sprinthall, Whiteley and Mosher 1966).
A second teacher property which may be hypothesized as
characterizing the teacher in a consistent way and explaining
his behavior in a variety of teaching situations is the quality
of his interpersonal relationships with pupils. It might con- con¬
ceivably be studied as an element in the motivational or atti-
tudinal effect of the teacher on students or in student iden- iden¬
tification with a teacher and his subject field. Significantly,
the interpersonal relationships of teachers and their clients
have been studied less than have those of counselors. We ex- ex¬
pect this attitudinal-emotional correlate of teaching to be
highly significant to the effect of formal instruction.
Cognitive factors other than general intelligence have, as
noted, been inadequately studied among teachers. Studies of
divergent thinking and of authoritarian attitudes are a prom- prom¬
ising line
ising line ofof inquiry.
inquiry. Knoell (1953),
(1953), forfor example,
example, found cor- cor¬
relations ranging from +.28 + .28 to +.46
+ .46 between two (of nine)
measures of of ”ideational
"ideational fluency”
fluency" and and careful
careful ratings, a year
later, of
later, of teaching
teaching effectiveness.
effectiveness. Ideational fluency has been
defined by Guilford (1959)
defined (1959) as as aa divergent
divergent thinking factor:
“the
"the ability to call up many ideas in a situation relatively free
from restrictions
restrictions where the the quality
quality of of response
response is unim- unim¬
portant”
portant" (p. (p. 382).
382). For
For example,
example, oneone of of the
the four-minute
four-minute tests tests
Knoell
Knoell usedused required
required thethe subject
subject to to "write
“write allall the
the adjectives
adjectives
which could
which could be be used
used to to describe
describe aa house";
house“; another
another was was to to
“list all the
"list all the things
things that
that are
are round
round or or could
could bebe called round.”
round."
The Knoell study
The Knoell study is essentially unique
is essentially unique in in the
the literature;
literature; it it
should be replicated and elaborated.
The work of
The work of Jones
Jones (1955)
(1955) andand ofof Scodel
Scodel and
and Mussen
Mussen (1953)(1953)
reveals that
reveals that authoritarian
authoritarian individuals
individuals (those
(those with
with rigid
rigid cog-
cog-
RESEARCH ON Teaching
Research On TEAcHING AND
and SUPERVISION
Supervision /
/ 43
43
nitive attitudes)
attitudes) are less
less sensitive
sensitive than
than nonauthoritarians to
the personality characteristics
the personality characteristics of
of others
others and
and to
to individual
individual dif-
dif¬
ferences. McGee
ferences. (1955), in
McGee (1955), a carefully
in a carefully conceived
conceived and
and designed
designed
study, found
study, found a a correlation
correlation ofof +.58
+ .58 between
between the
the California
California
F-Scale score, aa measure
F-Scale score, measure of of authoritarianism,
authoritarianism, and and teachers’
teachers'
verbal and
and overt
overt authoritarian behavior toward pupils in the
classroom.
Cognitive flexibility and the quality of the teacher's inter- inter¬
personal relationships
relationships with
with students
students might be expected to
explain some
explain some proportion
proportion (perhaps
(perhaps aa quarter)
quarter) of the variation
in teachers’
teachers' effects. They should
should not be be expected, given what
has been said before, to account for more or, under any cir- cir¬
cumstances of content and pupil, all of such variance. It
seems likely, in fact, that to the extent that effective teaching
is explicable in terms of the characteristics of the teacher, we
will find it to be the result of a cluster of what we might now
consider unrelated abilities. Effective teaching is the product
of many factors.
of many factors.
THE CLASSROOM SOCIAL UNIT AND LEARNING
To further emphasize this point, a brief overview of research

on the effects of the classroom social unit on the individual's
learning is appropriate. A social influence is unavoidably ex-ex¬
erted on the individuals
individual's learning by the fact that he is typi-
typi¬
cally taught as a member of a class. How does the class group
aid or hinder instruction and learning? Predictably, the re- re¬
search is by no means conclusive. But it appears that there is
a relationship between the social climate and mental ability
such that particular social climates affect the performance of
students of different ability in different ways. Thus students
of low ability do better academically in classes which are
formal and goal-directed, with little diversity, whereas high-
ability students do better in classes perceived as democratic
and characterized by less teacher formality and direction. This
result is particularly marked with respect to “understanding-
44 / SuI>ERvIsIoN: THE RELucTANT PROFESSION
type learning"
learning“ as contrasted to subject-matter achievement.
Similarly, it would appear from small-group research that
students of high ability learn more in intimate groups than
in large classes, while the reverse is true for pupils of low
ability. The sex of the student also makes a difference. High-
ability girls are more subject to the effect of class intimacy
than are boys of the same ability. Other studies of the social
effect on learning are provocative. For example, studies by
Anderson and Walberg (1968) and Welch (1968) suggest that
student satisfaction with a physics class is positively related
to gains in physics knowledge but not to measures of science
understanding. Similarly, friction between pupils—over
pupils--over either
ideas or personalities—was
personalities--was found to be negatively related to
physics achievement but positively associated with under-
under¬
standing of science. Again, the essential point is that the ef-
ef¬
fect of teaching depends on the interaction of a number of
specific variables—-environment,
variables—environment, teacher properties, content,
instructional method, class characteristics and others--and
others—and
that the optimal mix is different in the different situations
confronting the researcher or the supervisor.
WHAT EFFECTS
EFFECTS IS
IS THE TEACHER TO PRODUCE?
PRODUCE?
We can
can now return
return toto our
our original
original point-—that
point—that agreement on
the educational
educational effects
effects the teacher
teacher is
is to produce
produce must precede
evaluation of of teachers or or ofof methods
methods of of accomplishing the
aim of
of the
the teaching.
teaching. It is
is at
at this
this point
point that
that the
the problem moves
outside the
the boundaries
boundaries of of research
research or
or empirical
empirical observation to
confront the profound
confront the profound philosophical issue of
philosophical issue of what
what isis to
to be
be
taught
taught and
and learned.
learned. At one level
At one level these are curricular
these are curricular and
and in-
in¬
structional matters, but
structional matters, but inin aa deeper
deeper sense
sense they
they partake
partake ofof
profound
profound value issues involving
value issues involving conflicting
conflicting social
social and
and philo-
philo¬
sophical positions concerning
sophical positions concerning what knowledge is
what knowledge is of
of most
most
worth. The writers
worth. The writers favor
favor giving
giving priority,
priority, for
for research
research onon in-
in¬
struction or supervision,
struction or supervision, to to immediate
immediate instructional
instructional effects,
effects,
by
by which
which we we mean student assimilation
mean student assimilation ofof specified
specified subject
subject
and SuPERvIsIoN
Supervision /
/ 45
45
matter, curriculum
matter, curriculum objectives
objectives or
or other
other specific outcomes of
instruction.
instruction. To assess these
To assess these outcomes
outcomes adequately
adequately is
is aa suffici-
suffici¬
ently formidable task.
ently task. Alternatively, “effect”
"effect” may be defined
as the
as the pupils'
pupils’ attitude
attitude toward
toward the subject
subject matter, the curricu-
curricu¬
lum or the process of learning. This definition would satisfy
the writers as a response to the practical supervisory ques- ques¬
tion, “What
"What knowledge or behavior is the learner to mani- mani¬
fest?” We are less immediately concerned, in the context of
fest?"
measuring—or trying, through supervision, to alter—the inin¬
teacher’s effectiveness, to establish that the student
dividual teacher's
behaves more rationally or ethically in life. Obviously, howhow¬
ever, it can be asked whether education is having any genu- genu¬
inely significant effect if it does not produce such changes in
behavior. That is why we argue in Chapter Eight that super- super¬
vision must also provide leadership in the development of
substantially new curricula and forms of education. Again,
we face the problem of agreeing on the educational effects the
teacher is to produce—when, in whom and for how long. The
definition of an effective teacher or of effective instructional
or educational strategy is obviously going to vary with the
answer to that preliminary question.
It seems increasingly clear that immediate educational ef- ef¬
fects—the learning of subject matter and pupil attitudes to- to¬
ward the teacher, the subject matter and learning—result, in
important part, from interaction between what the teacher
does and says and what the pupil does and says. While this
is not a very profound finding when examined logically,
it has taken a surprising amount of time and innumerable
studies to achieve.
In making this statement, we are assuming that teaching,
as typically practiced, is two things: verbal behavior—talk
between teacher and students—and social or interpersonal
interaction. (Teaching has been defined in Chapter One; the
reader is referred to that discussion.) Teaching, so defined,
is one significant variable intervening between the curricu-curricu¬
pupils’
lum and the pupils' learning. Teaching is undeniably impor-
46 / SuPERvIsIoN: THE RELucTANT PROFESSION
tant to what children learnfi

learn.3 This is not to contend that verbal
discourse between the teacher and the student is a preemptive
definition of teaching or that it is the only way to learn. In
specifying the conditions under which individuals learn, in-
in¬
struction by classroom verbal interaction is but one of a num-
num¬
ber of instructional (to say nothing of learning) conditions. In
most schools, however, and for most teachers and students, it
is likely to be the predominant mode of instruction.
“action” in instruction as typi-
We are suggesting that the “action" typi¬
cally practiced is vested significantly in talk between the
teacher and the students.
teacher students. In aa very real sense,
sense, then, the mes-
mes¬
sage is the medium. An important part of what determines
the effects or outcomes of teaching is either explicit or im-
im¬
plicit in
plicit in this
this talk.
talk. The
The research
research on
on teacher effectiveness thus
seems to
seems to suggest
suggest that
that supervisors
supervisors focus
focus their
their consideration of
teaching on
teaching on verbal
verbal behavior.
behavior. This position
position is fundamentally
behavioral. It attaches no mystique to what the teacher is or
to his
his relationship
relationship with students
students in the
the abstract. What mat-
mat¬
ters is what the teacher and student talk about, how they talk
and their emotional attitudes toward one another.
The problem
The problem confronting
confronting this approach
approach is that the basic
rules for
for analysis and
and summation
summation of of verbal discourse
discourse between
teacher and
and student are
are still unknown. But, as
as we noted earlier,
research methodologies do
research methodologies do exist.
exist. Teacher-student
Teacher-student interaction
interaction
can be
be readily
readily recorded
recorded electronically
electronically and
and on
on videotape. Pro-
Pro¬
grammed instruction,
instruction, in in conjunction
conjunction with Bloom’s
Bloom's work, has
taught us how
how toto be
be relatively
relatively specific about
about the content to
be communicated.
communicated. How accuratelyaccurately or
or validly such content
is communicated
is communicated is is aa complex
complex but
but not unmanageable problem.
33Admittedly, this point

Admittedly, this can be
point can be argued. Carl Rogers,
argued. Carl Rogers, for
for example,
example, has
has said,
said,
“Teaching, in
"Teaching, in my
my estimation,
estimation, is
is aa vastly
vastly over-rated
over-rated function"
function“ (Carl
(Carl Rogers,
Rogers,
Burton Lecture,
Burton Lecture, Harvard
Harvard Graduate
Graduate School
School of
of Education,
Education, April,
April, 1966). Yet,
Yet, his-
his¬
torically, formal instruction has been the essential justification for the school.
torically, formal instruction has been the essential justification for the school.
The writers
The writers do
do not, however, equate
not, however, equate education
education and schooling. For
and schooling. For a a significant
significant
critique of the school and of teaching and a radical reformulation with
critique of the school and of teaching and a radical reformulation with regard
regard
to the objectives
to the objectives of
of education,
education, see
see Newmann
Newmann andand Oliver
Oliver (1967).
REsEARcH
Research ON TEACHING AND
On Teaching and SuPERvIsIoN
Supervision /
/ 47
47
Interaction Analysis
Interaction
Interaction analysis,
analysis, developed
developed by by Flanders,
Flanders, is
is one
one of
of several
several
systems designed
systems designed to to quantify
quantify selected
selected aspects of the verbal
communication
communication betweenbetween thethe teacher and the
teacher and the student.
student. It
It makes
makes
possible the
possible the systematic
systematic study
study of
of spontaneous
spontaneous communication
between individuals
individuals in in the classroom,
classroom, by identifying seven
categories of
categories of teacher
teacher “talk”:
"talk": 1) accepting
accepting student feelings;
2) giving
2) giving praise;
praise; 3)
3) accepting,
accepting, clarifying
clarifying or
or making
making useuse ofof a
a
student’s ideas; 4) asking aa question;
student's ideas; question; 5)
5) lecturing, giving facts
or opinions; 6)
or 6) giving
giving directions,
directions, oror 7)
7) giving criticism. Stu-
Stu¬
dent talk
dent talk isis classified
classified as
as 8)
8) student
student response or 9) student
initiation. Silence and confusion represent a tenth category.
Flanders’
Flanders' instrument, by by itself, is
is content-
content- and subject matter-
free--that is, it
free—that it does not
not indicate how
how well a particular topic
or concept is taught. The quality of the information being
imparted is is not
not recorded by Interaction
Interaction Analysis, though,
of course, it can be recorded separately. What it does measure
is teacher verbal influence and the flexibility of the teacher’steacher's
verbal interaction with children. Flanders'Flanders’ work is also the
source of preliminary but interesting evidence on the charac- charac¬
teristics of effective discourse between teacher and student.
Flanders has found that indirect teaching—characterized by
systematic and significant shifts in the pattern of teacher ver- ver¬
bal influence as classroom learning activities change over time
--is, under certain conditions at least, “effective”
—is, "effective" teaching.‘
teaching.4
Superior subject-matter achievement was experimentally es-
4“”Indirect" teaching values

"Indirect" teaching values relatively
relatively more,
more, and
and makes greater use of, state¬
state-
ments by students; integrates student ideas into the content of what is being
talked about and does so much more often; asks longer, more extended ques-
ques¬
tions more frequently; praises and encourages student action; makes con-
con¬
structive interpretation of student feelings or attitudes, and systematically
shifts these strategies in response to what is happening and to the type of
pupil in the classroom. Flanders’
Flanders' work suggests that such teaching is sig-
sig¬
nificantly related to how much children learn, their “deportment,”
"deportment," their
attitude toward learning and their ability to be independent intellectually and
personally of the teacher.
48 / Su1=ERvIsIoN: THE RELucrAN'r PROFESSION
tablished for indirect teaching in social studies and mathe-

mathe¬
matics at the junior high school level. Fewer discipline prob-
prob¬
lems were associated with indirect teaching. Significantly
higher attitude scores—toward the teacher, the class and the
learning activities, as well as greater independence of the
teacher--were
teacher—were also found to be associated with indirect pat- pat¬
terns of teaching. While Flanders'
Flanders’ findings are qualified or
contradicted by the extensive research on authoritarian and
democratic teaching (see the reviews by Bar Yam (1968) and
(1963)),
Stern (1963) ), his work is referred to here because it illus-
illus¬
trates, and has had seminal effect on, the various schema be-be¬
ing developed for classifying teaching as an intellectual and
social interaction.
SUMMARY
SUMMARY
Teaching is currently defined

Teaching defined as
as communication—that
communication—that is, talk
and personal interaction—between at least two people. To
understand the effectiveness of this communication we must
look at its content, and at the characteristics of the talk and
of the personal interaction.
Research on
Research on teaching
teaching currently concentrates
concentrates on this process
of verbal and
of verbal and social communication between
social communication between the
the teacher
teacher and
and
the student. This
the student. This clearly
clearly seems
seems to to bebe what
what teachers
teachers dodo and
and
what
what in fact teaching is. It is increasingly clear, too, that we
in fact teaching is. It is increasingly clear, too, that we
cannot select or
cannot select or train
train teachers
teachers for this process
for this process ofof verbal
verbal and
and
personal communication exclusively
personal communication exclusively by by Grade
Grade Point
Point Averages,
Averages,
Miller Analogies
Miller Analogies scores,
scores, oror courses
courses in in Beowulf (or(or Finnegans
Wakel). Using
Wake!). Using these procedures, we
these procedures, we cancan predict,
predict, with
with reason-
reason¬
able accuracy, a student's ability to complete degree
able accuracy, a student's ability to complete degree require¬ require-
ments
ments in education and
in education and English.
English. The The correlation
correlation between
between
these indices
these indices and
and anan individual's
individual’s effectiveness
effectiveness as as aa teacher
teacher is,
is,
however, inadequately low. Research on the additional
however, inadequately low. Research on the additional factors factors
that make aa difference
that make difference in in teaching
teaching is is now
now possible.
possible.
REsEARcH
Research ON TEACHING AND
On Teaching and SUPERv1sIoN
Supervision /
/ 49
RESEARCH ON SUPERVISION
Very little research has been done on the supervision of teach-

teach¬
ing. Harris (1963) reports that from 1953 to 1963 an average
of only thirty-six articles a year was listed under “Supervision
"Supervision
and Supervisors"
Supervisors” in the Education Index. Only one article per
year was considered “supervision
"supervision research." And almost none
of this work directly addresses the processes of curriculum
development and analysis of instruction which we consider
the essential functions of supervision. Harris comments:
“Notable indeed is the lack of research on the supervisor and
"Notable
supervisory programs and practices in education. We con- con¬
tinue to emphasize studies in this field which deal with teacher
principals’ opinions, contrasting per-
opinions of supervisors, principals' per¬
ception of roles and role conflicts. Neither the quality nor the
significance of these studies warrants much more replication"
(p. 86). It is hard to disagree. Much of this research has been
unsystematic and of very limited scope and significance. The
methods which such studies typically employ—checklists,
mailed questionnaires, recall—are
recall-are a further serious limitation.
Harris'
Harris’ remark explains our decision to review in this section
only research dealing with the instructional functions of
supervision. Nonetheless, the reader is entitled to a broad
classification of the available supervisory research:
1. Questionnaire studies of factors in the selection and train-

train¬
ing of supervisors.
2. Questionnaire studies of supervisor role perceptions.
3. Evaluation studies of individual supervisory programs.
4. Correlational studies of supervisor ratings and measures
of the teacher's
teacher’s personality.
5. Correlational studies of supervisor ratings and measures of
the supervisor's personality or experience.
6. Comparisons of ratings by different supervisors.
50 / SUPERvIsIoN: THE RELucTANT PROFESSION
“NO SIGNIFICANT DIFFERENCE”

THE DILEMMA OF "NO DIFFERENCE"
There is, obviously, a point of diminishing return for the

reader in negative information about supervision's supervision’s lack of
theory and research. But the inescapable conclusion to be
drawn from any review of the literature is that there is vir- vir¬
tually no research suggesting that supervision of teaching,
however defined or undertaken, makes any difference. Educa- Educa¬
tors as a group can, and typically do, ignore this finding
(largely by ignoring supervision). Supervisors should not and
cannot. There is a variety of reasons why supervision typically
has no measureable effect. A field characterized by Lucio and
McNeil (1962) as having "no “no independent thought of its
own,” and which can claim only one published research study
own,"
per year over a decade, is impotent by definition. The difficul- difficul¬
ties besetting the field are perhaps best illustrated by evidence
supervisors’ analyses or evaluations of teaching usually
that supervisors'
have both low validity and low reliability. "There “There is plenty of
evidence to indicate that different practitioners observing the
same teacher teach, or studying data about her, may arrive at
very different evaluations of her; this observation is equally
true of the evaluation experts [supervisors]; starting with
different approaches, and using different data-gathering de- de¬
vices, they,
they, too,
too, arrive
arrive atat very different
different evaluations”
evaluations" (Barr
et al 1945).
1945). One
One of the the writers
writers recalls—somewhat
recalls—somewhat painfully-—
painfully-
participating in
participating in aa carefully-controlled
carefully-controlled reliability
reliability study of
supervisory ratings.
supervisory ratings. Five experienced,
experienced, skilled
skilled supervisors did
two separate evaluations of each of four student teachers.
Ratings were
were made
made of of eleven
eleven aspects
aspects ofof their
their teaching. The
rating scale
rating scale seemed
seemed both both sophisticated
sophisticated andand simple
simple to
to com-
com¬
plete. All of
plete. All of the
the experimental
experimental classes
classes were
were tape-recorded
tape-recorded andand
rated independently
rated independently by an experimenter.
by an experimenter. Remember
Remember the the basic
basic
conditions: five
conditions: five skilled
skilled social
social studies
studies supervisors,
supervisors, anan elegant
elegant
but straightforward
straightforward rating rating scale,
scale, careful
careful recording
recording and inde-
inde¬
pendent rating
pendent rating of of the
the teaching.
teaching. The
The results?
results? The
The supervisors’
supervisors'
REsEARcH
Research ON TEAcHING AND
On Teaching and SuPERvIsIoN
Supervision /
/ 51
disagreement about the teaching they were evaluating ranged

from 50 to 100 percent.
Why do analyses of teaching behavior vary so radically? A ~/’ ^
primary reason, discussed in the first part of this chapter, is
the absence of agreement as to the "right” “right” way to teach. A ~’y
second explanation is the unreliability of the rating instru- instru¬
ments used in supervision and in research. A classic discus- discus¬
sion of the inconsistency of criterion measures was written
over 25 years ago (see articles by Jayne, La Duke and Rostker
in the Journal of Experimental Education for 1945). A third.-' thirds
cause of variation is attributable to supervisors themselves:
supervisors either see different teaching behavior when they
observe a classroom in action or they evaluate the same bebe¬
havior differently. Disagreement thus stems from variations
in perception or from conflicting definitions of effective teach- teach¬
ing. Anxiety can also influence the supervisor's assessment of
“To the spinster, for example, a tall gawky lass who
teaching: "To
is driving a class either into apathy or distraction by the
hesitant dullness of her performance, will be marked up for
earnestness and good moral intentions. To the anti-intellectual
on the other hand, an intellectually polished teaching per- per¬
formance will be reduced in value by quibbling, denial and
distortion” (Anderson and Hunka 1963, p. 82). Supervisors
distortion"
typically see a fraction of one per cent of the teaching of the -- u--1b
individuals they evaluate; whether this is an adequate (that

is, representative) sample depends on whether one asks the
supervisor or the teacher. The fact remains that there are real
possibilities
possibilities for
for error in the
error in the supervisor's analysis of
supervisor's analysis of aa teacher.
teacher.
This is
is the problem
problem that
that characterizes
characterizes the work of the super-super¬
visor and
visor and the
the researcher: the the possibility, for the former, of
making no difference, and, for
making no difference, and, for the
the latter, of finding
latter, of finding nono sig-
sig¬
nificant difference.
The point thatthat supervisory
supervisory analyses
analyses or ratings of teaching
are not particularly valid or consistent is
are not particularly valid or consistent is not
not made
made toto paralyze
paralyze
supervision, but to
supervision, to emphasize
emphasize that supervisors
supervisors must be im-
52 / SuEERvIsIoN: THE RELucTANT PRoEEssIoN
52 / Supervision: The Reluctant drofession
peccably honest, intellectually, about their judgments of

teachers. More fundamentally, it underscores the critical need
for research on both teaching and supervision.
What does the existing research on supervision tell us?
Fractionated research speaks in a number of voices. We have
already noted that not much of this research deals with the
actual process of supervision—or, more particularly, with the
analysis of teaching or instructional effect. But, in general,
research relating to the process of supervision falls into iden-
iden¬
tifiable categories: studies of what supervisors do; studies of
the supervisory conference and its effect; experimental studies
of specific supervisory techniques; studies of comprehensive
methods of supervision derived from theory, and research
based on the direct observation and analysis of supervisory
interactions. The rest of this chapter will review and com-com¬
ment on these studies.
STUDIES OF WHAT
STUDIES WHAT SUPERVISORS
SUPERVISORS DO
DO
Studies of
Studies of what supervisors
supervisors do typically use data acquired
from questionnaires
from questionnaires or
or direct
direct observation.
observation. Hollister (1950),
for example,
for example, asked
asked thirty
thirty supervisors
supervisors to
to enumerate
enumerate the topics
which they
which they discussed
discussed with
with student
student teachers.
teachers. Eighteen
Eighteen kinds
kinds
of issues
of issues which were identified
which were identified were categorized according
were categorized according to
to
the frequency
the frequency with
with which they were
which they were discussed
discussed and
and the
the num-
num¬
ber of
ber of supervisors
supervisors who
who reported discussing them.
reported discussing them. The
The most
most
frequently-discussed topics
frequently-discussed topics were professional reading
were professional reading and
and
self-rating.
self What is
-rating. What is astounding,
astounding, in light
light of
of the central em-
em¬
phasis of this
phasis of this book,
book, is that curriculum
is that curriculum planning
planning and teaching
and teaching
improvement
improvement were discussed by only three of the thirty
were discussed by only three of the thirty
supervisors. “Social
supervisors. “Social meetings,” “etiquette” and
meetings," "etiquette" and “library
"library use”
use"
were all
were all accorded
accorded more
more emphasis.
emphasis.
Swineford (1964) studied supervisors’ suggestions
Swineford (1964) studied supervisors' suggestions to to stu-
stu¬
dent teachers concerning
dent teachers concerning the improvement of
the improvement of their
their teaching.
teaching.
When supervisors
When supervisors do
do talk about teaching,
talk about teaching, their
their recommenda-
recommenda¬
tions apparently run
tions apparently run pretty
pretty much
much as as one
one might
might expect.
expect. InIn
and SuPERvIsIoN
Supervision /
/ 53
order of decreasing frequency the supervisors in the Swine-

ford study talked about teaching techniques and procedures,
discipline and control, development of a classroom personal- personal¬
ity, planning of units or particular lessons and development
of a sound academic background. The low priority given cur- -
riculum questions is noteworthy. Other studies have reported
the reactions of student teachers to the process of supervi- supervi¬
sion. Beginning teachers have been found to want suggestions
(McConnell 1960), constructive criticism of their teaching
(Trimmer 1960, 1961), regular conferences (Edmund and
Hemink 1958) and freedom to show initiative, and to dislike
supervision which is disorganized, rigid or lacking in candor.
Roth (1961) and Wright (1965) tried to distinguish between
the supervisory activities regarded by beginning teachers as
effective and ineffective. Their definitions are so general,
however, (e.g., “reviewed
"reviewed the lesson for evaluative purposes”)
purposes")
and the criteria so vague ("the (“the effective supervising teacher
has faith in himself") that it is difficult to draw many useful
conclusions for practice.
A more sophisticated study of what supervisors do has
been reported
been reported by Blumberg and
by Blumberg and Amidon
Amidon (1965),
(1965), who
who studied
studied
how "teachers
“teachers perceive the [supervisory] conference, the su- su¬
pervisor’s behavior and the apparent consequences.”
pervisor's consequences." They
collected 166 experienced
collected experienced teachers'
teachers’ views of actual and ideal
supervisory conferences with
supervisory with principals.
principals. Adapting Flanders’
Flanders'
categories with reference to teaching, they asked each teacher
categories with reference to teaching, they asked each teacher
to classify his supervisor with regard to the frequency of his
“direct” behavior-—giving
"direct" behavior—giving information or opinion, directions
and criticism—-and his
and criticism—and his "indirect"
“indirect” behavior—accepting
behavior-—accepting feelings
feelings
and ideas, giving
and giving praise or or encouragement
encouragement and asking ques- ques¬
tions of
tions of the
the teacher.
teacher. Secondly, the the teachers were asked to
evaluate their supervisors by the standards
evaluate their supervisors by the standards of
of “communica-
"communica¬
tive freedom
freedom andand supportiveness,
supportiveness, learning
learning outcome, amount
of supervisory talk and general productivity
of supervisory talk and general productivity in in the
the supervi-
supervi¬
conference.”
sory conference."
The study's
study’s conclusions
conclusions were: 1) WhenWhen supervision is pre-
54 / SuPERvIsIoN: THE RELucTANT PRoEEss1oN
dominantly indirect
dominantly indirect (i.e.,
(i.e., characterized
characterized by the eliciting
by the eliciting and
and
acceptance of the teacher's ideas and feelings and
acceptance of the teacher’s ideas and feelings and by positive by positive
reinforcement of
reinforcement of the
the teacher),
teacher), teachers
teachers tend to regard
tend to regard super-
super¬
visory
visory conferences
conferences as as more
more productive.
productive. 2) Learning about
2) Learning about
one's self, both as a teacher and as a person, occurs
one’s self, both as a teacher and as a person, occurs when the when the
supervisor
supervisor evidences high indirect
evidences high indirect and high direct
and high direct behavior.
behavior.
3) Freedom of communication in a supervisory
3) Freedom of communication in a supervisory relationship isrelationship is
curtailed only
curtailed only when the the supervisor
supervisor is is highly
highly directive. 4)
Teachers were
Teachers were most
most dissatisfied
dissatisfied with
with supervisors who de-
emphasized indirect behavior. The reader
emphasized indirect behavior. The reader will
will note
note parallels
parallels
between the Blumberg and Amidon findings on teachers’ teachers'
views of effective supervision and the discussion of indirect
teaching in the first part of this chapter. This study should
also be kept in mind in assessing the supervisory methods
discussed in Chapters Six and Seven.
STUDIES OF
STUDIES OF THE
THE SUPERVISORY
SUPERVISORY CONFERENCE
CONFERENCE
A similar, though less rigorous, study of the supervisory con-

con¬
ference was undertaken by Kyte (1962). Thirty sets of tape
recordings, made up of a lesson observed by a supervisor, a
follow-up conference and a subsequent lesson, were collected
and carefully analyzed. The teachers involved taught at all
elementary grade levels, in most subject areas and in both
urban and rural schools. Kyte was interested in the optimal
number of items discussed in the supervision conference and
in the
in the degree
degree of
of emphasis
emphasis which should
should be given
given to each. His
main conclusions were: 1) No more than four or five topics
should be discussed in each conference. 2) The first topic
should be used to establish rapport and consequently should
be given
be given minor
minor stress.
stress. 3)
3) The
The second
second and
and third
third subjects dis-
dis¬
cussed in the conference should be given major stress. 4) The
fourth topic
fourth topic should
should bebe given
given either major
major or
or minor stress, de-
de¬
pending on the degree of influence desired on the subsequent
teaching. 5)
teaching. 5) The
The last point
point introduced
introduced into
into the discussion
should be
should be given
given minor
minor stress
stress and
and should
should have
have a positive effect
and SuI>ERvIsIoN
Supervision // 55
55
on the
on the teacher.
teacher. 6)
6) Repetition, near the
Repetition, near the end
end of
of the
the conference,
conference,
of aa major point
point is
is likely
likely toto increase
increase its
its effect on subsequent
teaching. Kyte’s
teaching. findings are
Kyte's findings are by no means
by no means conclusive.
conclusive. For
For ex-
ex¬
ample, the
ample, the assumption
assumption that that aa definite
definite format
format and
and ordering
ordering of
of
topics is
topics is effective for all
effective for all supervisory
supervisory conferences
conferences seems
seems highly
highly
questionable. While it would
questionable. would be be aa mistake to apply his find-
ings literally, Kyte's
ings literally, Kyte’s study
study is is unique
unique inin its
its attempt
attempt to
to measure
measure
the effect
the effect ofof supervision
supervision by by the
the criterion
criterion ofof changes
changes in
in the
the
subsequent teaching.
STUDIES OF
STUDIES OF SPECIFIC
SPECIFIC SUPERVISORY
SUPERVISORY TECHNIQUES
TECHNIQUES
Experimental studies
Experimental studies of
of specific
specific supervisory
supervisory techniques are
currently having
currently having considerable
considerable impact on
on supervisory practice.
These studies
These studies are
are attempts
attempts to
to develop
develop systematic methods of
describing and
describing and analyzing teaching by
by the use of information
feedback, aa concept
feedback, concept derived
derived from
from engineering
engineering and the phys-
phys¬
ical sciences.
ical sciences. “Feedback” describes the
"Feedback" describes the comparison of sample
data derived from the results of a process with a specific ini-
ini¬
tial plan
tial plan or
or goal
goal of
of the
the process,
process, for
for the purpose of controlling
the process itself. The sample is returned, or “fed
"fed back,”
back," to
its source and the error thus revealed determines the kind
and amount
and amount ofof change
change required.
required. In
In research
research on supervision,
feedback is
feedback is usually information about
about an individual’s
individual's teach-
teach¬
ing which is offered to him after the fact. This information
may be used to determine the degree to which teaching ob- ob¬
jectives were achieved; alternatively, it may be used as a basis
for analyzing incidents or patterns in the interaction between
teacher and students. Thus far in our discussion of feedback,
we could simply be applying a new label to traditional super-
super¬
visory practices. But the process has been accelerated and
made far more systematic by the development of more com- com¬
prehensive methods of describing and quantifying teaching
(see Flanders, Oscar, etc.). For example, audio—
audio- and video-
video¬
tape machines permit a complete record of his teaching to be
played back to the teacher. The videotape is, in a sense, the
56 / SUPERVISION: THE RELUCTANT PRo1=Ess1oN
ultimate record of
ultimate record of teaching
teaching and
and contains much more
contains much more potential
potential
information
information than
than does
does even
even the
the most
most comprehensive category
comprehensive category
system.
Research on
Research on supervision has made
supervision has made feedback available to
feedback available to
teachers by employing
teachers by time-lapse photography
employing time-lapse photography (MacGraw
(MacGraw
1965), kinescopes
1965), kinescopes (Schueler
(Schueler and
and Gold
Gold 1964), electrical signals
1964), electrical signals
indicating
indicating student
student understanding
understanding (Belanger 1962), audiotapes
(Belanger 1962), audiotapes
(Moser 1965), pupil opinions (Seager 1965), and a number
(Moser 1965), pupil opinions (Seager 1965), and a number of of
instruments for categorizing
instruments categorizing teaching
teaching (see,
(see, for
for example, Ishler
(1965), Yulo (1967), Brown, Cobban and Waterman (1966),
Morrison and Dixon (1964). The volume of published or pro- pro¬
posed studies
studies of
of this
this type
type is
is substantial;5
substantial? we will discuss a
representative cross section of it.
“Voices from the back of
“Voices of the classroom"
classroom” have served as
one source
one source of
of feedback toto teachers. Seager
Seager (1965) developed
a simple instrument on which pupils wrote "improvements
“improvements
desired” at an early point in their instruction by student
desired"
teachers. This was filled out by the pupils, the student teach-teach¬
ers and the supervisors at the beginning and end of six weeks
of practice teaching. The changes recommended by the pupils
and the supervisors were given to the teachers as feedback.
There was significant change in the teaching over the six
weeks in the direction of improvement indicated by the stu- stu¬
dents. The pupils’
pupils' opinions of the teaching were statistically
determined to be the factor most influential in these changes.
In a related but relatively unique study (Belanger 1962), pu- pu¬
pils used electrical signals to indicate when they did not
understand what was being taught. The frequency of mis- mis¬
understanding was recorded and discussed with the teacher
in conjunction with the supervisor's
supervisor’s own record of the class-
class¬
room proceedings. Each teacher taught the same lesson twice
to different classes. As the study proceeded, the teachers
tended to lecture less while general discussion increased.
5See, for example,
5See, example, Classroom
Classroom Interaction
Interaction Newsletter I1 (December 1965) for
aa survey
survey of
of recent
recent studies
studies in
in progress on
on the use
use of
of various types of inter-
inter¬
action analysis
action analysis as
as feedback
feedback instruments.
and Sui=ERvIs1oN
Supervision // S7
57
Feedback of this kind reduced the incidence of misunder-

misunder¬
standing of lectures in six of the nine classrooms, but did so
in only one of nine classrooms when discussion predominated.
This suggests that as the method of teaching becomes more
complex, the kind of supervisory feedback necessary for
“control” of that process becomes much more complex.
"control"
The use of audio-
audio— and videotapes of teaching as feedback
in supervision is becoming very prevalent. Several important
research studies have been devoted to this practice. A study
at Hunter College, characterized by careful research design
and analysis, investigated possible differences in effect on
actual teaching behavior among different supervisors and
different techniques of supervision (Schueler, Gold and Mit-
zel1962).
zel 1962). Changes in teaching behavior were measured by
the Observation Schedule and Record (OScAR;».).
(OScARs). The meth-
meth¬
ods of supervision studied were: observation of teaching
followed by a conference (“the("the traditional method of stu-
stu¬
dent teaching supervision in which the college supervisor
made five separate observations”);
observations"); kinescopes of the student
teacher, directed by the supervisor from the television control
room and used as the basis for the supervisory conferences,
and a combination of in-class observation by the supervisor
plus kinescopes. The study revealed no significant differences
in effect among different supervisors or methods of supervi-
supervi¬
sion, as measured by changes in teaching behavior. This is
not to say that the teaching of the individual student re- re¬
mained constant. All of the teachers showed changes “which
"which
may be characterized as reflecting improvement in teach- teach¬
ing skill."
skill.” The observed changes in teaching behavior were
caused, however, largely by factors in the classroom environ-
environ¬
ment (e.g., the ability of the children) and by the teacher’s
teacher's
reaction to that environment ("Two
(“Two student teachers in the
same room with the same supervisor are likely to change in
opposite ways.“).
ways."). The importance of studies of classroom cli-
cli¬
mate and of the teacher’s
teacher's intellectual and personal response
to the classroom situation (see Chapters Six and Seven) is
58 /
58 / Supervision:
SuTERv1s1oN: The
THE Reluctant
RELUGTANT Profession
PRoEEssIoN
underscored by
underscored this finding.
by this finding. Further,
Further, the beginning teacher’s
the beginning teacher's
teaching was deeply
teaching deeply affected
affected by
by whether
whether he
he taught in the fall
or spring
or spring semester.
semester. The
The semester
semester effect
effect contrasts
contrasts dramatically
to the apparent absence of a supervision effect.
When specific
When specific teacher
teacher training
training objectives
objectives are established,
videotape has been used with significant results. A super-
super¬
vision study at Stanford University (McDonald, Allen and
Orme 1965) focused on the teacher's
teacher’s positive reinforcement
“relevant”
of "relevant" pupil responses. Four methods of feedback or
supervision were
were compared;
compared; two
two will
will be described
described here: 1) The
members of a control group were given general written in-
in¬
structions for viewing videotaped replays of their own teach-
teach¬
ing alone; 2) The members of another group participated in a
complex program of supervision involving videotapes of their
teaching, instructions about how to reinforce pupil responses
and joint viewing of the videotapes with a supervisor who
positively reinforced each desired teacher behavior, pointed
out salient pupil cues, made suggestions and indicated effects
on pupils. The latter method of supervision—essentially inin¬
volving training in reinforcement and discrimination by the
supervisor—was most effective in producing the teaching bebe¬
havior specified by the study: the positive reinforcement of
children's responses
children's responses in in class.
class. Interestingly
Interestingly and predictably,
individual teachers
individual teachers reacted differently to
reacted differently to the
the different
different feed-
feed¬
back techniques.
techniques.
Various systems for for categorizing
categorizing teaching
teaching have also been
used as
used as the
the basis forfor supervision.
supervision. Zahn Zahn (1965)
(1965) used Flanders’
Flanders'
Interaction Analysis instrument
Interaction instrument to to collect
collect classroom data.
The participating teachers
The participating teachers werewere given
given intensive
intensive training
training inin
regard to
regard to the
the instrument
instrument and and how
how it it measures
measures teaching.
teaching. The
The
teaching of
teaching of the
the experimental
experimental group group changed
changed consistent
consistent with
with
the kinds of
the kinds teaching valued
of teaching valued by by Flanders.
Flanders. ForFor example,
example, they
they
developed aa high
developed ratio of
high ratio of indirect
indirect toto direct
direct teaching
teaching behavior
behavior
and used
and used praise
praise more
more frequently
frequently to to motivate
motivate students.
students. It It
should be
should be noted
noted that
that other
other studies
studies (Molchen
(Molchen 1967)
1967) using
using this
this
instrument in
instrument in supervision
supervision have
have had
had less
less clear
clear results.
results.
and Sur>ERvIs1oN
Supervision // 59
59
A general point about feedback and supervision emerges

from these studies. Category systems, such as Flanders’
Flanders' or
O5cARa, and videotapes are very important tools for super-
OScAR.3, super¬
vision. They make it possible to provide the teacher with se-
se¬
lected or exhaustive information about his own teaching.
Such information is no more useful or effective, however,
than the teacher and supervisor make it. If their analyses and
applications to teaching are specific and/or comprehensive,
the probability of such information making a difference in
subsequent instruction seems to increase. But no technology
or feedback system can by itself substitute or compensate for
sloppy thinking about the actual teaching.
STUDIES OF METHODS DERIVED FROM THEORY
Studies of comprehensive methods of supervision derived

from theory are extremely rare. Mosher's application of coun-
coun¬
seling theory and method in the supervision of beginning
teachers, to be discussed in detail in Chapter Six, is such a
study. An analogous study by Bennington (1965) used client-
centered counseling as a source of theory and technique. Ben-
Ben¬
nington considered a positive self-concept as the most impor-
impor¬
tant variable in teaching success; the supervisor’s
supervisor's function is
to develop the beginner's self-concept. The principal factor
“technique” in enhancing the teacher's
and ''technique'' teacher’s self-concept was
the quality of the interpersonal relationship between the su- su¬
pervisor and the teacher. Such social concerns of beginning
teachers as acceptance and control were the focus of discus-
discus¬
sions. The control group's supervisors were limited to obser-
obser¬
vations, interpretations and suggestions about these same
concerns. Teacher self-acceptance, measured by Q-sort meth-
meth¬
odology, was found to be significantly higher among teachers
supervised by the client-centered method. Whether this result
beginners’ actual teaching or pupil learn-
was related to the beginners' learn¬
ing was not investigated, however. For the purposes of dis- dis¬
cussion, this is less pertinent than the general point that,
60
60 / SuI>ERvIsIoN: THE RELUCTANT PROFESSION
/ Supervision: The Reluctant Profession
with
with the
the exception
exception of
of the Mosher and
the Mosher Gibbs studies,
and Gibbs studies, the
the liter-
liter¬
ature
ature isis devoid of research
devoid of research in which a
in which a carefully-developed,
carefully-developed,
comprehensive
comprehensive method
method ofof supervision
supervision based
based on theory is ap-ap¬
plied experimentally and its effects at least partially assessed.
plied experimentally and its effects at least partially assessed.
One hopes
One hopes that
that studies
studies such
such asas these
these (and the work
(and the work of
of Schue-
Schue-
ler, McDonald, Blumberg, Zahn, Weller, and others) will
serve as prototypes for subsequent research. Such a hope is
more than
than pious—the
pious—the best research
research onon supervision
supervision is recent,
much of it as yet unpublished.
STUDIES BASED ON OBSERVATION
The stimulus to categorize and quantify what actually hap- hap¬

pens when a supervisor and teacher confer has its sources in
the direct observational research on teaching of Flanders,
and the work of Smith, Bellack and others.
The advantages of studying systematically what actually
happens in supervision are obvious. Precise, accurate descrip- descrip¬
tion of supervision is made possible, as are the development
and testing of hypotheses about the process itself. The cate- cate¬
gory systems now available are relatively economical in terms
of an observer's
observer’s time and training, they can be completed
from audio-
audio— or videotapes of supervision and their reliability
seems adequate. These systems are very new and subject to
ongoing development, and they have had little research ap- ap¬
plication to date. We will briefly describe the two most prom- prom¬
ising instruments and list others in the chapter bibliography.
Blumberg andand Amidon’s (1965) study of
Amidon's (1965) of teachers’
teachers' percep-
percep¬
tions of
tions of effective
effective supervision,
supervision, described
described earlier,
earlier, used an in-
in¬
strument to
strument to study
study the supervision
supervision conference very similar to
Flanders’ system
Flanders' system for analyzing
analyzing teaching.
teaching. Blumberg,
Blumberg, like
like Flan-
Flan¬
ders, assumes
assumes that
that the teacher’s
teacher's learning is directly related
to his degree
to his degree of
of independence
independence in in the
the conference
conference andand proposes
proposes
that independence
independence varies
varies in
in relation
relation to the
the supervisor’s
supervisor's use of
direct or
or indirect influences during the conference.
conference. Supervi-
Supervi¬
sion is
is frequently
frequently defined
defined asas aa special
special kind of teaching, and
Research On TEACHING AND
and SUPERvIsIoN
Supervision /
/ 61
the concept of direct-indirect influence is a useful way of

examining the similarities of the two processes and of making
comparisons with the extensive research on teaching using
Blumberg system is procedurally
the Flanders system. The Blu'mberg
simple: supervisor and teacher talk is scored every 3 seconds
on the basis of 15 categories ("Supervisor
(“Supervisor Behavior .... . . 2.
Praise: statements which connote 'good'
’good’ value judgments. 3.
Accepts or uses teacher's
teacher’s ideas: statements that clarify, build
on, or develop ideas or suggestions made by the teacher . . .
9. Gives suggestions: supervisor gives new or alternate ways
of doing things. 10. Criticism . . . Teacher Behavior . . . 12.
Gives information, opinions or suggestions. 13. Positive social
emotional behavior: statements that convey agreement by
feelings” (pp. 1-8) ). The prin-
choice, release tension, accept feelings" prin¬
cipal use of this instrument, to date, has been as a vehicle for
feedback and a method of training supervisors in education
and industry. The research potential of the instrument is,
however, clear.
Other procedures for describing and analyzing supervisory
conferences have been developed by Blumberg and Amidon,
Brown and Hoffman (1966) and Heidelback (1967). By far the
most sophisticated instrument for this purpose, however, was
developed by Weller (1969). Called the M.O.S.A.I.C.S. sys- sys¬
tem, it is a modification and elaboration of Bellack’s
Bellack's method
for the analysis of teaching. M.O.S.A.I.C.S. is a remarkably
comprehensive category system which provides objective data
about the patterns of communication between the supervisor
and teacher, the content of the conference, the logic of the
discussion (e.g., definition, explanation, evaluation, justifi-
justifi¬
cation, opinion, etc.) and procedural aspects of the confer-
confer¬
ence. These characteristics of the supervision are scored from
tape recordings of the conference, and the analysis is done by
a computer program. While the instrument is so new that it
has had virtually no research application, its potential is il-il¬
lustrated by Weller's
Weller’s comparison of two supervisory groups
he studied using the M.O.S.A.I.C.S. system-one
system—one a sixth-
62 /
62 / Supervision:
SuPERv1s1oN: THE RELUGTANT PRoEEss1oN
The Reluctant Profession
grade team teaching an elementary science study unit, the

other an
other an eleventh-grade
eleventh-grade team
team teaching remedial
remedial chemistry:
Compared with the elementary supervisor, the high school super-

super¬
visor speaks more than twice as much . . . teachers in the elementary
group make significantly greater contributions to the discussion. The
high school group spends 53.9% of the time on methodology and
only 19.5% on classroom interactions. The elementary group spends
only 27.7% on methodology and 55.5% on classroom interactions.
The high school group places the following emphasis on domains of
instruction: cognitive domain: 73.1%; affective domain: 2.9%; social
disciplinary domain: 12.8%. The elementary group shows a very dif-dif¬
ferent distribution of emphasis: cognitive domain: 54.5%; affective
domain: 12%; social-disciplinary domain: 28.2%. Discussion of the
subject matter per se is a significant part of the discourse in the high
school group but a minor part in the elementary group .... . . In the
logical areas discussion in the elementary group is relatively analyt-
analyt¬
ical, diagnostic and complex, whereas discussion in the high school
group is relatively evaluative, prescriptive and simple (pp. 186-187).
Much more
more technical
technical and sophisticated
sophisticated analyses
analyses of supervi-
supervi¬
sion are
are possible
possible with M.O.S.A.I.C.S.;
M.O.S.A.I.C.5.; thethe preceding
preceding suggests
how such research
how such research instruments
instruments can
can be
be used.
used. M.O.S.A.I.C.S.
M.O.S.A.I.C.S. isis
a valid,
valid, reliable
reliable and
and relatively
relatively practical
practical research
research instrument
which will permit
which will permit aa variety
variety of
of studies
studies ofof supervision.
supervision. While
While
designed
designed to study clinical supervision (see Chapter Five), it
to study clinical supervision (see Chapter Five), it
may be used
may be used with
with individual or group
individual or group supervision
supervision of
of any
any sub-
sub¬
ject, grade
ject, grade level
level or
or teaching situation,
situation, and
and has obvious uses
in training supervisors.
in training supervisors. More important, it
More important, it permits
permits precise
precise
and comprehensive
and comprehensive description
description of supervision and,
of supervision and, therefore,
therefore,
the generation and
the generation and testing
testing of
of hypotheses
hypotheses about
about that
that process.
process.
M.O.S.A.I.C.S. is
M.O.S.A.I.C.S. is the
the most
most significant
significant and
and promising
promising method-
method¬
ological tool
ological tool so
so far developed for
far developed for research
research on
on supervision.
supervision. In
In
view of what
view of what it has been
it has been necessary
necessary to
to say
say in
in this
this chapter
chapter
about the
about the research
research status
status of
of supervision,
supervision, this
this is
is a
a particularly
particularly
positive and
positive hopeful note
and hopeful on which
note on which to
to conclude.
conclude.
CHAPTER FOUR
__ no-|-—-I _ L. . ——— -——__;-_— —— _ — ——_ 7 7 i
THEORETICAL ISSUES
AND PROFESSIONAL SKILLS
It is essential, before discussing the functions of supervision

more fully in subsequent chapters, to identify the broad edu-
edu¬
cational and social responsibilities of supervision in a general
and descriptive way, in order to provide a common grammar
for communication between the authors, the reader and other
writers on supervision. This will enable us to consider pro-pro¬
fessional issues and the skills necessary for effective super-
super¬
vision.
TWO FUNCTIONS OF SUPERVISION
The writers see supervision, generically, as teaching teachers

how to teach (which involves working with teachers as peo-peo¬
ple) and professional leadership in reformulating public edu-
edu¬
cation—more specifically, its curriculum, its teaching and its
cation-more
forms. These two functions are not, theoretically or in prac-
prac¬
tice, discrete. Indeed, they are coordinate and overlapping.
Supervisory programs must be able to perform both of these
63
64
64 / SUPERVISION: THE RELucrANT Pi-:oi=EssIoN
functions and to alternate between them as need be. While

we will, for convenience, discuss them separately, we empha-
empha¬
size that they represent a complex web of many kinds of
activity.
THE SUPERVISOR AS TEACHER
Our initial conception of supervision is as a special kind of

teaching involving a unique set of students (called teachers)
and a unique content (called curriculum). A supervisor who
functions this way is deliberately trying to educate classroom
teachers about the curriculum. In simplest terms, then, a
supervisor is a teacher of teachers, concerned with the con-
con¬
tent, method and effects of classroom teaching. The super-
super¬
visor must consider the validity of the specific teaching ob-
ob¬
jectives, the problems posed by materials and the depth of the
teachers’ and students'
teachers' students’ understanding of the curriculum. The
supervisor must decide whether the traditional academic cur-
cur¬
riculum is a luxury or a necessity for students who do not
expect to go to college. He must weigh a language curriculum
against one that stresses literature. He must recommend the
best from among the multitude of texts, maps and other ma- ma¬
terials vying for inclusion in the school program.
THE SUPERVISOR AS EDUCATIONAL LEADER
In carrying out these responsibilities, however, the supervisor

confronts much broader issues—what should be taught, what
should be emphasized, what the children really learn and
what materials
materials are
are most appropriate. The
The supervisor thus has
significant responsibilities for leadership: he is entrusted with
helping to establish directions, goals and priorities for the
curriculum. It is he who assumes major responsibility for de- de¬
cisions on what should be taught, and who should teach it
under what circumstances. Supervisors thus teach, in the
THEORETICAL Issuias AND
Theoretical Issues and PRoEEssIoNAL
Professional SI<iLLs
Skills // 65
65
sense that they assist, guide and clarify, but they are leaders
in that they
in that take responsibility
they take responsibility for the direction
for the direction and
and perform-
perform¬
ance of
ance of others.
others. The
The word
word “direction”
"direction” isis crucial:
crucial: by
by it
it we
we refer
refer
to intellectual and professional leadership in the formulation
and development
and development of of the curriculum.
curriculum. The supervisor, in brief,
is the principal curriculum and instructional leader in the
schooL
school.
We believe it is essential that supervision recognize the
distinction between
distinction between decisions
decisions about
about the
the components of a given
curriculum and issues involving the validity of the curriculum
structure itself. Currently,
Currently, most
most of
of the
the energies and efforts of
supervision are directed to the former issue. Supervisors and
teachers typically ask relatively specific questions about an
established area of the curriculum. Should we teach geometry
in the junior high schools? Should we stress European or
Asian history in the history program? Should we add a lin- lin¬
guistics component to the English courses? These are impor- impor¬
tant and complex questions which deserve considerable atat¬
tention and thought. However, there is also a need to raise
questions about the existing curriculum structure and to de- de¬
velop alternative educational patterns. Should we stress aca- aca¬
demic disciplines in the curriculum? Should we add new
courses? Which ones? Does the curriculum need to be reor- reor¬
ganized? Are new educational institutions, new contexts and
new forms of education necessary?
It is our position that supervisors must exercise a double
responsibility for the curriculum: to produce more challeng- challeng¬
ing and valid courses in the existing subject areas, which can
be considered leadership in system maintenance, and to re- re¬
vise the basic curriculum structure, or leadership in reformu-reformu¬
lation of the educational system. It is noteworthy that very
little of the literature on supervision deals with the matter
of responsibility for basic curriculum leadership. We regard
the issue of what is to be taught as real and profound, but
believe there is no issue as to which group of school people
should assume such leadership responsibility.
66 / SuPERvisIoN: THE RELucTANT PRoEEssIoN
THE SUPERVISOR AS SOCIAL LEADER
An extension
An extension of
of this
this point
point is
is the
the issue
issue of
of social
social leadership.
leadership. Is
Is
the teacher
teacher an
an agent
agent of social
social reconstruction
reconstruction or of stability?
To what
what degree is is it
it the
the teacher's
teacher’s responsibility
responsibility to relate his
teaching to his vision of man and society? Is the supervisor
an agent
agent of
of the
the school
school committee,
committee, entrusted
entrusted with the respon-
respon¬
sibility of implementing its curriculum? Or is the supervisor
himself an educational leader who helps to develop a curric-
curric¬
ulum out of a philosophic and ideological framework?
Supervisors and teachers constantly face the question of
the locus of responsibility for determining the educational
needs of the community. Some hold to the legal position that
the community, through a delegated lay board, defines these
needs and builds a professional staff to administer a relevant
educational program. Others maintain that professional edu- edu¬
cators have a special obligation to help the community define
its goals. Chapter Eight deals in more detail with the nature
of the curriculum, broadly defined, and its relationship to
society. Suffice it to say for now that we believe it to be the
professional responsibility of supervisors to confront and
contribute to the resolution of these issues. As we have said,
the crucial task facing education—and, hence, supervision—-
supervision—
is to
is to conceive
conceive and
and develop
develop the
the full range
range of
of conditions under
which people
people can
can be
be taught
taught and/or learn.
learn. It
It is obvious that
the concepts
concepts represented
represented by
by the terms
terms "curriculum,"
“curriculum,” “formal
"formal
instruction” and "school"
instruction" and “school” by no means
means exhaust
exhaust the range of
possible conditions under which learning
possible learning may occur.
SUPERVISION IN ACTION: GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
WORKING WITH TEACHERS AS PEOPLE
Teaching is
Teaching is not only verbal
not only communication but
verbal communication also aa funda-
but also funda¬
mental social
mental social process
process of
of interaction
interaction between
between teacher
teacher and
and stu-
stu¬
dents. Thus
dents. Thus supervision,
supervision, to
to be effective, must
be effective, must concern
concern itself
itself
THEORETICAL IssuEs AND
Theoretical Issues PRoEEssIoNAI. SI<iLLs
and Professional Skills / 67
/ 67
with teachers
teachers as
as people.
people. There are
are at
at least three sources of
problems for the
problems the supervisor
supervisor working
working with personal-psycho-
personal-psycho¬
logical factors in teaching.
The Teacher as an Individual

The first is the teacher himself: his personality, values, class-
class¬
room manner, his beliefs and their strength, his relationships
with children and colleagues, his strengths, weaknesses, sense
of humor, view of life, dedication, honesty, capacities, special
talents—in a word, the person as he is and as he is developing.
Because there are obvious limits to people's
people’s ability to “shut
off”
off" their selves in the performance of their occupational
duties, the supervisor inevitably confronts the person mani- mani¬
festing himself in the teaching role. Some aspects of his per- per¬
sonality constitute resources for the teacher and some create
problems. For example, a teacher's
teacher’s views on classroom disci-
disci¬
pline undoubtedly reflect his own experiences with and reac- reac¬
tions to authority, both in and out of the classroom. Similarly,
if a teacher feels alienated and lonely, his teaching is likely to
reflect this state of mind. The effect could be positive: loneli-
loneli¬
ness might lead the teacher to seek a bond with children which
could become an essential ingredient in first-rate teaching. A
teacher with a naturally friendly and accepting attitude can
be helped to channel these attributes to insure excellent re- re¬
sponsiveness in the classroom.
The Teacher-Student Relationship

Second, the supervisor analyzes the teacher’s
teacher's relationship
with students as people, i.e., his attitudes toward them, his
techniques of control, his warmth and affection toward them,
his respect for them and the like. These matters deserve spe-spe¬
cial emphasis, because they involve the teacher’s
teacher's ability and
willingness to understand and reach his students at a personal
level. What is it that the supervisor sees—domineering, au- au¬
thoritarian teaching or simply forceful teaching? Is the teacher
permissive or helpless? Are his students affectionate but not
68 /
68 / Supervision:
SuPERvIsIoN: The
THE RELucTANT PRoEEssioN
respectful? As
respectful? As he makes these
he makes these observations,
observations, the
the supervisor
supervisor
must also
must also decide
decide to
to what
what degree
degree these
these relationships are sig-
sig¬
nificant in
in particular
particular situations .1 Recognition of the effects of
situations.‘
teacher’s
the teacher's personality on his teaching implies the need for
techniques which allow the supervisor to intervene in this
domain. Two such methods are developed at length in Chap- Chap¬
ters Six and Seven.
The Issue of Autonomy

A third problem posed by working with teachers as people is
the autonomy of the client, perhaps the most basic issue in
the whole area of supervision. All teachers face this issue, but
it has special relevance for supervision. It is one of our cher-cher¬
ished notions in education that we desperately need talented,
autonomous teachers. There are several reasons for this. A
first is the belief that, other factors being equal, an autono-
autono¬
mous teacher will be most effective. By "autonomous"
“autonomous” is sug-
sug¬
gested a substantial degree of teacher self-direction, self-
generation and freedom in the exercise of his responsibilities
to his client. Second, autonomy seems an essential ingredient
in the concept of the teacher as a professional. Our schools
are organized
organized on on the
the assumption
assumption that
that qualified
qualified teaching
teaching is
available for
for every
every child
child and
and that
that every
every teacher
teacher is talented and
capable. We assume
assume that education
education should
should continue
continue to adhere
to this standard.
standard. It would
would be
be interesting to
to speculate
speculate on how
schools might be be organized
organized ifif we agreed
agreed that
that we could not
find the
the necessary
necessary number
number ofof talented
talented teachers.
teachers. However, in
the writing
writing of this
this book we are
are continuing
continuing to assume that the
‘What
'What we have said
we have said about
about the
the teacher
teacher as as aa person
person applies
applies asas well
well to the su-
to the su¬
pervisor. Knowledge of
pervisor. Knowledge of himself is part
himself is part of
of the supervisor's professional
the supervisor's professional equip-
equip¬
ment, just as
ment, just as is
is his
his knowledge
knowledge ofof the
the teacher.
teacher. ItIt is important, for
is important, for example,
example, that
that
the supervisor honestly
the supervisor acknowledge how
honestly acknowledge how secure
secure he he feels
feels about
about his
his knowledge
knowledge
of subject matter,
of subject matter, curriculum
curriculum philosophy
philosophy and and his
his own
own effectiveness
effectiveness asas aa teacher;
teacher;
how open he
how open he is
is to
to disagreement
disagreement on on these
these matters,
matters, and and how
how interpersonally
interpersonally se-se¬
cure he is
cure he is with
with teachers.
teachers. The richer the
The richer the texture
texture of of individual
individual experience,
experience, the
the
more one can
more one can offer
offer inin the
the way
way of
of wisdom,
wisdom, understanding,
understanding, insight
insight and
and empathy.
empathy.
THEORETICAL
Theoretical Issurs
Issues AND
and PROFESSIONAL
Professional SI<iLi.s
Skills / / 69
69
individuals charged
individuals charged with teaching
teaching young
young people require con-
con¬
siderable talent
siderable talent and
and creativity.
creativity.
It is thus
It is thus one
one of
of the
the supervisor's
supervisor's major
major tasks
tasks to
to help
help in
in the
the
development of the
development the teacher's
teacher’s professional
professional identity and auton-
auton¬
omy; i.e.,
omy; i.e., to help the
to help the teacher
teacher achieve
achieve and
and maintain
maintain an
an autono-
autono¬
mous, individually
mous, individually unique
unique teaching
teaching style
style consistent
consistent with
with the
the
interests of the children. That is effective teaching. This ob- ob¬
jective parallels aa major goal
goal of
of all
all teaching—the
teaching-the development
of individual skills,
of skills, attitudes,
attitudes, values and interpretations. The
necessity of
necessity of individualizing instruction
instruction and the existence of
individual differences
individual differences among
among learners
learners are basic to educational
thought. There is
thought. is aa basic
basic conflict
conflict between the desire of the
teacher to
to stimulate
stimulate individuality
individuality among
among his students and his
desire that
that they
they understand his views
views as an authority.
PROFESSIONAL DILEMMAS
DILEMMAS
INDIVIDUALITY VERSUS
VERSUS RESPONSIBILITY
RESPONSIBILITY
This is a crucial problem of teaching and supervision—how to

reconcile individual differences and student freedom with the
responsibility of the teacher to teach what he considers cor-cor¬
rect. The teacher must possess some skill, knowledge, insight
or interpretation his students are unlikely to have, and as a
teacher he has the responsibility of presenting these views
with conviction and with the intention of being effective, i.e.,
of convincing the student to accept, to some degree, his views.
(This situation distinguishes the teacher from, for example,
the counselor.) However, there is considerable variation in the
degree of certainty with which materials can, in fact, be taught.
Such conventions as the alphabet, the number system and
spelling are not subject to contravention by students. How- How¬
ever, such material as the interpretation of historical events
and proper usage of language ought to allow for considerable
student involvement and interpretation. The commutative
and distributive principles in mathematics are not subject to
70 /
70 / Supervision:
SuPERvisioN: The
THE Reluctant
RELucTANT Profession
PRoi=EssioN
question in
question the same
in the same sense that moral
sense that moral judgments
judgments are.
are. There
There is
is
aa continuum
continuum of
of desired
desired student response: at
student response: at one
one end
end are
are
individuality, creativity
individuality, creativity and
and freedom; at the
freedom; at the other, acceptance
other, acceptance
and conformity. Teachers must constantly cope with
and conformity. Teachers must constantly cope with the the ten-
ten¬
sion and ambiguity
sion and ambiguity caused
caused by
by locating the content
locating the content of
of the
the sub-
sub¬
jects they
jects they teach
teach on
on this
this continuum.
continuum. The problem is
The problem is com-
com¬
pounded
pounded by uncertainty about
by uncertainty the effects
about the effects of
of particular
particular
teaching techniques for
for certain
certain curricula
curricula and
and certain kinds of
supervisor’s concern for
students. In summary, then, the supervisor's
teacher autonomy arises
teacher autonomy arises from the
the belief that
that the autonomous
teacher is most effective and from uncertainty as to the “right”
"right"
view regarding the curriculum or how to teach it.
PROTECTION OF STUDENTS'
STUDENTS’ INTERESTS
In their concern for establishing autonomy in teachers, super- super¬

visors also must be aware of the special responsibility they
have to their clients'
clients’ clients—the students. Supervisors also
act as advocates of the students to protect them against sterile
educational programs and incompetent teachers. Despite the
emergence of "student
“student power”
power" and the much-publicized per- per¬
missiveness at home and at school, students are typically
politically weak and at the mercy of the schools. They have a
tremendous amount at stake but very little involvement in the
school decisions that significantly determine their fates. This
is especially true in elementary and secondary education.
Supervisors, then, assume part of the responsibility for pro- pro¬
tecting students by by working
working to ensure
ensure them
them a valid and hu-
hu¬
mane education. However painful the process, however diffi- diffi¬
cult it is to make valid evaluations (Chapter Three documents
how genuinely difficult
difficult it
it is), the
the supervisor cannot
cannot escape the
task of protecting students from incompetence. To be para- para¬
lyzed by
by the complexities
complexities and pains pains of the process cannot be
rationalized asas flexibility and openness but mustmust be seen as an
evasion ofof aa highly
highly anguishing
anguishing yet yet necessary
necessary responsibility:
THEoRE'rIcAL
Theoretical lssuEs
Issues AND
and PRoi=EssioNAL
Professional Si<iLLs
Skills /
/ 71
71
assessment. This
assessment. This is the
the most potentially
potentially painful of the super-
super¬
visor’s responsibilities, and
visor's responsibilities, and the
the one
one most
most likely to create ten-
ten¬
sions with
sions teachers. It
with teachers. It is also the
is also the activity
activity most
most widely
widely identi-
identi¬
fied
fied with supervisors and
with supervisors and the one most
the one most supervisors
supervisors would
would
prefer not
not toto undertake.
undertake. There
There can
can be
be no doubt that attempts
to establish a trusting, supportive context are substantially
compromised when evaluation (ultimately meaning hiring and
firing) is introduced. Evaluation seems to bring fear, suspicion
and distrust in its wake. Teachers want help, support, ideas
and suggestions but are naturally reluctant to be told what to
do, particularly if there is a suggestion of threat underlying
such help.
As teachers, supervisors know the difficulties evaluation
creates in the teaching process, but as leaders they are con- con¬
vinced of its necessity. The supervisor must concern himself
teacher’s understanding of his content field and the
with the teacher's
effectiveness of his teaching. Evaluation can help teachers to
learn by clarifying and discussing what in the teaching is
ineffectual and requires improvement. This implies a further
dimension of supervisory responsibility having to do with the
maintenance and leadership of two institutions-—the
institutions—the school
and the teaching profession. In this respect, the supervisor is
particularly responsible for determining and evaluating the
primary service offered by the school and the profession: the
educational program.
Ideally, the supervisor should teach the curriculum and,
thereby, a cross section of students. The problem is further
complicated by the question of the degree to which super- super¬
visors should evaluate within the basic curriculum framework.
Is a teacher "good"
“good” if he does a good job of teaching some-some¬
“good”
thing trivial? Is he "good" if he fails to teach something very
much worth teaching? At the heart of this*aspect
this’aspect of supervi-
supervi¬
sion is joint planning of content with the teacher, observation
of teaching and rational analysis of instruction. Chapter Five
is devoted to a sophisticated method of doing so—clinical
supervision.
72 / 5uPERvIsIoN: THE RELucTANT PRoEEssioN
SUPERVISORY SKILLS
Given the broad educational and social responsibilities we

argue for supervision, what skills are required of supervisors?
We are reminded of a similar question: what skills does a
major league ballplayer need? The answer in baseball lore is
that a player must be able to hit, hit with power, field his
position and run. A player with all four abilities will probably
be a superstar, a player with three will be a star, and a player
with two skills may, but probably will not, stay in the major
leagues. Our list of criteria for the effective supervisor is, by
comparison, more extensive and probably less reducible:
SENSITIVITY
The supervisor must have the skill to sense a teaching prob-

prob¬
lem and its origins. Sometimes a problem can be all too appa-
appa¬
rent (e.g., discipline or content errors), but the critical skill is
the ability to sense a problem before it becomes obvious. The
supervisor might perceive that a student's unwillingness to
do classwork stemmed from insecurity with the teacher or
that aggressiveness toward a teacher derived from a pupil's
need to prove himself with his peers. Sensitivity is not to be
confused with
confused with sympathy
sympathy or
or empathy;
empathy; the kind of sensitivity
that supervisors
that supervisors need is
is professional
professional alertness
alertness to the dynamics
of teacher
of teacher and
and pupil
pupil behavior, awareness
awareness of
of what is going on,
and intuitional insight into educational problems and their
origins.
ANALYTIC SKILLS
The supervisor also

The supervisor also needs the ability
needs the ability to
to make
make an an effective
effective
analysis of what
analysis of what he sees—to understand
he sees—to understand relationships
relationships and
and
make distinctions
make distinctions among
among kinds
kinds of
of behavior
behavior related
related to
to teach-
teach¬
ing. Thus
ing. Thus hehe must
must bebe able
able not
not only
only to
to sense
sense problems
problems andand
THEoRETicAL Issurs and
Theoretical Issues AND PRorEssioNAL
Professional SI<iLLs
Skills / 73
their origins
their origins but
but also
also to trace,
trace, dissect,
dissect, conceptualize and order
them in
them in aa meaningful
meaningful way. This
This ability-to
ability—to reduce the multi-
multi¬
ple events
ple of the
events of the classroom
classroom to
to aa set
set of
of inferences
inferences or
or hypotheses
hypotheses
which tentatively explains or predicts the teaching and its
effects—is one that must be learned.
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
The ability to translate insights so that they can be under-

under¬
stood by the teacher is another requirement for the effective
supervisor. Obviously, the supervisor must be able to under-
under¬
stand the teacher's
teacher’s views and perceptions. To do so is no sim-
sim¬
ple matter. It probably requires common professional experi-
experi¬
ence teaching the curriculum, ability on the supervisor’s
supervisor's part
to listen and concern for understanding the teacher. This is
the same type of understanding needed by a teacher to reach
his students and to make himself understood. In the com- com¬
munication of this understanding, as well as in the communi-
communi¬
cation of the supervisor's
supervisor’s own perceptions and analyses, the
critical elements are precision, coherence, appropriate lan- lan¬
guage and level of abstraction. In other words, the supervisor
and teacher must be on the same wave length.
CURRICULUM AND TEACHING EXPERTISE
This competence is the hard core of the supervisor’s

supervisor's ability.
The supervisor must know (in the sense of possessing a great
deal of theoretical and practical knowledge) about learning,
about children and about teaching techniques. He must be a
master of a curriculum area (this could be defined literally as
a requirement for training in a subject or curriculum area to
the level of the master's
master’s degree or beyond) and have in addi-
addi¬
tion aa sophisticated
tion sophisticated concept
concept of
of curriculum
curriculum and its rationale,
sequence, techniques and materials. A sophisticated concept
of curriculum
of curriculum isis aa sine
sine qua non for
qua non for supervisors.
supervisors. Without
Without it,
it, aa
74 / SUPERvIsIoN: THE REi.ucTANT PROFESSION
supervisor would be like a conductor unable to read music.
INTERPERSONAL SKILLS
Sometimes called
Sometimes called human
human relations skills,
skills, this
this competence in-
in¬
volves the quality of the relationship between the supervisor
and the teacher. This is the realm of such characteristics as
manner, warmth, empathy, authoritarianism, tough-minded-
ness and the like: qualities that determine how a supervisor
relates to teachers as people. Any supervisor ought to have a
large repertoire of behaviors and techniques that can be used
when appropriate—a much greater and more sophisticated
repertoire than the typical supervisor now has. We recognize
that supervisors cannot all be Renaissance men. The super-
super¬
visor is a human being, a person in search of his identify and
uniqueness, who as a teacher performs best in his own au- au¬
tonomous, individual style. For him, also, the crucial question
is the proper combination of personal and “system”
"system" tech-
tech¬
niques. To be effective with others and at the same time to be
oneself is the constant goal of all teachers.
SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
The supervisor
supervisor must, of of course,
course, have
have well-developed
well-developed notions
about the
about the goals of
of education
education and
and their
their relationship to society.
To this
To this degree,
degree, aa supervisor
supervisor is
is aa social
social philosopher,
philosopher, an educa-
educa¬
tional leader with
tional with aa vision and
and an an educational
educational plan designed
to attain
to attain that
that vision.
vision. Supervision
Supervision must
must involve
involve itself with
fundamental questions
fundamental questions involving man, man, nature
nature and society.
Without this
Without this dimension,
dimension, aa supervisor
supervisor isis more
more aa technocrat
technocrat
than an educational
educational leader.
leader. We
We return
return to this question at
length in the final chapter.
We recognize,
We recognize, in conclusion, that
in conclusion, that these
these are
are rigorous
rigorous stan-
stan¬
dards. Certainly
dards. Certainly they
they are
are much more demanding
much more demanding than
than the
the
criteria typically
criteria typically applied
applied in
in the appointment of
the appointment of supervisors.
supervisors.
THEoRi-:TIcAL Issurs and
Theoretical Issues AND PROFESSIONAL
Professional SI<Ii.i.s
Skills / / 75
75
In our experience,
In our experience, however,
however, the
the most
most fundamental
fundamental practical
practical
dilemma confronting the
dilemma confronting the field of supervision
field of supervision is
is the
the issue
issue of
of
legitimacy: how
legitimacy: how do
do we establish the
we establish the legitimacy
legitimacy of
of efforts
efforts at
at
curriculum development, the analysis of teaching, working
with
with teachers as people
teachers as people and reformulating public
and reformulating public education?
education?
How do
How do supervisors
supervisors establish
establish their
their own
own legitimacy to under-
under¬
take these efforts? Because we believe these functions to be
critical to the survival of American public education, it fol-
fol¬
lows that
lows that supervisors
supervisors cannot
cannot assume
assume these basic educational
and social responsibilities without a high order of training
and of
and of personal and professional
personal and professional qualifications.
qualifications.
Ti
-T
I IH1r
EH
I
HM___ __
I -I:‘
Ihm‘I
gm
L If
E
I__
____
____
1
___
M
MP_ii
h
A HI
l__
IHI‘_
11 M‘IF inup
-F
'
CHAPTER FIVE
CLINICAL SUPERVISION:
THE ANALYSIS OF TEACHING
A full
full description
description andand analysis
analysis of
of one
one supervisory method is
the best, and perhaps the only, way to
the best, and perhaps the only, way illustrate some
to illustrate some specific
specific
aspects
aspects ofof supervision. This chapter
supervision. This focuses on
chapter focuses on clinical
clinical super-
super¬
vision, a method which meets the criterion of "best
vision, a method which meets the criterion of “best existing existing
practice"
practice” and whose controlling
and whose ideas and
controlling ideas and practices
practices are
are suffi-
suffi¬
ciently
ciently specific to illustrate
specific to illustrate certain
certain of the definitional
of the definitional problems
problems
raised in Chapter One. "[It is] probably the most sophisticated
raised in Chapter One. ”[It is] probably the most sophisticated
and
and concentrated
concentrated program
program of of supervision
supervision in in the
the country”
country"
(Cogan 1961, pp. 12-13).‘
12-13).1
Clinical supervision
Clinical supervision was was originally developed in
originally developed in the
the Har-
Har¬
vard-Newton Summer
vard-Newton Summer Program,
Program, aa laboratory
laboratory school
school operated
operated
for the past 15 years by Harvard's Master of Arts
for the past 15 years by Harvard’s Master of Arts in Teaching in Teaching
Program
Program andand the
the Newton, Massachusetts, public
Newton, Massachusetts, public school
school sys-
sys-
111 would
‘It would be inaccurate to
be inaccurate to imply
imply that
that there is a
there is a coherent
coherent school
school of
of clinical
clinical
supervision.
supervision. Cogan's
Cogan’s brief
brief significant
significant paper
paper is one of
is one of the few attempts
the few attempts to to
articulate the ideas reviewed in this chapter. Robert Goldhammer's recent
articulate the ideas reviewed in this chapter. Robert Goldhammer’s recent text, text,
Clinical Supervision:
Clinical Supervision: Special
Special Methods
Methods forfor the Supervision of
the Supervision of Teachers
Teachers (1969)
(1969)
is the most elaborate statement of the position.

is the most elaborate statement of the position.
.. 77
78 / Sur>ERvisIoN: THE RELucTANr PROFESSION
tem. Master teachers, university faculty members and interns

tern.
join in study and in the instruction of both elementary and
secondary pupils who attend the program's summer school.
The principal focus of the program is classroom instruction,
and interns are given immediate teaching responsibility under
the direction of master teachers. Thus clinical supervision is
an integral part of induction into teaching. Indeed, it has be-
be¬
come a principal clinical tool in pre-service training for class-
class¬
room instruction. But clinical supervision is by no means
limited, in assumption or technique, to inexperienced teachers
-it
—it has been used for a number of years with experienced
teachers in the Harvard—Lexington
Harvard-Lexington and Harvard—Boston
Harvard-Boston
programs. Finally, the ideas and practices developed at a rela-
rela¬
tively advanced level in clinical supervision are quite close to
the assumptions
assumptions and
and techniques
techniques in
in traditional
traditional supervision.
OBJECTIVES OF CLINICAL SUPERVISION
The primary objective—and

The primary objective-and an an adequate
adequate general
general definition-
definition—
of clinical supervision is the improvement of instruction. In
itself,
itself, however,
however, this this objective
objective does
does little
little to
to clarify
clarify what
what is is
unique about clinical clinical supervision.
supervision. Curriculum
Curriculum development
projects, National Science
projects, National Science Foundation
Foundation Institutes
Institutes for
for teachers
teachers
and even the
and even the janitor
janitor who
who builds
builds a a birdhouse
birdhouse for for the
the kinder-
kinder¬
garten teacher are
garten teacher are trying
trying to to improve instruction. In
improve instruction. In clinical
clinical
supervision,
supervision, this this general
general objective
objective is is translated
translated at at the
the super-
super¬
visory level into
visory level into planning
planning for,
for, observation,
observation, analysis
analysis and
and treat-
treat¬
ment of of the teacher’s classroom performance,”
teacher's classroom performance.
Clinical supervision focuses
focuses on on what
what and and how
how teachers
teachers
teach
teach asas they
they teach.
teach. The
The immediate
immediate objective
objective is is to
to alter
alter (that
(that
is, improve) the
is, improve) the materials
materials andand method
method of of instruction
instruction directly,
directly,
at the point
at the point of of the teacher’s interaction
the teacher's interaction with with students.
students. Such
Such aa
“treatment,” or systematic effort to affect classroom
"treatment,” or systematic effort to affect classroom teaching, teaching,
is not at
is not at all
all abstract
abstract in in the
the sense
sense that,
that, for
for example,
example, aa course
course in
in
plasma
plasma physics
physics for for high school physics
high school physics teachers
teachers would
would be.
be. It
It
CLINICAL SUPERVISION: The
Clinical Supervision: THE Analysis
ANALYSIS or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 79
79
is this
this principle
principle of
of direct
direct application
application that
that makes the method
of supervision
of supervision "clinical”:
"clinical": it
it addresses
addresses the doing, or practice,
dimension of
dimension of teaching.
teaching.
A further comment about objectives is in order here. Clearly,
the procedures outlined in this chapter can be used to evaluate
teachers. As clinical supervision has developed, however, it
has ¢~‘__te_I1 ii aw.as!- fIQ_i11_§_L11Pbasis. 0.1.1 LsV§‘l¥1§liQ.£1-r1I2£1rtQW?!.£_‘
has tended away from emphasis on evaluation and toward
gnalygsgisofv materialps and practices.
analysis of teaching materials pr_a£tices:_ This is a critical
shift, toward the goal of developing in in beginners and in ex- ex¬
perienced teachers a conviction and a value: that teaching, as
\. \______.___* u_ ,._A _ , . .,» ._, -. -._.__._.-- ,_,____A___._.s_~__.._-r -4....-......4.._._, _______
intellectugalgand
an intellectual and socid’l”ac,t,
social act, is subject to intellectual aii’a'ly'3 analy¬
_ 4
sis. Clinical supervision's

§.i$..Clinical supervis’ion’s adherents
adherents believe believe thalfthat ’the’a’n’alysi’s
the analysis
of teaching can be rigorous and systematic, that it should be
ongoing, that it requires specific
sp_e_gt,if_i_c¥_an__a_l_y,tic_al_usl§_ill“s
analytical skills and that
theproflessional
the professional teacher should be a careful critic of his own
a_i1a,ly§iiSMof_
practice. In short, the analysis of teaching is a distinct and
much more substantial supervisory function than is formal
evaluation.
-._, A
SOME THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS OF CLINICAL SUPERVISION
Given the range of beliefs, practices and people contributing

to clinical supervision, it is impossible to offer a definitive
delineation of its theoretical foundations. There does, how-
how¬
ever, seem to be common agreement on the principle that
teaching is behavior—that is, teaching is what the teacher
does and what the pupils do, observably and in interaction.
Further, when clinical supervisors refer to teaching, they are
referring to teacher behavior and student behavior relative to
a curriculum and formal instruction in that curriculum. Cogan
describes teaching as "the
”the...-iactual‘
actual g[i,e.,
[i.e., observable]
observable] teaching
performance and the results of the teaching."
teaching.”_‘This
This is as clear-
cut a statement as is possible of the position on which clinical
supervision is predicated. The emphasis on the results of
teaching is important. It suggests that the teaching perform-
In
80 / Supervision:
80 / SUPERvisioN: The
THE Reluctant
PRoi=EssioN
ance is
ance is inseparable
inseparable from
from its
its effects—that
effects~—~that the
the essential
essential point,
point,
and measure,
and measure, of
of the teacher's
teacher’s performance
performance is what his stu-
stu¬
dents learn.
A related further
A related further assumption
assumption is is that
that teaching,
teaching, asas aa complex
complex
interaction of the teacher’s
teacher's behavior, the learner’s learner's behavior
and content
Content and and context
context variables,
variables, is is patterned.
patterned. What the
teacher does and says in teaching teac’hir’i’g content to children does not
occur randomly. Rather, it shows recurring and characteristic
patterns. A teacher, in communicating with students, may
characteristically talk at them, question them or listen to
them; intellectually, he may stimulate students or bore them;
emotionally, he may be supportive and accessible or critical
and remote. Whatever
I/\_[h_a_t,ever t,he_te_acher’s
the teacher's characteristics, his per- per¬
formance will consistently reflect some such patterns of bebe¬
havior and effect, causing teaching (unlike history) to repeat
itself.
If teaching is characterized by regularity rather than ran- ran¬
domness, it can be classified and studied in the same ways as
are other intellectual and social phenomena. The assumption
that teaching behavior is organized is obviously essential to
any analysis of teaching, whether clinical analysis in super- super¬
vision oror formal
formal research
research investigation.
investigation. The teaching must
show evidence
show evidence of of consistency
consistency or or reliability
reliability in order that finite
categories of
categories of observation,
observation, analysis
analysis or or explanation
explanation can be used.
Clinical supervision also also assumes
assumes that that teaching
teaching behavior is, or
can be,
can be, subject
subject to to understanding and control control (and, therefore,
change) by the
change) the teacher. Further, the the teacher's
teacher’s behavior should
be conscious,
conscious, rational
rational action.
action. Both the the children’s
children's learning and
the teacher's
the teacher’s craftsmanship
craftsmanship will will increase
increase as as it
it becomes
becomes more
more so.
so.
HOW IT IS DONE
The principal
The principal method of clinical
method of clinical supervision
supervision is
is an
an incisive,
incisive, de-
de¬
tailed and
tailed and complex
complex analysis
analysis of
of the
the teaching
teaching performance
performance whose
whose
general aims are
general aims are objectivity
objectivity in
in perception
perception and
and criticism
criticism of
of the
the
teaching and
teaching acceptance of
and acceptance of such
such criticism.
criticism. What
What the
the teacher
teacher
Clinical Supervision: THE ANALvsis
Analysis or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 81
81
intends
intends toto do,
do, as
as evidenced
evidenced inin the
the plans
plans he
he makes
makes for
for the
the les-
les¬
son, what he actually
son, actually does
does in
in the
the classroom
classroom and the outcome
of the
the teaching
teaching (i.e.,
(i.e., what the
the pupils
pupils do and learn) are sub-sub¬
jected to rational analysis by the supervisor and the teacher.
Analysis, in this
this context,
context, means
means systematic,
systematic, disciplined, prac-
prac¬
tical thinking
tical thinking about
about thethe wide range of of factors which affect the
process of
process of formal
formal instruction and and its
its outcomes. Clinical super-
super¬
vision is often undertaken with a number of teachers who
jointly plan,
plan, observe
observe andand analyze
analyze the teaching of one or several
members of of the
the team.
team. The
The technique
technique is appropriate, then, to
“traditional” teaching and
"traditional” teaching and one-to-one
one-to-one supervision, and to
team teaching or team supervision within a particular school
department.
Whether clinical supervision is done individually or in a
group,
group, it tends to
it tends to evolve
evolve in
in three
three stages
stages which
which correspond
correspond to
to
“natural” stages in the process of formal instruction: 1) the
"natural”
prior statement (or plan) of objectives, content and pedagogy;
2) the instruction proper, and 3) an after-the-fact analysis of
the effect of the teaching. Thus, an ongoing cycle of systematic
planning, observation and critical analysis of teaching is the
characteristic form of clinical supervision. Indeed, the method
is perhaps best known as the P.O.E. (planning, observation
and evaluation or analysis) cycle.
The following sections will describe, in a general way, what
happens in each phase of the cycle of planning, observation
and analysis, using illustrative excerpts from videotapes to
give the reader a flavor of the typical content of clinical
supervision.
PLANNING THE TEACHING
In clinical supervision, plans are considered and/or jointly

developed by the supervisor and the teacher before the actual
instruction begins. The feasibility of this approach for the
practicing school supervisor is often questioned on the grounds
of the availability of time. There is no question, however, that
"I
82 /
82 / Supervision:
SuPERvIsIoN: The
THE Reluctant
RELUCTANT PRoi=EssIoN
Profession
this joint attempt to establish before the fact what materials

or pedagogy will work with greatest effect for the particular
curriculum, teaching and class of children is an essential part
of the analysis. Indeed, it is likely that discussion of these
questions at this point is the most effective use of the super-
super¬
visor’s
visor's time.
As they plan, the teacher and the supervisor are making
“hypotheses”
"hypotheses" or predictions, based on their experience, about
the effects on the students of the subject matter and the alter-
alter¬
native methods of teaching under consideration. The plan,
seen this way, is thus a set of predictions as to what may or
should happen in the class, and the actual teaching is a prac-prac¬
tical test of these working hypotheses. The idea of the teacher
and the supervisor as hypothesis-makers and the notion of a
plan for instruction as a set of curricular and pedagogical
predictions is quite different from the usual connotation (or
substance) of the "lesson
“lesson plan.”
plan."
Analysis in clinical
Clinical supervision tends to be intellectual and
rational and to focus heavily on the content, the teaching
performance and the outcome of the teaching (as evidenced in
the pupils'
pupils’ behavior and learning). "Content"
“Content” signifies the
subject matter, the documents and materials used in the teach-
teach¬
ing and the nature of the problems posed to the class. Analy-
Analy¬
sis of the content usually involves justifying the objectives of
teaching the particular content (see pages 84-88); its suita- suita¬
bility to the teacher's
teacher’s purposes or to the intellectual ability of
the pupils; the teacher's
teacher’s knowledge of and factual correctness
in conveying the content; the motivational characteristics of
the content, and the organization or planning of the lesson.
By “organization”
"organization" is meant the appropriateness of the planned
sequence of classroom events to the teacher's
teacher’s objectives. Plan-
Plan¬
ning may be both short-term and long-term. Whether a single
lesson or a series of lessons is planned, it is presumed that
there is a logic inherent in the content and in how this con- con¬
tent is to be communicated. The clarity with which this logic
CLINICAL SUi>ERvIsIoN: The
ANALYsIs or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 83
83
permeates thethe teacher's

teacher’s thinking
thinking and
and planning
planning will presumably
be related
be related to
to how he teaches
teaches and
and is
is understood by the students.
Obviously, thethe organization
organization of of the
the instruction is not en-
en¬
tirely separable
separable from
from the selection
selection ofof the content and the
appropriateness of
appropriateness of the problems used
the problems used byby the
the teacher.
teacher. For
For ex-
ex¬
ample, aa beginning teacher
ample, teacher committed
committed to teaching the relation
of biological inheritance and variation to the problems of
modern societies spent all his instructional time having his
pupils solve "magic
“magic square"
square” problems using Mendelian laws
“What will be the offspring of a white curly-
of genetics: "What
haired hamster and a brown straight-haired hamster?” hamster?" and so
forth; he never realized that the pupils were not likely, un- un¬
aided, to transfer such learnings to the larger area of people
and societies.
This kind of careful
Careful analysis of the issues involved in what
is to be taught and why has several significant implications.
Clinical supervision is predicated on specialized, expert
knowledge of content and curriculum. The supervisor is, first,
a content specialist, because it is not considered feasible to
analyze teaching effectiveness independently of the Content content of
what is being taught. This may appear to labor the obvious.
Nonetheless, the question of whether people can supervise
across subject-matter areas is very much an issue in supervision.
In elementary and junior high schools, supervisors and ad- ad¬
ministrators often supervise teachers in several subject-matter
areas. This is usually rationalized by the argument that the
same general principles or methods of teaching apply whether
one is teaching reading, social studies or mathematics. Proba- Proba¬
bly some comments of a helpful, practical nature can be made
about methods of classroom management, questioning tech- tech¬
niques, how to maintain discipline, and the like which would
be applicable
be applicable inin most
most specialties.
specialties. Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, it
it seems
seems ob-
ob¬
vious that when a codified body of knowledge or a special
skill such as reading is to be taught, the supervisor must
know that subject or skill to analyze how accurately and ef-
84 /
84 / Supervision:
SLrPERvIsIoN: The
THE Reluctant
RELUCTANT PRoi=EssioN
Profession
fectively it is taught. Can the reader envisage himself super-

super¬
vising the teaching of German or physics or algebra unless he
is knowledgeable about German, physics and algebra?
Clinical supervision has, since its inception, been based on
specialized, expert knowledge of the content of instruction.
A current and related development, largely attributable to
Purpel, is emphasis on supervision as instruction in curricu-
curricu¬
lum. Specialized knowledge of curriculum theory and de- de¬
velopment is therefore a prerequisite to a comprehensive
analysis of teaching. This requirement is explained by the
argument that decisions about what knowledge is of most
worth affect decisions about content which, in turn, affect
and are mediated by teaching which, in part, determines what
is learned. In conceptual (or supervisory analysis of) teaching,
these variables must be dealt with as interdependent elements
in a logical whole. This commitment of clinical supervision to
both subject matter and curriculum design and development
gives the method uniqueness in conception and in potential
for effect.
A Typical Planning Conference

A brief excerpt from an actual planning conference will help
to illustrate both the content and the flavor of this phase in
the analysis of teaching. The excerpt, while neither exhaustive
nor ''model,"
“model,” is is reasonably representative.
representative. Two teachers on on
the same
the same team,
team, one
one of
of whom
whom is is to
to teach
teach the lesson, a super-
super¬
visor and
and aa student
student teacher
teacher participate
participate in the planning con-
con¬
ference. The
ference. The student
student teacher
teacher is
is new
new to
to the
the school and to this
team. The subject
team. The subject field
field is
is social
social studies
studies for
for eighth-grade
eighth-grade
children.
TEACHER 1:
Teacher In this class
In class today
today are you
you going to try to stay
entirely in the
entirely in the sphere of the
sphere of the 1640's
1640's in
in England
England or
or are
are you
you
going to
to try
try to
to relate it
it to
to contemporary
contemporary problems?
TEACHER:
Teacher: II think
think II want
want to try and
to try stay with
and stay with the
the 1640’s.
1640's.
CLINICAL SuI>ERvisioN: THE
Clinical Supervision: The ANALYSIS
Analysis or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 85
85
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: That's a good point—why? That’s
That's worth looking
into a bit.
TEACHER:
Teacher: Why?
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: Yes, in terms of
of the objective of the lesson and
. . .
so on ... it seems to me a reasonable question.
TEACHER:
Teacher: Well, I don’t
don't think—well, to compare it with what’s
what's
going on today I'd
I’d have to use something that the kids
knew about. You know, something they were familiar
with and in most cases something they were familiar
with would be something in the United States. Now-Now—
the United States really doesn't
doesn’t have that sort of prob-
prob¬
lem right now.
SUPERVIs0R:
Supervisor: What is your reaction to that [teacher 1]?
TEACHER 1:
Teacher 1: Well, in my own priorities I'd place contemporary
understanding of government over purely historical
knowledge, and also I would think in order to under-
under¬
stand the 1640’s
1640's that the students could more readily
relate to some sort of power conflict by talking in terms
of Nixon versus Congress or something like this.
TEACHER:
Teacher: You
You have aa legitimate point—you're
point—you’re right. I don't
just want them to learn history for history’s
history's sake. I want
them to learn history so that they can relate the present
back to history, but the conflict that is going on right
now—that between Parliament and the king—has been
resolved to a great extent in the United States today.
There still is a conflict, of course, but it’s
it's essentially
superficial. It's not the deep-seated thing and it’s
it's not the
revolutionary thing that was going on in the 1640’s,
1640's, so I
suppose I could relate it but I don't
don’t think it would serve
any really important purpose at this time and in this
particular lesson.
SuPERvisoR:
Supervisor: I think, though, what we’re
we're really talking about
here ...
. . . is the relationship between [the teacher's] tech-
tech¬
niques and particularly the kinds of questions she's go-
1
86 / Supervision:
THE RELUCTANT PRoEEssioN
ing to
ing to ask
ask these kids
kids and
and her objectives.
objectives. Now, if I under-
under¬
stand correctly,
stand correctly, your
your objective
objective is
is to
to find out how much
these kids
these have learned
kids have learned about
about the
the conflict
Conflict between
between Par-
Par¬
liament and
and the
the king
king in
in the 1630's and maybe the early
1640's. II don't
don't know
know whether
whether you
you plan
plan to go that far or
not. Well, let me ask you the question: Is
not. Well, let me ask you the question: Is this
this solely
solely aa
kind of
kind of evaluation
evaluation lesson?
lesson? You
You just
just want to find out if
the background roles that they have studied have taken,
or do you want to go further than that and get them to
do something with the knowledge which they've picked
up about Parliament and the king? Now if it's the latter,
then maybe [teacher 1’s]l's] point is worth considering.
TEACHER:
Teacher: It's a combination. I want them to evaluate, and I
want them to use the knowledge to interpret, to go fur-
fur¬
ther and to perhaps predict. I'll ask them some predic-
predic¬
tive questions at the end of the lesson.
SuPi:RvisoR: Ah, very

Supervisor: Ah, very good.
good. Let's
Let's talk
talk about the "going
''going
further." I don't want to monopolize this, but let me just
take the "going further" point. Does the "going further"
—beCause that's relevant to [teacher 1’s]
—because l's] question—mean
you evaluate what they've learned from the roles and
how they
they can
can apply
apply this
this knowledge
knowledge to the explicit situa-
situa¬
tion of 1630 to 1640 or 1642, or is the “going
"going further"
applying this knowledge to more general kinds of prob-
prob¬
lems about
about power
power struggles
struggles in government
government and so on?
TEACHER:
Teacher: Well, honestly,
honestly, I hadn't thought
thought of that. I thought
of it it merely
merely in
in terms
terms ofof 1640,
1640, but
but ifif II do this properly
.. .. .. and
and they
they really understand it,
really understand it, then
then II think
think they
they will
will
be
be able able to
to apply
apply it it even
even without
without my my saying,
saying, specifically,
specifically,
apply it.
STUDENT TEACHER: Could
Student Teacher: Could II ask
ask just exactly from
just exactly from what,
what, be-
be¬
sides the role-playing,
sides the role-playing, do
do you
you expect
expect them
them to
to get
get their
their
information?
information? Do you plan
Do you to use
plan to a textbook
use a textbook or
or readings
readings
or something else?
CLINICAL SuI=ERvisIoN: THE
Clinical Supervision: ANALYsis or
The Analysis of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 87
87
TEACHER:
Teacher: No, we're using Educational Services Incorporated
materials soso we don't
don't have
have aa textbook
textbook on this. What
they did
did was they
they sent
sent us
us pamphlets and papers. In this
case each child received a profile telling who the person
they were playing was—you know, how much money he
had, his family background, his attitudes, whether he
was Puritan
Puritan or or Puritan sympathizer,
sympathizer, Anglican-exactly
Anglican—exactly
who
who he was as
he was as aa person. These are
person. These are all
all real
real people
people being
being
used inin each
each case.
case. So
So my idea
idea is to see if they really
understood or or if
if they merely
merely absorbed
absorbed the information
and "I'm
"I'm soso and
and soso and so"
so" and
and then
then didn't relate it to
the rest
rest of
of the
the situation.
situation.
STUDENT TEACHER: Well,
Student Teacher: Well, does E.S.I., in
does E.S.I., in the
the material
material they
they give
give
you—do they have any of these more contemporary
problems in
in mind? You know,
know, trying to relate it to
“larger”
"larger" objectives?
TEACHER:
Teacher: Well, that's up to the teacher. I think they should,
I think most historians would, as you pointed out, but in
this case it's up to the teacher to do as you wish and so
this is what I've done.
SUPERvIsoR:
Supervisor: I do think you might want to make, in your own
mind, before you go into this lesson, some sort of deci-
deci¬
sion about, if not exactly how far you're going with this,
whether you're going to relate it to the contemporary or
more general question or whether or not you're going to
stop with the implications for
for the
the particular period. It
might be wise to have some preconceived notion
might be wise to have some preconceived notion so
so that
that
your questions will make sense in terms of that.
TEACHER:
Teacher: Well, it depends on how much time I have—-as,
have—as, you
know, with all lessons. If I have time at the end, I'd
like to round it off and ask some questions like, "Can
you see that kind of conflict in the United States and if
so, why, and if not, why not?" And, of course, if I can't
perhaps I can do it tomorrow.
"I
88 /
88 / Supervision:
Sui=ERvisioN: The
THE RELUCTANT PRoEEssIoN
SUPERvIsoR:
Supervisor: So what
So what you're
you're saying
saying is,
is, you're
you're going
going to
to start
start
with the application
application to the
the specific
specific 1630-1642
1630 — 1642 situation
and if there's time . . .
TEACHER:
Teacher: If there's time I'll take it to today.
SUPERvIsoR:
Supervisor: Does that
that satisfy
satisfy you
you [referring
[referring to teacher 1]?
TEACHER 1:
Teacher 1: Yes—-uh, also II would presume part of the lesson
Yes—uh,
is designed to develop these skills, as you say on the les-
les¬
“compare and contrast," and that would
son plan, to "compare
seem to be a legitimate skill.
SUPERvIsoR:
Supervisor: Comment on that? You've
Would you want to comment
really stated one objective as trying to find out how
much they know. Do your objectives go further than
that?
that?
TEACHER:
Teacher: Well, the "compare and contrast" is to see if they
don't just know it but if they understand it and if they
can use it and if the content can actually be forged into
a tool and in that way it would apply to another situa-
situa¬
tion. As I said, if I taught the lesson Correctly
correctly and they
understood exactly what was going on, then they could
apply it to situations other than England in 1640.
TEACHER 1:
Teacher 1: Oh, II took that to mean that you were just going
to use
to use that
that as
as aa takeoff point to
to go
go on to the Common-
Common¬
wealth period and everything.
everything.
TEACHER:
Teacher: It's both—as
It's both—as II said—it's
said—-it's both a takeoff point and,
on the
the other
other hand,
hand, it’s also aa lesson per se, an artifact
it's also
that they
they can
can use
use later on
on .. .. ..
Joint planning of this kind is, then, the first phase of clini-
clini¬
cal supervision.
cal supervision. As As is
is obvious
obvious in
in the excerpt
excerpt above, both
short- and
short- and long-term objectives and
long-term objectives and the
the appropriateness
appropriateness ofof
the particular
particular content
content to to be taught
taught tend
tend to be emphasized.
emphasized.
The supervisor,
The supervisor, asas aa subject-matter
subject-matter specialist,
specialist, also
also raises
raises
basic questions
questions about
about thethe curriculum
curriculum rationale.
rationale. The clinical
supervisor's role
supervisor's role is by no
is by means, however,
no means, however, exclusively
exclusively to
to raise
raise
CLINICAL SuPERvisioN: The
ANALYSIS or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 89
89
questions. Planning conferences

conferences become quite explicit and
concrete in their analyses of possible alternative strategies of
teaching and
teaching and in
in the making and
the making and articulating
articulating of
of predictions
predictions as
as
to what
to what children
children will
will do and learn.
do and learn. Effective
Effective planning
planning sessions
sessions
involve
involve consideration
consideration of of how
how the
the teacher
teacher will
will deal
deal with
with con-
con¬
tingencies, such
tingencies, such asas aa child
child who has notnot done essential reading
or preparation, and how he will build in alternative ways of
teaching through group work, readings, texts, films and the
like. The fundamental purpose, again, is to provide a time and
a context in which the teacher thinks carefully and explicitly
about the process of instruction. Teaching is rarely charac- charac¬
terized by this kind of prologue. The argument is that there
are pitfalls in teaching which can be avoided, that two or
more teachers (whether beginner, experienced teacher or spe- spe¬
cialist in the curriculum and in the analysis of teaching) are
better at making predictions than is the solitary teacher oper- oper¬
ating hurriedly and alone and that more important than any
predictions or plans on paper is the continual process of com- com¬
bining experience, hard thinking and the making of hypotheses
about teaching and learning. Clinical supervision is saying
quite explicitly that what happens in the classroom need not
be viewed as intuitive or random or idiosyncratic. While, in
our present state of knowledge, it cannot be an exact tech- tech¬
nology, it can be viewed as a series of relatively specific oper-oper¬
ations leading to hoped-for consequences. If teachers apply
themselves to this intellectual task, teaching can become con- con¬
trolled, or at least “systematic,”
"systematic,” behavior.
OBSERVATION OF THE TEACHING
Most teaching occurs behind closed doors. The historical

reasons for this circumstance in elementary and secondary
education, and its consequences, are discussed elsewhere in
this book. In clinical supervision, however, the teaching per-
per¬
formance is regularly observed by the supervisor and by other
teachers. Observation is not casual; it has specific purposes.
W
90 /
90 / Supervision:
SUPERvIs1oN: The
THE Reluctant
PRoi=EssioN
Teaching
Teaching thus
thus becomes
becomes public
public rather
rather than private; the
than private; the pro-
pro¬
fessional
fessional objective
objective is
is its
its study
study and the modification
and the of its
modification of its
effect.
effect. The
The supervisor's
supervisor's first job, while
first job, while the actual instruction
the actual instruction
is going
is going on, is to make
make aa detailed record of
of what the teacher
says and does
says and does and
and what
what the
the students
students saysay and
and do.
do. Most
Most super-
super¬
visors have
have accomplished
accomplished this this byby taking extensive
extensive verbatim
notes—at times
notes—at times it it has
has seemed
seemed that proficiency in
that proficiency in shorthand
shorthand
is second only to proficiency in subject matter as a qualifica-
is second only to proficiency in subject matter as a qualifica¬
tion for
tion for the clinical
clinical supervisor!
supervisor! Audio-
Audio- and
and videotapes, how-
how¬
ever, are increasingly used to record what is said and done
during the teaching. Their advantages—a virtually complete
sound and visual record of the teaching available to both
teacher and supervisor, multiple replay—seem replay-seem to outweigh
their disadvantages—high
disadvantages—-high cost, particularly of videotape
equipment, technical difficulties with sound recording, rapid
obsolescence and the cumbersomeness of the equipment.
Teachers and supervisors without experience of video- video¬
taping often express a great deal of anxiety about the intru- intru¬
sion of the supervisor and electronic gadgetry into classrooms.
Their argument usually has two parts: 1) that supervision of
any kind is an infringement on the autonomy and instruc- instruc¬
tional style of the teacher, and 2) that the presence of a super- super¬
visor and, particularly, of recording equipment has an effect
on the teacher and students that invalidates any "data" so
collected. Videotaped teaching, it is argued, cannot possibly
be representative. It has been found, however, that experience
quickly accustoms most classes and most teachers to the
equipment. Students do get used to videotaping faster than
do their
their teachers. Technology
Technology of of this type
type has proved its use-
use¬
fulness by by contributing
contributing significantly
significantly to the accuracy and
validity of the supervisor's observation of teaching. It also
permits teachers
teachers to to see
see and
and hear
hear themselves
themselves teaching, some-
some¬
thing which has has previously
previously been
been missing
missing from
from their pre- and
in-service training.
CLINICAL SuPERvIsIoN: THE
Analysis or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 91
91
Videotaping, then,
Videotaping, then, is
is aa way
way to
to preserve a complete record
of
of the
the teaching,
teaching, permitting
permitting repeated observation, "stop-
action" and
action" and "instant
"instant replay."
replay." It does
does not in itself, however,
provide categories, insights
provide categories, insights or
or aa conceptual
conceptual framework
framework for for
analyzing teaching.
analyzing teaching. At some
some point,
point, then, while observing the
teaching or a replay of it, and preparing for discussion, the
supervisor and the teacher confront the question of what to
observe. This amounts to deciding how to categorize the
teaching behavior and
teaching and how
how to make
make inferences about it-init—in
short, how to
short, to make
make sense
sense of
of the
the teaching
teaching so as to identify the
competent teacher
competent teacher or
or the factors
factors that
that make for competence
and to make accessible
and accessible the
the learnings
learnings the
the teacher requires.
A unique feature of clinical supervision is its emphasis on
observation of the teacher in interaction with students. The
one criterion of teaching whose validity has not been chal- chal¬
lenged is the learning of the pupils, and clinical supervision,
in judging outcome, emphasizes the pupils’pupils' responses and be-be¬
havior as they are being taught. What I/Vhat pupils say and do as
they are being taught is the most immediate and valid index
of their learning available to the supervisor. By focusing on
pupil behavior in relation to the intent of the teacher, the
supervisor and the teacher will have a baseline against which
to gauge the results of changes in the teacher's performance.
Such a focus will serve, too, to keep the supervisor and the
teacher from assuming that the teacher is the exclusive cause
of all that happens in the classroom.
What pupil behavior, then, is it useful for the supervisor
and the teacher to look at and analyze? What pupil behavior
is the best index of learning? The teacher's objectives for inin¬
struction provide a valuable point of reference. The supervi-
supervi¬
sor knows these objectives from the joint planning conference
or plan for instruction. Are the pupils working with or
against the teacher? Whether their behavior furthers or im- im¬
pedes the teacher's planned objectives, whether it is neutral
W
92 /
92 / Supervision-
SuPERvisIoN- The
THE Reluctant
RELIICTANT Profession
PRoEEssioN
or
or unclassifiable
unclassifiable in
in this
this respect,
respect, is
is important
important information.
information.
Cogan
Cogan (1961)
(1961) suggests
suggests aa number
number ofof other categories of
other categories of pupil
pupil
behavior which
behavior which it
it is
is useful to
to observe
observe carefully:
carefully:
Performance of required work
Performance of
Performance of self-initiated
self-initiated responses
responses
Problem-solving behavior
Behavior indicating
Behavior indicating the
the learning
learning and/or
and/or use
use of
of concepts,
concepts, principles,
principles,
generalizations
Behavior indicating
indicating attitudes
attitudes or changes
changes in attitudes and appreciations
Occasions on
on which
which the
the pupils suggest
suggest new
new problems
problems and new situa-
situa¬
tions related to familiar learnings
Occasions on which they draw conclusions, voice opinions, present

or challenge the evidence and the logic of others’
others' conclusions
(p. 19).
(p. 19).
Once the supervisor and teacher have a clear picture of the

range of student reaction, it may be useful to transfer their
attention to teacher behavior and other factors related to
classroom learning. What teacher behaviors is it productive to
observe? The field of supervision is overburdened with check-
check¬
lists and itemizations of teacher behavior. The range of such
Categories,
categories, from "knowledge of subject matter" through
"questioning," "relationship with pupils" and "discipline" to
"professional conduct," and the like, is probably familiar to
most readers. In clinical
Clinical supervision, by contrast, there is con-
con¬
siderable variation in what is observed or categorized, a varia-
varia¬
tion explained
explained by
by the
the diagnostic
diagnostic experience
experience and skill of the
supervisor. Teaching tends to be classified and discussed in
terms of such factors as:
1. The teacher's
teacher’s ability
ability to communicate.
communicate. This involves such
factors as the teacher's audibility, the coherence of his presen-
presen¬
tation, the transitions, the degree of abstraction in his lan-
CLINICAL SuPERvisIoN: THE
Clinical Supervision: ANALYSIS or
The Analysis of TEACHING / 93
Teaching / 93
guage and
guage the like.
and the like. We
We are
are reminded
reminded of
of aa student
student teacher
teacher
giving aa lesson
giving on currency
lesson on currency devaluation
devaluation to
to aa seventh-grade
seventh-grade
social studies
social studies class.
class. The
The level of the
level of the material
material might
might have
have been
been
suitable to
suitable to aa sophomore
sophomore tutorial in economics
tutorial in economics at
at Yale;
Yale; the
the de-
de¬
gree of
gree of abstraction
abstraction in
in terms
terms was such that
was such that the
the children
children listened
listened
uncomprehendingly
uncomprehendingly to to what
what was
was essentially
essentially an
an excited
excited lecture
lecture
in a foreign language.
2. The logic
2. The logic of the teaching
of the teaching strategy
strategy or
or method
method employed.
employed.
This has been
been discussed
discussed above
above inin relation to the organization
of teaching.
3. The
The teacher's
teacher's performance
performance of of "instrumental
"instrumental tasks." The
teacher may
teacher may be inefficient
inefficient in
in distributing
distributing or collecting papers,
he may not
he not have
have extra
extra pencils
pencils so
so that
that the children can mark
key passages in a story, he may talk to the blackboard instead
of the class, or have unreadable handwriting or attempt to
Conduct a group discussion with the desks arranged so rigidly
conduct
that children must speak to each other's backs. This kind of
instrumental behavior, or classroom management, cannot be
ignored. The problem can be the opposite, however. Any
teacher who has been supervised probably has vivid memories
of the turbulence created in him by some supervisor's endless
attention to this kind of behavior. The real danger is that the
supervisor will overemphasize this dimension of teaching or
magnify trivialities.
4. The motivational effect of the teaching. As has been
noted, the relevance or interest of the proposed subject matter
is usually considered at the stage of planning. We refer here
to the actual or perceived stimulus value of the teacher's pres-
pres¬
entation. The supervisor is, admittedly, dealing with intangi-
intangi¬
bles and difficult inferences. Nonetheless, teaching behavior
is either dull or imaginative and stimulating, and the teacher
either does or does not communicate commitment to and inin¬
tellectual enthusiasm about the content. For example, a super-
super¬
visor, talking to a teacher about an eighth-grade English class,
1'9
94 /
94 / Supervision:
SuPERvIsIoN: The
THE Reluctant
RELUCTANT PRoEEssIoN
Profession
points out
points out that
that rapport
rapport and
and motivation were established early
in the lesson:
SuPERvisoR: You felt

Supervisor: You felt that the beginning
beginning of
of the class set the
tone you wanted. And they were with you, you know-
know—
it was a class of human beings. And kids were smiling
and you were laughing and there was just that feeling of
togetherness, to use a trite word, at the beginning. Now,
the point where you started, “I "l am going to read you a
story today. As we read, I would like you to look for
clues as to why this little girl is there and who she is and
what sort of place she lives in.”
in."
TEACHER:
Teacher: Right.
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: Well, you did a a very good thing there. You put
that on the board . . . You took the time to write on the
board.
TEACHER:
Teacher: Three things.
SUPERvisoR:
Supervisor: Right. "Why is she there?”
there?" "Who is she?"
she?”
"What sort of place does she live in?”in?" Then you ex-
ex¬
plained: "The
“The reason for doing this is that I have left
off the ending of the story, and after reading it we are
going to talk about it, and I want you to see if you can
imagine, for
for homework,
homework, how the story
story should end.“
end.” So
they had good
good reason toto be
be attentive
attentive during the story,
didn't they?
It will be
be evident
evident in
in subsequent
subsequent excerpts
excerpts from
from this particular
supervisory conference that
supervisory conference that the
the supervisor
supervisor thinks
thinks much
much ofof
this initial motivation
this initial motivation was subsequently lost.
was subsequently lost. Obviously,
Obviously, stu-
stu¬
dent motivation will
dent motivation will vary with the
vary with the material
material andand with
with the
the
teacher's treatment of
teacher's treatment of it.
it. To
To clarify
clarify that
that interaction
interaction isis part
part of
of
the clinical
clinical supervisor's
supervisor's job.
job.
5.
5. The quality of the personal
The quality of the relationship established
personal relationship established be-
be¬
tween
tween thethe teacher
teacher and
and his
his pupils. Carl Rogers
pupils. Carl Rogers has
has argued
argued that
that
ANALYSIS of
or TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 95
95
the quality
the quality of
of interpersonal relationship
relationship established between
the teacher
the teacher and
and the
the learner
learner has
has aa more
more significant effect on
learning outcome
outcome than than any any other
other variable. Furthermore, it is
probably important to to two
two major kinds
kinds of learning. The first
is social
is social and
a_n_d_xp_s,y,Cholog_i,g_:_al
psychological learning learning on the part of students
about the
about the kind
kind ofof society
society “tT{éi’tR1=-rtrol
thel7~sctrool is and the kind of in-in¬
dividual the teacher is—arbitrary, judgmental, subject-cen- subject-cen¬
tered, intellectually stimulating, supportive or whatever.
Every teacher is, in a very real sense, a psychological educator
of children, just as the school has, in addition to its formal
curriculum, a hidden curriculum of social and psychological
attitudes. Second, there is evidence that the quality of the
interpersonal relationship substantially affects learning reten- reten¬
tion, recall and transfer of the formal curriculum. The super- super¬
visor will want to look closely at the feelings the pupils ex- ex¬
perience, as they are taught, about the teacher as a person.
Among the variables which contribute to such feelings as
interpersonal anxiety, fear, like or dislike of the teacher are
the predictability of his relationships with children, the types
of rewards and/or punishments he employs, and his state- state¬
ments about what is right or wrong in children's behavior, in
class and out.
6. Content. This is an important category of observation.
supervision’s method of analyzing content has al-
Clinical supervision's al¬
ready been discussed in connection with the planning phase.
It is at this point that predictions made in advance of the les- les¬
son about the suitability of content, the correctness of its
communication, its motivational characteristics, and the like,
are studied in terms of actuality. An example from the super- super¬
vision conference on which we have already eavesdropped
may be illustrative:
TEACHER:
Teacher: Someone came up after the class, one of the visitors
who was observing, and said, "That was a very difficult
assignment you gave them." The only way to tell is to
rv
96 / SUPERvisioN: THE RELUCTANT PRo1=EssioN
see who
see who does
does the
the homework.
homework. But
But II was
was pleased
pleased that Ray
came up and
came up and asked
asked me
me about
about it, because last
it, because last time
time he
he just
just
didn't do the homework.
SUPERVIsoR:
Supervisor: What did you feel about the observation that it
was a very difficult assignment?
TEACHER:
Teacher: I don't know ....
. . I don't think it would have to be.
There is a very easy way out. I mean all the kids have to
do is say that the little girl is under the spell of a magi-
magi¬
cian. I thought when I gave it that it was an assignment
that was as sophisticated as the kids wanted to make it
or could make it. It could be just as simple as, you know,
the little girl is dreaming, or the student could go into
something deeper. I should have brought up things
about dreams and about "magic" in the discussion, but
I didn't. You know, give them another clue.
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: Well, you really won't know how difficult this
assignment is from the kids’
kids' viewpoint until . . .
TEACHER:
Teacher: ....
. . I get the assignment back tomorrow.
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: Right. I don't agree with the observation. I had
the feeling before you started that it was going to
be difficult. I think there are some clues in the lesson
that would say that it wasn't that difficult for the kids.
[Supervisor presents evidence from children's answers,
in class, that the material per se is not too complex.]
In summary, then, clinical supervision has both eyes focused

on teaching—in situo and in process—and on its components:
content, pedagogy and the interpersonal effect of the teacher.
The supervisor
supervisor goes
goes where
where the instructional
instructional action is, to re-
re¬
cord what
cord what happens
happens in
in the
the teaching
teaching and
and to begin to
to infer
infer why.
While technology can solve the problem of selective, biased
perception by recording the exact process of instruction, the
hard thinking
hard thinking about
about that
that enormously
enormously complex
complex process re-re¬
mains to be done.
CLINICAL SuPERvisIoN: The
ANALYSIS or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 97
97
EVALUATION OR ANALYSIS AFTER THE TEACHING
The crucial phase

The crucial phase in the analysis
in the analysis ofof instruction
instruction isis the
the confer-
confer¬
ence
ence following
following thethe teaching.
teaching. IfIf the
the conference
conference occurs
occurs imme-
imme¬
diately after the
diately after the teaching, the perceptions
teaching, the perceptions and
and feelings
feelings of of both
both
supervisor and
supervisor teacher are
and teacher are still
still fresh
fresh and
and acute.
acute. There
There cancan be
be
disadvantages to
disadvantages to an
an immediate conference, however.
immediate conference, however. Feelings
Feelings
may
may be too acute
be too acute (the
(the teacher
teacher may
may bebe discouraged
discouraged or or defen-
defen¬
sive or
sive or “unobjective"). Further, the
"unobjective”). Further, the supervisor
supervisor isis at
at aa distinct
distinct
disadvantage if he does not have enough time to review the
data derived
derived from
from observation and and to begin the process of
making tentative
tentative inferences and and deciding
deciding what the data ap- ap¬
pear to
to say
say about
about thethe content, the the method of teaching and
what the
what the children
children are learning.
learning. HeHe needs
needs time, too, to decide
upon a plan or agenda for the supervision session. Sufficient
time, then, for the supervisor and teacher to think, and for
the teacher to catch his breath emotionally, is very important
to the outcome of the conference itself.
Identifying Recurrent Patterns in the Teaching

Analysis of the teaching performance can be conducted on
several levels, the most complex of which concern abstrac-
abstrac¬
tions or numerous variables. Let us consider first the types of
analysis which are usually rejected in clinical supervision:
The most common of these is the simple inventory, or list,
of the events of the teaching period. A series of discrete events
in the teaching is noted and assigned cause-and-effect rela- rela¬
tionships by the supervisor. These are recapitulated for the
teacher, correlated and checked off as “covered.”
"covered.” Such super-
super¬
vision is descriptive, ad hoc and unanalytic. A second kind of
analysis focuses on critical incidents. Details are played down,
and the supervisor tends to deal principally with what he sees
as turning points or critical events in the teaching. This is
rather like reading a novel for lurid passages of violence or
sex. The result may be a stimulating hour, but one's under-
98 / SuPERvIsIoN: THE RELUCTANT PRoEEssioN
standing
standing ofof the
the plot,
plot, characterization
characterization and and "meaning"
"meaning" will
will bebe
distorted.
distorted. The problem with
The problem with this
this approach
approach is is that
that critical
critical
incidents are analyzed without trying to help the teacher un-
incidents are analyzed without trying to help the teacher un¬
derstand why they became
derstand became critical
critical or
or to see
see them as something
more than
more than separate
separate incidents,
incidents, in
in the
the most literal
literal sense of both
words. The kind of reading and thought which
words. The kind of reading and thought which goes
goes into
into
textual analysis
textual analysis is a better
better analogy
analogy for for the
the level of analysis
aimed for in clinical supervision.
The most complex and valuable level of supervisory analy- analy¬
sis involves
sis involves identifying
identifying recurrent patterns in what is being
taught, in the teaching itself and in the ways students re-
re¬
spond. When these patterns are brought to the attention of
the teacher, in connection with alternatives available to him,
they may help him to change his teaching behavior. It should
be remembered that the analysis of teaching is a means to
change teaching behavior, that is, to encourage teachers to
behave in particular ways as they teach. This is what is meant
in clinical supervision by the objective of “the
"the improvement
instruction.” In clinical supervision an attempt is made to
of instruction."
direct the post-teaching conference toward discussion of re- re¬
curring patterns in content, teaching or student behavior and
of their possible interrelations. We have already noted the
assumption in
assumption in clinical
clinical supervision
supervision that
that teaching
teaching is organized
or patterned
or patterned behavior. Cogan
Cogan provides
provides a useful example of
such aa pattern,
such pattern, and
and discusses its
its implications:
implications:
A student teacher was attempting to have his Class

class arrive at some
critically examined generalizations about the characteristics of Amer-
Amer¬
ican heroes. A portion of the discussion went as follows:
PUPIL: Jesse James stole
Pupil: stole from
from the
the rich
rich to give
give to the poor.
TEACHER: Since a robber obviously can be a hero, we had better cross
Teacher:
"honesty" off our list of characteristics.
SEcoND PUPIL: Our
Second Pupil: Our heroes
heroes come
come from
from the
the common
common people
people like
like
Abraham Lincoln.
TEACHER: So we can
Teacher: So can say
say that
that one
one characteristic
characteristic of
of the American hero
is humble
is humble origin.
origin.
CLINICAL SUPERvisioN: THE
Clinical Supervision: ANALYSIS or
Teaching /
/ 99
99
THIRD Pupil:
Third PUPIL: Billy the Kid . . .
TEACHER: (interrupts) Yes, aa great gunfighter.
Teacher: (interrupts) gunfighter.
FOURTH Pupil:
Fourth PUPIL: Andrew Jackson was a great fighter too. He came <
from the common
Common people and fought for their rights.
TEACHER:
Teacher: Look on
on page
page 237
237 in
in your
your text
text and you will find proof of
that. Now we've had characteristics of Common
common origin, love of
common people, personal bravery, and so on. Now Andrew
Jackson . . .
Such interchanges took place several times in the Course
course of the
lesson. The period had started well, but had ended in inattention and
disorder. What is the pattern? The pupils propose an idea, the teacher
Contributions, the teacher makes
elaborates it. The pupils make single contributions,
the generalization. The pupils make assertions, the teacher finds evi-
evi¬
dence for them. The meaning of the pattern? It may be that the
teacher sees himself as the active person in the classroom transac-
transac¬
tions. He casts the pupils in the role of suppliers of facts and single
ideas. He himself evaluates, elaborates, proves, and draws conclusions.
This is not a great and dramatic insight, but it does help to make
sense for the student teacher of what before seemed to be uncon- uncon¬
nected events. It permits him to make an informed guess as to why
Class became disorderly at the end of the period. But more im-
the class im¬
portant, the teacher has seen his own behavior and can be helped
directly in planning to improve (1) his perception of what the teacher
should do, and (2) how to teach from within the implications of this
perception” (pp. 27-28).
perception"
A further example of the analysis of teaching patterns and

alternative approaches may be useful to the reader. A teacher
has read a short story, "The
“The Little Girl of the Sea," to an eighth-
grade English class. The children follow attentively and with
apparent interest. The teacher then proceeds to question them
for their interpretations of the story. His questioning is hur-
hur¬
ried, rhetorical and makes little intellectual demand on the
students. The effect of the questions is to put the teacher's
answers in the children's mouths. The students do not cause
the teacher trouble; rather, they become confused and pas- pas¬
sive. The following discussion between the supervisor and
‘I
100 / Supervision:
100 / SUPERvisioN: The
THE Reluctant
PRoEEssioN
the teacher occurs about halfway through the supervisory

conference:
SUPERvIsoR:
Supervisor: Let's talk about the way the class responded, as
compared to how you might have wanted them to re- re¬
spond. The first question you asked when you finished
reading was, “What's the thing that you know most
about the little girl?" At that point, six hands went up.
You took one response. After you took the response,
you moved immediately to the next question. You made
a choice there, consciously or unconsciously: "I “I am not
going to take six responses, I'm going to take one re- re¬
sponse." O.K. Think what's happening in your mind, as
compared to what's happening in their minds. Then you
said, "Is
“Is there something else we know about the little
girl?" This question seemed to say to me, "The“The first re-
re¬
sponse I got is a nice response, but it isn't what I want.
Is there something else we know about the little girl?"
No hands were up; you got no response. Then you said,
"Well, what's strange about the little girl?" One hand
went up, one response. Then you asked, “Does"Does she miss
people?" No hands went up. Then you said, "Well, look
on page 2," and you read the passage, and then you re- re¬
phrased the same question. One hand went up; you took
the response. You said, "Right." Then you gave a state-
state¬
ment of conclusion,
Conclusion, what that answer meant. Then you
asked, "What sort of sentence is that?" You had no
hands up; you got no response. You gave the answer to
the question. Then you said, "Can
“Can you think of any- any¬
thing else?" One hand went up; you took one response.
You said, "Right." Then you gave a Concluding
concluding sen-
sen¬
tence, what that answer meant. Then this is the point
where you felt you had to draw a conclusion from this
sequence of questions and responses, and you said,
"These are the two important things about the girl,"
CLINICAL SUPERvisioN: The
Clinical Supervision: THE ANALYSIS
Analysis or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 101
101
and you
you wrote them
them on the
the board. "She's lonely and she
is
is .. .. ."
." whatever
whatever the second was.
the second was.
TEACHER:
Teacher.- Ageless.
SUPERVisoR:
Supervisor: "Ageless." Well, let's
"Ageless." let's stop at that point. You
know, is there anything in that pattern of questioning or
that sequence
sequence of
of questioning
questioning that
that gives you any clues to
the way the class was responding or not responding and
why?
TEACHER:
Teacher: Well, let me answer sort of a different question and
see if that won't work it out. I think that this was a mis-
mis¬
take. And
And II have noticed that
that while
while I'm looking for class
participation, I'm looking for what I/ want from them. In
other words, I'm not really trying to get class participa-
participa¬
tion. I could have asked a question that could have got- got¬
ten all six people talking, who raised their hands at first,
which might have brought
brought about
about other things without
me having to aim for them. Because I got my answer, I
put it on the board, and went on to the next. Then the
kids say to themselves, "Oh-oh, he wants a special anan¬
swer. I'd better be very careful with what I say or I'm
not going to get the right answer."
answer.“ In other words, they
would be more worried about whether they gave the
right answer rather than just participating in some little
discussion of what's going on in the story. In other
words, I turned the kids away from the story to me and
I kept on manipulating the classroom for my answers
rather than trying to find out what they thought. And in
a certain way I could defend that, by saying that this
might have been necessary for them to understand the
story, but I think that they could have done better and
I think that possibly they would understand more if I
hadn%.
hadn't.
SUPERV1s0R: Is there another hypothesis here that we haven't

Supervisor: Is
examined? You think this was necessary for them to
102 / SUPERvisioN: THE RELUCTANT PRoEEssIoN
understand the
understand the story. With the
story. With the exception of the
exception of the first
first
question, each time you asked a question, you got
question, each time you asked a question, you got aa re-
re¬
sponse. Then
sponse. Then the hypothesis is,
is, "I
"I got
got the answer, they
are moving with me.”
TEACHER:
Teacher: Yeah, when the
Yeah, when the fact
fact was
was that
that II got
got the
the answer
answer II
wanted. I just assumed that they were with me.
SUPERvisoR:
Supervisor: Because there
Because there is a lesson
is a lesson up there in
up there in your
your mind,
mind,
you know. It's clicking along piece by piece.
TEACHER:
Teacher: Exactly. In fairness to me I think I did try to check
out some
out some other
other kids.
kids. Like when
when I called
called on Wayne in the
back of the room and asked him. You know, sometimes
I sort of harped on things, it seemed to me, from differ-
differ¬
ent people. But you're right.
SUPERvisoR:
Supervisor: Butl
But I think your observation about the things
they were picking up after that first questioning se- se¬
quence—-you
quence—you know, what clues were the kids picking
up, consciously or unconsciously—-is
unconsciously—is a very important
one. I mean your observation about “Mr."Mr. Jones is look-
look¬
ing for an answer and he will ask a question till he gets
that answer, and then he is going to give the meaning
of the answer." You did do that every time, it’s it's true.
Here is the answer, this is what it means, and you gave
a little statement of conclusion and moved on to the next
question.
TEACHER:
Teacher: Exactly. That goes back to playing God in the class-
class¬
room, which
which was
was what
what II was trying
trying to get away from.
Yeah, I don't think that was very good.
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: What are the alternatives?
TEACHER: Well, this

Teacher: Well, this is the
the difficulty.
difficulty. It's
It's really
really hard for me to
work out
out an
an alternative
alternative now.
now. II will
will have
have to think about
that. I can't really answer that now.
SUPERvisoR: One base
Supervisor: One base for
for working
working out
out an
an alternative, you
know, isis to
to think
think in
in terms
terms of
of an
an analogy
analogy that I like to
use: this
this is my
my lesson
lesson up
up here
here in my
my head that is making
CLINICAL SUPERvisioN: THE
Analysis or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 103
103
these turns one

one cog
cog at
at aa time. What assurance can I
build into the
the thing that
that the class—22
class—22 people--is
people—is going
to move that way also? is
TEACHER:
Teacher: Right. The question is whether you're going to put
the emphasis on the kids or on the lesson, and I put the
emphasis on the lesson.
SUPERvisoR: Sometimes, in
Supervisor: Sometimes, in some
some settings,
settings, that amounts to
deciding at a given point in the lesson that you want the
focus to lead to a conclusion. So you break the class up
into little groups and let them try to get to that conclu-
conclu¬
sion. Then you talk about, "What
“What conclusion did you
come to, what conclusion did you come to, what con- con¬
clusion did you come to?" and that gives the clue to the
kids that it's important that they come to the conclu-
conclu¬
sion. The clues they were picking up from this sequence
were, "He knows what questions he wants answered, and
then he will tell us the significance of the answer when
he gets the answer." So at that point in my mind the
kids can tune out. I don't mean turn off, I mean tune out
of the activity. They can go back into neutral. You had
them in gear and they were moving along nicely and
then you put them in neutral again with that question-
question¬
ing sequence.
TEACHER: Right . . ..
Teacher: Right
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: May II make a further suggestion along this line?
And that is that instead of asking a question of fact like,
“Where is she?" you can ask the question that forces
"Where
“What do you make of where she
them to use that fact: "What
is?" Assume they can't answer that question. Then you
“Well, where is she?" Then back, "What do you
ask, "Well,
make of that?" In other words, if you ask them a big
question and they can't answer it, then you can always
ask the factual question. Another example is, "What do
you make of the difference between her town and our
town?" This is level two. Level one is, “What
"What are the
1
104 / Supervision:
104 / SUPERvIsioN: The
THE Reluctant
PRoEEssioN
differences between her

differences her town
town and
and our town?" Then the
next question is, "What do you make of that?" You can
turn those upside down and say, “What
"What do you make of
the differences
the differences between her
her town
town and
and our town?“
town?" And
then there is no response. "Well, what are the differ-
differ¬
ences between her town and our town?"
TEACHER:
Teacher: My problem here is is that
that I've had a great deal of
difficulty getting simple answers.
SUPERvisoR:
Supervisor: Well, that's what I mean. I don't say to you, Get
the simple answers. I'm hypothesizing that you can't get
the simple answers and you can maybe give them a
question that engages their minds more.
TEACHER: see.
Teacher: Oh, I see.
SUr>ERvIsoR:
Supervisor: A simple question may be not challenging them
to think, because it's an obvious answer or they feel the
answer is easy so they don't go looking for it. They're
not motivated enough to seek the answer. Another ex- ex¬
ample might be, "What do the details of the picture tell
you?" Or, rather, "If you saw the photographs she
found of the woman and the man, what would you
make of it?" No response. "Well, "Well, how was the man
dressed in
dressed in the
the photograph?"
photograph?" And then then another example,
example,
"The story
story tells
tells you
you where she she is.
is. What
What do you make
of that?"
that?" Not "Where
"Where is is she?
she? What
What do you make of it?"
as two
as two questions,
questions, but asas one
one question
question which forces them
to use
to use facts
facts to
to construct
construct hypotheses to use their imag-imag¬
inations. In other
other words,
words, this seems
seems to me to be in line
with what
with what you
you want
want to do or
to do or what
what youyou want
want them
them to
to do.
do.
TEACHER:
Teacher: That's good.
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: OrOr another
another example,
example, "How
“How can
can you explain that
no ships
ships see
see her
her village?
village? How can can you
you explain that the
boat goes
goes right
right over her?
her? How do do you
you explain that?" In-
In¬
stead of asking
stead of asking for
for the facts and
the facts and then
then coming
coming to
to the
the con-
con¬
clusion. II think
think this
this is
is very
very important
important because the effect
CLINICAL SuPERvisioN: THE
Analysis or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 105
105
of doing
doing this isis the
the effect
effect of
of building
building a problem context.
So the kids
So the kids perceive
perceive the the problem
problem context:
context: "Here's
"Here's aa
problem
problem to to solve,"
solve," and and then
then you
you ask
ask the
the factual
factual ques-
ques¬
tion that will
tion that will help them solve
help them solve the
the problem.
problem. "How
"How do do
you explain
explain .. .. ." "Well
"Well then,
then, what
what is . .. Then they
have
have a a context
Context for for the
the "What
“What is"is" question.
question. It
It leads
leads to
to
the solution
solution ofof that
that particular
particular problem.
problem.
TEACHER:
Teacher: That's good, that's good.
This excerpt
excerpt merits
merits aa brief commentary.
commentary. It is interesting to
note the
the supervisor's
supervisor's extensive
extensive use
use of
of evidence. He draws on
detailed notes
notes in
in his first
first remarks
remarks to
to the teacher. Indeed, he
has almost
almost aa complete texttext of
of what
what happened in class. With
the teacher
teacher hehe identifies the
the central
central pattern and "problem"
in the teaching.
teaching. In
In aa summary
summary not included
included in the excerpt he
puts the problem directly:
SUPERvIsoR: You know,

Supervisor: You know, II thought
thought you
you had 22 kids with you,
and I really had the feeling that they were there with
you; there was no barrier between you at all, no screen,
no wall. All working together. Then you started the
reading, you started the questioning sequence, and grad-
grad¬
ually the
the kids went
went into neutral or you disengaged them,
and my
my hypothesis
hypothesis is that this
this happened because of the
questioning pattern, their response pattern, and your
giving conclusions
conclusions to
to responses
responses and doing all the work.
The problem as I see it is to maintain the engagement;
you know, if you really want the class to focus on a con-
con¬
clusion or lead to a conclusion or lead to an understand-
understand¬
ing, then somehow you have to devise the means to let
them do that work instead of your doing it.
The supervisor then raises the question of how, pedagogically,

to avoid "disengaging" the students, and proceeds to teach
the teacher two methods: the use of small groups and two in-
106 / Supervision:
106 / SUPERVISION: Tm:
The Rnucmwr PROFESSION
terrelated questioning procedures which effectively let the

pupils do the intellectual work. The supervisor is direct, busi-
busi¬
nesslike and relatively didactic. Yet the teacher plays a sig-
sig¬
nificant
nificant intellectual part in the analysis of what went wrong.
Reinforcing Successful Teaching

The fourth and most comprehensive supervisory strategy is,
then, to identify the most prominent behaviors and patterns
of instruction, select those that can be changed and offer sug- sug¬
gestions for the development of more effective teaching.
Change is built on successful elements in the teaching per- per¬
formance and on the teacher's
teacher’s own abilities, preferences and
views of what a competent teacher does. Thus, successful ele- ele¬
ments in the teaching must be rewarded with praise. What
has worked for the teacher can be one of the most useful
models for him to follow. Reinforcement has the additional
effect of allaying somewhat the teacher's
teacher’s anxiety about the
analysis of his teaching. Such anxiety is always present, for
the beginner and the experienced teacher. He I-Ie has understand-
understand¬
able fears that his teaching will be found wanting or that he,
not his teaching, is being evaluated.
The conclusion
conclusion of of the
the supervisory conference from which
we just
just quoted
quoted illustrates
illustrates the
the reinforcement
reinforcement of successful ele-
ele¬
ments in the teaching:
SUPERVISOR:
Supervisor: I’d like to
I'd like to leave
leave it
it perfectly
perfectly clear
clear in your mind
that I think,
think, from what what II see—the
see—the way
way I see you working
and the way
and the way I've
I’ve seen
seen others
others work—that
work--that II would
would predict
predict
that you
that you will have aa very
will have very high degree of
high degree of success
success inin work-
work¬
ing
ing with young people. The reason I say this is that
with young people. The reason I say this is that
there is
there is incontrovertible evidence that
incontrovertible evidence that you
you areare really
really
thinking
thinking of of them
them and and thinking
thinking of of their
their problems,
problems, and and II
would just
would just like
like to to recite
recite my evidence for
my evidence for that
that conclu-
conclu¬
sion. Some
sion. Some of of this
this may seem very
may seem very small,
small, but
but toto me
me itit is
is
very significant. First,
very significant. First, you
you knew
knew their
their names;
names; you
you knew
knew
their names when
their names when you started. How
you started. How many
many teachers
teachers know
know
ANALYSIS or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 107
107
the kids'
kids’ names? I-Iow
How many teachers care about the
names? Your
Your knowing
knowing their
their names said to them incon-
trovertibly, “He
"He wants to know me, he cares about me
as an individual. I matter."
matter.” Then another thing—you
mentioned writing on the board, which is simply con- con¬
siderate of them, but the thing that lit up for me was,
“Do
"Do you have any questions before we begin reading?”
reading?"
I think this is a very, very important and good thing to
do, because instead of keeping everybody off balance,
you keep putting the kids on balance, you see. Instead
of knocking them about with your questions or oi with
your assignments or with your procedures, you’re you're con-
con¬
stantly getting them set in balance. You put it on the
board so that they can read it, you ask them if there are
any questions before you begin; there aren't any. An- An¬
other piece of evidence is your reading ....
. . I say do read
to kids because you read beautifully, and it’sit's an impor-
impor¬
tant part of their education, too, to hear literature—not
hyperdramatic, but just good, solid, straight reading like
Frost read his stuff. You read that way-straight
way—straight and
powerfully.
It hardly needs remarking that the teacher, hearing these

comments, is likely not only to feel good, and encouraged
professionally, but also to repeat these particular teaching
behaviors.
Two general points should be made here. Clinical super-
super¬
vision aims to help the teacher capitalize on his strengths,
compensate for his weaknesses and develop his own individ-
individ¬
“best” teaching style. The means of doing so, derived
ual and "best"
from reinforcement theory in learning, is to reinforce effective
teaching and permit ineffective teaching to extinguish. Sec-
Sec¬
ond, within the very broad limits of competence defined by
the supervisor, the teacher has freedom and is urged to de- de¬
velop a teaching style of his own. The autonomy of the
teacher, is, then, both a strategy and a belief about the indi-
1
108 / SUPERVISION: THE RELUCTANT Pnortssron
vidual and learning. The current research, reviewed in Chap-

Chap¬
ter Three, does not justify a single view of effective teaching
individual’s teaching is probably
or the effective teacher. The individual's
an expression of long-established behavior patterns, and is
most authentic and effective when it is a developed, disci- disci¬
plined personal expression, rather than an imitative or deriv-
deriv¬
ative behavior. The clinical supervisor thus forms hypotheses
about appropriate change in the teaching while continuing to
value the teacher's
teacher’s personal and professional autonomy. "Per-"Per¬
sonality factors,"
factors,” in particular are outside the jurisdiction of
”[The] purposes [of clinical supervi-
the clinical supervisor. "[The] supervi¬
sion] are to improve teaching performance, not to reform
personality; the proper subject of supervisory sessions is
[teaching] behavior, not persons; and the major goal is con- con¬
structive, not merely critical"
critical” (Cogan 1961, p. 14).
Some pragmatic "tricks
“tricks of the trade"
trade” have been found pro-
pro¬
ductive in this post-teaching analysis session. The supervisor
should plan a strategy for each conference, as well as a long-
range supervisory program for each teacher. Time invested in
studying the data or videotape of the teaching performance,
and in making inferences about it, pays off. A limited number
-two
—two or three, as a rule of thumb--major
thumb—major points or interpre-
interpre¬
tations of what is happening in, or affecting, the teaching
may be the most productive kind of agenda. “The "The honest,
tough, objective
objective facts ofof the performance”
performance" (p. 29) should be
the basic material of the analysis. Reinforcement of the ef- ef¬
fective elements in the teaching is crucial. One student teacher
described the alternative approach quite succinctly: “My "My su-su¬
pervisor is very specific about the things in my teaching
which are ineffective and very infrequent in commenting on
anything which I do well."
well.” The supervisor should also avoid
making “moral”
"moral" or value judgments about the teaching or
the teacher ("Your
(“Your handling of the commutative principle
was particularly good,"
good,” or "The group work went badly, I
thought”)
thought.") ItIt is
is important
important to
to avoid
avoid the
the implication
implication that
that teach-
teach¬
ing behavior is ”good”
"good" or "bad" rather than functional or
Clinical Supervision: THE ANALYSIS
Analysis or
of TEACHING
Teaching /
/ 109
109
appropriate to particular content and learning objectives. This

principle is consistent with the already-noted shift in clinical
supervision from evaluation (Is this teacher certifiable? Should
he receive tenure?) to analysis of curriculum issues and inin¬
structional practices. It is consistent, too, with a view of su-
su¬
pervision as an
pervision an instructional process,
process, focusing on the devel-
devel¬
opment of curriculum and the analysis of teaching, rather
than as personnel evaluation.
A common format for the group analysis session has the
teacher begin by discussing his perceptions of what happened
in the lesson and why. The supervisor may want the teacher
to probe some of these perceptions in depth. The supervisor
then calls for analysis from other teachers who have observed
the teaching. These several views of what happened and why
and what this implies for the subsequent instruction are con-con¬
sidered carefully by the group. The next lesson is then planned
on the basis of this pooled analysis. Variations on this format
occur, of course, but it has been found to be productive.
Eventually the group reaches a certain measure of agreement
(and disagreement) as a result of careful analyses, the thorough
airing of perceptions and interpretations, increasing group
familiarity with and observation of the individual’s
individual's teaching,
increasing skill in analysis or, on occasion, fatigue or acces-
acces¬
sion to the supervisor. When this stability has been achieved,
the emphasis shifts to consequences, and to planning for the
next teaching session. This is as it should be: planning should
develop from and supersede analysis; it is the main purpose
of the analysis. It is in the planning stage that insights from
the foregoing analysis must be put (and made) to work. Un- Un¬
less the teaching, and the children's learning, is modified-
modified—
improved—there is little, if any, point to the analysis session.
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS
We have described and illustrated at considerable length how

the clinical supervisor works, in an attempt to make a method
ax
110 /
/ Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
Profession
of supervision explicit. A single chapter cannot be more, how-

how¬
ever, than a conceptual statement. It should be stressed that
defined, but only characterized, a wide range of
we have not defined,
supervisory practice. What began more than a decade ago as
a way to train beginning teachers—the
teachers—-the vicarious involvement
of the student teacher in the teaching act by its analysis--has
analysis—has
become a much more comprehensive set of objectives, asas¬
sumptions and procedures for training and involving both
beginning and experienced teachers with the content and the
practice of teaching.
The basic method of clinical supervision is systematic ra- ra¬
tional study and analysis of teaching. Its aim is to induce
teachers to think about and then implement new ways of
teaching. The methodology is didactic: reinforcement of effec-
effec¬
tive teaching, analysis leading to rational understanding or
insight, instruction in new curricula and methods of teaching
and observation of the teaching of others.
Clinical supervision is a practical way to modify the de- de¬
ficiencies of formal curriculum and instruction and of the
institution, the school, in which instruction is undertaken.
The protection of the client—that is, the pupil—and the upup¬
grading of the occupation of teaching require some kind of
“quality control” of curriculum, subject matter content and
"quality control"
teaching. Supervision defined as quality control is a conserva-
conserva¬
tive function. Its effect is to ensure or "guarantee"
“guarantee” that the
existing curriculum and subject disciplines are validly taught.
Defined more broadly, clinical supervision also addresses itit¬
self to the enormous ongoing problem of curriculum develop-
develop¬
ment and the improvement of instruction which confronts
American education. To solve these problems requires radical
and continuing change. Clinical supervision is one means by
which teachers
which teachers can
can confront
confront and
and modify both the content and
the practice of teaching. Indeed, it is virtually inseparable
from curriculum development activity, both in its theoretical
principles and as a strategy for involving teachers in analysis
of their instruction. The most productive way to get teachers
CLINICAL SUPERVISION: Tm:
Clinical Supervision: Auatvsrs or
Teaching /
/ 111
111
to analyze
to analyze and
and change
change how
how they
they teach,
teach, in
in the
the writer's
writer s experi-
experi¬
ence, is
ence, to involve
is to involve them
them in
in analysis
analysis of
of what
what they
they teach.
teach. In
In
regard to
regard to quality
quality control,
control, clinical
clinical supervision
supervision is is clearly
clearly an-
an¬
chored in specialization in subject matter.
Clinical supervision is
Clinical supervision vulnerable, in
is vulnerable, in part
part because
because it
it chooses
chooses
to concern itself
to concern itself with
with the
the practice
practice ofof instruction,
instruction, aa form
form ofof
behavior which is exceedingly complex and
behavior which is exceedingly complex and imperfectly un¬ imperfectly un-
derstood. In
derstood. In addition,
addition, thethe supervisor
supervisor faces at least two very
real institutional risks, from from thethe right and the left. Teachers
are ready to
are to cry
cry “impractical”
"impractical” or or "foul"
“foul” over invasion of their
autonomy, while academics
autonomy, academics tend to decry any concern with
pedagogy, particularly
pedagogy, particularly amongamong their colleagues
colleagues in education.
Educational researchers say
Educational say "too
“too soon,"
soon,” or insist that "we do
not know
know how to to define, prepare
prepare for or measure teacher
competence.”
competence."
Clinical supervision is full full of
of gaps.
gaps. It
It is a fact-an
fact—an extremely
sobering one—that
sobering one—that we we don’t know, either theoretically or
don't know,
empirically, who the
empirically, the effective
effective teacher
teacher is or what effective
teaching is. It is a fact that there is evidence of very low
validity and reliability in the analyses, inferences and evalua- evalua¬
tions supervisors make about teaching behavior. It is a fact
that there is no conclusive empirical evidence that clinical
supervision changes
supervision changes whatwhat teachers do. do. We do, however, have
significant clinical opinion and experience on these questions.
A decade of practice, some attempt to conceptualize clinical
supervision and considerable experience suggest that this
method of instructing teachers does make a difference.
The case for clinical supervision rests, in the final analysis,
on a set of beliefs concerning how we acquire knowledge
about, and how we can change, complex educational phe- phe¬
nomena. A first premise is that what and how children are
taught in schools, now, does matter. Greater understanding
and control of these processes cannot wait upon (and indeed
may never be achieved by) “pure” "pure" research in the sciences
basic to teaching: psychology, learning theory and sociology.
The clinical supervisor is thus, in a sense, symbolic. He repre-
Fl
112 / Supervision:
THE Reluctant
Profession
sents training and intelligence applied to the means by which

children are taught. His is a commitment to hard thinking
about processes affecting millions of children. It is reasonable
to expect from his work the development of a high order of
clinical judgment, that is, experience-based learning or wis-wis¬
dom concerning problematic curriculum and instructional
issues. Still, understanding of the complicated intellectual and
social act of teaching will require an application of much
more intelligence at all levels—theory, research and applied
analysis——than has so far been expended. Ultimately, clinical
analysis—than
supervision attests to a belief that intelligence and rational
analysis applied to a problem, even one as complicated and
slippery as the craft of teaching, will pay off. That, if nothing
else about the method, seems not a bad bet at all!
CHAPTER SIX
'———— YJT 1"" - — 7-- 7 _ N 77* z zi—* '_ ___j- ;-17 ___- --- *1-7- if 7_ _ _ ; 7
IMPLICATIONS
IMPLICATIONS FOR
FOR SUPERVISION
SUPERVISION
or COUNSELING THEORY
OF COUNSELING THEORY
AND
AND TECHNIQUE
TECHNIQUE
Very little analysis has been undertaken of what happens to
the student teacher psychologically during his practice teach-
teach¬
ing. Little has been written about the way in which the bebe¬
ginner acquires knowledge about, and takes on behavior
appropriate to, the role of teacher which differentiates him in
that role from the private (personal and nonprofessional) per-
per¬
son he is.1 We do know from the turnover rate that a great
deal happens psychologically to beginning teachers and that
much of it is apparently very negative. This is particularly so
.bose who begin teaching in urban schools. This
in the case of chose
chapter will focus on the personal and emotional dimension
of the problems encountered by the teacher-in-training, and
on a method of supervision responsive to these problems.
Throughout the chapter, however, and in a concluding sec-
‘By contrast, rather

’By contrast, rather substantial
substantial psychological and sociological study has
been made
been made of
of social
social workers in
in training,
training, "boys
"boys in white,”
white," and of "laymen to
lawmen.”
lawmen."
11.3
113
114 / SUPERVISION: THE Rrrucram PROFESSION
tion, many implications for the supervision of experienced

teachers will be drawn. Our concern is not with the issues of
professional training in the abstract but with how these prob-
prob¬
lems may be experienced and responded to by the student
teacher himself.
TEACHING AND THE PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE TEACHER
The traditional assumption in supervision is that analysis of

teaching should be restricted to the issues of curriculum and
content, pedagogy and pupil response and should avoid inin¬
volvement with the "personal"
“personal” response and experience of
teacher? This chapter will argue that supervision must be
the teacher.2
responsive to the teacher as a person. In light both of the
ambiguity of research on the relationship between the teacher's
personality and his practice and of supervision's
supervision’s usual em-
em¬
phasis on teacher behavior rather than teacher personality,
why get involved with what the teacher is?3 Though it may
seem contradictory, the basic reason is the unproved assump-
assump¬
tion that what the teacher is personally affects what he does
and what pupils do (i.e., learn). Both research and supervi-
supervi¬
sion, in the writer's view, have been unproductive in analyz-
analyz¬
ing this interaction. What is known is, to put it mildly, neither
exhaustive nor constraining. __
Long involvement in supervising teachers makes it clear
that traditional supervision is based on too restricted a con-
con¬
ception of what and how a student teacher learns in his prac-
prac¬
tical training. Learning to teach requires the student to change
what he does. He must change, or learn, such instrumental
behaviors, or teaching skills, as lesson planning, questioning
1Cogan states the position clearly in regard to clinical supervision: “[The

2Cogan "[The
supervisor] must be concerned with behavior, not deep-lying patterns of per- per¬
sonality . . . [He] must forge a cutting edge of supervision that will cut to the
truth of the actual teaching performance and the results of the teaching, with-
with¬
out cutting into the self of the [teacher]"
[teacher]“ (Cogan 1961, p. 8).
33See, Iackson (1964).
See, for example, Getzels and Jackson
I
IMPLICATIONS or Counseling
Implications of COUNSELING Theory
Turortv AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique /
/ 115
115
and classroom management techniques. Learning to teach also

requires, in
requires, in simplest
simplest terms,
terms, that
that he
he change
change what
what he
he is.
is. He
He
must, for example,
must, for acquire new
example, acquire new understandings
understandings about
about the
the sig-
sig¬
nificance of his particular discipline, the school as an institu-
institu¬
tion, its expectations of the teacher, children, the teacher's use
of authority and, in general, himself.‘
himself.4
Student teachers
teachers differ
differ in
in the kind of change which is nec-
nec¬
essary. The change
essary. change required
required may involve
involve personal philoso-
philoso¬
phy, teaching
phy, teaching skill
skill or
or emotional
emotional understanding of children
or oneself. Student teachers vary, too, in their ability or
willingness to change. But most must change if they are to
teach, to meet both their own standards and those of the
school. The majority of teachers are made by their experience,
not born.
In some trainees, indicated changes in teaching behavior
seem not to occur because of lack of “personal"
"personal" change. For
example, the student may not want to “discipline”
“discipline" children or
adolescents. As one trainee put it, “I "I just wasn't brought up
that way." Another student has the opposite problem:
Igather
I gather that they [pupils] aren't any worse with me as a student
teacher than they are with Mr. __ .
Mr_[critic - _ . [critic teacher], but I'm
nastier about it than he is. I just don't like that sort of messing
around! You know, if youy<pu get this far, you've always been at some
point a good student and
andlI was, oh, a sweet child at school and I al-
al¬
ways paid attention (laughs) ....
. . So it's probably more my adjusting
to the present school system's standards of "permissiveness." There
was never any permissiveness at home and, uh, I grew up, you know,
that way. There was no whining, there was no—-you no—you know-—you
know—you
asked and it was said 'no' or it was said 'yes' and that was it. There
was no interrupting of adults. There was not this sort of thing. So,
I
‘It
4It should not be surprising that the increasingly select students entering
teaching experience both profound intellectual reservations about the school
as an institution and emotional conflict about teaching. Their high ability
gives them career options; conditions in the public schools occasion criticism
even within the “establishment,”
“establishment," and the issue of the “right”
“right" curriculum, type
of instruction and teacher is unresolved.
116 / Supervision:
THE Rrrucranr PROFESSION
I ...
. . . I have to become more flexible, too, in things I didn't even
think about before. I never realized that I was—that
was-~that these things
were in me so subtly.
Another problem might be the negative attitude, or limited

initial sense of personal responsibility, to non-college-prepa-
ratory children suggested in the comment, "I set out to crucify
those kids on the cross of Yale's standards.”
standards." By contrast,
acute problems of change in both attitude and behavior face
the well-intentioned young middle-class white teachers whose
objective, in the words of a former superintendent in New
Orleans, "is essentially to sit on the floor and love poor black
kids,” but who are expected by their students' parents to
provide discipline, rigorous academic training and marketable
vocational skills. Changes in this area of personal intentions,
attitudes, assumptions and feelings with regard to teaching
can be as important to successful or satisfying teaching as are
changes in knowledge of content or instructional method.
from
From this background, then, the idea emerges that change
in a student teacher's intentions, perceptions and feelings
about teaching children can affect his teaching behavior.
Whether behavior is subject to cognitive control (i.e., to
changes in the individual’s
individual's perception and ideas relative to his
experience) or is altered primarily by the environmental ef- ef¬
fects of one's acts is an unresolved issue in both American
and Soviet psychology (Bruner 1962, pp. 132ff.). Neverthe-
Neverthe¬
less, it is not a new idea in teacher training or supervision
that one can think oneself into a new way of acting. This is,
for example, a basic assumption of clinical supervision. As
already noted, it is assumed that most teachers in training do
change their personal plans, perceptions and ideas about
teaching as well as their classroom behavior (Molchen 1967).
The writer's position is that it is important that this process
be made conscious and that it develop a specifically profes-
profes¬
sional cast. This would have at least two levels of effect:
Implications of Counsrrmc Theory
THEORY AND
and Trcnmour
Technique /
/ 117
117
1) increased ability
1) increased ability to
to understand
understand and control
and control the
the personal
personal
and professional
and professional problems
problems caused
caused by student
by student teaching,
teaching, and
and
2) related
2) related changes
changes in
in the quality of
the quality of the teaching
the teaching performance.
performance.
THE PROCESS OF BECOMING A TEACHER:

A FRAMEWORK FOR SUPERVISION
Let
Let us first discuss
us first discuss more specifically the
more specifically the kinds
kinds of
of problems
problems
student teachers confront and what happens psychologically
student teachers confront and what happens psychologically
to the
to the student
student teacher
teacher as as he
he begins
begins teaching.
teaching. We
We will
will borrow
borrow
functional ideas
functional ideas from sociology and
from sociology and psychology.
psychology. The
The socio-
socio¬
logical viewpoint
logical viewpoint is is aa useful
useful way of talking
way of talking about
about the
the school
school
and the
and the job ofof teacher;
teacher; ego-psychology
ego-psychology offers one set of ideas
and terms
terms forfor the
the discussion of of teacher personality. Ego-
psychology is
psychology is basic,
basic, also,
also, to
to the
the theory
theory and practice of ego
counseling, the application
counseling, application of of which
which to supervision consti-
consti¬
tutes a major focus of this chapter.
Developing a Personal Philosophy of Teaching

The individual has to see, think and behave in new ways as
he begins to teach. He has to decide a) what is expected of
him as a teacher, by whom and with what consensus and
authority, b) which external job requirements and personal
objectives he is to realize in the position, and c) how most
effectively to attain these objectives. The first phase of be-
be¬
coming a teacher might be described as learning what one is
expected to do and to be as a teacher. It is important to note
that the school makes explicit assumptions about what a
teacher does and is, and that these expectations are shared by
people in positions crucial to the beginner: the supervisor
responsible for his student teaching, the school principal, the
university professor of education and others.
A second phase involves developing for himself ideas and
plans about what he will do and be as a teacher. These ideas
may have a variety of sources—the beginner's own experience
118 / SUPERVISION: Tm: Rrrucraur PROFESSION
of school
of school and
and teachers, his
his formal education,
education, his values and
his reaction
his reaction to
to the school
school and
and teaching
teaching as he now experiences
it.
The typical beginning teacher's ideas are often discrete,
conflicting and
and personally inconsistent.
inconsistent. Contradictions
Contradictions seem
especially likely between the student's view of himself and
objectives for his
objectives his teaching
teaching and
and the
the expectations
expectations of the school
or of the teacher education program. Such discrepancies can
give him trouble. The English major may expect to lecture on
the heritage of English literature, while the school requires
him to teach grammar to students in a business curriculum,
and his methods instructor raises questions about content
justification (why teach grammar?) and the translation of
what is to be taught into "pupil behavior" terms. The teacher's
relationship to students and the school is another source of
conflict. The student teacher often values interpersonal rela-
rela¬
tionships with the children above discipline. He may want to
dissociate himself from arbitrary, judgmental—or any—exer-
any—exer¬
cise of teacher authority. He may not see the order of the
school as his problem. Such feelings may be especially pre- pre¬
cipitated in white middle-class teachers by contact with poor
black children in city schools, but the same issues prevail
in suburbia.
The Emotional Challenge of the Classroom

Varying degrees
degrees ofof intellectual conflict,
conflict, and
and of motivation,
may be expected among beginning teachers. l\/lost Most teachers-in-
training can
training can handle
handle both
both the academic
academic requirements
requirements of the
the
training program and
training and these
these first, essentially
essentially academic, con¬
con-
tradictions regarding the role of the teacher. But the "reality-
shock" of of the
the practice classroom
classroom introduces
introduces emotionally
"real" challenge
"real" challenge and
and conflict.
conflict. The
The student's
student's previous integrity
is challenged.
challenged. And the the challenge
challenge is
is not merely
merely an intellectual
debate over
debate over ideas and
and beliefs—he,
beliefs-he, as as aa person,
person, is directly en-
en¬
gaged and
and tested
tested in an
an occupational,
occupational, doing
doing context. For many
teacher trainees this
teacher trainees this may
may bebe the first major
the first major commitment
commitment of of
Implications of Counsrunc Tnrorw
Theory AND
and Trcnmour
Technique /
/ 119
119
themselves to the world of work—a new, adult and ultimately

central occupational environment.
Teaching tests one's intellectual ability to plan, flexibly
manage and control a group learning situation and demands
such interpersonal capacities as the ability to relate to, yet
discipline, children. Evidence suggests that the experience of
student teaching causes anxiety regarding discipline and bebe¬
ing liked by pupils, that whatever anxieties exist at the start
of student teaching tend to be relatively as intense at its com-
com¬
pletion and that anxiety with regard to discipline may, in fact,
increase (Travers et al. 1952). Put another way, the require-
require¬
ments of the job frequently exceed the student teacher's im- im¬
mediate capacity to cope or adapt. It is this gap, between the
requirements of the job, the student's self-expectancies and
his actual performance as a teacher, which creates stress. This
situation may be reflected most clearly in those students whose
personality dispositions make such a crisis situation espe- espe¬
cially meaningful emotionally (Lindemann 1956). The effects
of such stress are probably curvilinear with regard to one's
teaching; too little stress can result in lackadaisical, uncon-
uncon¬
cerned teaching while too much stress can cause frightened,
rigid teaching behavior. Anxiety does, however, motivate
change.
Common Defenses Against Anxiety

An anxiety-laden situation often evokes an individual’s
individual's char-
char¬
acteristic defenses. Reactions exhibited in student teaching
may be:
Intellectualization-—an
Intellectualization—an excited lecture in what is to the chil-
chil¬
dren, in the abstraction of its ideas and vocabulary, essen-
essen¬
tially a foreign language.
Reaction formation—"I really like every kid in the class."
class.''
Suppression or denial—"There's no problem of discipline."
Rationalization-—"Ideologically, I'm a progressive."
Rationalization—"Ideologically,
120 / Supervision:
TI-IE Reluctant
Rrrucraur Profession
PROFESSION
Projection—"What can you expect with a curriculum like

Projection--"What
that?"
that?"
Regression or dependency—"Tell me what to do."
It is possible to conceptualize teaching behavior, particu-

particu¬
larly beginning practice, in terms of such characteristic emo-
emo¬
responseszs
tional responses:5
Practice provides an opportunity to analyze the characteristic de-

de¬
fenses which a teacher employs in the face of stress, to test the ap-
ap¬
propriateness of these defenses, and to develop rational, controlled
behavior to handle the stress conditions. In many ways the situation
is similar to the process of psychotherapy, though with less intent to
change the basic personality; the examination of the appropriateness
of reactions and defenses, the inquiry into why things are this way,
the achievement of emotional insight, and the search for new adap-
adap¬
tive behavior congenial to the emotional growth that takes place"
(Shaplin 1961, p. 35).
Thus it is possible for a realignment of the beginner's ob-

ob¬
jectives to occur. Both new "whys" and new ways of respond-
respond¬
ing in the classroom are possible. At this turning point, too,
the beginning teacher may be particularly open both to self-
analysis and to discussion with others about his teaching at-at¬
titudes and behavior.
Personal Role Definition

Definition
A third, crucial phase in learning to be a teacher may be char-
char¬
acterized by its central challenge—the process of personal role
definition. In Chapters One and Four
Eour it has been argued that
helping teachers develop personally is a crucial function for
supervision. Primary emphasis was put on developing the
5Particularly
Particularly if Allport's significant qualification is introduced: "We have
become so impressed with their frequency of operation, that we are inclined to
forget that the rational functioning of the proprium is capable also of yielding
true solutions, appropriate adjustments, accurate planning, and a relatively
faultless solving of the equations of life“
life" (Allport 1955, p. 46).
\-
IMPLICATIONS
Implications or Counsrtmc THEORY
of Counseling Theory mo
and Trcnmotnz
Technique /
/ 121
121
teacher's "professional identity" and helping the teacher find

and maintain an autonomous, individually unique teaching
style consistent with the desired learning outcomes of the
curriculum. "Personal role definition" means the development
of distinct, individual and consistent concepts of oneself-as-
teacher and of characteristic ways of teaching. In essence, this
definition takes into account the student teacher's struggle to
synthesize many personal and job factors into a unique per- per¬
sonal and professional role identity.
[Role definition involves] the individual's attempt to structure his

social reality, to define his place within it and to guide his search for
meaning and gratification. Role definition is, in this sense, an ego-
achievernent—a reflection of the person's capacity to resolve conflicting
achievement—a
demands, to utilize existing opportunities and create new ones and to
find some balance between stability and change, conformity and au- au¬
tonomy, the ideal and the feasible, in a complex environment (Levin-
(Levin¬
son 1959, p. 177).6
177).“
To emphasize the process of defining oneself as a teacher is

not to argue against the view that intellectual resources, com-
com¬
mand of the subject and instructional skills are basic to suc-
suc¬
cessful teaching. It is simply to suggest that an important
additional factor in the teacher's effectiveness, and in his
commitment to teaching, is the degree to which he finds in
the job ways to express significant personal motives and
needs. In simplest terms, the assumption is that the self or the
person is involved in teaching whether one is a "master
teacher" or a "beginner," whether the teaching is successful
or ineffectual.
°Levinson's
'Levinson's argument that
that role
role definition
definition can be understood as an ego
achievement is an
achievement is assumption crucial
an assumption crucial to this chapter.
to this chapter. Two
Two views
views of
of the
the process
process
of becoming aa teacher—the
of becoming teacher—-the sociological
sociological and
and psychological—rather
psychological—rather thanthan being
being
juxtaposed as in clinical supervision, are bridged. A significant justification
juxtaposed as in clinical supervision, are bridged. A significant justification
for studying the
for studying the personal experience and
personal experience and adaptation
adaptation of of the
the student
student teacher—
teacher—
both conceptually and in terms of its relevance for supervision—is implicit in
both conceptually and in terms of its relevance for supervision—is implicit in
this argument. The case for ego psychology as the relevant psychological
this argument. The case for ego psychology as the relevant psychological
theory will be returned to later.
122 / SUPERVISION: T1-11-: Rrtucranr PROFESSION
A further point is that finding in teaching ways to express,

professionally, significant personal motives and needs not
only involves but changes the person. The development of a
professional identity means, psychologically, a complex and
often profound process of personal change; change, that is, in
the individual's intentions, perception, assumptions and be-be¬
havior. Such personal change can have as much relevance for
empirical study or for supervision as does the student's learn-
learn¬
ing about curriculum issues or instructional method.
EGO-COUNSELING'S RELEVANCE TO THE

EGO-COUNSELlNG'S
SUPERVISION OF
OP TEACHING
If finding ways to express, in teaching, significant personal

motives and needs involves and changes the individual, then
supervision, in addition to providing for discussion of cur-
cur¬
riculum and pedagogical issues, should find ways to respond
significantly to the teacher as a person.
It may be asked why we look to theories or methods of
counseling to accomplish this. And, more specifically, why we
look to the theory and method of ego-counseling.
WHY COUNSELING?
The general arguments for using a counseling framework in

the supervision of the student teacher, some of which are
implicit in the preceding section, are:
1. As Shaplin
1. As Shaplin (1961)
(1961) points
points out,
out, the objectives and
the objectives and pro-
pro¬
cedure of supervision resemble in many ways the process of
psychotherapy, although with less intent to change the basic
psychotherapy,
personality ofof the
the student
student teacher.''.
teacher.". . .. examination of the
appropriateness
appropriateness [of the teacher's] reactions
[of the teacher's] reactions and
and defenses,
defenses, the
the
inquiry into whywhy things
things are
are this
this way,
way, the
the achievement of
emotional
emotional insight, and the
insight, and the search
search for
for new
new adaptive
adaptive behavior
behavior
Implications of Counsrtmo Theory
Tnrortv AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique /
/ 123
123
congenial to
congenial to the
the emotional
emotional growth
growth that
that takes
takes place"
place" (p.
(p. 35)gis
35) is
as cogent
as cogent an argument for
an argument for counseling
counseling student
student teachers
teachers as
as it
it is
is
for their supervision.
2. The student
2. The student teacher
teacher brings
brings thethe intellectual
intellectual andand emotional
emotional
sfltrepssgpgrwhich
stress which can can be caused by
be caused practice teaching
by practice teaching to to hisTsTiper-
his super¬
visory conferences. As Cogan emphasizes, "Supervision deals
visory conferences. As Cogan emphasizes, "Supervision deals
with people
with people inin their most vital
their most vital and
and vulnerable
vulnerable aspects."
aspects." Super-
Super¬
vision, however,
vision, however, typically
typically tends
tends not
not to
to dodo this.
this. Counseling
Counseling
theory and
theory and practice
practice areare relatively
relatively more
more attuned
attuned to to the "most
the "most
vital and
vital and_,-vulnerable"
vulnerable" in the the individual.
individual. I
3. The viewview in in teacher
teacher education
education that self-evaluation is
. --_ _.-___-._
important
important to to professional
professional growth
growth would
would tend
tend to to orient
orient super-
super¬
visio'n toward
vision toward counseling.
counseling. The writer believes
The writer believes that
that the
the teacher
teacher
wants andghas_,a,_rigl1.t._iO,-particip,ate,
wants and has a right, to participate in analyzing and con- con¬
trolling his
trolling own professional
his own professional behavior.
behavior. Counseling
Counseling puts puts heavy
heavy
emphasis on
emphasis on thethe client's
client's responsibility
responsibility for for analysis
analysis and and
solutions. I I S
4. The importance]
4. The importance of of self-knowledge—as
self-knowledge—as distinguished
distinguished
from self-evaluation
from self-evaluatioiniiof professional behavior—to the student
of professional
teacher has considerable
teacher considerable support
support in in the literature. (See, for
example, Biber (1956) and Symonds (1955).) This emphasis
would seem
would seem to to imply
imply an an argument
argument for for counseling
counseling as as aa func-
func¬
tion of teacher training (though (though not necessarily as part of
supervision), especially
supervision), especially insofar as as counseling
counselingois is an educationak
educational,
process directly concerned
process concerned with with greater
greater self-knowledge. In- In¬
deed, aa number of of training
training programs,
programs, particularly those pre- pre¬
paring teachers
paring teachers to to work with with poor black
black or white children,
provide group sensitivity training or similar experience.
5. It might seem logical to suppose that the effectiyengess effectiveness of
the supervision of the student teacher will vary, in important
part, with the degree to which this function is both individual- individual¬
ized and intensive. There is supporting evidence for this idea
from related professions (Mosher 1962). Counseling concen- concen¬
trates on intensive one-to-one interaction designed to effect
change in the individual's behavior.
124 / Supervision:
THE Reluctant
Rrrucranr Profession
PROFESSION
Rather than
Rather than asking, "Why ego-counseling?"
asking, "Why ego-counseling?" we
we might
might ask,
ask,
"Why not psychotherapy,
"Why psychotherapy, client-centered
client-centered therapy or some
other method
method ofof counseling?"
counseling?" There
There is aa considerable litera-
litera¬
ture on the relevance of psychotherapy for teachers in train-
ture on the relevance of psychotherapy for teachers in train¬
ing and in service (Rogers 1962). Generally, however, psy- psy¬
chotherapy has remained auxiliary to the academic and stu- stu¬
dent teaching program, its principal function being the refer- refer¬
ral and treatment of student teachers who find the crisis
situation of practice teaching relatively overwhelming. The
status of psychotherapy reflects the fact that it is typically a
medical treatment procedure, concerned with more intensive
change in basic personality structure than is feasible or neces-
neces¬
sary in the training of a majority of student teachers. Begin- Begin¬
ning teachers represent, by and large, a "normal" population.
Their problems are more a matter of developing occupational
behavior and defining themselves as teachers than of chang- chang¬
ing maladaptive or neurotic personal behavior.
Practical limitations to the use of psychotherapy lie in the
economics of teacher training—the time and cost usually inin¬
volved in psychotherapy—in the uneven availability of psy-. psy¬
chiatric services and in reservations about psychiatric referral
on the part of teacher educators and the trainees themselves.
The client-centered counseling approach originated by
Carl Rogers is also essentially a therapy procedure. Rogers
attaches critical importance to the quality of the relationship
between counselor
between counselor and
and client
client in
in effecting
effecting a therapeutic result,
and emphasizes
and emphasizes thethe counselor's
counselor's sharing
sharing of
of the personal world
of the client, a nondirective kind of treatment and the im- im¬
portance of the client's feelings in contrast to intellectual
processes. Rogers
processes. Rogers has
has indicated,
indicated, however, that the client-
centered approach pertains
centered pertains directly
directly to
to the
the training of teachers
and their
and their supervision.
supervision.
I have worked with troubled college students, with adults in

difficulty, with 'normal' individuals ....
. . I have endeavored to make
use of the learnings from my therapeutic experience in my inter-
Implications of Counsrrmc Tnronv
Theory AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique /
/ 125
125
actions with
actions with classes
classes andand seminars,
seminars, in
in the training of teachers ....
. . in
the clinical
the clinical supervision
supervision of of psychologists,
psychologists, psychiatrists,
psychiatrists, and
and guidance
guidance
workers
workers .... . . 1I have come to
have come the conclusion
to the conclusion that
that one
one learning
learning which
which
applies to all of these experiences is that it is the quality of the per- per¬
sonal relationship which matters most . . . which determines the ex- ex¬
tent to
tent to which
which thisthis is
is an experience which
an experience which releases
releases or
or promotes
promotes de-
de¬
velopment or growth. I believe the quality of my encounter is more
important in the long run than is my scholarly knowledge, my pro- pro¬
fessional training, my counseling orientation, the techniques I use in
the interview (Rogers 1962, p. 416).
The relevance
The relevance of
of client-centered
client-centered therapy
therapy to
to a
a more
more compre-
compre¬
hensive
hensive method
method ofof supervising
supervising teachers
teachers is,
is, then,
then, an
an open
open and
and
important question. Bennington's
important question. Bennington's work,
work, discussed
discussed in
in Chapter
Chapter
Three, is to
Three, is to date
date the
the most significant adaptation
most significant adaptation ofof client-
client-
centered procedures to supervision
supervision:
WHY "EGO-COUNSELING"?
Ego-counseling rests upon

Ego-counseling upon the
the theory,
theory, basic to ego psychology,
that the normal individual's behavior is organized by the ego.
The s_tructure_of
The the ego—the
structure of the ego—the individual's
individual's values, his personal
traits, attitudes
traits, attitudes and
and assumptions-—and
assumptions—and the ego,
ego fun(ctions__of
functions of
perception, thought, planning and action in regard to "reality"
problems, are the focus of both ego theory and the method of
ego counseling.
A distinguishing feature of ego-counseling is the importance
it places, theoretically and in practice, on "secondary process"
—that is, the ego functions of planning, logical thinking and
problem solving. Ego-counseling recognizes the "vital realm"
of impulse and feeling, the fact that
that some behavfiorhinay
behavior may be
motivated by
motivated by unconscious factors
factors and
and "the enormous subtlety
and"importanceTof
and importance of "personal
personal relationship in all psychological
treatment processes" (Hummel 1962, p. 468). Ego-counseling
is not a narrow or naive (that is, pre-Freudian) rationalism. It
assumes, however, that secondary processes can be "func-
"func¬
tionally autonomous”
autonomous" within the personality structure, that
,.
126 / Surrnvrsrou: Tnr Rrrucram Prtorrssrou
. . . of
"the rational functioning of the . . . [ego] is capable ...
yielding true
yielding solutions, appropriate
appropriate adjustments,
adjustments, accurate
planning, and a relatively faultless solving of the equations
of life" (Allport 1955, p. 46).
It is with the quality of ego as organization . . . with the increasing

capacity of the . . . individual to perceive reality in more accurate
terms, to differentiate and impose more complex meanings on reality
. . . to control impulse in the light of anticipated consequences, to
mediate conflicting dispositions, to employ rational considerations in
solving problems, to pursue more remote goals in a dependable way
. . . it is to foster aspects of ego-organization such as these that the
ego-counselor participates [with] the counselee (Hummel 1962,
p.468)
p. 468).
Ego-counseling is, thus, concerned with intellectual analysis

—with the individual's thinking. It focuses on the personal
condition of the individual by reasoning about and revising
personal (rather than abstract)
abstrac_,t)_,reality
reality problems, plans a_nd
and ac-
ac¬
tions. A concern with cognitive theory follows logically. In
short, ego-counseling derives support both from the ego theory
of Allport, Hartman and Bronfenbrenner and from the "fruit-
"fruit¬
ful promise for counseling theorists in the work of Piaget,
Bruner, Rapaport, George Kelly, and of other investigators
into the nature of thinking" (Hummel 1965, p. 97).
Let us look more closely at the principles, both theoretical
and practical, which follow from ego-counseling's emphasis
on thinking activity.
The Focus of Ego-Counseling

Discussion in
Discussion in ego-counseling
ego-counseling tends
tends to
to focus on:
1. Careful
1. Careful appraisal
app,r,ais,al by the individual
by the in£l_i~vi_d_u_a,l+o__f___l;tj1nself
of himself (as (as he
he is
is
and as as he
he would
would like to to be) in
in his
his situation.
situation. This appraisal
elicits, and subsequently measures progress by, "a set of
counselee constructs with relation to some significant role of
situation in
situation in reality"
reality" (Hummel
(Hummel 1965,1965, p. p. 97).
97). Such
Such aa "significant
"significant
role," quite
quite obviously,
obviously, isis that
that of
of the
the teacher.
teacher.
Implications of Counsrrmo Theory
THEORY AND
and Trcnmour;
Technique /
/ 127
127
2. The
2. relation of
The relation of the
the individual's
individual's present
present actions
actions to
to the
the
realization of his objectives—that is, the connection between
realization of his objectives—that is, the connection between
means and ends.)
means and endsfi
3. The consideration
3. The consideration of
of obstacles,,
obstgacalesa both
both personal
personal and
and situa-
situa¬
tional, to such aims.
4. The development
4. The development ofof revised
re_yisg_dgyv_,a,y_sHo,f_
ways of t_hi_nl_<j_ng*,a,b,out,
thinking about, and
and
acting in,
acting in, the
the situation
situation of
of being aa teacher.
teacher. "
Assumptions About
About the Counselee
Counselee
In ego-counseling,
In ego-counseling, the
the counselee
counselee is seen "as
is seen "as ‘investigator,’
'investigator,' as
as
.. .. .. analyst
analyst of
of certain
certain aspects
aspects of
of his personal condition"
(Hummel 1965, p.
(Hummel p. 96).
96). The term
term "analyst"
"analyst" is used not in its
special psychoanalytic
special psychoanalytic sense,
sense, but
but to
to suggest
suggest the
the importance
importance
placed by this
this counseling
counseling method on'cognitive
on'cognitive process. A re-
re¬
lated
lated assumption
assumption is is th_at"the counselee is
that "the counselee is willing
willing and
and capable
capable
to analyze and
to analyze and to
to cope
cope with
with those
those concerns
concerns which
which brought
brought
him into counseling"
him counseling" (Hummel
(Hummel 1962, p. 467). The essential
responsibility for both analysis and solutions rests with the
individual.
individual. The counselor
counselor offers
offers his
his collaboration in the
analysis. (It is worth noting that these assumptions suppor jja
the principle that self-evaluation by the teacher has important
potential for furthering his professional growth.)
Conditions Guiding the Counseling Approach

Ego-counseling's emphasis
Ego-counseling's emphasis on
on thinking
thinking about one's personal
situation is adhered to in several characteristic ways:
1. Sector. Ego-counseling has adapted Deutsch's notion of
"sector" as a way of controlling the topics considered in
treatment (Deutsch 1949). Discussion is focused
focused on the inin¬
dividual's thinking with regard to an important and "real"
org_gsiutfuaat\ion
role or éa¢toi"?ha§"'§'t'i1l
situation such as teaching. The sector may still be
defined broadly as, for example, the wide range of attitudes,
personal reactions and behaviors elicited by teaching; it may
be as particular as the inability to discipline or motivate a
given class; it 1t may center on a concrete incident such as a
difficult parent conference or a disaulgqfeement
disagreement with a depart
128 / SUPERVISION: THE Rrrucranr PROFESSION
merit
ment chairman,
chairman, or
or it
it may be a
may be a relatively
relatively abstract discussion of
abstract discussion of
the role of
the role of the
the school
school administrator and the
administrator and the teacher's
teacher's projec-
projec¬
tions of
of himself
himself to
to such
such aa future
future role.
role. Assume, by way of
illustration, that
that the
the sector
sector is
is classroom
classroom behavior and its per-
per¬
sonal and
sonal and situational
situational determinants. Such limits help the
determinants. Such limits help the
supervisor to steer
supervisor steer between,
between, on
on the
the one
one hand, insensitivity or
inactionWi't'h"r'eg'ard't'o personal variables affecting the teach-
inaction with regard to personal teach¬
ing and,
ing and, on
on the other hand,
the other hand, the intensive efforts
the intensive efforts at
at reorganiza-
reorganiza¬
tion of the basic personality of the teacher which characterize
psychotherapy.
2. No "Deep”
"De,ep_" Interpretation.
In_terpretat_i_Qn._ Typically, psychological as-
as¬
sessment--that
sessment—that is, projective testing—is
testing--is not used in this
method, and minimal attention is given to unconscious mean- mean¬
ing in the individual's statements. "Deep"
"Deep" or symbolic inter-
inter¬
pretation of what he says is avoided, and discussion remains
of_,a,_wa__ren_e§.
close to the individual's level of awareness. There is an under-
under¬
lying assumption that dealing with external problems can
affect what is not conscious.
Conscious. These points represent major
distinctions between this method and Freudian or psycho- psycho¬
analytic practice.
In brief, an ego-counselor will respond as intensively as possible

from his own preconscious ... . . . to the cues and symbols in the coun-
selee's talk. . . In his effort to understand the counselee, he considers
no area of thinking about human behavior, including the psychology
of the unconscious, to be arbitrarily outside his province. . . In his
communication of understanding to the counselee, however, he is
likely to refrain from interpreting symbolic meanings (Hummel
1961,p.41)
1961, p. 41).
In contrast to
In contrast analytic therapy,
to analytic therapy, the
the ego-counselor
ego-counselor does
does not
not
deal with
deal with unconscious
unconscious material
material which
which may
may affect the indivi-
indivi¬
dual's teaching.
dual's In contrast
teaching. In contrast to
to Cogan's
Cogan’s concern
concern with
with "super-
"super¬
vision which
which will
will cut
cut to
to the
the truth of the actual teaching per-
per¬
formance and
formance and the
the results
results of the teaching
of the teaching without
without cutting
cutting into
into
the self
the self of
of the
the intern," ego-counseling does
intern," ego-counseling does deal
deal with
with the
the full
full
Implications of Couusrrmo THEORY
Theory ano
and Trcumour
Technique /
/ 129
129
range of
range of conscious
conscious personal
personal response
response to
to teaching--both
teaching—both intel-
intel¬
lectual andand emotional.
emotional.
3. Abridgement of
3. Abridgement of Relationship.
Relationship. The The objective
objective inin ego-coun-
ego-coun¬
seling is
seling that the
is that the individual think through
individual think through andmake
and make decisions
decisions
about
about a a problem
problem in in reality. It is
reality. It is assumed
assumed that he is
that he is sufficiently
sufficiently
mob5ile'“aTnd
mobile free from
and free from personality
personality disturbance
disturbance to to do so, and
do so, and inin
a relatively
a relatively short
short time.
time. The individual's own
The individual's own thinking
thinking is is the
the
primary agency of change, rather than the
primary agency of change, rather than the relationship be¬ relationship be-
tween the
tween the counselor
counselor and and the
the individual.
individual. Illustrative
Illustrative ofof this
this
emphasis are
emphasis are the "abridgement"
“abridgement'' of relationship in ego- ego¬
counseling (an
counseling (an average
average number
number of of conferences
conferences being five), the
priority given by
priority by the
the counselor
counselor to to "the
"the counselee's questions
and choices
and choices [rather]
[rather] than
than to
to his
his satisfaction
satisfaction in their relation-
relation¬
(Hummel 1965, p. 97),
ship" (Hummel 97), and
and thethe definition of the counsel-
counsel¬
ing relationship
ing relationship “primarily
"primarily as as aa means
means oror aa vehicle"
vehicle" (p.
(p. 97).
97).
The reader will note important differences with regard to rela- rela¬
tionship between ego-counseling and, for example, client-
centered counseling, and particularly with the deliberate use
of the transference relationship in analytic therapy.
Other constraints on relationship are involved. For exam- exam¬
ple, the limited number of contacts keeps many people from
overinvesting in the relationship with the counselor. The
counselor, too, engages in restraining behaviors such as struc- struc¬
turing statements, reflections or interpretations which under- under¬
line the individual's responsibility in the process; the topic
may be changed when the individual seems to be moving
toward a too-intense involvement, and important themes may
be avoided.
An ego-counselor respects the power and the subtlety in the

counseling relationship. . . From their affiliation the counselee may
derive substantial comfort and strength. Yet in an ego-Counselor's
ego-counselor's
philosophy of practice, love is not enough. Beyond the counseling
hour are circumstances in the counselee's life which require analysis
and resolution. There are facts to be surveyed, feelings to be clari-
130 / Supervision:
THE Rrrucranr
Profession
fied,
fled, alternatives to be considered, decisions to be made and acted
upon (Hummel 1965, pp. 96 96-97).
— 97).
"Right" Client for Ego-Counseling

The "Right”
Ego-counseling
Ego-counseling was first used
was first used with
with aa population
population of
of bright
bright but
but
underachieving high school boys. The general criteria for
"clients" have already been noted: a willingness and
selecting “clients"
ability on the individual's part to think through aspects of his
personal condition; relative freedom from severe neurotic de-de¬
fense, and sufficient mobility to change attitudes and/or be-be¬
havior in short-term contact. In short, ego-counseling is most
applicable to the educational, vocational and personal prob-
prob¬
lems of normal individuals (those without symptoms of
pervasive personal disturbance).
Implications for Ego-Counseling Method

The importance given in ego-counseling to reasoning about
the individual's personal situation is reflected, as well, in what
the counselor characteristically does. A key responsibility of
the counselor is "an unremitting effort to understand the
counselee and to impart back his understanding" (Hummel
1965, p. 98). Reflection—"a most powerful technique for com- com¬
municating understanding"
understanding” (p. (p. 98)—is
98)—is one one of the distinctive
techniques the
techniques the counselor
counselor uses to to communicate
communicate his under- under¬
standing. The focus, however, is primarily on restatement by
the counselor
the counselor of of the
the meanings
meanings implicit
implicit in what the individual
says',Ta's'
says, they bear
as they bear on on consequences,
consequences, planning
planning and possible
actions, rather
actions, rather than
than on on reflection
reflection of of the
the individual's feelings
per se.
per se.’ Particularly
Particularly significant
significant isis the
the use
use by
by the
the counselofmof
counselor of
questioning, interpretation—"a_[_construction
questioning, interpretation—"a construction of of events
events inin the
the
experience of
experience of the
the counselee
counselee which
which the latter latter has not [already
already
him,self_.f_ormulated"
himself formulated" (p. (p. 102)—and confrontation,
confrontation, "a "a__p_a_Lticular
particular
form of
form of interpretation
interpretation in in which the counselor
counselor proposes that
contradiction exists
contradiction exists between
between two aspects
aspects of of client thinking or
overt behavior"
behavior" (p. (p. 102). Again,
Again, it it is
is consistent
consistent withwthe
with the im- im¬
portance placed
portance placed by by ego-counseling
ego-counseling on on analysis
analysis and thinking
Implications of Counsrunc Theory
Turomr AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique /
/ 131
131
activity by the counselee

activity counselee that
that the counselor,
counselor, too, is relatively
active and
and objective
objective intellectually.
Ego-counseling in
Ego-counseling in particular "retains aa placerfgor
particular "retains place for both
both phe-
phe¬
nomenological
nomenological andand objective
objective viewpoints
viewpoints in in the
the Zaraéiaaith;
same meth¬
odological system"
odological system" (Hummel
(Hummel 1962,1962, p.
p. 476).
476). InIn short,
short, there
there
is a place for the client's thinking, the counselor's thinking
is a place for the client's thinking, the counselor's thinking
and objective
and objective evidence.
evidence. A discussion in
A discussion in which
which aa supervisor
supervisor
explores and pursues with a teacher solutions to instruc-
explores and pursues with a teacher solutions to instruc¬
tional problems
tional problems which the supervisor
which the supervisor strives
strives toto understand
understand
both objectively
both objectively and
and asas the
the teacher
teacher sees
sees them
them isis very
very close
close in
in
methods
methods and
and goals
goals to
to ego-counseling. Talk about
ego-counseling. Talk about one's
one's self,
self,
the
the actual
actual situation
situation and
and self-in-situation are integral
self-in-situation are integral to
to ego-
ego¬
counseling. Similar
counseling. Similar discussion is equally
discussion is equally as
as important
important in
in
supervision.
supervision.
Analysis, Synthesis
Analysis, Synthesis and
and Action—Central Concerns in
Action—-Central Concerns in Ego-
Ego-
Counseling
How an individual
Howganq individual sees,
sees, thinks
thinks about and acts
about and acts in
in an
an actual
actual
role or relationship is, then, of central importance in
role or relationship is, then, o_f,_central importance in this this
method
method (pp. 467 and
(pp. 467 and 477-479).
477-479). "Analysis" is a
"Analysis" is a broad
broad term,
term,
referring
referring both
both to
to perceptual
p_e_rcept_ual differentiation of the role
di_ff_er_e‘nti_ation ofifthe role orggrela;
or rela¬
tionship
tionship and
and to
to the
the complex
complex reorganization and synthesis
reorganization and synthesis of
of
ideas in
ideas in which the individual
which_the individual must engage actively
must engage actively to
to make
make
new sense out
new out of
of his
his experience.
experience.
In cognitive
In cognitive terms,
terms, ego-counseling may be
ego-counseling may be said
said to
to help
help the
the coun-
coun¬
selee
selee to
to attain
attain aa revised set of
revised set of intentions
intentions .... of "personal
. . of "personal constructs"
constructs
with reference to a defined sector. . . Ego-counseling is
with reference to a defined sector. . . Ego-counseling is intended to intended to
achieve
achieve change
change notnot merely
merely inin specific
specific behavior
behavior .. .. .. but
but in
in the
the com-
com¬
plex of meanings and organizing principles which
plex of meanings and organizing principles which guide the coun-guide the coun¬
selee
selee in
in his
his transactions
transactions within
within the
the sector (p. 479).
sector (p. 479).
Rehearsal for
Rehearsal for actual behavior is
actual behavior is an integral part
an integral part of
of ego-
ego¬
counseling. It is
cou'ns'Téling'.'It integral because
is integral because tryout is an
tryout is an essential
essential aspect
aspect
of
of secondary process, because
secondary process, because the
the educational institutions in
educational institutions in
which
which counseling
counseling is typically practiced
is typically are appropriately
practiced are appropriately con-
con¬
cerned with practical
cerned with effects and
practical effects in order
and in order to establish
"to establish aa
H
sufficient conception of counseling as an educative function"
function”
(p. 480).
A BLUEPRINT FOR AN APPLICATION OF

EGO-COUNSELING TO SUPERVISION
An abstract for an application of ego-counseling to the prob-

prob¬
lems confronting the beginning teacher follows. It embodies
the process of analysis, synthesis and action discussed above.
The purpose is to summarize the preceding arguments and to
establish, at least theoretically, the relevance of ego-counseling
as a way of responding to the problems of becoming a teacher.
The reader should be alert to the danger of oversimplifying
both counseling and supervision strategies and the unsystem-
unsystem¬
atic and only partly conscious process of development in the
beginning teacher.
SECTOR: PROBLEMS CONFRONTED BY THE BEGINNING TEACHER.
Phases in the Dominant Issues Representative

Supervision Questions Which
the Teacher May
Ask or Be Led to
Analyze
Analysis A. Job
Iob expecta¬
expecta- What is expected
tions: on the of me as a teacher
part of the by the school, the
school, the school supervisor,
school super¬
super- the university
visor, the col¬
col- training program?
lege training What am I sup-
sup¬
program posed to be as a
teacher-what
teacher—what at-at¬
tributes are ex-
ex¬
pected? What am I
supposed to do, in
terms of curricu-
curricu¬
lum and peda-
peda¬
seer?
gogy?
Systematic B1. Personal role
Bi. Personal role What are the ob-
ob¬
appraisal by the definition
definition jectives I want to
teacher of A (the accomplish in
job expectations) teaching?-What
teaching? What do
Phases (cont)
(cont.) Dominant Issues Representative
(cont.) Questions (cont)
(cont.)
B (personal objec-
objec¬ I1 want my teach-
teach¬
tives in teaching) ing to be? With
and C (self-image) what interest and
will lead to: intensity? (How
much am I person-
person¬
ally committed to
and responsible for
these objectives?)
C. Self-image What and who am
I? What are my
present competen-
competen¬
cies to cope with
teaching? What
personal assets
and what limita-
limita¬
tions will affect
what I am ex-
ex¬
pected, or want,
to accomplish in
teaching (i.e.,
A & B1)?
B i) ?
Confrontation
Confrontation// D. Discrepancies
D. Discrepancies Are there
Are there contra-
contra¬
Analysis between A
between A dictions between
dictions between
(job expecta¬
expecta- A,
A, B1
Bi and
and C?
C? How
How
tions), B (per¬
(per- do I react to these
sonal inten¬
inten- incompatibilities
incompatibilities
tions) and C (e.g., by denial,
(current per¬
per- avoid¬
distortion, avoid-
sonal assets ing, personal resis¬
ing, personal resis-
and limita-
limita¬ tance to the job
tions) expectations, de-
expectations, de¬
fensively)? With
what feelings and
anxiety? With
what consequences
for my teaching?
(The supervisor,
(The supervisor, during this phase,
during this phase, may make interpretations
may make interpretations
or tentative
or tentative hypotheses
hypotheses about
about thethe problem being considered
problem being considered
by the
by the teacher.
teacher. These
These may relate to
may relate A (i.e.,
to A the school
(i.e., the school or
or class-
class¬
room reality). For example, the supervisor might report
room reality). For example, the supervisor might report infor- infor-
I1
Phases (cont.) Dominant Issues Representative
(cont.) Questions (cont.)
mation enabling the teacher to make comparisons of his class-
class¬
room performance with that of other teachers. Similarly, the
supervisor might relate his hypotheses to specialized knowl-
knowl¬
edge about the process of teaching, pupil differences, etc. The
supervisor may also give interpretations or tentative hypothe-
hypothe¬
B1 and C. Such interpretations about the teacher's
ses about Bi
assumptions, ways of reacting to children, etc., would remain
close to the latter's level of awareness.)
Reorganization B2. per-

Bz. Revised per¬ How do I select,
and synthesis sonal model(s) and justify, the
leading to a revised for teaching curriculum or con-con¬
set of intentions (an emerging tent? What are al- al¬
(i.e., a revised Bi)
B1) "professional ternative objec-
objec¬
in light of analysis self") tives for my teach-
teach¬
of A, B, C and D ing (given differ-
differ¬
entiation of A, B1,Bi,
C and D)? What is
the synthesis?
E.
E. Development
Development In
In what
what ways
ways dodo
of behavior my present efforts
making attain¬
attain- and
and attitudes
attitudes con-
con¬
ment of B2
B2 tribute to the
possible probable realiza-
realiza¬
tion or failure of
Ba?
B2? How might I
change my asas¬
sumptions and bebe¬
havior to make
them more func-
func¬
tional to Ba?
B2?
Action F.
F. 11 Rehearsal
Rehearsal How
How might
might II act
act
for action
action given
given particular
particular
situations?
situations? (How
(How
can I respond to
aa particularly
particularly
troublesome
troublesome pupil
pupil
or class? How
might
might II "turn
"turn on"
on"
disinterested or
disinterested or
Phases (cont.)
Phases (cont.) Dominant Issues Representative
Representative
(cont.) Questions (cont.)
disaffected chil-
chil¬
dren? How might I
plan or present
material more
clearly and co-
co¬
gently?)
2 Situational What were the re-re¬

tryout sults when I tried
F1
Fi in the class-
class¬
room?
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS
The teacher's
The teacher's perceptions,
perceptions, his his assumptions
assumptions and and how
how he he feels
feels
all
all affect what he
affect what he says
says and
and does
does with students. Teaching
with students. Teaching
behavior is an intellectual and emotional
behavior is an intellectual and emotional expression of expression of the
the
person. The
person. The practical
practical consequence
consequence is that supervision is
is thatfsupefvvisioin is in-
in¬
complete
complete unless unless it it can
can deal with the
deal with person and
the person and with
with thethe
assumptions and feelings his classroom
assumptions and feelings his classroom talk and behavior talk and behavior
express.
It has
It has also
also been
been argued
argued thatthat the teacher himself
the teacher himself can can andand
should be the significant participant in
should be the significant participant in the analysis of his the analysis of his
teaching and
teaching and that by so
that by so doing
doing he he can
can acquire increased under-
acquire increased under¬
standing and effectiveness in his teaching.
standing and effectiveness in his teaching. This position re- This position re¬
flects aa clear
flects clear value
value commitment^that
commitmentaaathat the the teacher
teacher wants
wants and and
has a
has a right
right to to participate
participate in in analysing
analyzing and and controlling
controlling his his own
own
professional behavior. A second reason
professional behavior. A second reason for the emphasis on for the emphasis on
the teacher's
the personal analysis
teacher's personal analysis of of classroom
classroom events events is is the
the ab-ab¬
sence of
sence of any valid, reliable
any valid, reliable evidence available to
evidence available to supervision
supervision
"as to who the effective teacher is or what
aTsTo who the effective teacher is or what is the "right view" is the "right view''
of most
of most curriculum
curriculum and instructional issues.
and instructional issues. Further,
Further, there
there
seems good reason to believe that supervision
seems good reason to believe that supervision will have little will have little
effect on
effect on the process of
the process of instruction
instruction or or student
student learning
learning un- un¬
less the
less the teacher
teacher accepts
accepts and understands the
and understands the analysis
analysis of of hishis
teaching.
We are
We not, however,
are not, however, simply
simply arguing
arguing for for moremore significant
significant
self-evaluation of
self-evaluation of professional behavior by
professional behavior by beginning
beginning or or ex¬ex-
perienced teachers. (This idea is not new
perienced teachers. (This idea is not new in supervision; an in supervision, an
136 /
/ Supervision:
SUPERVISION: Tm; Rrrucranr Profession
The Reluctant PROFESSION
effective method for such self-analysis of teaching is new.)

Nor is the argument in this chapter distinctive in its assump-
assump¬
tion that it makes sense for the teacher to think about his
teaching—-to employ rational capacities to solve teaching
teaching—to
problems. Clinical supervision is based on the same premise.
The distinction lies in what is thought and talked about. The
method of supervision discussed here is particularly sensitive
to the fact that beginning teachers, at least, doMrrot____&t'hink
do not think
about their teaching "abstractly" or objectively. Curricular
and pedagogical issues can have distinctly personal overtones.
Our contention is that supervision must be able to assist the
teacher in making simultaneous curricular, pedagogical and
personal meaning out of the experience of practi_c__e.
practice. (Teachers
must, of course, be free not to talk about themselves if they
choose. The problem in supervision has traditionally been the
reverse: the teacher has usually been unable to talk about his
personal responses when he wanted to.)
A compelling rationale for dealing with the intellectual and
emotional responses of the teacher is based on evidence that
talking about these
these responses
responses in in aa structured
structured way can gen-gen¬
eralize to
eralize to measurable improvement
improvement in in teaching
teaching behavior.’
behavior.7
There is an
an equally
equally compelling,
compelling, if if more
more romantic, reason. Our
experience is that beginning teachers
experience is that beginning teachers may may make
make aa great
great deal
deal
of meaning
of meaning from their first
first contact
contact with practice—that exceed-
exceed¬
ingly significant
ingly significant personal and professional
personal and professional learning
learning can
can occur
occur
"The writer supervised two groups comprising 17 student teachers in this

7The
manner. Independent ratings of their teaching performance increased 1.82
grade points on a 7-point rating scale. Their average grade at the end of six
preliminary weeks of of student teaching was was B.
B. AA five-month
five-month internship in
the public
the public schools
schools followed,
followed, during
during which
which time they
they were supervised by the
method of
method of ego-counseling.
ego-counseling. The
The average
average grade
grade at
at the end was
the end was A—.
A—. AA subsample
subsample
of 77 student
of student teachers
teachers who
who were
were particularly
particularly ineffective in the first six weeks
increased 2.5
increased 2.5 grade
grade points
points in
in the subsequent
subsequent internship—from an average grade
of B—
B- to an average grade of A—. Both changes were highly significant statis- statis¬
tically. The
tically. The improvement
improvement in in rated
rated teaching
teaching performance
performance also
also was
was significantly
significantly
greater than that
greater than that of
of an
an analogous
analogous group
group of
of student
student teachers
teachers receiving
receiving conven-
conven¬
tional supervision.
IMPLICATIONS
Implications or Counsrunc Theory
of Counseling Turom AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique / 137
at this point. Teachers are made, or broken, by practice in

ways more complex than supervision, education or psychology
have realized. The supervisor, almost uniquely among teacher
educators, can be relevant to, and affect, this process of pro- pro¬
fessional and
fessional and personal
personal learning. This This isis not to say that the
supervisor is currently relevant or effective in this way, but
that he
that he is is most
most closely
closely associated
associated with
with the
the one
one experience
experience in in
the teacher's
the teacher's education
education which
which is, by definition, most decisive.
The argument that supervision must respond to the per- per¬
sonal, the
sonal, the idiosyncratic
idiosyncratic and and thethe expressive
expressive in teaching
teaching can can
be summarized
be summarized in in aa more
more formal
formal statement. Developing adap-
statement. Developing adap¬
tive behavior and defining oneself as a teacher involve aa
tive behavior and defining oneself as a teacher involve
learning
learning processprocess and
and anan area
area of
of attention distinguishable, but
attention distinguishable, but
not separate, both from considerations of curriculum and
not separate, both from considerations of curriculum and
method and
method and from
from change
change in in the
the basic personality structure
basic personality structure of of
the teacher.
the teacher. Distinctive to to this
this process are new learnings: new
teaching
teaching behavior and new concepts
behavior and new concepts of of oneself
oneself asas aa teacher.
teacher.
Sugp_eryisiogn_mu.s,t_-.understand
Supervision must understand this process process of personal growth
tfeagcher, and offer support to it.
in the teacher
It is important
It is important to emphasize again
to emphasize again what
what is is not
not implied
implied in in
this
this chapter.
chapter. The The proposal
proposal forfor aa more comprehensive concep-
more comprehensive concep¬
tion and method of supervision is not intended
tion and method of supervision is not intended to imply that to imply that
proficiency
proficiency in in curriculum
curriculum content
content and teaching method
and teaching method is is not
not
aa necessary
necessary objective
objective of of supervision. Nothing we
supervision. Nothing we havehave said
said
should be taken as an argument against
should be taken as an argument against subject-matter or subject-matter or
pedagogical competence,
pedagogical competence, or or against supervisory analysis
against supervisory analysis of of
these areas.8 The method discussed here
these areas.“ The method discussed here is more "compre- is more "compre-
8Since we
“Since we know
know soso little
little about
about the
the components
components of of effective
effective teaching,
teaching, itit
would seem
would seem only
only common
common sense
sense to
to avoid
avoid aa limited or confining
limited or confining model
model ofof effec-
effec¬
tive teaching
tive behavior. This
teaching behavior. This isis another
another reason the method
reason the method ofof supervision
supervision out-
out¬
lined here
lined here gives
gives as
as much
much emphasis
emphasis to to subjective criteria as
subjective criteria as to
to "external"
"external" stan-
stan¬
dards of
dards judging the
of judging the curriculum
curriculum andand the
the effects of teaching.
effects of teaching.
’This raises
°This raises the
the question
question of
of the
the relationship between clinical
relationship between clinical supervision
supervision
and ego-counseling.
and ego-counseling. The The reader
reader will
will recall
recall the discussion of
the discussion of Blumberg
Blumberg and
and
Amidon's study
Amidon's study in
in Chapter Three. In
Chapter Three. In particular,
particular, they found that
they found that learning
learning about
about
oneself, both as
oneself, both as aa teacher
teacher and
and as
as aa person, occurs when
person, occurs when the supervisor uses
the supervisor uses
I‘
138 /
138 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
TI-IE Reluctant
PROFESSION
hensive" in that
hensive" in that it
it deals
deals intensively with the
intensively with teacher's subjec-
the teacher's subjec¬
tive response to the objective issues of curriculum and in-
tive response to the objective issues of curriculum and in¬
structionf’
struction.9
How does
How does the method of of supervision
supervision developed in this
chapter stand up to the contention that
chapter stand up to the contention the central
that the central objective
objective
both indirect and

both indirect and direct
direct methods.
methods. "Direct
"Direct behavior"
behavior" involves
involves giving
giving informa-
informa¬
tion
tion oror opinions,
opinions, directions
directions and and criticism;
criticism; 'indirect
'indirect behavior"
behavior" meansmeans accepting
accepting
feelings
feelings andand ideas,
ideas, giving
giving encouragement
encouragement and and asking
asking questions
questions of of the
the teacher.
teacher.
The finding
The finding thatthat effective
effective supervision involves aa high high degree of both kinds of
communication is is entirely
entirely consistent with the writer's writer's experience. When the
relevant issues
relevant issues concern curriculum or or pedagogy, that is what supervision
should dealdeal with.
with. The inputs inputs will
will be the the supervisor's
supervisor's experience
experience with the cur- cur¬
riculum and and teaching; the supervisor's supervisor's technique
technique may be direct or indirect.
supervision is is exceedingly
exceedingly useful
useful as as aa model
model for relatively direct and
didactic discussion
discussion of of content
content andand teaching.
teaching. WhenWhen the the issues are personal or
philosophical, supervision should address itself to them. Ego-counseling is a
useful indirect method for hearing a person out. It is obviously also possible
to deal with curriculum and teaching issues indirectly (as is suggested in
Chapter Six) and with personal issues in a direct way (as is the case in clinical
supervision). The general point is that a particular teacher may at one time
want or need one kind of assistance, and at another time may benefit more
from the other kind of help. Supervision is more effective when it is able to
employ both the method of clinical supervision and the method of ego-coun- ego-coun¬
seling.
More specifically,
specifically, the the supervisor
supervisor may shift shift from
from clinical
clinical to counseling su- su¬
pervision within the same conference. For example, a relatively didactic dis- dis¬
cussion
cussion of of techniques
techniques for for disciplining
disciplining children
children may may givegive way
way toto aa more
more in-in¬
direct discussion of the teacher's fear of losing control of the students or his
direct discussion of the teacher's fear of losing control of the students or his
uncertain feelings about
uncertain feelings about exercising
exercising authority.
authority. SuchSuch aa shift
shift is
is not
not artificial.
artificial. It
It
follows the route from what the teacher does to why, philosophically or psy-
follows the route from what the teacher does to why, philosophically or psy¬
chologically, he he isis this
this way.way. What
What is is artificial
artificial is toto assume that there are not
personal or or philosophical reasons (as (as well as as curriculum
curriculum and pedagogical de- de¬
terminants) for for his teaching
teaching behavior. Thus, Thus, whenwhen the the supervisee introduces
personal material, it it should
should be be honored;
honored; it it may supersede
supersede at that point the
supervisor's agenda.agenda. Again, this this is
is not
not toto say
say that
that the
the supervisor must become
aa mute,
mute, "uh-huhing"
"uh-huhing" therapist. therapist. The
The pointpoint isis to
to hear
hear the
the teacher
teacher out.
out. His
His teach-
teach¬
ing, after
after all,
all, is the
the subject
subject of of concern.
concern. Conversely,
Conversely, there there also must be time for
the teacher
teacher to to listen
listen to to the
the supervisor's
supervisor's directdirect clinical
clinical assessment and recom- recom¬
mendations; they, they, too,
too, express
express the
the supervisor's
supervisor's concern
concern and wish to help. To
know how and and whenwhen to to be direct
direct or
or indirect
indirect is, then,
then, aa very subtle and essential
part of the supervisor's craft.
Implications of Counsruno Theory
THEORY AND
and Trcnmour
Technique /
/ 139
and practical
and practical test of
of any method of
of supervision
supervision is its effec-
effec¬
tiveness in changing the teacher's behavior? (A digression:
the necessity of changing teaching behavior—either
behavior--either to imple-
imple¬
ment curriculum effectively
effectively or or to
to make
make it consistent with em- em¬
pirical findings about effective teaching—is teaching--is not going to dis-
dis¬
appear as
appear as we
we develop
develop moremore valid
valid knowledge
knowledge about curricula,
instruction, instructional technology, teacher effectiveness
instructional technology,
and related issues. Indeed, the
and related issues. Indeed, the analysis
analysis and
and modification
modification of of
teaching are likely to become even more important as we bebe¬
gin to understand the precise relationships among curriculum,
teaching and
teaching and student
student learning.
learning. Conant (1963), for
Conant (1963), for other
other rea-
rea¬
sons, has
sons, has given
given aa critical
critical priority
priority to the role and function
function of
the clinical supervisor in the education of the teacher. These
the clinical supervisor in the education of the teacher. These
pressures
pressures willwill facilitate
facilitate the hard thinking
the hard thinking andand hard
hard data
data which
which
are essential
are essential if if wewe are
are systematically
systematically to affect teacher bebe¬
havior.) But to return to the issue at hand. Does it "work?"
havior.) But to return to the issue at hand. Does it "work?"
Is it
Is it practical?
practical? Evidence
Evidence has been cited cited that student teachers
supervised by this
supervised this method
method can can analyze
analyze and change their atti- atti¬
tudes and behavior in the classroom. The evidence, both about
tudes and behavior in the classroom. The evidence, both about
change
change in in teaching
teaching attitudes
attitudes and behavior and
and behavior and about
about the
the con-
con¬
tribution
tribution of of supervision
supervision to to these
these changes,
changes, is is inconclusive,
inconclusive, butbut
it is virtually the only evidence of which the
it is virtually the only evidence of which the writer is aware writer is aware
that
that supervision
supervision doesdoes make
make aa difference.
difference. That,
That, inin itself,
itself, makes
makes
the method unique.
SUPERVISING EXPERIENCED
SUPERVISING EXPERIENCED TEACHERS
TEACHERS
Is
Is ego-counseling
ego-counseling applicable
applicable in
in the
the supervisor's work with
supervisor's work with
experienced
experienced teachers? The practical
teachers? The practical problems
problems and
and personal
personal
issues
issues confronting
confronting experienced
experienced teachers are clearly
teachers are clearly different
different
from those
from those encountered by beginners.
encountered by The writer
beginners. The writer has,
has, how-
how¬
ever, used these
ever, used ideas and
these ideas and techniques with widely
techniques with widely diverse
diverse
groups
groups of
of experienced
experienced teachers,
teachers, counselors and supervisors.
counselors and supervisors.
The results
The results indicate
indicate that
that ego-counseling has substantial
ego-counseling has substantial
generalizability.
It might
It might bebe asked
asked whether
whether the
the writer is suggesting
writer is suggesting that
that
*\
140 /
140 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: Tut Rrrucram‘ Profession
ego-counseling be
ego-counseling instituted as
be instituted as aa formal
formal procedure
procedure or
or only
only
that certain
that certain lessons
lessons be adapted
adapted from
from it
it by
by supervisors. I am
reluctant, given how
reluctant, given how little
little we know about
we know about the
the elements
elements of
of
effective
effective teaching
teaching or or about
about training
training effective teachers, to
effective teachers, to
argue for
argue for "instituting”
"instituting" oneone method
method ofof supervision, whether it
be clinical supervision, ego-counseling, micro-teaching, Flan-
be clinical supervision, ego-counseling, micro-teaching, Flan¬
ders’ interaction analysis
ders' analysis or or another
another approach.
approach. In light of the
individual differences in teachers' professional development,
individual differences in teachers' professional development,
we need to conceive of, and try out, a variety of qualitatively
different ways to supervise. Having stipulated this, I will
argue that we know enough about the efficacy of ego-counsel-
ego-counsel¬
ing to make it available as part of the supervision program for
teachers in training. As the following section will show, I
also consider ego-counseling to offer significant general les- les¬
sons for all supervisors.
Let us look first at some of the implications of ego-counseling
for the supervision of experienced teachers, and then turn to
a number of practical questions which supervisors have raised
about this method. Supervision, regardless of how it is de- de¬
fined, involves talk between a teacher and a supervisor about
teaching. The writer has observed that supervisory problems
most frequently involve failures of communication. Super- Super¬
visors I have known much more often pontificate, cut teachers
off, lecture on their pet theories about teaching, and the like,
than engage in real professional or personal communication
with the teacher. One obvious suggestion which emerges from
this chapter is that the supervisor observe more, listen more
and talk less. The supervisor can observe more by a) getting
as much information as possible on the instructional problems
the teacher is concerned about. This supervisory function is
essentially a matter of reporting, and the video or tape re- re¬
corder is a useful device for "freezing" the actual data of
teaching. The supervisor may observe more with the objective
of b) helping the teacher identify patterns in his teaching
which he himself considers effective or ineffective. The point
of observation,
of observation, andand particularly of of the
the supervisory
supervisory analysis,
Implications of Counsrtmc THEORY
Theory AND
and Trcnmour
Technique /
/ 141
141
might be to attempt jointly to identify logical relationships

among what the teacher does, his own understanding of what
he does and his ability to organize these relationships ac- ac¬
cording to orderly principles. Perhaps the simplest way to ob- ob¬
serve more is c) to see two or more samples of teaching and
then to compare them. The resultant comparative criteria may
be more useful than is the comparison of one incident of
teaching to external—that
external—-that is, the supervisor's—criteria.
The writer also suggests that the supervisor listen more. It
seems to be difficult for many supervisors to listen, or to com- com¬
prehend, except insofar as the teacher's reply corresponds to
a set of observations or an evaluation already made by the
supervisor. One can oversimplify the issue by suggesting that
teachers (and supervisors) are trained to talk while counselors
are trained to listen, and that both professional functions-— functions—
inseparable parts of the educational process—suffer from
rigidity as a result. The supervisor should be able to listen
acutely to
acutely to several
several levels
levels of of communication
communication by by the
the teacher:
teacher:
his questions and problems with regard to the curriculum,
instructional issues,
issues, andand thethe expression
expression of his personal needs
and objectives. Perhaps a literary allusion
and objectives. Perhaps a literary allusion may
may be be forgiven.
forgiven. If If
supervisors could be sensitive to, or trained to hear (they do
not always have to respond), Doc's three voices in Steinbeck's
Sweet Thursday,
Thursday, supervisory
supervisory communication,
communication, interaction and,
the writer suspects, effect, could be triply powerful.
It might also be suggested that supervisors talk less. The
supervisor is likely
likely toto find
find it moremore effective
effective to talk about the
teacher's perceptions (what
teacher's perceptions (what the the teacher sees) and
teacher sees) and the
the teacher's
teacher's
analysis (what he thinks is happening) than about the super-
analysis (what he thinks is happening) than about the super¬
visor's own
visor's own analyses.
analyses. In simplest
simplest terms,
terms, one starts with the
teacher as he is. Supervisors might also
teacher as he is. Supervisors might also try
try assuming
assuming thatthat the
the
teacher, particularly
teacher, particularly if if he
he is is experienced,
experienced, is is relatively
relatively asas per-
per¬
ceptive
ceptive asas isis the supervisor; they
the supervisor; might, in
they might, in the
the process,
process, bebe
surprised! Given a colleague relationship—a
surprised! Given a colleague relationship-a relationship of relationship of
professional
professional respect—and
respect—and this this isis aa large
large "given,"
“given," the the teacher
teacher
is
is likely
likely to
to bring
bring up up most
most or or all
all of
of the matters the
the matters the supervisor
supervisor
ft
142 / Supervision:
142 / SUPERVISION: THE
The RELUCTANT PRorEss1or~i
considers important. The

considers important. The writer
writer has
has seen
seen this happen re-
this happen re¬
peatedly
peatedly in work with
in work with experienced
experienced teachers. They know
teachers. They know when
when
they
they have
have been
been effective
effective and when ineffectual!
and when But it
ineffectual! But it is
is very
very
hard to
hard to convince
convince supervisors
supervisors to
to trust the intelligence
trust the intelligence and
and per-
per¬
ceptiveness of
ceptiveness of teachers.
teachers. Furthermore, supervisors
supervisors frequently
feel
feel that
that they
they are not doing
are not their jobs
doing their jobs if
if they are not
they are not telling
telling
teachers how to improve.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ABOUT EGO-COUNSELING
Let us now turn to the questions most frequently asked by

experienced supervisors about the method of supervision just
outlined, and try to answer them in terms as practical as
possible. As background it should be mentioned that the ideas
developed in this chapter have been discussed with a large
number of supervisors working in differing situations (e.g.,
public school department chairmen and principals, urban
teachers, independent school headmasters and department
chairmen, college supervisors of student teachers and super- super¬
visory personnel in religious schools). The responses of such
diverse practitioners obviously differ, but common themes do
emerge. Supervisory audiences tend to be initially uncritical
of the ideas and supervisory techniques which have just been
described. The first enthusiasm often causes supervisors to
embrace this as an all-purpose and all-powerful conception
and procedure for supervision. No such grandiose _claim claim is, or
will be,
will be, made
made for the
the method. But But supervisors
supervisors seem to be im-im¬
pressed by the extent to which this method evokes significant
personal responses and feelings about children, schools and
teaching on the part of beginning and experienced teachers.
One suspects that supervisors and teachers may identify con- con¬
siderably with responses which suggest questions that they
themselves have
have asked,
asked, and and may still
still be
be asking, about their
profession. There
profession. There isis also
also aa tendency for supervisors,
supervisors, a majority
of whom have had little formal training or have given limited
thought toto this
this function,
function, to to be
be initially
initially intimidated
intimidated by a uni-
Implications of Counsrrmo Theory
THEORY AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique /
/ 143
143
versity professor
versity professor who seems
seems to
to have
have thought at length about
what they do intuitively, by the psychological "magic" which
may seem an ingredient in this method or by the preliminary
evidence that it works. However, questions and challenges do
come, in
come, in time,
time, and
and they
they usually
usually take
take the
the following forms:
A frequent reaction seems to be a statement to the effect
that, "You
that, "You may
may be able to supervise
supervise this way, but I have
neither the training nor the disposition to deal with teachers
so personally." For example, the question most frequently
raised is,
raised is, "Isn't
"Isn't training essential
essential if
if one
one is to use this method?"
The simplest
The simplest answer
answer is yes. Supervisors
is yes. Supervisors typically
typically are
are teachers,
teachers,
and teachers
and teachers typically do not
not possess
possess or act on the framework
of assumptions
of assumptions about
about learning
learning and
and about
about the individual's re-
re¬
sponsibility in
sponsibility that process
in that process which
which are
are fundamental
fundamental to
to this
this
method. (The
method. (The reader
reader will
will recall
recall the
the contention
contention that teaching is
an intellectual
an intellectual and
and emotional
emotional expression
expression of
of the
the person;
person; that
that
supervision is
supervision incomplete unless
is incomplete unless it
it can
can deal
deal with
with the
the person,
person,
his assumptions
assumptions and
and feelings,
feelings, and
and that
that the teacher himself can
and should
and should be the significant
be the significant person
person in
in the
the analysis
analysis of
of his
his
teaching and by so
teaching so doing
doing can
can acquire
acquire increased understanding
and effect in
and effect in his teaching.) Nor
his teaching.) Nor do
do supervisors
supervisors usually
usually have
have
the training
the in listening
training in listening or
or in
in "indirect"
"indirect" talk
talk with
with another
another
that is central
that central to
to the
the method. Nor
Nor will
will all supervisors be com-
com¬
fortable with these
fortable with these assumptions.
assumptions. They should not
They should not feel
feel guilty
guilty
or
or deficient if they
deficient if they are
are uncomfortable. The method
uncomfortable. The method is
is not
not for
for
them;
them; they
they should
should concentrate
concentrate on
on sophisticating their own
sophisticating their own
styles.
For those
For those supervisors,
supervisors, however,
however, who want to
who want to be
be able
able to
to
operate this
operate way, a
this way, a course
course in
in counseling theory and,
counseling theory and, most
most
important, a
important, a practicum
practicum inin counseling under supervision
counseling under supervision would
would
be sufficient
be sufficient training.
training. The
The writer
writer has
has found that a
found that a significant
significant
degree of understanding and skill in this method
degree of understanding and skill in this method can be can be de-
de¬
veloped through an
veloped through an intensive practicum in
intensive practicum in supervision
supervision itself.
itself.
Which
Which leads us to
leads us to an
an essential point: training
essential point: training is
is necessary
necessary for
for
any kind of
any kind of supervision.
supervision. It is as
It is as essential for clinical
essential for clinical supervi-
supervi¬
sion
sion as
as for
for supervision
supervision of
of this
this type.
type. The fact that
The fact that the
the question
question
I0
144 / Supervision:
THE Reluctant
Pnorrssron
is so
is so frequently
frequently raised suggests
suggests that
that supervision
supervision is ordinarily
conceived of as an activity for which little or no special train-
train¬
ing is expected. One need not look further for an explanation
of the finding that supervision typically makes no difference.
There is another answer to this question about training: that
the assumptions and techniques outlined in this chapter do
not involve psychological magic. They do, however, make
very real personal demands on the supervisor. Supervisors are
human beings; were they to make themselves significantly
available as people to those they supervise, many of the ef-
ef¬
fects argued for in this chapter might very well follow.
A related
related question
question has to
to do with
with whether experienced
teachers are as likely to talk in personal terms as are be-
be¬
ginners. The
ginners. The simple
simple answer
answer is
is "probably
"probably not" but it is an error
to assume
to assume that
that experienced
experienced teachers
teachers think
think or feel any less
deeply about professional issues than do beginners. Once they
feel safe to express their real thoughts and feelings in a con- con¬
text of personal trust, they will do so. The writer has re- re¬
peatedly found this to be the case. The attractive business
education teacher who feels frustrated and discouraged by not
getting the same results in her second year of teaching as she
did in
did in the
the first; the
the black
black teacher
teacher who realizes
realizes he cannot talk
with his ghetto
ghetto students
students about theirtheir mothers
mothers and fathers bebe¬
cause he wants
cause wants to to believe
believe that
that they
they come from "nice" middle-
class unbroken
class unbroken homes;
homes; thethe music
music teacher
teacher who leads the band
at games
at games andand wins state
state music
music festivals
festivals but who feels margi-
margi¬
nal in
in professional status
status in relation
relation both
both to academic teach-
teach¬
ers and
ers and toto administrators
administrators and the the imaginative
imaginative curriculum
coordinator who can't affect entrenched
coordinator who can't affect entrenched and and conservative
conservative de-
de¬
partment
partment heads,
heads, are but aa few
are but few of
of the many experienced
the many experienced teach-
teach¬
ers who
ers who come
come immediately
immediately to to mind.
mind. TheThe method
method is,is, in
in the
the
writer's experience, quite
writer's experience, quite appropriate
appropriate to to their
their problems.
problems.
Supervisors often
Supervisors often express
express anxiety about talking
anxiety about talking with
with teach-
teach¬
ers in
ers in aa personal,
personal, open
open way.
way. Given
Given thethe rituals
rituals that
that govern
govern
communication between
communication between teachers,
teachers, and and within
within schools
schools gener-
gener¬
ally, this
ally, this is not surprising.
is not surprising. ItIt does speak volumes
does speak volumes about
about thethe
5
Implications of Counsruno Theory
THEORY AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique / 145
/145
stylized,
stylized, artificial
artificial character
character of much of
of much of that
that communication.
communication.
A
A practicum in counseling
practicum in counseling oror supervision
supervision does
does help
help too,
too, as
as
does experience that talking with a colleague about his real
does experience that talking with a colleague about his real
attitudes and
attitudes and feelings
feelings as
as aa teacher
teacher is
is not
not opening
opening some
some psy-
psy¬
chological Pandora's box.
Among the technical
Among the technical questions
questions raised
raised is
is whether
whether the
the
method
method is
is appropriate
appropriate only
in individual
only
in individual supervision
supervision or
or
whether
whether it may be
it may be used
used with
with groups
groups ofof teachers.
teachers. While
While the
the
technique was developed for use in individual counseling and
technique was developed for use in individual counseling and
supervision, the
supervision, the writer's
writer's experience
experience is
is that
that it
it is
is applicable
applicable to
to
teams
teams of
of teachers
teachers analyzing instruction or
analyzing instruction or working
working on
on cur-
cur¬
riculum.
riculum. Chapter Seven discusses
Chapter Seven discusses in
in detail
detail the
the supervision
supervision of
of
teachers
teachers in
in groups,
groups, but
but it
it may
may be
be appropriate to mention
appropriate to mention here
here
some of
some of the
the adjustments
adjustments the
the writer
writer makes
makes to
to adapt
adapt this
this
method
method to
to work with a
work with a group
group such
such as, say, a
as, say, a department
department or
or a
a
group
group of
of supervisors-in-training. Almost by
supervisors-in-training. Almost by definition,
definition, the
the
supervisor's relationship
supervisor's relationship with
with the
the individual
individual teacher
teacher is
is less
less
immediately
immediately crucial than in
crucial than in one-to-one supervision.
one-to-one supervision. Con¬
Con-
versely,
versely, it
it is
is more difficult to
more difficult to establish trust within
establish trust within the
the group.
group.
Revealing significant
Revealing significant thoughts
thoughts and feelings about
and feelings about oneself
oneself or
or
one's
one's teaching
teaching to
to colleagues
colleagues is not easy.
is not Several group
easy. Several group meet-
meet¬
ings are
ings are usually
usually necessary
necessary before
before this begins to
this begins to happen.
happen. The
The
presentation for
presentation for analysis by the
analysis by the group
group ofof some
some ofof the
the super-
super¬
visor's own
visor's own curriculum ideas, or
curriculum ideas, or aa sample of his
sample of his teaching,
teaching, can
can
encourage openness.
encourage openness. Certainly the agenda
Certainly the should be
agenda should be practical,
practical,
focusing
focusing on
on the
the curriculum
curriculum or
or on
on tape recordings of
tape recordings of its
its teach-
teach¬
ing by individuals
ing by individuals in
in the
the group.
group. Concentrating on reformula-
Concentrating on reformula¬
tion
tion of
of the
the curriculum is probably
curriculum is probably the best way
the best way to
to get
get teachers
teachers
to consider
to not only
consider not only the
the content
content ofof what
what they
they teach
teach but how
but how
they teach.
In working
In working with
with groups, the writer
groups, the has found
writer has found it it important
important
to be quite
to be quite indirect
indirect at first. One
at first. One can be direct
can be direct later.
later. Groups
Groups ofof
teachers are prone to make the supervisor act like a traditional
teachers are prone to make the supervisor act like a traditional
supervisor—an expert
supervisor—-an expert with
with answers to all
answers to all the
the questions
questions about
about
subject matter and
subject matter teaching. The
and teaching. The effect of responding
effect of responding directly
directly
to this expectation
to this expectation is
is to
to create
create the prototype of
the prototype of teacher
teacher and
and
on
146 /
146 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: THE Rrwcraur Profession
class and
class and to
to make
make the
the learner
learner dependent,
dependent, aa result
result inimical
inimical
to the
to the whole
whole purpose of
of the
the process.
process. But what does being
"indirect" mean
"indirect" mean in
in the
the context
context of
of this
this method? At first, it es-
es¬
sentially means
sentially means listening—permitting the group to learn to
trust one another as people and to trust their own judgment
of the
of the curricular
curricular and
and instructional
instructional issues
issues being
being discussed.
discussed. Re-
Re¬
statements by the supervisor of the meaning or feeling ex-
ex¬
pressed by individuals
individuals ("You
("You question very much whether
you really can work with this curriculum," or "You get very
discouraged about ever being able to reach these children")
are helpful at this stage. A consistent attempt to understand
and articulate for the group the essential ideas and feelings
being raised is a basic responsibility of the supervisor. It is
also preferable to raise questions rather than to make points
with the group ("How would you characterize what the
teacher is doing at this stage in the lesson?" "What are the
objectives of the lesson?" "What kinds of questions would
you want to discuss with the teacher in analyzing the class?"
"Are you saying that the material gets in the way in trying to
reach these kids?").
The supervisor's attitudinal stance toward the group is im- im¬
portant at this stage. He must be intellectually patient with
teachers as they think
think about
about issues
issues that
that he has considered
more deeply. The supervisor should also recognize that teach- teach¬
ers will understand what they should do before they can, in
fact, do
do it
it in their
their teaching.
teaching. It
It takes
takes time and practice and
support for teachers to change their classroom behavior--and
behavior—and
more of each than is commonly understood or provided.
As aa group
group develops
develops trust
trust and
and aa working
working confidence in
their objectives
objectives and
and judgments, the supervisor
supervisor can become
more direct.
direct. He cancan interpret
interpret and
and confront
confront more directly
("You're lonely andand afraid
afraid in the
the classroom."
classroom." "It's frustrat-
frustrat¬
ing
ing not
not to get the
to get the results
results with
with these
these kids that you
kids that you got
got aa year
year
ago." "Is it that
that you
you don't
don't want
want to bebe simply
simply another white
adult putting
putting black
black kids
kids down?"
down?" "Isn't
"Isn't itit that the romance
about the
the ghetto school
school is over
over and
and you just
just want out?" "How
\
Implications of Couusruno THEORY
Theory AND
and TECHNIQUE
Technique /
/ 147
147
do you
do you square
square all
all the
the earlier
earlier talk
talk about
about 'relevance'
'relevance' with
with this
this
material?"). This
material?"). This is
is the
the stage
stage at
at which
which there is a functional
need and
need and probably
probably maximum
maximum effect
effect for
for the
the supervisor's
supervisor's clin-
clin¬
ical judgment—his ideas
ical judgment-his ideas about
about the
the curriculum
curriculum or the teaching
being analyzed.
analyzed. Blumberg
Blumberg and and Amidon's findings about the
apparent effectiveness of a combination
apparent effectiveness of a combination of of high indirect and
high indirect
direct supervisory
direct supervisory behavior coincides coincides with the writer's expe- expe¬
rience with
rience with this method. It is is important
important to repeat that this
method allows for, and even
method allows for, and even encourages, both encourages, both indirect
indirect and and
direct
direct supervision. Reiteration is
supervision. Reiteration necessary both
is necessary both because
because it it
is consistent with the way the method is used and because
is consistent with the way the method is used and because
supervisors
supervisors so so often
often ask,ask, "Are
"Are youyou ever direct?" or,
ever direct?" or, "When,
"When,
in this
this method,
method, is is the
the supervisor
supervisor direct?"
direct?"
Some specific questions about the
Some specific questions about method also
the method also needneed anan¬
swering.
swering. OneOne has has to to do
do with
with thethe number
number of of supervision
supervision con- con¬
ferences necessary for this method to
ferences necessary for this method to have effect. In the have effect. In the
experimental study
experimental study reported
reported on page 136,
on page 136, the the average
average num- num¬
ber of
ber of conferences
conferences with with aa teacher
teacher was was five;five; each
each typically
typically
lasted an hour or more. The writer's
lasted an hour or more. The writer's opinion is that this opinion is that this is is
minimal,
minimal, and that at
and that at least double or
least double triple this
or triple this number
number of of
conferences with a novice or experienced
conferences with a novice or experienced teacher is necessary teacher is necessary
to produce
to produce significant
significant or or stable
stable changes
changes in in attitudes
attitudes or or in in
classroom behavior. Obviously,
classroom behavior. Obviously, there there is is nono magic
magic number.number.
The experience of the teacher, the kind
The experience of the teacher, the kind and complexity of and complexity of the
the
problem
problem he he brings
brings to to supervision,
supervision, his attitude toward
his attitude toward super- super¬
vision
vision oror toward
toward the the supervisor
supervisor and other matters
and other matters will will all all
affect the number of times they need to
affect the number of times they need to talk. But, in this re-talk. But, in this re¬
spect,
spect, supervisory
supervisory conferences
conferences are are characteristically
characteristically too too inin¬
frequent and too unsystematic, particularly
frequent and too unsystematic, particularly in light of the in light of the
special and comprehensive
special and comprehensive objectives proposed for
objectives proposed for it it inin this
this
chapter.
chapter. Only
Only as as the
the teacher
teacher deals
deals with
with hishis real
real feelings,
feelings, con- con¬
cerns and classroom behavior is supervision
cerns and classroom behavior is supervision able to facilitate able to facilitate
change. Among several
change. Among several preconditions
preconditions for for this
this isis time.
time.
Another question has to do with
Another question has to do with the meaning of the meaning of the
the termterm
"sector."
"sector." This idea was
This idea was introduced
introduced into into the
the method
method as as aa con-
con¬
trol
trol on
on the
the range
range and intensity of
and intensity personal topics
of personal topics discussed.
discussed.
H
148 / Supervision:
148 / SUPERVISION: THE Rrtucraur Profession
A closely related question, frequently raised, is, "Are you, in

effect, practicing
effect, practicing psychotherapy with teachers?"
teachers?" The simple
answer is no; one of the factors which prevents us from doing
so is the notion of the sector. For example, in working with a
teacher experiencing discipline problems, the question of her
broken engagement came up on several occasions. Had the
supervisor pursued the teacher's feelings about herself, her
adequacy as a woman, her relations with men, her relation- relation¬
ship with her father, and other issues which were probably
involved in this broken engagement, he would have been act- act¬
ing as a therapist. That is, he would have been assisting her
to interpret and reorganize her present emotional experience
and feelings in light of her personal history and development.
By considering the broken engagement only in terms of its
consequences for her feelings as a person in the classroom
and her behavior there as a teacher, the focus is held on the
job, on the present and on her performance, rather than on
recapitulation or reorganization of who she is as a total per- per¬
son. The distinction may seem arbitrary or artificial, and it
can be so. But, nonetheless, the "line" is reasonably clear and
permits significant exploration of personal attitudes, feelings
and experience
experience as they
they relate
relate to
to performance
performance as a teacher. It
may happen
happen that
that the
the teacher
teacher needs or wants to cross the line
in order to
in order to be successful or
be successful or to
to feel
feel satisfied.
satisfied. In
In this
this situation
situation
the supervisor would be scrupulous and refer the teacher to
counseling or therapy.
CHAPTER SEVEN
SUPERVISING TEACHERS
IN GROUPS
As supervisors in
As supervisors in the
the teaching-learning
teaching-learning process, process, we we are
are con-
con¬
cerned with helping
cerned helping the individual
individual teacher achieve a fuller
realization of his own professional and
realization of his own professional and personal
personal resources.
resources.
While individual supervision
While individual supervision is is often invaluable, working
often invaluable, working
with teachers
with teachers in in aa group
group offers
offers its
its own particular benefits.
own particular benefits. In In
the setting of a group of colleagues, the individual teacher
the setting of a group of colleagues, the individual teacher
has special
has special opportunities
opportunities to discover and
to discover and toto articulate
articulate aspects
aspects
of
of himself
himself that will enhance
that will enhance his his teaching.
teaching. The The experience
experience of of
sharing invites him to explore the perspectives
sharing invites him to explore the perspectives from which from which
he views his
he views his teaching world and
teaching world and to compare them
to compare them with
with thethe
perspectives of other members of the group. A range of al-
perspectives of other members of the group. A range of al¬
ternatives
ternatives emerges
emerges through
through discussion
discussion of of these
these perspectives,
perspectives,
expanding
expanding his his choice
cn'oice ofof ways
ways of responding to
of responding to his
his students.
students.
Although the final responsibility for
Although the final responsibility for making sense of making sense of any
any
experience
experience resides
resides inin the
the individual teacher, mutual
individual teacher, mutual explora-
explora¬
tion enables
tion enables him him to to affirm
affirm and begin to
and begin to integrate
integrate hishis own
own
teaching style.
II will
will try
try to
to show
show inin this
this chapter
chapter how how aa group
group setting
setting pro-
pro-
4
149
149
150 /
150 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
PROFESSION
vides opportunities for individual learning. In group super-

super¬
vision, the supervisor serves as a catalyst and a resource in
the learning process. A context for learning begins to develop
as soon as group members come together; as supervisor I feel
that I have a choice between actively endeavoring to create
context or allowing context to develop by default. I choose
the former, trying to create a context which invites teachers
to learn on their own through communication with others.
Group consensus is not sought as an end in itself. Partici-
Partici¬
pants are encouraged to listen to and learn from one another.
Experience has led me to appreciate the value of creating a
context in which the participants, through interaction with
one another, have opportunities to pursue what they care
about. In the final analysis, no one can learn for the partici-
partici¬
pants. If they are to benefit from the experience—to
experience-to realize
where they are at this time in their lives—it
lives-it must be in a con-
con¬
text in which they are invited to participate actively.
A CONCEPTUAL
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
FRAMEWORK
Ourl responsibility as
Our1 responsibility as supervisors
supervisors carries
carries with
with it the urge to
continue
continue to explore and
to explore and toto extend
extend our
our own
own understanding
understanding of of
the
the process of learning.
process of learning. In In the end, we
the end, we hope,
hope, our
our sharing
sharing with
with
teachers,
teachers, both one-to-one and
both one-to-one and inin groups,
groups, will
will enhance
enhance our
our
ultimate concern:
concern: the the learning of of individual
individual students in the
classroom.
Our
Our immediate concern, however,
immediate concern, however, is is the
the learning
learning of of each
each
individual within the
individual within the group.
group. Through
Through direct
direct interpersonal
interpersonal ex-ex¬
change
change wewe strive
strive toto perceive
perceive and
and respond
respond to to the
the unique con-
unique con¬
cerns and style
cerns and style each
each teacher
teacher brings to aa supervision
brings to supervision session.
session.
We
We endeavor do discover the special resources of each indivi-
endeavor ti) discover the special resources of each indivi-
‘The use of
'The use of the
the personal
personal pronouns "we" and
pronouns "we" and "our"
"our" throughout
throughout this
this chapter
chapter
expresses
expresses my personal belief that each human being, whatever his work
my personal belief that each human being, whatever his work or
or
profession,
profession, is is continually
continually endeavoring
endeavoring toto communicate
communicate his his caring
caring and
and concern
concern
through
through hishis personal style of
personal style of expression.
expression. By the use
By the use of
of these
these pronouns,
pronouns, mymy
hope
hope is to invite the reader to examine his beliefs, assumptions and values.
is to invite the reader to examine his beliefs, assumptions and values.
0
Surrnvrsmo
Supervising TEACHERS
Teachers IN
in Gnours
Groups /
/ 151
151
dual. And, through our own conduct in the group, we attempt

to encourage the participants to share the same concern for
one another.
Mutual learning is therefore central to this kind of super- super¬
vision. As we help teachers in their work, we cannot help but
learn. And through our communications with teachers we
continue to discover ways to extend our services to them.
In supervision
In supervision and and in teaching, our
in teaching, our beliefs
beliefs and
and assumptions
assumptions
about learning define the nature of the interaction through
which our students learn. That is, the kinds of questions we
ask, the way we ask them, the statements we formulate and
the responses we we give
give communicate
communicate our our expectations and our
beliefs as to how learning best takes place.
In
In learning
learning aboutabout teaching
teaching we we areare learning
learning about
about personal
personal
relationships. We are
relationships. are concerned
concerned with with the teacher's relation- relation¬
ships with his students—the ways in which he can and does
ships with his students—the ways in which he can and does
address and communicate
address communicate with with his students;
students; and with his re- re¬
lationship to
lationship to himself—that
himself—that is, is, how
how he sees himself
he sees himself as as aa teacher
teacher
and how he feels about his ideas and
and how he feels about his ideas and behavior as they are behavior as they are in-
in¬
volved
volved in in his
his teaching.
teaching. In In learning
learning about teaching, therefore,
about teaching, therefore,
we are
we are much
much more personally
personally involved—and
involved—and more inescapably
so—than
so—than when learning about specific
when learning about subject matter.
specific subject matter. What-What¬
ever
ever we learn about
we learn about thesethese relationships
relationships will will reflect
reflect on on our-
our¬
selves. This kind of learning experience
selves. This kind of learning experience is what I shall referis what I shall refer
to as realization.
Such learning,
Such learning, then,
then, is is more
more thanthan cognitive.
cognitive. It It entails
entails com-com¬
plex interplay
plex interplay betweenbetween both both cognitive
cognitive and and emotional
emotional asas¬
pects of
pects of our being. When
our being. When we we learn
learn emotionally,
emotionally, we we often
often call.
call
upon our intellects to help us make sense
upon our intellects to help us make sense of the experienced of the experienced
changes.
changes. WhenWhen we we learn
learn cognitively,
cognitively, we react emotionally
we react emotionally to to
the
the process
process and and content
content of of our learning. The
our learning. The one one mode
mode inin¬
forms the other. Most of the time we seem
forms the other. Most of the time we seem to learn with mind to learn with mind
and feelings at
and feelings at once.
once. And And in in those
those moments
moments when when we we expe-
expe¬
rience the involvement of our whole
rience the involvement of our whole being, our learning is being, our learning is
richer.
richer. Learning involves the
Learning involves the intermeshing
intermeshing of of many
many facets
facets of of
our person; it
our person; it is
is difficult
difficult to to distinguish
distinguish neatlyneatly between
between learn-learn-
I‘.
152 /
152 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
Rrtucrnnr PRorEss1oN
Profession
ing experienced in
ing experienced in personal growth (including
personal growth (including psychotherapy)
psychotherapy)
and learning about our conduct in the classroom.
When
When we we learn,
learn, we create meaning.
we create meaning. When
When something
something new new
happens, or or when
when something
something oldold happens
happens in in a new way, we
try in our own way to make meaning of it. This is a funda- funda¬
mental principle of human experience. We spend many of
our waking
our waking hours
hours developing
developing and and nurturing
nurturing assumptions
about ourselves and the world in which we move. Although
our basic assumptions are often articulated cognitively, they
tend to arise from experiences which involve strong feelings.
There is constant interplay between what we assume and
what we experience. When this interplay is meaningful to us,
we are learning. While we are aware of many of our assump- assump¬
tions, some are less clearly known to us. Our beliefs and
assumptions potently influence our behavior, including the
ways we learn, teach and supervise. As we endeavor to create
meaning, we call upon our basic assumptions to assist us. In
the process, we may affirm, modify or discard old assump- assump¬
tions, and evolve new ones. Learning something new can re- re¬
veal to us our previous assumptions, open out possibilities in
the use of our person that we have not considered before or
even suggest that some of our most cherished beliefs have
been limited or erroneous.
Change, or
Change, or the
the likelihood of of change,
change, seems
seems to be inherent
in such
in such learning. Confronted
Confronted with with the possibility
possibility of change,
we often
we often feel
feel ambivalent.
ambivalent. We We experience
experience the ambivalence as
aa simultaneous
simultaneous expression of of two kinds
kinds of yearning. I/Ve We
yearn to
yearn to grow,
grow, toto be different,
different, spontaneous
spontaneous and, in some
sense, unpredictable.
sense, unpredictable. At the same
At the same time,
time, we we long
long for
for stasis,
stasis,
security, aa feeling
security, feeling ofof equilibrium
equilibrium andand predictability.
predictability. These
These
feelings of
feelings of ambivalence
ambivalence are are intimately related to
intimately related to the
the process
process
of learning.
Cognitive-emotional interplay,
Cognitive-emotional meaning-making, ambiva-
interplay, meaning-making, ambiva¬
lence: these,
lence: these, then,
then, are
are fundamental
fundamental to to the
the kind
kind ofof learning
learning
called realization. The process of learning entails more than
taking in
taking in something
something new. One discovers
new. One discovers that
that aa shift
shift in
in one's
one's
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in GROUPS
Groups /
/ 153
153
perspective
perspective on one's own
on one's behavior can
own behavior can offer
offer others
others quite
quite
different opportunities to respond; the discovery can lead to
feelings of
feelings of shame
shame for
for having
having failed
failed to
to realize
realize this
this possibility
possibility
earlier. Examining the the "how"
“how” of of this
this relationship heightens
self-awareness, and
self-awareness, and can
can make
make one doubt doubt one's competence. In
striving to make sense of the experience, one
striving to make sense of the experience, one brings
brings toto bear
bear
a wealth
wealth of of personal
personal resources.
resources. When When what seemed complex
and beyond comprehension becomes understandable,
and beyond comprehension becomes understandable, our our ex-
ex¬
citement and
citement and ourour urge
urge forfor further
further exploration
exploration continue.
continue.
Each of of us
us assumes
assumes and experiences
experiences in unique ways. While
we hold many assumptions and
we hold many assumptions and experiences
experiences in in common,
common, it it is
is
in our uniqueness
in our uniqueness that that we we find
find richness,
richness, potency
potency and
and creativ-
creativ¬
ity. Through
Through understanding
understanding and and claiming
claiming our own unique- unique¬
ness, we can become more competent teachers. While affirm-
ness, we can become more competent teachers. While affirm¬
ing one's
one's uniqueness is not the the only
only factor in effective teach- teach¬
ing, it it seems
seems to to be essential
essential to to teacher
teacher competency. It may
be that when we understand
be that when we understand our own our own personal
personal strivings
strivings andand
styles, we become
styles, become freer to to respond to to the autonomy and inin¬
dividuality of others.
Moreover, since
Moreover, since learning
learning to to facilitate others' learning
facilitate others' learning is is
central
central to to teacher
teacher effectiveness,
effectiveness, an important characteristic
an important characteristic of of
the competent teacher is his capacity to
the competent teacher is his capacity to mobilize his own re- mobilize his own re¬
sources
sources with with versatility.
versatility. Learning
Learning to draw upon
to draw upon his
his resources
resources
more creatively, the teacher may feel
more creatively, the teacher may feel less vulnerable when less vulnerable when
confronted with
confronted with unanticipated
unanticipated behavior. behavior. Such Such moments
moments can can
be upsetting
be upsetting and and can
can leave
leave the the teacher feeling naked
teacher feeling naked and and
helpless. By becoming aware of the
helpless. By becoming aware of the possible responses one possible responses one
may meet
may meet as well as
as well as give
give in in the
the classroom,
classroom, aa teacher
teacher isis less
less
apt to
apt to be
be surprised
surprised and better able
and better able to to respond
respond with
with under-
under¬
standing to wnat might otherwise
standing to wn-at might otherwise have seemed bizarre or have seemed bizarre or
frightening behavior.
frightening Accordingly, our
behavior. Accordingly, effectiveness as
our effectiveness as super-
super¬
visors depends largely on the extent to
visors depends largely on the extent to which we are attuned which we are attuned
to the
to the potentialities
potentialities of of each person we
each person supervise. The
we supervise. The super-
super¬
visor's expertise
visor's expertise can can bebe brought
brought to bear fruitfully
to bear fruitfully to
to the
the ex-
ex¬
tent that he perceives and responds to the
tent that he perceives and responds to the unique resources of unique resources of
the teachers
the teachers in in whose
whose training
training he he is
is assisting.
assisting.
W
154 / Supervision:
THE Rrtucraur Pnorrssron
Presumably, the teacher comes to supervision with a back-

back¬
ground of coursework in curricula and methodologies; he also
brings aa repertoire
brings repertoire of
of academic and
and interpersonal
interpersonal skills ac-
ac¬
quired over his lifetime. As supervisors, our effort is to help
the teacher further develop his competence in the use of these
personal resources.
Supervision in a group makes it possible for multiple per-
per¬
spectives to be introduced; each teacher can compare issues
of central concern to himself with issues of importance to his
colleagues, as well as consider a variety of approaches to
any one issue. He comes to understand the conflicts that re- re¬
sult from varying needs, assumptions and purposes. Contem-
Contem¬
plating the implications of multiple perspectives on any given
concern helps individuals to develop versatile repertoires from
which they can come to respond to their students. The risk of
falling into unexamined, routinized styles of teaching that
restrict the creative potential of both teacher and student is
increased if there is no setting where a teacher can become
aware of his present teaching style.
GROUPS FOR
GROUPS FOR PROBLEM-SOLVING, THERAPY, ENCOUNTER
PROBLEM-SOLVING, THERAPY, ENCOUNTER
The context
context andand purposes
purposes ofof group discussions
discussions influence im-im¬
portantly the the nature
nature ofof what
what takes
takes place.
place. The solving of a
particular problem
particular problem oror making
making specific
specific decisions,
decisions, as is done
in committees,
in committees, immediately
immediately brings
brings in anan evaluative
evaluative element.
Recognition is is given
given the
the person
person who has has the best ideas, or
who does
who does the
the most
most to
to help the
the group
group reach
reach a solution for the
problem. Leadership, tension release, release, maintaining harmony,
maintaining and
maintaining sustaining positions
and sustaining positions inin the
the group,
group, and
and the
the
way these
way these processes
processes function
function toto get the job
get the job done,
done, become
become the
the
focus inin the problem-solving
problem-solving group.1
group}
In settings
In settings whose
whose focus
focus is
is primarily therapeutic, the
primarily therapeutic, the issues
issues
and concerns
and concerns center
center on
on encouraging
encouraging an an individual
individual to
to learn
learn
1For detailed
'For detailed elaboration
elaboration of
of group
group process from this
process from this perspective
perspective see
see Bales
Bales
(19501
(1950).
Surrrtvrsmc.
Teachers IN
in Grtours
Groups // 155
155
about himself. Effort is directed toward self-exploration—-

self-exploration—
understanding of one's own personal feelings and emotions
that interfere with a more comfortable address to life in gen-
gen¬
eral. The subject matter is the self or person of each par- par¬
ticipant, as perceived and experienced by the others in the
setting. Exploration and discovery can be deeply personal and
not limited to any specific area or issue. The learning is indi-
indi¬
vidual and personal, although intimately shared (Rosenbaum
and Berger 1963).
In ''T''-groups,
"T"-groups, “sensitivity"
"sensitivity" or "basic encounter" groups,
the focus is on developing skills and awareness of oneself and
of the dynamics of groups, and of how the two function to- to¬
gether as learning experience. The hope is that through par- par¬
ticipating in such an experience the person will be able to
work more effectively as a group member and to live and
work more fully as a member of society
society?
.2
GROUPS FOR TEACHERS
In
In supervising
supervising groups
groups of
of teachers, though the focus is on is-is¬
sues
sues and
and concerns
concerns having
having to do with
with teaching and learning,
learning for the individual teacher is as personal as in "ther-
"ther¬
apy" and "sensitivity" groups. Whenever personal compe- compe¬
tence
tence is
is the focus
focus ofof exploration,
exploration, self-awareness self-con¬
self-awareness and self-con-
sciousness are heightened. We all prefer not to put
sciousness are heightened. We all prefer not to put ourselves ourselves
under
under scrutiny
scrutiny because
because such
such activity threatens to
activity threatens to confront
confront us us
with
with experiences
experiences of of shame.
shame. When
When suchsuch experiences are rec- rec¬
ognized as natural, legitimate and a part of the
ognized as natural, legitimate and a part of the process of process of
growth, then the context of support through sharing opens
up
up opportunities
opportunities for for affirmation
affirmation of
of one's self. When
one's self. When alterna-
alterna¬
tive ways of listening and responding become
tive ways of listening and responding become possibilities, possibilities,
2Max Birnbaum
1Max Birnbaum puts
puts it
it this
this way: "The objectives
way: "The of the
objectives of the T-group
T-group are
are to
to help
help
individual
individual participants
participants become
become aware
aware of
of why
why both they and
both they and others behave as
others behave as
they
they do
do in
in groups—or, in the
groups—-or, in jargon of
the jargon of the
the professional, become aware
professional, become aware of
of the
the
underlying behavior dynamics
underlying behavior dynamics of
of the group." For
the group." an extensive
For an extensive and
and cogent
cogent dis-
dis¬
cussion of
cussion of sensitivity
sensitivity training, see Birnbaum
training, see Birnbaum (1969,
(1969, p.82).
p. 82).
IQ
156
156 / Surrnvrsron: THE Rrrucrarrr Przorrssron
teachers find it challenging to try these new modes of inter-

inter¬
action. The knowledge that they can share the experience of
trying something different with others in the group lends
courage through a sense of human company. For a teacher
without such support, this risk is seldom possible. The con-
con¬
text of a group of colleagues where teachers can share their
intimate feelings of vulnerability and fear makes it possible
for teachers to share their daring more openly with their stu-
stu¬
dents. The subordination of all concerns to that of the better
learning of students in the classroom is the basis for the
group's discipline and mutual support.
CREATING A CONTEXT FOR LEARNING
The responsibility of the leader or supervisor is to create a

context in which learning is most likely to occur, in other
words, to try to provide a setting in which discussion, explo-
explo¬
ration, and discovery become possibilities. Groups don't learn;
individuals do.
Optimal learning occurs when the learner assumes respon-
respon¬
sibility for his own learning: "responsibility"
"responsibility'' not in terms of
obligation, but in the more literal sense of the ability to re-
re¬
spond, especially to claim that ability as one's own. The will-
will¬
ingness to claim responsibility involves a trust in one's ca-
ca¬
pacity to make sense, to discover meaning, to make order out
of what seems to be chaos. The realization that one can do
this leads to the freedom to risk feelings of loneliness that
can come from being thrown back on one's own resources
and judgment. To venture forth into explorations and discus-
discus¬
sions becomes challenging rather than frightening. The pos-pos¬
sibility that meaning can and will emerge becomes a source of
comfort, and lends courage to the participants' urge to learn.
It is the task of the supervisor to try to create a context
which invites teachers to learn on their own, by means of
interaction with one another, to discover the willingness to
risk one's person in the service of one's learning. Often par-
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in GROUPS
Groups / 157
ticipants expect a supervisor to act as if he cared more about

his own expertise and knowledge than about their learning.
In some respects the supervisor
supervisor'ss task is like that of the
gardener: to help create conditions which generate growth.
The plant selects what it needs for growth, but too little fer-
fer¬
tilizer causes the plant to wither from lack of nutrition, while
too
too much can
can burn it.
it. The
The delicate
delicate balance between these two
extremes
extremes isis what wewe are seeking
seeking to achieve. This optimal
blend is the context for learning.
THE GROUP CONTRACT
In aa way, thethe airing

airing and
and adjusting of the various hopes and
expectations
expectations of group members
of group resembles the
members resembles the negotiation
negotiation ofof
aa complex
complex and and flexible
flexible contract.
contract. TheThe more
more adequately
adequately this
this
contract
contract comes
comes to to reflect
reflect the
the expectations
expectations of of every
every member,
member,
the more learning occurs. Various factors influence
the more learning occurs. Various factors influence the nature the nature
of
of the
the contract
contract andand the
the kinds
kinds of
of discussions
discussions that that will
will take
take
place among
place among thethe participants. These include
participants. These include such
such matters
matters asas
the source of initiative for and formation of
the source of initiative for and formation of the group, thethe group, the
size
size of
of the
the group,
group, the length and and number
number of meetings and the
composition of the group—that is, the
composition of the group—that is, field, sex
the field, sex and
and status
status of
of
each member.
The Source of Initiative

These discussion
These discussion groups
groups have been most
have been successful when
most successful when the the
initiative to
initiative to form
form them
them has
has come from the
come from the teachers
teachers them-
them¬
selves. In sucn-instances, the teachers' commitment
selves. In sucn~instances, the teachers' commitment arises out arises out
of aa desire
of desire to increase their
to increase their professional competence and
professional competence and outout
of
of concern
concern for for their
their students.
students. Obligatory participation tends
Obligatory participation tends
to create resistance, which must then be overcome.
to create resistance, which must then be overcome. Voluntary Voluntary
participants
participants have have aa greater willingness to
greater willingness to explore
explore their
their per-
per¬
sonal concerns. Commitment of their time is less
sonal concerns. Commitment of their time is less of an issue. of an issue.
If the
If initiative comes
the initiative comes from
from thethe administration,
administration, care care must
must
be
be taken
taken in in the
the way
way these groups are
these groups introduced. A
are introduced. A first
first step
step
would be a general discussion of such a program
would be a general discussion of such a program open to all open to all
Y Q
158
158 /
/ Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
Rrrucranr Profession
PROFESSION
the
the teachers
teachers in
in aa school or district.
school or district. This
This would provide an
would provide an
opportunity
opportunity for
for administrators
administrators and
and teachers to discuss
teachers to discuss the
the
issues that
issues that the
the initiation of
of such
such aa program raises. Participa-
Participa¬
tion in
tion in the
the initial
initial exploration
exploration and
and eventual
eventual decision
decision forms
forms aa
basis for
basis for subsequent
subsequent support
support and
and interest.
interest.
The first group can then be made up of volunteers from
the teaching faculty.
the teaching faculty. Teachers
Teachers from
from aa single
single school
school or
or from
from
several schools within a district can be invited to participate.
It has been found that others become interested when they
respond?
learn how the initial volunteers respond .3 The administration
can insure greater interest in and support of the program by
designating time for it and perhaps by freeing the participat-
participat¬
ing teachers of other duties.
Group Size
The number of participants influences both the depth and
tempo of discussions. Something will happen, whatever the
number; what happens, however, seems in part to be a func-
func¬
tion of the size of the group. In a small group of three or
four, participants usually speak with reticence, as if there
were no place for them to hide in moments of personal ex- ex¬
posure. This is an important consideration in groups where
discussions involve matters of intense personal concern to the
participants. A large group of fifteen or more does not allow
time for
time for every
every member
member to to speak
speak to
to an extent
extent comprehensive
enough to be personally meaningful. This leads to feelings of
frustration andand can
can result
result in
in loss of
of interest
interest and withdrawal.
A group
group of of from
from six
six to
to ten teachers
teachers seems to provide the
optimal sense
optimal sense of of personal
personal involvement
involvement on on the part of each
participant.
The supervisor must
The supervisor must adjust
adjust his expectations according
his expectations according to
to
the size of the group with which he is working. For example,
the size of the group with which he is working. For example, in in
aa smaller
smaller group
group pauses
pauses seem
seem to
to be
be more frequent
frequent and longer;
3The Bureau of Study Counsel at Harvard has conducted discussion groups
with teaching fellows since 1960 on a voluntary basis. The alumni of such
groups have proved to be the most successful agents of recruitment.
SUPERVISING TEACHERS IN
Supervising Teachers in GRouPs
Groups / 159
in a larger group, the issues under discussion change rap-

rap¬
idly and there are often several issues on the floor at one time.
What seems like confusion and "not staying on one subject"
often turns out, by a kind of jelling, to be very fruitful. In
too large a group, however, the apparent chaos sometimes
leads to frustration and hostility among the participants, re- re¬
sulting in a desire to terminate the meeting or to break into
smaller groups.
The Duration of Meetings

The length and number of meetings also influence discussions.
Sessions which are
Sessions which are about
about an an hour and aa half
hour and half long
long seem
seem to to
work best. Shorter sessions seem hardly to have begun when
it is time to stop. And, because of the amount of energy which
participants
participants put into the
put into the discussions,
discussions, longer
longer sessions
sessions become
become
tiring for many and concentration seems to lessen. A schedule
of less
less than eight
eight meetings
meetings can can be
be worthwhile, but it limits
the extent to which participants can
the extent to which participants can explore
explore their
their assump-
assump¬
tions in depth.
Since these
these factors
factors influence the the participants,
participants, it is helpful
to decide with them or to let them
to decide with them or to let them know at know at the
the beginning
beginning how how
many times
many times the
the group will meet.
group will meet. This knowledge allows
This knowledge allows them
them
to gauge
to gauge to to some
some extent
extent the the depth,
depth, breadth and pace
breadth and pace ofof their
their
involvement. Outside factors often determine
involvement. Outside factors often determine group size and group size and
the
the length
length and
and frequency
frequency of of supervision sessions. Each
supervision sessions. Each super-
super¬
visor discovers
visor discovers for for himself
himself the the optimal size and
optimal size and time
time limits
limits for
for
him and his groups. It is important, however,
him and his groups. It is important, however, to be aware of to be aware of
the restrictions
the restrictions andand opportunities
opportunities posedposed byby variations
variations in in these
these
factors.
The Composition of the Group

If
If all
all the
the participants
participants are
are from the same
from the field, such
same field, such as
as math-
math¬
ematics or
ematics or Englisn;
Englisn; the discussion can
the discussion become limited
can become limited to
to the
the
subject matter
subject matter and how it
and how it should
should be
be taught. Such discussions
taught. Such discussions
are, of
are, of course, important, but
course, important, they are
but they best conducted
are best conducted as
as the
the
concern of the particular department. In groups designed
concern of the particular department. In groups designed to to
I1
160 /
/ Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
Rrrucranr PROFESSION
Profession
learn about the teacher-learner relationship in general, too

great a focus on the participants' expertise and knowledge of
the curriculum or subject matter tends to relegate exploration
of process to secondary consideration. Selecting or recruiting
teachers from several different fields brings the underlying
teacher-learner into direct consideration, en-
relationship en¬
hances the opportunity to share experiences and minimizes
the tendency to compete. Competition in the discussion of the
educative process tends to inhibit willingness to share one's
biases and
and beliefs. A
A group
group of
of both male
male and
and female teachers
offers a broader spectrum of experience and resources to draw
from in discussions.
Another factor that can inhibit and limit discussion is a
wide difference in status among the teachers. The younger,
less experienced teachers sometimes feel considerable reluc- reluc¬
tance to express their views or concerns for fear that experi- experi¬
enced teachers will consider them irrelevant, naive or even
stupid. On the other hand, the very naivete" naivete' and freshness of
the novice
novice can
can highlight
highlight the salience
salience ofof aspects of teaching
that older teachers
teachers have
have somehow
somehow relegated
relegated to the realm of
the known and the settled.
settled. Older teachers
teachers have more at stake,
more investment
investment toto risk
risk in
in coming
coming to to new
new realizations,
realizations, and they
may find
find it painful
painful to
to do
do so
so in
in the
the company
company of of novices. In groups
of nearly
nearly equal
equal status
status the
the qualities
qualities of
of tentativeness
tentativeness and openness
keep alive
alive the
the possibilities for
for change
change and
and creativity.
creativity.
Community Participation
The effort
effort to
to improve
improve teaching
teaching isis such
such aa crucial
crucial concern that
it ought to
it ought to elicit
elicit support
support from
from the
the entire
entire school
school community.
community.
Participation
Participation by other service
by other service personnel,
personnel, such
such asas counselors
counselors
and nurses, may
and nurses, provide different
may provide different perspectives
perspectives and
and data
data which
which
will add to support for the students. That is, each
will add to support for the students. That is, each participantparticipant
can come to
can come to realize
realize through
through new and different
new and different communication
communication
that other members
that other members of
of the
the school
school community
community are
are resources
resources to
to
draw
draw upon rather than
upon rather than groups that compete
groups that compete for
for the
the welfare
welfare
of the
the students.
students.
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in Gnours
Groups / 161
Similar discussion
discussion groups
groups might be
be organized for adminis-
adminis¬
trators to discuss issues of concern to them. Including ad-
ad¬
ministrators and
ministrators and teachers in the
teachers in the same
same group
group is
is not
not advisable.
advisable.
The presence
presence of administrators
administrators can
can inhibit free discussion of
the issues
the issues and
and concerns
concerns of
of teachers
teachers that are the central focus
of these discussions.
If we
we are
are aware
aware of
of such
such pressures,
pressures, we become better able to
sense the context
sense the context out
out of
of which
which restricted
restricted discussions
discussions emerge.
emerge.
We can
We can then
then help
help to
to redefine
redefine the exploration in
the exploration in aa more
more gener-
gener¬
ative direction.
GROUPS IN PROCESS
The opening
The opening moments of the
moments of the first
first meeting
meeting of
of any
any group
group are
are
crucial
crucial in
in defining
defining the
the context
context and
and opportunities for learning.
opportunities for learning.
During the
During the first meeting, expectations
first meeting, expectations for
for future
future meetings
meetings
quickly develop.
quickly develop. If
If participants are called
participants are called upon
upon to
to speak,
speak, they
they
will be
will be more
more likely to
to wait
wait to
to be called
called upon in the future. If
the leader
the says "excellent,”
leader says "excellent," or
or in
in other
other ways
ways praises
praises selec-
selec¬
tively, the kinds
tively, the kinds of
of remarks which receive
remarks which receive approval
approval tend
tend to
to
dominate in
dominate in future
future meetings.
meetings. If If no questions are
no questions are recognized
recognized
until the end of the session, it is likely that in future
until the end of the session, it is likely that in future meet- meet¬
ings participants
ings participants will
will not interrupt the
not interrupt the proceedings
proceedings when
when
questions occur
questions occur to
to them
them (and
(and when people hold
when people hold their
their ques-
ques¬
tions they
tions they usually
usually do
do not
not listen as well).
listen as well). If,
If, at
at the
the end
end of
of the
the
first session,
first session, the
the leader summarizes the
leader summarizes the issues
issues and
and concerns
concerns
that he
that he considers
considers important,
important, participants will thereafter
participants will thereafter tend
tend
to wait
to wait with
with anticipation
anticipation to hear what
to hear meaning has
what meaning has been
been
made of their discussion.
Summarizing also
Summarizing also tends
tends to to discourage participants from
discourage participants from
committing themselves
committing themselves to to aa position
position for
for fear
fear it
it may
may not
not coin-
coin¬
cide with the
cide with the sense
sense the
the leader
leader makes
makes of of the
the views
views andand ideas
ideas
expressed. If at the conclusion of a session discussion
expressed. If at the conclusion of a session discussion of is- of is¬
sues
sues is left open-ended,
is left open-ended, opportunities
opportunities are are kept
kept alive
alive for
for con-
con¬
tinued
tinued questioning
questioning and and exploring
exploring by by the
the participants
participants after
after
they depart. By leaving the issues open, the supervisor
they depart. By leaving the issues open, the supervisor risks risks
IQ
162 /
162 / Supervision:
Surrrzvisroivz The
THE Reluctant
Przorrssrou
the possibility
the possibility that
that the
the teachers
teachers will fall
fall back
back on their own
beliefs and experiences
experiences rather
rather than
than take aa chance on ques-ques¬
tioning their own assumptions. Still, it seems preferable to
tioning their own assumptions. Still, it seems preferable to
trust in
in openness
openness asas aa challenge
challenge to
to their
their capacity
capacity to learn and
their yearning to make meaning.
THE OPENING MOMENTS
From the very first moment, then, the supervisor emphasizes

by his own address a respectful appreciation of the process
of discovery and of the ever-changing nature of participants'
assumptions about how learning and teaching occur. Vital to
the emergence of these assumptions into awareness is com- com¬
munication through mutual trust and support. This is genera- genera¬
tive interaction
interaction——everyone
—everyone attending to and recognizing the
complexity of the ideas and views offered, and at the same
time honoring the effort and risk involved for each person as
he engages in such explorations.
An enlightening illustration of the effect of the supervisor's
initial
’’nitial approach to conducting the group is this account of a
session with beginning teachers:
The first question was asked by a woman who said, "I have
heard that
that 12-, 13-,
13-, and
and 14-year-olds are unteachable.
unteachable. What
do you
do you think?”
think?" The
The immediate reaction
reaction was
was laughter in the
group.
group.
The supervisor
supervisor had had aa choice
choice ofof several
several possible responses.
If he
If he had
had asked,
asked, "Well,
"Well, what do do you think?"
think?" she might have
replied, "I
replied, "I don't
don't know," and and others
others in
in the
the group might have
thought, "He's
thought, "He's trying
trying t'o
t'o get
get usus to
to discuss
discuss the question, but
he must
he must know.
know. Why
Why doesn't
doesn't he he just tell us
just tell us what
what he
he thinks?"
thinks?"
If
If the supervisor had answered by citing research findings or
the supervisor had answered by citing research findings or
by immediately
by immediately expressing
expressing his opinion,
opinion, he would probably
have elicited
have elicited further questions
questions and and established
established himself as a
data-producing authority; he
data-producing authority; he might also might also have
have initiated
initiated dis-
dis¬
agreement
agreement and and challenge
challenge fromfrom other
other participants.
participants. By
By saying
saying
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN GROUPS /
in Groups / 163
163
something like, “It "lt depends on the child," he might have

seemed to be hedging.
What the supervisor did say was, "Unteachable “Unteachable in what
sense?" This question invited the teacher to share her feel- feel¬
ings and thoughts about children of that age based on her ex- ex¬
perience and knowledge. The crucial word here is "unteach- "unteach¬
able," for which teachers have a range of personal meanings
that emerge out of their different feelings and assumptions.
Without knowing the personal context from which the ques- ques¬
tion is asked, the supervisor's tendency is to answer the ques- ques¬
tion from what he assumes to be the teacher's meaning. Saying
"Unteachable in what sense?" seemed to communicate the
supervisor's desire to hear from her. Others in the group thus
had an opportunity to hear from one of their colleagues who
had dared to risk raising the first question. The alternative
responses mentioned would each determine a different course
for the interaction that was to follow.
Careful listening to each speaker fosters the development
of meaningful communication. A person who has been lis- lis¬
tened to by someone who wants to understand is more likely
to listen to others in a similar fashion. When we have been
heard, we are better able to hear. The supervisor interacting
with individuals in the group communicates styles of listen- listen¬
ing
ing and
and responding,
responding, which
which enables
enables other
other participants to antic¬
to antic-
ipate the experience of a dialogue rather than being mere
witnesses
witnesses of of aa discussion.
discussion. All All the participants then
the participants then become
become
actively
actively involved
involved in in listening
listening and responding to
and responding to one
one another.
another.
A context in which it is not only acceptable
A context in which it is not only acceptable but expected but expected
that group
that members develop
group members develop theirtheir capacities
capacities onon their
their own
own and and
in communication
in communication with with others
others usually leads to
usually leads to aa consideration
consideration
of any given issue from a variety of perspectives.
of any given issue from a variety of perspectives. When When par- par¬
ticipants feel
ticipants feel recognized,
recognized, they they tend to acknowledge,
tend to acknowledge, and and to to
look more closely at, their basic assumptions and to go on to
expand their
expand awareness of
their awareness of thethe implications
implications andand consequences
consequences
of these
of these assumptions.
assumptions. It It is hoped that
is hoped each teacher
that each teacher will
will de-de-
164 /
164 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Reluctant
Rrtucraur PROFESSION
Profession
velop aa style
velop style of
of his
his own
own that
that integrates
integrates his
his teacher
teacher training,
training,
classroom experiences
classroom experiences and
and personal
personal uniqueness.
F
USE OF CASE MATERIALS
During the first few meetings, the use of tapes and tran- tran¬
scriptions of of teaching-learning
teaching-learning situations
situations offers participants
a common focus upon data from a single source. At the same
time each person is free to explore the issue at hand from his
personal perspective. Case materials provide actual instances
to which teachers can respond and so begin to articulate their
beliefs and assumptions about learning and teaching. In the
absence of case materials, participants sometimes feel that
they are being asked to talk in a vacuum, which can inhibit
or delay meaningful discussion.
Often a single event in a case is interpreted in as many
ways as there are participants. This seems to encourage the
participating teachers to acknowledge multiple perspectives
as legitimate. When he discovers the range of possible inter- inter¬
pretations of a single event, the teacher is better able to listen
and to expand his own vocabulary of responses.
Case materials also
Case also provide
provide aa source
source toto which participants
can constantly refer. Tapes and transcriptions thus help to
counteract the
counteract the emergence
emergence of of too
too generalized a discussion of
issues. The
The tapes
tapes encourage
encourage group
group members
members to ask one anan¬
other such
other such questions
questions as,
as, "In terms of
“In terms of this
this case, how would
you act on the notion of learning you've just described?" described?” or,
"You
“You saysay that girls
girls are
are better
better readers
readers than
than boys. What about
the specific
the specific circumstances
circumstances of of this
this case
case which
which suggest
suggest another
another
explanation for
explanation for the
the boy's difficulties? Namely
boy's difficulties? Namely that that .. .. ."
." or,
or,
"You've
"You've beenbeen talking
talking about
about thethe importance
importance of of aa conceptual
conceptual
approach to
approach to the
the teaching
teaching of of social
social studies.
studies. I'm
I'm not
not sure
sure thatthat
II understand
understand the the sense
sense inin which
which you're using 'conceptual.'
you're using 'conceptual.' It It
might be
might be clearer
clearer toto me
me ifif you
you could
could point
point toto some
some examples."
examples."
Case materials serve another important function by
Case materials serve another important function by estab-
estab¬
lishing aa basis
lishing basis ofof sharing.
sharing. Each person begins
Each person begins with
with the
the samesame
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in Grtours
Groups // 165
165
basic data.
basic data. Venturing
Venturing forth
forth together
together from
from this
this common
common basis
basis
creates an historical perspective for the group. Each person
feels himself a participant in an experience that is created and
shared with the other members. They come to understand
that the object of discussions is something much greater than
approving or
approving or disapproving
disapproving of
of events
events in
in the
the case.
case. They
They come
come
to know
to know each other
other intimately.
intimately. Through personally shared
experiences the
experiences the group develops
develops aa particular
particular dialogue that en-
en¬
riches exploration and discussion.
THE FORCE OF EXPECTATIONS
In the
In opening moments,
the opening moments, broadbroad questions
questions whichwhich are are relevant
relevant
for everyone
for everyone invite
invite aa wide
wide range of of personal responses. The
supervisor may ask, "What stood out
supervisor may ask, “What stood out forfor you
you in in this
this case?"
case?”
More important
important than than thethe wording
wording of of these questions is the
stance from which they are asked.
stance from which they are asked. When the When the leader
leader genuinely
genuinely
wonders
wonders how how various
various participants
participants feel, when he
feel, when he expects
expects aa re-re¬
sponse but
sponse but does
does notnot presume
presume to know what
to know what thatthat response
response
will be (and cannot honestly predict it), he invites the partici-
will be (and cannot honestly predict it), he invites the partici¬
pants to
pants to begin
begin from
from where
where theythey are.
are.
AA psychiatrist
psychiatrist waswas assigned
assigned to to meet with aa group
meet with group of of chronic
chronic
schizophrenic patients in a series of psychotherapeutic
schizophrenic patients in a series of psychotherapeutic ses- ses¬
sions. Attendance was
sions. Attendance was excellent,
excellent, but time after
but time after time
time none
none of of
the
the participants
participants spoke. Each meeting
spoke. Each meeting consisted
consisted of of sixty
sixty min-
min¬
utes of silence. Puzzled by the nonparticipation
utes of silence. Puzzled by the nonparticipation of his patients, of his patients,
whom he
whom he expected
expected to take the
to take initiative, and
the initiative, and concerned
concerned that that
they might gain nothing from the sessions,
they might gain nothing from the sessions, the psychiatrist the psychiatrist
finally approached
finally approached his his supervisor
supervisor for for advice.
advice. When
When the the psy-
psy¬
chiatrist
chiatrist hadhad described
described the the situation,
situation, his his supervisor
supervisor reflected
reflected
for a moment and then asked, “What
for a moment and then asked, "What do you do while the do you do while the
patients go
patients go off into their
off into their private worlds of
private worlds of fantasy?"
fantasy?" "I “I sit
sit
back and
back fantasize, too;
and fantasize, too; there
there doesn't
doesn't seemseem to to be be anything
anything
else to do,” the psychiatrist replied. As he
else to do," the psychiatrist replied. As he spoke he suddenly spoke he suddenly
realized
realized thethe probable
probable cause
cause of of all
all those silent meetings
those silent meetings and and
added,
added, “But
"But II think
think II know
know how how 1I might
might improve
improve the the situa-
situa-
rfl
166 / Supervision:
166 / SurERv1sioi~i: THE RELUCTANT PROFESSION
The Reluctant Profession
tion." The
tion." The next
next time
time the
the group
group met,
met, the
the psychiatrist
psychiatrist leaned
leaned
forward with
forward with anticipation
anticipation and
and looked
looked expectantly
expectantly atat the
the
various group
group members.
members. By By looking
looking directly
directly at the patients,
he acknowledged their presence. They began
he acknowledged their presence. They began slowly
slowly but
but
surely to speak.
Pauses and Silences

After a broad opening question and before participants speak,
there is sometimes a long pause while participants gather
their thoughts. As in the group therapy incident just men- men¬
tioned, the leader's attitude during this pause makes a differ-differ¬
ence. An open-ended question is valuable in that it invites
participants to speak about what is most important to them,
but such a question requires more time for them to respond.
If the leader speaks first during the pause following his ques- ques¬
tion, participants tend to assume that in this group they will
not be allowed time to reflect, that a quick response is valued
above thoughtful exchange.
Silences are sometimes uncomfortable. It is difficult for the
leader to tune in to the meaning of them, and it can be a self-
conscious time for the participants. It is my experience that they
are hard at work during the pause—mulling
pause—-mulling over what has
gone before, searching for words to describe intense feelings
and reactions, trying to make sense out of the question posed
or reconsidering previously-held assumptions. When the
leader waits with anticipation to hear from group members,
they usually respond out of respect for their own dignity as
responsible, caring beings.
During the
the pause
pause that
that often
often follows initial
initial questions, par-
par¬
ticipants may glance furtively at one another, shift uncom- uncom¬
fortably in their seats, look quickly through case material and
reexamine parts of it with concentration; before long they bebe¬
gin toto speak,
speak, usually out
out of
of aa sense
sense of
of tentative
tentative involvement.
Each person seems to be going through the process of order- order¬
ing his
his thoughts
thoughts and feelings
feelings so as
as to
to respond to the opening
statement from
from his own
own position.
position. When
When aa pause occurs, the the
Supervising Teachers in GROUPS
Groups /
/ 167
167
participants may feel that a hasty response from the group or

an additional
additional question
question fromfrom the the leader
leader is an intrusion, a vio- vio¬
lation ofof that
that moment
moment of of reflection.
reflection. When
When we wait with inter- inter¬
est to hear what others have to say, they usually join in;
est to hear what others have to say, they usually join in;
probably they too have been listening carefully to what has
been said.
been said. ItIt is
is this
this respectful attention and
respectful attention and concern
concern among
among
members that is
members is especially
especially valuable in supervision._
supervision.
As participants
participants begin to to speak,
speak, the the leader—by concen- concen¬
trating on what they say rather than on whether they are
right or wrong from a particular perspective—tries to under- under¬
stand the
stand the meaning
meaning each each speaker
speaker is is making of the subject
under discussion. Because a speaker usually
under discussion. Because a speaker usually addresses
addresses the the
leader directly, aa further
leader further question,
question, or or an effort by the leader
to share with the group his understanding
to share with the group his understanding of of what
what thethe teacher
teacher
has said,
has said, enhances
enhances exploration.
exploration. The stance of
The stance of this
this response
response
is
is an
an attempt
attempt to to understand
understand the the assumptions
assumptions the the participants
participants
are endeavoring to communicate. Once
are endeavoring to communicate. Once the participants feel the participants feel
at home in
at home in the group and
the group and respond
respond easily
easily to to one
one another,
another, the the
supervisor can begin to enter into the
supervisor can begin to enter into the discussion in other discussion in other
ways, too,
ways, too, byby sharing
sharing the the speculations
speculations and and questions
questions that that
occur
occur toto him
him as as he listens. By
he listens. By this
this time, interaction patterns
time, interaction patterns
will have developed, and the group will
will have developed, and the group will have begun to regardhave begun to regard
the
the leader
leader as as aa resource
resource rather
rather than
than as as aa final
final authority.
authority. ThisThis
kind of interaction is especially relevant
kind of interaction is especially relevant to classroom teach-to classroom teach¬
ing. By
ing. By addressing
addressing more more than than one person at
one person at aa time,
time, in in anan
effort
effort to
to share,
share, andand by by listening
listening carefully
carefully to to others,
others, teachers
teachers
develop skills for their own classrooms.
develop skills for their own classrooms.
RECOGNIZING ASSUMPTIONS
Through
Through analysis
analysis and
and exploration
exploration teachers come to
teachers come to under-
under¬
stand
stand the implications of
the implications of the
the interaction in the
interaction in the case
case under
under
discussion. They discover
discussion. They discover how
how assumptions are expressed
assumptions are expressed in
in
behavior, and
behavior, and how
how assumptions and expectations,
assumptions and expectations, which
which de¬
de-
fine the learning
fine the learning situation,
situation, are experienced by
are experienced by the
the teacher
teacher and
and
the learner.
the learner. The
The following
following anecdote may clarify
anecdote may clarify how
how the
the
IQ
168 / Supervision:
168 / SUPERVISION: THE
The RELUCTANT PROFESSION
members of
members of aa group
group can
can help an individual
help an discover ways
individual discover ways
that his assumptions affect his teaching:
Several years
Several years ago
ago aa tutor
tutor in
in English
English found
found himself
himself in
in aa
frustrating
frustrating relationship with aa student
relationship with student who
who repeatedly
repeatedly came
came
unprepared to tutorial.
unprepared tutorial. The
The tutor
tutor would
would begin
begin each meeting
by asking a number of questions about the
by asking a number of questions about the reading
reading assign-
assign¬
ment, in the hope of engaging the student in dialogue, but he
would respond with vague, unrelated statements. The tutor
became increasingly impatient and invariably ended up lec- lec¬
turing to the student, who picked up his pencil and studiously
took notes on everything the tutor said.
The tutor, who was in a group with fellow tutors, one day
in desperation shared his dilemma with them. During their
discussion it was suggested that he, the tutor, had clearly
defined the student's role as passive listener. The student
learned that if he could wait and tolerate the opening mo-
mo¬
ments of each session he would not have to read the assign-
assign¬
ment, much less risk his knowledge or understanding of the
material. The only alternative left for the tutor seemed to be
to lecture. After all, he was expected to "teach" "teach” the student.
His sense of responsibility and commitment to his field led
the tutor to try to communicate his knowledge with greater
clarity and
clarity and directness.
directness. TheThe group
group discussion
discussion moved to specu-specu¬
lation about the student's learning. All agreed that, while it
was difficult
difficult to to say
say what he he was learning
learning about literature,
clearly he had learned
clearly learned to to be
be passive, to to wait
wait and to consider
doing his
doing his assignment
assignment unnecessary.
unnecessary. The The group
group concluded that
in
in this relationship it was the tutor who was
this relationship it was the tutor who was being
being well
well
trained.
The group
The group suggested
suggested thatthat the
the tutor's
tutor's impatience
impatience and
and effort
effort
to teach
to teach waswas robbing
robbing the the student
student of of the
the opportunity
opportunity toto learn.
learn.
If he
If he began
began withwith aa question
question andand waited
waited forfor the
the student
student toto tell
tell
him about
him about thethe book,
book, itit might
might make
make aa difference.
difference.
At
At the
the next tutorial meeting
next tutorial meeting there were many
there were many excruciating
excruciating
silences as
silences as the
the tutor
tutor forced himself to
forced himself to offer
offer time
time for
for the
the stu-
stu¬
dent to respond. He hoped the student
dent to respond. He hoped the student might at least sharemight at least share
*
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in Gitours
Groups // 169
169
the fact
the fact that
that he had
had not read
read the
the assignment.
assignment. The tutor was
able
able to shift
to shift from feeling
feeling frustrated
frustrated to waiting, however
obscure or irrelevant the student became.
At the
the following
following tutorial,
tutorial, however, the student had done
his reading.
his reading. ItIt became
became evident
evident in in the
the dialogue that he had
begun to make sense out of it for himself. The
begun to make sense out of it for himself. The tutor
tutor reported
reported
to his group
to group that
that aa different
different relationship
relationship was emerging: the
student had
student had stopped
stopped taking
taking notes and and was actively involved
and talking. What stood out most dramatically
and talking. What stood out most for the
dramatically for the tutor
tutor
was that
was that whenever he he began
began to lecture,
lecture, as before, the student
would automatically pick up his pencil
would automatically pick up his pencil to
to take
take notes.
notes. This
This
became
became aa clear
clear signal
signal to to stop. The other
stop. The other discovery
discovery the
the tutor
tutor
made was
made was that
that he
he no
no longer
longer tended
tended to avoid the
to avoid the student
student in
in the
the
dining room but welcomed his company.
dining room but welcomed his company.
EXAMINING ONE'S OWN TEACHING
As participants
As participants becomebecome more more at at ease discussing styles
ease discussing styles of of
teaching,
teaching, they
they are are invited
invited to bring in
to bring tape recordings
in tape recordings of of their
their
own
own teaching. Tape-recording one's own work is at first aa
teaching. Tape-recording one's own work is at first
frightening
frightening experience
experience because
because there seems to
there seems to bebe no
no place
place to to
hide. We feel ourselves naked and exposed.
hide. We feel ourselves naked and exposed. I/Vith experience With experience
we
we dodo not become less
not become less naked;
naked; we we can become more
can become more comfort-
comfort¬
able with
able with our nakedness. In
our nakedness. In time
time many teachers are
many teachers are willing
willing to to
share their tapes with the entire group.
share their tapes with the entire group. Group members usu-Group members usu¬
ally
ally express
express their
their thoughts
thoughts about about aa tape tape with
with judgment
judgment and and
care. Sharing
care. Sharing theirtheir experiences
experiences in in this way leads
this way leads to to further
further
exploration of their own styles
exploration of their own styles of teaching. of teaching.
A tape
A tape recording
recording of one of
of one of his
his classes
classes can can often
often lead
lead the the
teacher to his own solution to a problem.
teacher to his own solution to a problem. It permits him to It permits him to
listen
listen with
with far far greater
greater objectivity
objectivity to to the
the evolution
evolution of of the the
teacher-student
teacher-student relationship.
relationship. The The following anecdote is
following anecdote is anan
interesting example of how the recording
interesting example of how the recording can help: can help:
During the
During the course
course of his teacher
of his teacher training,
training, aa teacher
teacher became
became
concerned
concerned about about thethe apathy
apathy of of one
one of of his
his classes.
classes. He He was was
teaching two sections of the same course,
teaching two sections of the same course, and for a long timeand for a long time
H
170
170 / SUPERVISION: THE RELUCTANT PROFESSION
couldn't understand
couldn't understand why so many
why so students in
many students in Section
Section A
A were
were
uninvolved and
uninvolved and not working. At
not working. At the
the suggestion
suggestion ofof his
his super-
super¬
visor, the
the teacher
teacher listened
listened to to recordings
recordings ofof the first meetings
of both
both sections,
sections, hoping
hoping to to find
find aa clue
clue as
as to how he might
have influenced this development. There were a number of
athletes in
athletes in Section
Section A—-the
A—the only only obvious
obvious difference
difference between
the sections.
sections. Listening
Listening to to the
the recording
recording of Section
Section A he heard
his taped voiced giving clear directions to read
his taped voiced giving clear directions to read three
three books.
books.
Then, to his amazement, he heard himself mumbling as an
aside that of course the students didn't really have to read
anything if they didn't want to.
In thinking about this, he realized that while he was teach- teach¬
ing he heard himself giving clear and unambiguous instruc- instruc¬
tions and he experienced the uncomfortable feeling that he
was being authoritarian; hence his mumbled aside. This aside
compromised his standards of excellence, which had earned
him the reputation of being a top-notch teacher. He also real- real¬
ized that his expectations for this group of students were
different than for those in Section B. He did not expect ath- ath¬
letes to be interested scholars, yet he wanted to be seen as a
good joe. The students detected their teacher's ambivalence
and chose to honor the impulse that required less effort on
their part.
For this teacher, "authoritarian" teaching was uncomfort- uncomfort¬
able and unjustifiable. Although unaware of it at the time, he
had equated giving clear instructions with being authoritar- authoritar¬
ian. (As a student he had had a tyrannical teacher, and when
he began to teach he resolved to avoid this kind of teaching at
all cost.)
all cost.) When
When he he recognized that his assumption
assumption had prob- prob¬
ably contributed
ably contributed to to student
student apathy,
apathy, the
the teacher
teacher began to think
through the
through the assumption
assumption againagain and decided that giving clear
instructions mightmight not be authoritarian and and tyrannical after
all. On
all. On the contrary,
contrary, itit might be be aa clearer
clearer expression of trust
in the capacity
in the capacity and
and willingness
willingness of of his
his students
students toto learn.
learn.
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in GROUPS
Groups / 171
THE IMPLICATIONS OF CONSENSUS
In these discussions, seeking and reaching consensus as an

end in in itself
itself becomes
becomes irrelevant.
irrelevant. The The teachers are encouraged
by the leader neither to seek nor to
by the leader neither to seek nor to avoid
avoid consensus,
consensus, because because
the emphasis is
the is upon
upon individual learning learning rather than group
agreement. From
agreement. From time time to to time
time consensus
consensus does does arise
arise spon-
spon¬
taneously among several or all members in the group. The
taneously among several or all members in the group. The
leader cancan acknowledge
acknowledge its its appearance
appearance without evaluating it
by making such
by such comments
comments as, as, "A"A number of you seem to
agree that. .
agree that. . For example, the group
For example, the group might
might agreeagree thatthat "un-
"un¬
less
less we listen carefully
we listen carefully to to students
students we we will
will not not be be able
able toto
understand where they are in their
understand where they are in their thinking about the ma- thinking about the ma¬
terial under discussion."
terial under discussion." As As discussion continues from
discussion continues from aa point
point
of
of consensus,
consensus, it it often becomes evident
often becomes evident that that participants
participants may may
agree with a general statement, but
agree with a general statement, but that the statement has that the statement has
different
different meanings
meanings for for the
the various
various individuals.
individuals. In In the
the example
example
just cited, consensus on the importance
just cited, consensus on the importance of listening leaves of listening leaves
open
open for for each participant the
each participant the question
question of of how
how to to listen
listen and
and
what to listen for.
II find
find that whenever consensus
that whenever consensus begins begins to to become
become an an end
end inin
itself
itself rather
rather than than aa beginning,
beginning, certain behavior tends
certain behavior tends to to be-
be¬
come defined as legitimate. If at this
come defined as legitimate. If at this point a completely con-point a completely con¬
tradictory
tradictory or or incongruent
incongruent position position is is introduced
introduced as as another
another
possibility, the
possibility, the participants
participants will will tend not to
tend not to hang
hang onto onto thethe
consensus as a structure or as a final
consensus as a structure or as a final truth. Otherwise, con- truth. Otherwise, con¬
sensus tends
sensus tends to bring thinking
to bring thinking to to closure; people accept
closure; people accept thethe
consensus as probably the most—and
consensus as probably the most--and often the only--appro- often the only—appro¬
priate way
priate way to to respond.
respond. Consensus
Consensus can also become
can also become directed
directed
toward maintaining a certain level
toward maintaining a certain level of equilibrium as an of equilibrium as an end
end
rather
rather than
than as as aa phase
phase in in the process of
the process realization.
of realization.
As a
As a group
group proceeds,
proceeds, however,however, another consensus often
another consensus often
begins to make its appearance—an understanding
begins to make its appearance—-an understanding that reflects that reflects
the participants'
the participants' developing
developing contract contract to to make
make this this group
group aa
172 / Supervision:
THE Reluctant
RELUCTANT PRorEssioN
Profession
place where
place where they
they can
can explore
explore their
their attitudes
attitudes and assumptions
about learning and teaching.
THE VALUE OF ANXIETY
In the
In the first
first meetings, anxiety is
meetings, anxiety sometimes high.
is sometimes high. It
It is
is im-
im¬
portant for the supervisor to acknowledge the presence of
anxiety, and
anxiety, and to
to encourage
encourage participants
participants to talk
talk about the ways
they feel anxious, either about their own teaching or about
the group discussion itself. Unacknowledged anxiety tends to
sustain itself and even to burgeon. As participants acknowl-
acknowl¬
edge their own anxiety and become aware that it is appropri-
appropri¬
ate and not unusual, the anxiety generally diminishes. And,
having coped with initial anxiety, members learn ways to
cope with it when it reappears.
Anxiety often reflects some of our deepest values, and
value conflicts. Sometimes anxiety reflects our most profound
unexamined values. We fear viewing our most cherished
values from a different perspective. Through acknowledging
anxiety we can begin to recognize our unexamined values.
When anxiety is understood as something through which we
can find meaning, the sources of anxiety become the focus of
consideration, and anxiety itself seems to wane. When we
panic in the face of anxiety or try to ignore it, we sometimes
miss the opportunity to understand its source.
In her social
social studies
studies class,
class, aa teacher
teacher found
found herself periodi-
periodi¬
cally experiencing feelings of tension. She noticed that these
feelings of anxiety usually occurred whenever the class dis- dis¬
cussion touched on current civil rights issues. There were
several black students in her class, whom she tended to avoid
calling upon or even looking at during such discussions. She
explained that she felt if she invited them to participate she
might bebe viewed
viewed as
as singling
singling them
them out,
out, whereas if she ignored
them she
she might
might be protecting
protecting them,
them, not trusting their ability
to cope
cope with their feelings
feelings and
and to to contribute
contribute to the learning
of the
the class.
class. She
She had
had always
always considered
considered herself
herself an accepting
Supervising Teachers in GROUPS
Groups /
/ 173
173
person, and
person, and valued
valued open-mindedness highly. Sharing
open-mindedness highly. Sharing her
her
classroom experience
classroom experience with
with the group, she
the group, she gradually
gradually came
came to
to
realize that
that her
her belief
belief in her
her own
own open-mindedness
open-mindedness was a way
of not facing
of facing directly
directly aa lack
lack of
of trust
trust in
in her own ability to cope
with human pain and personal embarrassment.
with human pain and personal embarrassment. Her Her discom-
discom¬
fort
fort in
in situations
situations that
that exposed feelings of
exposed feelings of pain,
pain, anger
anger oror
humiliation, as
humiliation, as the
the class
class discussions threatened to
discussions threatened to do,
do, clashed
clashed
with her belief in open-mindedness. The anxiety
with her belief in open-mindedness. The anxiety which was which was aa
result
result of
of this
this conflict
conflict enabled her to
enabled her to reflect more deeply
reflect more deeply on
on her
her
feelings and values and on the way she expressed
feelings and values and on the way she expressed them in herthem in her
teaching.
Sources of Anxiety
Among
Among the
the sources
sources of
of anxiety
anxiety in
in aa group
group are
are frustration,
frustration, the
the
clash
clash of unarticulated discrepancies
of unarticulated and the
discrepancies and the anticipation
anticipation or
or
experience
experience of
of actual
actual blows to one's
blows to one s integrity.
integrity. A
A participant
participant
may feel frustration
may feel in a
frustration in group if
a group if he is unable
he is unable to
to communicate
communicate
a
a deep feeling or
deep feeling or belief
belief to the others.
to the As a
others. As a participant
participant idealizes
idealizes
about
about learning
learning and
and teaching, he may
teaching, he become embarrassed
may become embarrassed by
by
his
his own
own limitations
limitations and biases. He
and biases. He may
may experience
experience discrepancy
discrepancy
between
between former
former beliefs
beliefs and
and emerging beliefs. At
emerging beliefs. At times
times he
he
yearns
yearns to be told
to be told how best to
how best to teach, to avoid
teach, to avoid the
the frustration
frustration
of groping
of groping and and the
the feeling
feeling ofof being
being in limbo.
in limbo.
Anticipating or experiencing
Anticipating or experiencing shame seems shame seems to to arise
arise in
in the
the
following
following kindskinds of group situations:
of group apprehension before
situations: apprehension before the
the
first
first meeting
meeting (What
(What willwill it
it be
be like?
like? Will
Will mymy inadequacies
inadequacies as as aa
teacher and as a person be laid bare? Will I
teacher and as a person be laid bare? Will I have a chance tohave a chance to
express
express my convictions fully?
my convictions fully? Will they like
Will they like me
me and
and accept
accept
me? Will I be able to hold my own?); wondering
me? Will I be able to hold my own?); wondering how widely how widely
one's
one's comments
comments duringduring discussion
discussion will be broadcast
will be broadcast andand fear-
fear¬
ing
ing that one's comments
that one's comments could could affect one's job
affect one's job and
and reputa-
reputa¬
tion; not having previously realized certain
tion; not having previously realized certain implications and implications and
consequences
consequences of one s actions
of one's actions and statements; believing
and statements; believing oror
finding oneself
finding oneself unheard
unheard or or misunderstood,
misunderstood, especially when
especially when
one has honestly endeavored to
one has honestly endeavored to communicate. communicate.
This is
This is by
by nono means
means anan exhaustive
exhaustive list list of
of anxiety-provoking
anxiety-provoking
rw
174 / Supervision:
THE Reluctant
Profession
situations. It does suggest the variety and intensity of experi-

experi¬
ences of anxiety. When such experiences are explored directly
by participants, anxiety can become a vehicle for learning. Of
course, the leader no more attempts to create anxiety-pro-
anxiety-pro¬
voking situations than he does to deny or demean anxiety
when it does occur.
Acknowledgement of feelings is crucial not only to the
functioning of the group, but also to teaching. Too often
teachers believe that they should not experience strong emo-
emo¬
tion in the classroom. Anger, anxiety, fear, helplessness-even
helplessness—even
joy—seem to have no place there. A fundamental purpose of
supervision is to help teachers identify and acknowledge their
feelings. If they do not do so, their teaching effectiveness is
hampered. A teacher talking in a group session about an
event in his classroom is generally able, if we ask him, to tell
us quite clearly how he felt at the time of that event. Ac- Ac¬
knowledging his feelings is the first step toward freeing him
to be able to understand the possible sources of those feelings,
and to grow in his ability to be aware of the impact his feel-
feel¬
ings can
can have
have on
on his teaching.
teaching. If
If he is
is able
able to recognize his
feelings as they occur, the teacher can respond more directly
and openly, thus offering his students the opportunity to be
freer in their participation.
ENCOUNTERING LIMITS
At times, aa teacher
At times, teacher seems
seems to reach aa point
to reach point in in his
his explorations
explorations
when
when he feels he can go no further. He feels he has exhausted
he feels he can go no further. He feels he has exhausted
his own knowledge
his own knowledge aboutabout anan area
area of
of speculation.
speculation. At At the
the same
same
time,
time, anan individual
individual may feel he
may feel he has reached limits
has reached limits of
of aa more
more
personal
personal sortsort if
if his
his experiences
experiences andand his
his capacity
capacity to to fantasize,
fantasize,
to empathize
to empathize or or to
to identify yield no
identify yield no new
new meaning
meaning or or definition
definition
of aa situation.
of situation. The
The social
social studies
studies teacher caught in
teacher caught in conflict
conflict be-
be¬
tween
tween her feelings and
her feelings her values
and her values may
may feel keenly that
feel keenly that she
she has
has
reached
reached limits
limits within
within herself. Although she
herself. Although she may
may come
come toto real-
real¬
ize
ize the
the nature
nature of of the
the conflict,
conflict, she
she may
may feel
feel incapable
incapable ofof re-
re-
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in Grtours
Groups / 175
solving it
solving it or
or moving
moving into
into aa different
different relationship
relationship with
with her
her
students and changing her classroom behavior. Feeling the
limitations of her own person, she may lose touch both with
the feelings and concerns of her students and with her own
resources as a concerned, sympathetic teacher.
When this encountering
When this encountering of of limits
limits occurs,
occurs, II find
find myself
myself con-
con¬
sidering how I, as
sidering as leader, can
can respond
respond so as to help the teach-teach¬
ers transcend
ers transcend the limits
limits they
they are experiencing
experiencing in the moment.
As Iessie Taft (1933) points out, the
As Jessie Taft (1933) points out, extent to
the extent to which
which we
we live
live
fully depends upon
fully depends upon the
the extent to which
extent to we accept
which we accept life
life "on
on the
the
terms
terms under which it
under which it can
can be obtained, that
be obtained, that is, as aa changing,
is, as changing,
finite, limited affair, to
to be
be seized
seized at
at the moment if at all"
(p. 13). Taft
(p. Taft is
is referring
referring to aa two-person
two-person therapeutic relation-
relation¬
ship, but her
ship, but her observation
observation is no less
is no less relevant for other
relevant for other relation-
relation¬
ships, including supervision.
ships, including supervision. It
It is
is often by acknowledging
often by acknowledging and
and
accepting
accepting our limits that
our limits that we
we are
are freed to move
freed to move beyond
beyond them.
them.
When these
When these moments
moments of of felt
felt limits occur, participants
limits occur, participants be-be¬
gin
gin to
to speculate,
speculate, "Well, "Well, this
this is
is as
as far as we've
far as we've gone;
gone; perhaps
perhaps
it's as far as we can go." Everyone seerrvs
it's as far as we can go." Everyone seems to feel in these to feel in these
moments
moments as as if they have
if they have exhausted
exhausted theirtheir resources. Often,
resources. Often,
though, someone in the group will come forth
though, someone in the group will come forth and say, "Well, and say, "Well,
gee,
gee, if we look
if we look at at itit from
from aa different position, where
different position, where cancan wewe
go?"
go?" or or "If
"If we we take these other
take these other things into account,
things into account, thenthen
where does it lead us and how do we move
where does it lead us and how do we move beyond?" In the beyond?" In the
early
early meetings,
meetings, it it is
is sometimes
sometimes II myself
myself whowho make
make such
such aa
statement; later, members come quite
statement; later, members come quite naturally to respond naturally to respond
with this kind of flexibility.
The recognition
The recognition and
and acceptance
acceptance of felt limits
of felt limits poses
poses an
an irre-
irre¬
sistible challenge
sistible challenge to
to move
move on.
on. With
With the acceptance seems
the acceptance seems to
to
come an
come an impetus
impetus to
to transcend
transcend temporary limits so
temporary limits so asas to
to make
make
the most
the most of of what Jessie Taft
what Jessie Taft calls
calls "the limited affair
"the limited affair ofof life."
life."
The full impact of the group's creative potential finds
The full impact of the group's creative potential finds expres- expres¬
sion
sion in
in moments
moments whenwhen each
each participant
participant is is able
able toto recognize
recognize
"where I am now" in the process of his efforts to
"where I am now" in the process of his efforts to extend the extend the
limits of his learning.
When the
When the participants'
participants' felt limits are
felt limits are unacknowledged,
unacknowledged,
-F‘
they seem
they to hold
seem to hold on
on to
to them
them as
as though moving beyond
though moving beyond were
were
impossible. If
impossible. If their
their felt
felt limits are in
limits are in any
any way
way demeaned,
demeaned, they
they
sometimes
sometimes clutch
clutch them without any
them without any apparent desire to
apparent desire to move
move
on.
on. Their
Their defensiveness appears to
defensiveness appears to result from experiencing
result from experiencing
the limits
the limits they
they feel as blatantly
feel as blatantly revealing
revealing and
and unacceptable.
unacceptable.
To define
To define the
the defensiveness as
as an
an expression
expression of withdrawal,
dogmatism, prejudice
dogmatism, or stubbornness
prejudice or stubbornness only
only serves
serves to
to intensify
intensify
entrenchment. No person with any sense of dignity will risk
further sharing when defined in such terms. The acknowl-
acknowl¬
edgment and acceptance of limits is an acknowledgment of
our own humanity. For these reasons I feel that my initial
response to the communication of felt limits is vitally im-
im¬
portant to the viability and creativity of the group as well as
to the learning of each individual.
USE OF THE GROUP EXPERIENCE
The experience of sharing openly with one's colleagues helps

teachers begin an internal dialogue that continues after super-
super¬
vision has ended. Such imagined conversations become possi-
possi¬
ble through discovering the multiple perspectives from which
any concern or issue can be seen. Ultimately the teacher must
act from his own position, out of trust in himself. By imagining
dialogues with others in the group, the teacher comes to his
own decision with a fuller recognition of the implications and
consequences of his actions and with a richer repertoire of
address than he might have had without supervision.
A supervisor assumes that the group members possess rich
personal resources. He does not at the outset know what
particular resources each person has, but he trusts each
individual's capacity, given the opportunity, to realize these
resources and to bring them to bear on his own teaching. He
understands that each person will, in the end, create his own
meaning out of his teacher training and his teaching experi-
experi¬
ences, and he also knows that communicating with colleagues
can facilitate
facilitate and
and enrich
enrich this
this process. He
He encourages teachers
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in Gnours
Groups /
/ 177
177
to
to explore
explore the meaning to
the meaning to them
them of
of their educational ideals
their educational ideals and
and
teaching experiences
teaching experiences and, in
in this
this exploration,
exploration, to listen atten-
atten¬
tively to
tively to one
one another.
another. Individuals
Individuals will
will want
want to
to try
try various
various
styles
styles of
of address
address and
and to
to alter their way
alter their of responding
way of responding from
from
time to time
time time during
during the course
course of
of supervision.
supervision. The supervisor
does
does not
not attempt
attempt to determine a
to determine a teacher's final stance,
teacher's final stance, but
but he
he
does
does expect
expect that
that various
various stances
stances will
will be fully considered,
be fully considered, with
with
serious
serious attention
attention given
given to
to their implications and
their implications and consequences
consequences
for student learning.
Because most
Because most teaching
teaching takes
takes place in classrooms
place in classrooms with
with aa
number
number of
of students,
students, supervision
supervision in
in aa group
group can
can provide
provide op-
op¬
portunities
portunities for
for teachers to clarify
teachers to clarify their assumptions about
their assumptions about
learning
learning as
as it
it occurs
occurs in
in groups
groups and
and to develop further
to develop further sensi-
sensi¬
tivities
tivities and
and skills
skills appropriate
appropriate to
to group process. In
group process. In short, the
short, the
group experience can
group experience foster discussion
can foster directly relevant
discussion directly relevant to
to
classroom teaching.
THE SUPERVISOR'S JOB

IOB
It is
It is frequently
frequently assumed
assumed that that supervisors oversee and
supervisors oversee and evalu-
evalu¬
ate,
ate, teachers
teachers teach
teach and and students
students learn;learn; thatthat the
the expectations
expectations
and processes reside in and are defined
and processes reside in and are defined by the position by the position or
or
''role.” Knowledge and
"role." Knowledge and wisdom
wisdom may may be be attributed
attributed exclusively
exclusively
to
to the
the “role"
"role" ofof the
the supervisor,
supervisor, and institutional expectations
and institutional expectations
and pressures may make a supervisor
and pressures may make a supervisor feel obligated to feel obligated to main-
main¬
tain
tain that
that stance
stance even
even though
though he he believes quite differently.
believes quite differently. The
The
struggle
struggle of of the
the supervisor
supervisor to to maintain
maintain his his status
status vis-a-vis
vis-a-vis the
the
group can inhibit the central task of learning
group can inhibit the central task of learning through sharing, through sharing,
exploring
exploring and and challenging
challenging the the assumptions
assumptions of of the
the leader-—
leader-
using
using him him asas aa resource
resource rather
rather than than anan authority.
authority.
If one-to-one supervision is
If one-to-one supervision is the only kind the only kind available
available toto aa
teacher,
teacher, he may react
he may react to his supervisor
to his supervisor eithereither by
by accepting
accepting all
all
that he suggests, or by rejecting without
that he suggests, or by rejecting without examination what- examination what¬
ever
ever he he says.
says. ItIt is
is worth
worth noting that, after
noting that, after an
an experience
experience in in
supervision
supervision with with others,
others, the teacher is
the teacher is more
more likely
likely to
to con-
con¬
sider a variety of perspectives within the
sider a variety of perspectives within the one-to-one relation- one-to-one relation-
>\
178
178 /
/ Supervision:
Sur>ERv1sioi~i: THE
The RELUCTANT PROFESSION
ship; aa polarity
ship; polarity of
of views
views between supervisor and
between supervisor and teacher
teacher is
is
less likely
likely to
to occur.
occur. Being forced
forced to
to defend
defend one's status as a
supervisor or to defend one's position as
supervisor or to defend one's position as aa teacher
teacher becomes
becomes
less necessary to save one's sense of dignity.
In discussions, the supervisor serves as a catalyst to learn-
learn¬
ing. He may be an expert in certain areas of teaching and
curriculum. He has probably
curriculum. probably been
been successful
successful as a teacher and
discovered approaches which work well for him, but he does
not expect the teachers with whom he is working to imitate
his style. He uses his expertise in ways that challenge the
teachers to exercise their judgment and their capacity to make
meaning. Because the supervisor has come to realize through
experience an effective teaching style for himself, he trusts
each teacher with whom he works to do the same for himself.
From time to time, he may share a perspective or a technique
but, on the whole, what he shares he offers as only one way
of examining emotional and intellectual assumptions about
learning and teaching.
SUMMARY
It is not without condition that I advocate supervision in

groups. At times individual supervision of teachers is more
appropriate. Sometimes an individual conference is the most
profitable and fitting response to certain kinds of institutional
demands, such
demands, such as
as observation
observation and evaluation.
evaluation. Also, supervisor
and teacher
teacher maymay find
find aa one-to-one
one-to-one session
session most suitable for
working together
together on
on such
such specific
specific problems
problems as the influence
of the teacher's highly personal problems on his teaching,
instances of of intense
intense teacher
teacher upset or
or situations
situations calling for im-
im¬
mediate action. Some teachers seem to learn best from
individual supervision. When
individual supervision. this appears
When this appears toto be
be the
the case,
case,
such differences of
such differences of individual response are
individual response are worthy
worthy ofof discus-
discus¬
sion in the
sion in the group
group because
because of
of their implications for
their implications for classroom
classroom
teaching.
The focus
focus in this
this chapter
chapter has
has been on on exploring
exploring the ways
SUPERVISING
Teachers IN
in GRoUi>s
Groups // 179
179
the context
the context created
created in aa group
group relates
relates to
to the teachers' learning.
The fundamental responsibility
The responsibility of
of supervisors—and
supervisors--and teachers,
for that matter—is
for that matter-is to to become aware of
become aware of the
the context
context they
they create
create
in their effort to help students learn.
The essence of
The essence of the
teaching-learning process
process is is interper-
interper¬
sonal.
sonal. The relationship established
The relationship between the
established between the supervisor
supervisor
and teachers
and teachers serves
serves as
as the
the vehicle through
through which communica-
communica¬
tion and, hence, learning take place. The
tion and, hence, learning take place. The nature of nature of the
the rela-
rela¬
tionship is
tionship is reflected
reflected inin the
the way
way wewe respond:
respond: that
that is,is, what
what
kinds of
kinds of questions
questions we askask andand how
how we ask them; the way we
listen; what we choose to respond to,
listen; what we choose to respond to, and
and our
our response.
response. To To
put it
put it simply,
simply, the
the way
way wewe teach reflects our
teach reflects our beliefs
beliefs and and as-
as¬
sumptions
sumptions aboutabout howhow and
and whywhy students learn. To
students learn. To understand
understand
the complex process of learning requires continuous
the complex process of learning requires continuous intensive intensive
study.
study. Out
Out ofof respect
respect for
for that
that process
process II have
have tried
tried to to share
share
some
some insights from my
insights from my work
work with
with teachers.
teachers. MyMy hope
hope is is that
that
through sharing with teachers both one-to-one
through sharing with teachers both one-to-one and in groups and in groups
we will increase
we increase our
our professional
professional ability
ability to serve the student
in his learning.
_ _ =7‘
_
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J
J I
CHAPTER EIGHT
NEW DIRECTIONS AND

NEW LEADERS FOR SUPERVISION
Those entrusted
Those with leadership
entrusted with responsibilities in
leadership responsibilities in public
public
education
education confront
confront aa series
series of
of ideological and social
ideological and social dilemmas
dilemmas
posed by their
posed by their various
various and
and often
often conflicting constituencies.
conflicting constituencies.
Educators'
Educators’ primary
primary responsibility
responsibility is the formal
is the formal instruction
instruction of
of
children.
children. They
They are
are legally
legally responsible to, and
responsible to, and paid
paid by,
by, the
the
community
community and
and the
the parents.
parents. Inevitably, individuals develop
Inevitably, individuals develop
attachments
attachments to
to aa particular
particular school
school system,
system, aa single
single school
school or
or
even aa particular
even particular grade
grade level
level or
or department.
department. In In addition,
addition, many
many
educators feel a deep identity with the profession
educators feel a deep identity with the profession of teaching of teaching
and with
and with aa special
special oror academic field. Educators
academic field. Educators are
are also
also re-
re¬
sponsible
sponsible to to themselves
themselves as human beings.
as human beings. Thus
Thus the
the supervisor
supervisor
as an educational leader is a person, a citizen, an
as an educational leader is a person, a citizen, an agent of agent of the
the
society, aa teacher,
society, teacher, aa historian
historian oror aa mathematician
mathematician and and aa mem-
mem¬
ber
ber of
of the
the staff
staff of,
of, say,
say, Smithville
Smithville HighHigh School.
School. These
These multi-
multi¬
ple identifications and conflicting loyalties
ple identifications and conflicting loyalties compound the compound the
difficulties posed
difficulties posed byby the basic educational
the basic issues of
educational issues of change
change
versus stability and active leadership versus passive
versus stability and active leadership versus passive acceptance acceptance
181
181
182 /
182 / Supervision:
SUP:-:RvisioN: The
THE Reluctant
RI-ILUCTANT Profession
PROFESSION
of change. The issue, for the writers, is construing the role

of the supervisor as an active leader of society rather than as
an administrative officer who executes educational policy de-de¬
termined by others. It should be clear from preceding chapters
that we see this dilemma not as a rigid dichotomy but as a
matter of emphasis and orientation. Our position on this
question will be discussed later in the chapter.
In order to clarify the leadership dilemmas which confront
supervisors (and other educators as well), let us look in some
detail at what we consider the two most essential questions
confronting education: the organization of the schools for
instruction and the nature of the school curriculum. Both
issues focus on the problem of leadership.
Let us first deal with the organization of the school for
instruction and, more particularly, with the teacher's role.
CONFLICTING VIEWS OF THE TEACHER
There are currently two major views of the role of the teacher,
views which are in a certain sense contradictory. On the one
hand, there is a powerful movement to professionalize the
teacher, increase the status and rewards of teaching and, at
the same time, upgrade the quality of training for teachers.
On the other hand, however, is a virtually unpublicized trend
toward deemphasizing the importance and autonomy of the
teacher. We will comment on each of these trends separately.
THE TEACHER AS PROFESSOR
The movement to improve the status of the teacher is, we bebe¬
lieve, based on an implicit analogy between the teacher and
the university
the university professor.
professor. The model
model is is aa learned and wise
person, steeped
steeped inin aa subject
subject area and
and in teaching
teaching technology
and endowed
and endowed with acuteacute sensitivity
sensitivity to
to the
the needs of children.
The goal
goal is
is that
that every
every classroom
classroom bebe under
under the direction of a
highly trained, responsible, self-generating, autonomous
I
NEw DIRECTIONS AND
New Directions and NEW
New LEADERS
Leaders / 183
career teacher. This

career teacher. This widely-held
widely-held vision of The
vision of The Teacher
Teacher as
as
Professor can be explained in several ways:
1. The continual upgrading of certification standards is

dramatically illustrated
illustrated by New York California s in-
York and California's in¬
sistence on
sistence on aa master's
master's degree
degree or
or five collegiate years
five collegiate years as
as aa
prerequisite for
prerequisite for permanent
permanent certification. In addition,
certification. In addition, certifi-
certifi¬
cation
cation requirements
requirements are are placing
placing greater emphasis on sub- sub¬
ject matter training and less on professional
ject matter training and less on professional education education
courses, in
courses, in the belief that
the belief that this
this constitutes upgrading.
constitutes upgrading.
2. Trends
2. Trends in
in teacher training institutions
teacher training also reflect
institutions also reflect the
the view
view
of the
of teacher as
the teacher professor. The
as professor. increasing popularity
The increasing popularity of of
Master of
Master Arts in
of Arts in Teaching
Teaching and fifth- and
and fifth- and sixth-year
sixth-year
programs and the rise of internship arrangements
programs and the rise of internship arrangements are are one
one
manifestation. Whereas
manifestation. Whereas some
some ten
ten or so years
or so years ago
ago there
there was
was
much debate
much debate over
over the
the validity
validity of
of aa fifth-year
fifth-year program,
program, con-
con¬
siderable doubt is now cast on the value of undergraduate
siderable doubt is now cast on the value of undergraduate
training programs.
training programs. Another
Another manifestation
manifestation is is the
the rising
rising
standards of teacher training institutions, as reflected
standards of teacher training institutions, as reflected in in
both the
both the admissions
admissions standards
standards ofof Master
Master ofof Arts
Arts inin Teach-
Teach¬
ing programs
ing programs andand the grade-point average
the grade-point average required
required by by
undergraduate schools
undergraduate schools as as aa prerequisite
prerequisite to to admission
admission to to
student teaching.
3. Many school
3. Many school systems seem to
systems seem to operate with this
operate with this model
model ofof
the teacher.
the teacher. Certainly,
Certainly, schools
schools are looking hard
are looking hard for
for teachers
teachers
with higher
with higher academic
academic qualifications. And they
qualifications. And they are
are getting
getting
them: in 1963, 65% of all teachers had bachelors' degrees
them: in 1963, 65% of all teachers had bachelors’ degrees as as
compared to
compared 44% in
to 44% 1948, and
in 1948, and 25% had masters’
25% had masters' degrees
degrees asas
compared to 15% in 1948.
4. The
4. The various
various professional
professional organizations have been
organizations have been working
working
hard to increase teachers' status and responsibilities.
hard to increase teachers' status and responsibilities. The The
National Commission
National Commission forfor Teacher Education and
Teacher Education and Profes-
Profes¬
sional Standards in particular has striven mightily to estab¬
sional Standards in particular has striven mightily to estab-
lish professional
lish professional boards
boards to
to regulate the profession.
regulate the profession. And
And the
the
National Education
National Education Association
Association and the American
and the American Federa-
Federa-
184 /
184 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: THE RELUCTANT Profession
tion of Teachers have worked hard and often militantly to

improve the teacher's
teacher’s professional and social position as
well as his power and dignity.
These, then, are some of the components of the trend to- to¬
ward a teacher in the image of the university professor-—a
professor—a
person of status, competence, power and, above all else, auton-
auton¬
omy. It is responsible autonomy that is the essential and
crucial characteristic of a professional.
THE TEACHER AS TECHNICIAN
At odds with this vision of the teacher as an autonomous pro-

pro¬
fessional are several developments which directly and seri-seri¬
ously subvert teacher autonomy by implicitly assuming that
teachers are not up to the job and that specific measures must
be taken to compensate for their deficiencies. A logical ex- ex¬
tension of this position defines teaching as a technical opera-
opera¬
tion best undertaken with sophisticated educational tech- tech¬
nology under the direction of an educational technician.
The Curriculum Reform Movement

Perhaps foremost among these developments is the recent
spectacular curriculum reform activity, particularly in the de-
de¬
velopment of curriculum materials. This phenomenon has
two major aspects—the
aspects-the plethora of curriculum projects like
the Physical Science Study Committee, School Mathematics
Study Group and Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, and
the entrance of giant businesses like International Business
Machines, Time, Inc. and Xerox into the field of curriculum
materials.
The various new curricula have brought vitality, freshness
and imagination to the educational scene. They are typically
developed by highly talented people, often dominated by uni-
uni¬
versity-connected scholars. Some of the packaged curricula
contain a wide range of materials, including films, tapes,
NEW DIRECTIONS AND
New LEADERS
Leaders / 185
readings, programmed instruction instruction tests tests and the like (and, of
teacher’s manual). These curricula have usually
course, a teacher's
been undertaken because their developers deplored the exist- exist¬
ing materials and had little or no confidence that the schools
or educators themselves could or would make serious changes.
That these curricula are generally of higher quality than
existing materials should be no surprise, since they represent
the result of
the result of aa very
very substantial
substantial investment
investment of of talent,
talent, time
time and
and
money. And that is the point. The traditional method-giving method—giving
a limited number of teachers a limited time (usually a six-
week summer workshop) and limited funds—of developing
materials is is simply
simply no match for for aa multimillion-dollar
multimillion-dollar project
involving some of the best minds in the country.
Packaged materials by their very excellence tend to reduce
the autonomy
the autonomy of of the
the individual
individual classroom
classroom teacher.
teacher. ItIt is
is true
true
that traditional textbooks
that traditional textbooks and and courses
courses ofof study
study also
also have
have aa
limiting effect
effect onon thethe teacher's
teacher's freedom.
freedom. And teachers cer- cer¬
tainly need materials. Our concern is the degree of the teach-
tainly need materials. Our concern is the degree of the teach¬
er's freedom
er's freedom to determine what and and how he teaches, viewed
as aa continuum
continuum at one one endend of of which
which is the teacher free to do
as he wishes and whose opposite pole
as he wishes and whose opposite pole is
is the
the teacher
teacher under
under
full constraint.
full constraint. OurOur opinion
opinion is is that the current
that the current curriculum
curriculum
packages move the typical teacher's
packages move the typical teacher's role further along role further along thethe
continuum toward
continuum toward constraint
constraint and and reduced autonomy. Some
reduced autonomy. Some of of
the curriculum
the curriculum packagers
packagers even even talk
talk ofof producing
producing "teacher-
"teacher-
proof”
proof" materials.
The point
The point here
here is not to
is not to disparage packaged curricula.
disparage packaged curricula.
Quite the
Quite the opposite;
opposite; they should be
they should much better
be much better than
than what
what
has existed before. But it should be pointed
has existed before. But it should be pointed out that their out that their
very
very strengths
strengths threaten
threaten to to undermine
undermine the the role
role ofof the
the teacher
teacher
(and the school and
the school and the profession) in
the profession) in determining
determining curric-curric¬
ulum.
The Education Business

Even more
Even more significant for the
significant for the future is the
future is the entrance
entrance of
of Big
Big
Business into
Business into the
the picture. Many major
picture. Many companies are
major companies are at-
at-
186 / Sui=ERvisioN:.THE RI-ILUCTANT PROFESSION
tempting to organize a panoply of curriculum-making capa-

capa¬
cities—film, television, publishing and programmed instruc-
instruc¬
tion. These companies mean business, in every sense of the
word. They are interested in developing full systems of edu-
edu¬
cational materials to reach the widest possible market. It has
been predicted that some of these companies will institute
nationwide systems of private schools or under contract to
public schools in which fully-integrated, twelve-year-se-
twelve-year-se¬
quenced materials will be tried out and adopted. This devel-
devel¬
opment could offer many benefits to education, but it seems
likely that only the bravest and hardiest (or richest) of exist-
exist¬
ing schools will be able to resist such competitive pressures.
Educational Television
Other forces, too, threaten to put more and more distance bebe¬
tween key curriculum decisions and the teacher. The use of
educational television has, at least up till now, put the teacher
in the position of reacting to a canned presentation in which
very few, if any, teachers have actually participated.
Governmental Involvement
The increasingly significant
significant role
role of
of the
the federal
federal government in
education and
and the
the movement
movement toward
toward larger school districts
will probably accentuate
will probably accentuate this
this trend. Federally-financed re-
trend. Federally-financed re¬
search and development centers will undoubtedly develop and
disseminate
disseminate new curriculum packages,
new curriculum packages, while
while regional
regional and
and
state agencies will
state agencies also be
will also be stepping
stepping upup efforts
efforts to
to provide
provide cen-
cen¬
tral services.
Reorganization Efforts
Reorganization Eflforts
Another important ana
Another important and related
related movement, still in
movement, still in aa relatively
relatively
early phase,
early phase, is
is attempting
attempting to to reorganize
reorganize the
the school
school structure
structure
and the teacher's
and the teacher's role.
role. It is characterized
It is characterized by
by such
such approaches
approaches
as team teaching,
as team teaching, large-group
large-group instruction
instruction and
and thethe develop-
develop¬
ment
ment ofof paraprofessional
paraprofessional positions.
positions. These
These reforms,
reforms, implicitly
implicitly
or explicitly,
or explicitly, reflect
reflect aa view that the
view that the schools
schools are
are not
not efficiently
efficiently
NEW
New DIRECTIONS
Directions AND
and NEW
New LEADERS
Leaders / 187
/187
organized and the individual classroom teacher needs supple-

supple¬
mental help to do his job. An important aspect of team teach- teach¬
ing and large-group instruction is their emphasis on coopera- coopera¬
tive planning and teaching, which can mean a further diminu- diminu¬
tion of the individual teacher's freedom. It may be minimal
and may result in better teaching, but it can be a restriction
on the individual teacher.
What all this adds up to, in our view, is a very sensible and
reasonable recognition that the teacher, as he is now, has not
done the job and needs a great deal of help, and that helping
involves making better use of the available resources. The
trend toward less local control, less teacher autonomy, more
curricular coordination (and standardization) and more cen- cen¬
tralization will undoubtedly increase efficiency and will very
probably lead, at least in the short run, to better education
for children. There is a price, however: the vision of the
teacher
teacher asas aa professor, a self-generating,
professor, a self-generating, autonomous
autonomous person
person
of
of wisdom
wisdom and and knowledge
knowledge withwith full
full professional responsibil¬
professional responsibil-
ities. A further price may be the initiative, creativity and
ities. A further price may be the initiative, creativity and im-
im¬
agination that grow
agination that grow out
out of
of independence
independence and and autonomy.
autonomy. And,And,
in aa very real
real sense,
sense, these
these reforms
reforms may
may cost us our vision of
a different kind of school and a different kind
a different kind of school and a different kind of
of professional
professional
leader.
NEW TEACHERS AND OLD REALITIES
What are
What are the
the implications
implications of of these conflicting forces
these conflicting forces for
for
teacher training certification practices and school
teacher training certification practices and school organiza- organiza¬
tion? Should
Should we be be training
training teachers
teachers as quasi-professors or
as quasi-technicians?
as quasi-technicians? By By far
far the
the more
more appealing vision, to
appealing vision, to the
the
writers, is that of the teacher-professor. We believe
writers, is that of the teacher—professor. We believe strongly strongly
that autonomy
that autonomy and and self-direction
self-direction areare necessary ingredients of
necessary ingredients of
creativity. What
creativity. What gives
gives us
us pause
pause about this vision,
about this vision, however,
however, is is
recognition of the other necessary ingredient—talent.
recognition of the other necessary ingredient—talent. The The
fundamental weakness
fundamental weakness in the argument
in the argument forfor "every
"every teacher
teacher aa
professor" is the shortage of available talent.
professor” is the shortage of available talent. There areThere are now
now
'1
188 / Supervision:
188 / SuPERvisioi~i: The
THE RBLUCTANT PROFESSION
about 2-1/4 million

about 2-1/4 million teachers
teachers in
in America; by 1975
America; by 1975 we
we shall
shall
probably need almost 3 million. Is it possible to find that
magnitude of of talent?
talent? It is
is doubtful!
doubtful!
Other requirements need
Other need toto be met
met to
to fulfill
fulfill the dream of
the professor.
professor. Teaching
Teaching conditions
conditions would have to improve
drastically to allow talent to be
drastically to allow talent to fully expressed.
be fully expressed. Instead
Instead of
of 150
150
students, a teacher, for example, might be responsible for 30;
instead of teaching 25 hours per week, he might teach 10.
The basically autocratic structure of the schools would have
to be changed to allow teachers freedom to experiment, to
inquire broadly and to discharge such research and develop-
develop¬
ment responsibilities with imagination and professional in-
in¬
tegrity. The schools would have to be run by teachers rather
than by
by bureaucrats.
bureaucrats.
We would
We would need
need to
to be
be considerably
considerably more flexible
flexible about cer-
cer¬
requirements-—their complete
tification requirements—their might be
abolition
a reasonable start. Since the biggest barrier to staffing the
schools with professors is the difficulty of recruiting talent,
and since certification laws are widely perceived as nuisances
rather
rather than standards, it
than standards, it might
might be
be best
best to
to leave
leave teacher
teacher train-
train¬
ing exclusively to the universities and schools. If the schools
are serious
are serious about
about hiring
hiring talented
talented teachers,
teachers, the
the universities
universities will
will
respond to their
respond their pressure. Certification
Certification laws
laws tend to be nar-
nar¬
rowing and constricting;
rowing constricting; the image of
of the
the professor suggests
diversity, brilliance—even
diversity, eccentricity—qualities
eccentricity—qualities which are
not encouraged
encouraged by formal
formal requirements.
This kind
kind of
of teacher-professor would need
teacher—professor would need lots of training
and, more
and, more importantly, lots
lots of
of “education
"education with a small e."
e.” Of
course, the
course, the teacher—-professor should have
teacher-professor should have a liberal education
of the
of the kind that enlarges
kind that enlarges aa person
person'ss humanity.
humanity. He
He should
should
have insight into
have insight the purposes
into the and traditions
purposes and traditions of
of education,
education, a
a
thorough and profound grasp of the content of his field and
a full
a full understanding
understanding of of the
teaching-learning process.
process. We
We
will return
will return shortly
shortly to aa discussion
discussion of
of his role
role and training; our
purpose here is simply to suggest the kind of person we have
in mind.
in mind.
NEW DIRECTIONS AND
New LEADERS
Leaders /
/ 189
189
On the other hand, our realistic opinion is that, as exciting,

noble and beautiful as this vision is, we cannot expect to find
or afford
or afford aa large
large number of
of teacher-professors.
teacher—professors. Let us, then,
face reality, swallow hard and gear up to train two million
technicians and aa few
technicians few hundred thousand
thousand teacher—professors
teacher-professors
who can make major curriculum and instructional decisions
and train
and train the
the technicians
technicians toto implement
implement these
these decisions.
decisions. Let
Let us
us
take full
take full advantage
advantage of of the
the developing
developing educational technology
and of central resources. Much of
and of central resources. Much of the
the day-to-day
day-to-day teaching
teaching
could be
could be handled by machines or or by
by well-programmed mate- mate¬
rials administered by technicians. The routine work now
handled
handled by teachers could
by teachers could be
be undertaken
undertaken by by clerks,
clerks, college
college
students or
students or parttime
parttime workers.
workers. The
The manpower
manpower needs for such
aa plan
plan oror organization
organization areare reasonable, since the
reasonable, since the ability
ability needed
needed
by most technicians corresponds with that of
by most technicians corresponds with that of the bulk of the bulk of the
the
population.
population. SuchSuch aa personnel
personnel and
and organizational
organizational planplan would
would
free the teacher-professors to be imaginative and
free the teacher—professors to be imaginative and creative, creative,
and to
and to attend
attend to their major
to their responsibility-—the adaptation
major responsibility—the adaptation or or
development
development of of the
the curriculum
curriculum and the training
and the training ofof the
the tech-
tech¬
nicians.
NEW CURRICULA AND NEW REALITIES
But new
But new personnel
personnel and and new
new organizational plans for
organizational plans for educa-
educa¬
tion are only half a loaf. New curricula are equally
tion are only half a loaf. New curricula are equally essential. essential.
We
We have
have already
already contended
contended that that public education pays
public education pays aa high
high
price for
price for letting
letting PSSC
PSSC or Xerox "do
or Xerox it." Our
"do it." Our basic
basic argument
argument
for new curricula, however, is the stagnation
for new curricula, however, is the stagnation of the of the pres-
pres¬
ent
ent school
school curriculum.
curriculum. The The public school program
public school program has has not
not
changed fundamentally
changed fundamentally since since education became compulsory
education became compulsory
in the nineteenth century. The emphasis
in the nineteenth century. The emphasis is still on is still on formal
formal
academic
academic work,
work, almost
almost always
always mademade upup ofof "courses"
"courses' in in five
five
academic areas—English, science, mathematics,
academic areas-—English, science, mathematics, history and history and
foreign languages.
We have
We have noted,
noted, inin Chapter
Chapter Two, other forces
Two, other forces which
which have
have
contributed to this emphasis on formal academic
contributed to this emphasis on formal academic work. Spe- work. Spe-
N
190 / Supervision:
190 / SUPERvisioiv: The
THE Reluctant
PRorEssioN
cifically, we referred to the public's belief in the necessity of

a college education, which, combined with the conservatism
of the colleges and the timidity of the schools, has made the
school curriculum a prisoner of traditional college entrance
requirements. Such factors militate strongly against a con-
con¬
sideration of fundamentally different curriculum ideas. We
also discussed the Sputnik-era attacks on the schools for their
intellectually-deficient offerings and the resultant expensive
and hasty efforts to produce better curricula in the sciences,
mathematics and foreign languages. We have no quarrel with
these curricula—which undoubtedly contribute to effective
learning of their subject areas—or
areas-——or with this kind of systems
maintenance activity per se. But the improvement of existing
courses undeniably diverts energy away from a massive and
profound reappraisal of the total curriculum. Recent educa- educa¬
tional developments have tended to add cement to the exist- exist¬
ing curriculum structure. Such innovations as team—teaching,team-teaching,
large-group instruction, television teaching, modular schedul- schedul¬
ing, computer-aided instruction, and the like are changes
within the existing curricular frame. Almost all represent
better and more efficient ways of teaching the five basic dis- dis¬
cipline areas.
areas. The
The cupboard
cupboard of of valid
valid alternative
alternative modes of
education is is shockingly
shockingly bare.
bare. What
What has
has been
been called a "revo-
“revo¬
lution” in
in education
education is is actually
actually reform of the the type that main-
main¬
tains the existing system.
The sterility and
The sterility and rigidity
rigidity ofof the
the curriculum
curriculum has has other
other con-
con¬
sequences
sequences which argue for
which argue change. Academic
for change. Academic and and psycholog-
psycholog¬
ical pressures
ical pressures on on high school students
high school students are
are excessive.
excessive. They
They are
are
increasingly questioning the
increasingly questioning the relevance of their
relevance of their education;
education; stu-
stu¬
dent cynicism, alienation
dent cynicism, alienation and militancy constitute
and militancy constitute thethe material
material
of headlines.
The perpetuation of
The perpetuation of the
the educational
educational status
status quoquo is
is doubly
doubly
remarkable
remarkable in an era
in an era ofof unprecedented social and
unprecedented social and cultural
cultural
change and
change and turmoil.
turmoil. The
The nation
nation faces
faces enormous
enormous difficulties
difficulties
engendered by
engendered by racial
racial conflict,
conflict, war and an
war and an increasingly
increasingly urban
urban
society. In
society. In the
the midst
midst ofof these
these problems
problems sits
sits the
the educational
educational
NEW
New DIRECTIONS
Directions mo
and NEW
New LEADERS
Leaders /
/ 191
system, serenely
system, serenely concentrating
concentrating on
on five
five subject
subject areas
areas and
and col-
col¬
lege admissions.
admissions. Nowhere is leadership
leadership in devising alterna-
alterna¬
tive forms
forms ofof education
education less
less evident
evident than
than among professional
educators.
Are we tarring
tarring supervision
supervision with the same brush? The anan¬
swer is yes. What, then, is the supervisor's role in dealing
swer is yes. What, then, is the supervisor's role in dealing
with these
these issues?
issues? Indeed,
Indeed, is
is it realistic
realistic to expect that the
typical supervisor,
typical supervisor, who
who has
has spent
spent his professional life trying
to improve,
to improve, say,
say, history
history teaching,
will
will seriously
teaching, seriously question
question
whether
whether history
history should be taught,
should be taught, or that a
or that a school
school principal
principal
will reconsider whether
will reconsider whether schools
schools are a valid
are a valid place
place for
for educa-
educa¬
tors to spend
tors to spend their
their time? Can we
time? Can we expect incumbents to
expect incumbents to ‘ask
ask
questions and propose
questions and propose answers
answers that
that threaten their own
threaten their own ideo-
ideo¬
logical
logical and
and professional
professional identities? It is
identities? It is a
a very
very real
real question
question
whether
whether someone deeply immersed
someone deeply in aa particular
immersed in particular setting
setting is
is
constitutionally
constitutionally able
able to
to hypothesize fundamentally different
hypothesize fundamentally different
settings. We have
settings. We have also
also talked about the
talked about the limitations
limitations that
that can
can
result
result from
from the
the subtle
subtle personal
personal and professional ties
and professional ties that
that ac-
ac¬
crue
crue during
during aa career.
career. (We
(We suspect
suspect that it is
that it is these
these areas
areas that
that
will yield
will yield answers
answers to
to the
the question
question of why so
of why so little
little has
has changed
changed
in education.)
in The innovations
education.) The innovations wewe are arguing for
are arguing for would
would re-
re¬
quire vast changes in the school's structure, and would
quire vast changes in the school's structure, and would un- un¬
doubtedly be
doubtedly met with
be met with bitter
bitter and
and understandable
understandable resistance.
resistance.
Is this
Is to ask
this to ask too much from
too much from aa supervisor?
supervisor?
NEW LEADERSHIP
It
It is
is aa basic
basic thesis
thesis of this book
of this book that
that there is aa compelling
there is compelling need
need
in public
in public education
education for
for people able to
people able design and
to design and develop
develop cur-
cur¬
riculum and to analyze teaching. We believe that undertaking
riculum and to analyze teaching. We believe that undertaking
these functions
these functions could
could greatly
greatly enhance
enhance the the professional
professional sig-
sig¬
nificance and power of what has traditionally
nificance and power of what has traditionally been called been called
"supervision. That
"supervision." That public
public education
education havehave such
such leadership
leadership isis
obviously more
obviously more important
important than
than what
what we we call
call it.
it. Indeed,
Indeed, the
the
term "supervisor" probably has too many negative
term "supervisor” probably has too many negative connota- connota¬
tions to
tions to survive.
survive. We
We prefer
prefer to
to call
call these curriculum and
these curriculum and in-
in-
.n
structional leaders "clinical professors." (We are concerned

that the reader distinguish between the clinical supervisor, as
described in Chapter Five, and the clinical professor. The for-
for¬
mer is essentially a teacher trainer, who teaches teachers
about the curriculum and how to teach it. The clinical profes-
profes¬
sor is able to do this and more.) What, more specifically,
specifically, do
we envision such leaders doing
doing??
THE CLINICAL PROFESSOR
The term "clinical" suggests to us a particular way of achiev-

achiev¬
ing practical knowledge about education. We believe that the
most fruitful avenue to the improvement of teaching is the
application of the inquiry skills of scholarship to curriculum
instruction and formal learning as it actually occurs in the
lives of students. The focus of such study is at the point of
practice, in schools as well as other educational institutions.
Clinical research focuses on the collection of systematic ap- ap¬
plied knowledge about various curricula, their implementa-
implementa¬
tion and effect on different types of students; knowledge
about teaching methods, and applied knowledge about stu- stu¬
dents and the way they learn under various conditions of
content and instruction. The controlling ideas and hypotheses
of clinical research would be the results of the researcher's
intensive experience with curriculum, teaching and the stu- stu¬
dents being taught. Thus, reciprocation between thinking
about, acting on and researching questions of curriculum,
teaching and learning is at the heart of the clinical approach.
Clinical research is not oppositional to careful research design
or to statistical treatment. Its essential object is to advance
our practical knowledge of the complex relationships among
curriculum, teaching and student learning.
A clinical professor is thus neither an adjunct professor
nor a "master teacher" whose professional job is exclusively
to train other skilled teachers. He should have training and
competence in the analysis of teaching at least to the degree
I
NEW DIRECTIONS mo
New LEADERS
Leaders /
/ 193
193
suggested
suggested by by Chapters Four through
Chapters Four Seven. He
through Seven. He is,
is, further,
further, aa
skilled
skilled practitioner
practitioner directly
directly responsible
responsible for for the
the instruction
instruction of of
students.
students. Most
Most important,
important, hehe is
is also
also anan analytic
analytic scholar,
scholar, ca-
ca¬
pable of designing and developing original methods
pable of designing and developing original methods and ma- and ma¬
terials for
terials for school curricula or
school curricula or for
for the training of
the training of teachers,
teachers, oror
of implementing and evaluating instructional designs
of implementing and evaluating instructional designs worked worked
out
out by
by others. His clinic
others. His clinic is
is the
the classroom,
classroom, or or wherever
wherever inin¬
struction
struction is going on.
is going on. His
His method
method is the systematic
is the systematic and
and crit-
crit¬
ical analysis of practice. His goal is to demonstrate
ical analysis of practice. His goal is to demonstrate how to how to
deal with problems
deal with problems ofof curriculum
curriculum andand instruction
instruction and,
and, in
in so
so
doing,
doing, to generate new
to generate knowledge about
new knowledge about teaching
teaching (Bolster
(Bolster
19671
1967).
Training New
Training New Leaders
Leaders
How and
How where would
and where would such
such clinical professors be
clinical professors be trained?
trained?
We have
We have argued
argued previously
previously that
that there is no
there is no quick
quick and
and easy
easy
way to produce master teachers or to develop in-depth super¬
way to produce master teachers or to develop in-depth super-
visory capabilities. We
visory capabilities. We areare arguing
arguing the the necessity
necessity of
of aa further
further
dimension
dimension of of training,
training, inin curriculum theory and
curriculum theory and development.
development.
To do this adequately will, in our opinion,
To do this adequately will, in our opinion, require major require major ini-ini¬
tiatives
tiatives by by universities,
universities, schools
schools and government to
and government to create
create
communities or faculties of competent clinicians
communities or faculties of competent clinicians and research and research
scholars
scholars intellectually
intellectually committed
committed to to studying
studying problems
problems of of
curriculum
curriculum and and instruction.
instruction. We We are further convinced
are further convinced that that
the effectiveness of clinical training and inquiry
the effectiveness of clinical training and inquiry can be en- can be en¬
hanced if
hanced if some
some clinical
clinical researchers
researchers forego practicing alone
forego practicing alone to to
gather
gather intointo groups
groups or clinical communities.
or clinical communities. Such Such groups
groups
would be based in the schools and would
would be based in the schools and would consist of clinicalconsist of clinical
professors, fellows
professors, fellows inin the arts and
the arts and sciences, graduate students
sciences, graduate students
in education, experienced teachers undertaking
in education, experienced teachers undertaking in-service in-service
training,
training, beginning
beginning teachers
teachers and and "nonprofessional"
nonprofessional faculty.
faculty.
Again, the
Again, primary activity
the primary activity ofof this
this clinical community would
clinical community would
be the development, teaching and testing of
be the development, teaching and testing of curriculum in curriculum in the
the
broadest sense.
Direct experience
Direct experience with
with such
such communities
communities at the
at the Harvard
Harvard
Graduate School of Education and analysis
Graduate School of Education and of
analysis of aa teaching
teaching hos-
hos-
IQ
194 / Supervision:
194 / SUi>ERvisioi\i: The
THE Reluctant
PRoEEssioN
pital where a similar arrangement has long been in operation

have convinced us that the training of clinical professors is
best accomplished in an environment characterized by: 1) the
presence of persons who represent a broad spectrum of knowl- knowl¬
edge, experience and competence, and all of whom see them- them¬
selves as directly responsible for the instruction of children
and its analysis; 2) an attitude of inquiry which considers
all assumptions about curriculum, teaching and learning- learning—
whether made by clinical professors, teachers or student
teachers—challengeable, accompanied by both willingness and
desire to have one's work scrutinized by colleagues; 3) the
availability of human resources for learning what is known
about a problem (i.e., the community is inhabited by a num- num¬
ber of well-informed, inquiring professionals); 4) an organ- organ¬
izational framework which allows time and opportunity for
systematic reflection and research on practice.
These proposals, for the clinical professor as a curriculum
and instructional leader, the school as a center of inquiry and
joint university—school programs to train clinical professors,
writers’ view, powerful solutions to
are radical and, in the writers'
some of the dilemmas we have discussed. They are not unique
to this
to this book, although
although their combination
combination may be; in fact,
schools are
schools are already
already operating
operating as
as centers
centers ofof clinical inquiry,
and clinical
and clinical training
training programs
programs ofof the
the type
type outlined above are
currently in operation.1
currently operation? Thus,
Thus, the
the clinical
clinical competencies in
curriculum and
curriculum and instruction we feel
feel must
must supplant
supplant the flabbi-
flabbi¬
ness of traditional supervision, and the training programs to
produce such
produce such leadership
leadership and
and the
the schools
schools in
in which
which such
such clin-
clin-
1‘We
We have already referred
have already referred to
to Hazard's The Clinical
Hazard's The Clinical Professorship
Professorship In
In Teacher
Teacher
Education (1967).
Education (1967). Robert
Robert Schaefer
Schaefer has
has argued
argued that
that the
the school
school can
can be
be a
a center
center of
of
applied research
applied research in
in his
his book, The School
book, The School As A Center
As A Center of
of Inquiry
Inquiry (1967).
(1967). The
The
Pennsylvania Advancement
Pennsylvania School in
Advancement School Philadelphia, probably
in Philadelphia, probably one
one of
of the
the most
most
significant experimental
significant experimental schools
schools in
in the
the country,
country, is deeply involved
is deeply involved in
in both
both cur-
cur¬
riculum development
riculum development and
and teacher
teacher training.
training. John
Iohn Adams
Adams High
High School
School in
in Port-
Port¬
land, Oregon, is
land, Oregon, is organized
organized to
to carry
carry on,
on, concurrently,
concurrently, teaching
teaching of
of children,
children,
curriculum development,
curriculum development, professional training and
professional training and research.
research.
NEW DIRECTIONS AND
New LEADERS
Leaders / 195
/195
ical personnel could operate, do not exist merely in the writers’

writers'
imagination.
Let us
us summarize
summarize thethe argument soso far. We believe that the
issues of "what," "how” and "where" we
issues of "what,” "how" and "where" we educate
educate students
students
must be subject
subject to
to profound
profound new
new thinking and experimenta-
experimenta¬
tion. We
tion. We argue
argue for
for new
new personnel—clinical
personnel-—clinical professors-—and
professors—and
new contexts—clinical communities—to speed
new contexts—clinical communities-—to speed this this process.
process.
In the
the especially
especially critical
critical area
area of
of curriculum,
curriculum, what would the
clinical
clinical professor do? What kinds of
professor do? What kinds curriculum might
of curriculum might he
he
innovate?
TWO EXAMPLES OF CURRICULAR INNOVATION
As examples
As examples of of the kind of
the kind of curricular
curricular andand instructional
instructional activ-
activ¬
ities
ities wewe encourage,
encourage, we we would
would likelike to describe two
to describe two projects
projects
with which the
with which the writers
writers are familiar. Both
are familiar. Both are
are part
part of
of aa pro-
pro¬
gram at Harvard funded by the Office of Education
gram at Harvard funded by the Office of Education under its under its
Training of
Training of Teacher
Teacher Trainers
Trainers (T.T.T.) division. They
(T.T.T.) division. They are
are pre-
pre¬
sented
sented as as examples
examples of ideas at
of ideas at aa formulative stage, not
formulative stage, not as
as fin-
fin¬
ished models, and are intended to help clarify
ished models, and are intended to help clarify our notion of our notion of
the functions
the functions of of a
a clinical
clinical professor.
professor. It should also
It should also be
be pointed
pointed
out that these projects are being conducted within
out that these projects are being conducted within the exist- the exist¬
ing
ing school
school structure.
structure. (We(We are
are also deeply interested
also deeply interested in in at-
at¬
tempts
tempts to to develop
develop alternative
alternative educational modes outside
educational modes outside thethe
traditional structure, such as the Parkways Project
traditional structure, such as the Parkways Project in Phila- in Phila¬
delphia.)
delphia.) The two examples
The two examples we we present are projects
present are projects in
in ethical
ethical
and psychological
and psychological education.
education.
A
A PROJECT IN MORAL
PROJECT IN MORAL EDUCATION
EDUCATION
One
One of
of the most crucial
the most crucial current
current instructional needs, at
instructional needs, at all
all
levels
levels of
of education,
education, is
is ethical
ethical or
or value education. Surely
value education. Surely one
one
of the most
of the important functions
most important functions of education is
of education is to
to clarify
clarify
ethical
ethical issues—to
issues-—to aid
aid us in living
us in living valid, worthwhile, humane
valid, worthwhile, humane
and meaningful
and meaningful lives.
lives. All of
All of us
us need such an
need such an education,
education, and
and
all
all of us learn in one
of us learn in one fashion or
fashion or another about moral
another about moral issues.
issues.
But, generally
But, generally speaking,
speaking, little
little systematic attention is
systematic attention is given
given to
to
ethical
ethical education
education in in the
the schools.
schools. The
The schools concentrate on
schools concentrate on
verbal facilities and on the acquisition of knowledge
verbal facilities and on the acquisition of knowledge in the in the
five
five sacred
sacred areas.
areas. Some
Some argue
argue that
that ethical issues are
ethical issues are involved
involved
in most,
in most, ifif not all,
all, of
of these
these areas.
areas. True
True enough,
enough, but if moral
issues arise at all, they usually do so only circumstantially,
issues arise at all, they usually do so only circumstantially, if
if
they happen
happen to occuroccur inin the
the context
context of
of presenting
presenting the tradi-
tradi¬
tional curriculum.
tional curriculum. ThereThere are
are notable, widely-scattered
widely-scattered excep-
excep¬
tions, but it is clear that a tragically small amount of energy
is being expended on a curriculum which will help students
deal with ethical issues (Kohlberg 1966). Let us emphasize
that we are not talking about preaching, brainwashing or the
imposition of values. What we are urging (and what many
young people today are yearning for and demanding) is a
curriculum which helps people inquire into and clarify the
subtleties, complexities and dilemmas involved in ethical
issues.
Background and Theory

The 1920's witnessed a great deal of practical and research
interest in moral education in the public schools and church
groups (Hartshorne and May 1928; Jones Iones 1936). Moral edu-edu¬
cation during this period was conceived of as explanation of
the conventional code, exhortation to follow the code and the
planning of group or individual activities which would mani- mani¬
fest virtue
virtue or
or good works inin terms ofof this
this code (Iones
(Jones 1936).
Research evaluation of the results of moral education classes
was based on tests of moral knowledge (verbal espoiisal espousal of
the conventional
the conventional code)
code) and increase
increase in
in honesty or service as
experimentally measured. The results of research evaluation
were extremely
were extremely disappointing.
disappointing. These
These results,
results, in combination
both with opposition to verbal indoctrination as an educa- educa¬
tional approach and with liberal objections to the teaching
of religion in public schools (Kohlberg 1967), led to a marked
decline in moral education programs.
On the
On the basis of
of recent research
research findings,
findings, Kohlberg (1966)
\
NEW DIRECTIONS AND
New LEADERS
Leaders /
/ 197
197
has suggested
has suggested an approach to
an approach to moral education free
moral education free of
of some
some of
of
the limitations
the limitations of earlier
earlier approaches. His views are based on
a
a developmental
developmental theory
theory of
of stages
stages or levels in
or levels in the
the ability
ability to
to
make moral judgments.
According to
According to Kohlberg's
Kohlberg's schema, moral education
schema, moral education should
should
be an
be an attempt
attempt toto provide
provide an
an environment which would
environment which would stim-
stim¬
ulate growth in the maturity of moral judgment. It
ulate growth in the maturity of moral judgment. It has been has been
theorized
theorized that
that growth
growth inin the
the child's
child's moral maturity is
moral maturity is aa func-
func¬
tion, first, of the encounter with moral dilemmas with
tion, first, of the encounter with moral dilemmas with which which
the child has
the child has to
to cope,
cope, and,
and, second,
second, of
of the
the exchange
exchange of
of points
points
of view
of view as to how
as to how to to solve those dilemmas.
solve those dilemmas. TheThe theory
theory postu-
postu¬
lates that such encounters and exchanges create
lates that such encounters and exchanges create disequilib- disequilib¬
rium—cognitive
rium—cognitive dissonance—in
dissonance-in the the child
child and
and that
that resolution
resolution
of the disequilibrium is upward in the sequence,
of the disequilibrium is upward in the sequence, i.e., i.e., takes
takes
the
the child
child to
to aa higher
higher stage
stage ofof moral
moral maturity.
maturity.
Only a
Only few experimental
a few experimental attempts have been
attempts have been made
made to to stim-
stim¬
ulate growth in maturity of moral judgment.
ulate growth in maturity of moral judgment. One was done One was done
by Blatt and
by Blatt and Kohlberg
Kohlberg (1969);
(1969); the second, aa replication
the second, replication and
and
extension of
extension of the
the first,
first, is the subject
is the subject ofof an
an unpublished
unpublished Ph.D.
Ph.D.
dissertation by Blatt (1969). Both studies were
dissertation by Blatt (1969). Both studies were based on the based on the
following reasoning:
[If moral
[If moral development]
development] passes
passes through
through aa natural
natural sequence
sequence of of stages,
stages,
the
the approach
approach defines
defines the
the aim
aim ofof moral
moral education
education as the stimulation
as the stimulation of of
the next step of development rather than indoctrination
the next step of development rather than indoctrination into the into the
fixed conventions
fixed conventions of of school,
school, the
the church,
church, or or the
the nation.
nation. It It assumes
assumes
that
that movement
movement to to the
the next
next step of development
step of development restsrests not
not only
only onon ex-
ex¬
posure to the higher level of thought, but to experiences of
posure to the higher level of thought, but to experiences of conflict in conflict in
the application of the child's current level of thought to
the application of the child's current level of thought to problematic problematic
explorations.
explorations. InIn contrast
contrast toto conventional
conventional moralmoral education,
education, the the ap-
ap¬
proach stresses:
1)
1) arousal
arousal of
of genuine
genuine moral
moral conflict, uncertainty, and
conflict, uncertainty, and disagreement
disagreement
about genuinely
about genuinely problematical
problematical situations.
situations. (In(In contrast,
contrast, conven-
conven¬
tional moral education has stressed adult "right
tional moral education has stressed adult "right answers," and answers," and
reinforcement of the belief that virtue is always
reinforcement of the belief that virtue is always rewarded.)rewarded.)
2) the
2) presentation of
the presentation modes of
of modes of thought
thought no no more
more than
than one one level
level
above the child's own. (In contrast, conventional moral
above the child's own. (In contrast, conventional moral education education
tended to shift from appeals to comprehensible adult abstractions

too far above the child's level to appeals based on punishment
and prudence which are below the child's
child’s level and therefore li-
li¬
able to rejection.) (p. 5)
The initial research involved relatively simple discussions

of moral dilemmas. Some were teacher-led and others were
”leaderless.” The results were positive.
"leaderless."
When the results were analyzed it was found that the
changes in moral judgment ordinarily occurred in a sequential
order of stages, as described in Kohlberg’s
Kohlberg's theory. If a child,
say, began at stage two, he would advance to stage three, and
so on. Children who began the program at different stages
underwent change relative to their initial stage, even though
every child in each group was exposed to the same discus-
discus¬
sions. This is persuasive evidence that these discussions do
not indoctrinate
indoctrinate children
children into
into aa particular stage of moral
judgment but, rather, stimulate genuine growth.
Present Staff and Program

A group
A group of
of Harvard
Harvard faculty and students
faculty and students particularly
particularly inter-
inter¬
ested in
ested in moral education
education has
has been meeting
meeting with
with public school
teachers since 1969
teachers since 1969 to
to study the theory
study the theory and
and research
research implica-
implica¬
tions of
tions of Kohlberg's
Kohlberg’s schema
schema and
and of other approaches
of other approaches to
to moral
moral
education.
education. Two Two potential
potential models
models of of moral
moral education
education which
which
have been developed
have been developed areare briefly summarized below.
briefly summarized below.
The
The first model, tentatively
first model, called “Education
tentatively called “Education forfor Respon-
Respon¬
sibility” is
sibility" is an
an outgrowth
outgrowth of work done
of work done byby Dr.
Dr. Ioseph
Joseph Lukin-
Lukin-
sky of
sky of Brandeis
Brandeis University.
University. It It was
was postulated
postulated that
that involve-
involve¬
ment
ment in in “helping” activities (assistance
"helping" activities (assistance in in mental
mental hospitals,
hospitals,
community development projects, halfway houses, tutoring
community development projects, halfway houses, tutoring
projects, and
projects, and the
the like)
like) would
would enhance
enhance children's
children’s sense
sense ofof re-
re¬
sponsibility, as
sponsibility, as manifested
manifested in in their
their relationships
relationships with
with other
other
persons,
persons, andand would lead to
would lead to greater
greater self-understanding.
self-understanding. Among
Among
the variables
the variables in in this
this model
model of of moral
moral education
education are
are the
the rela-
rela¬
tionship of
tionship of the work engaged
the work engaged in in to the cognitive
to the cognitive and
and affective
affective
New
New DIRECTIONS
Directions AND
and New
New LEADERS
Leaders /
/ 199
199
development of
development of the
the particular
particular children
children working,
working, the
the effects
effects of
of
discussion
discussion or no discussion
or no discussion after
after "helping” experiences
“helping” experiences on on
change
change in in the
the children's
children's attitudes
attitudes or behavior, and
or behavior, and thethe like.
like.
Further exploration
Further exploration of of these ideas is is underway.
A second model is based on Kohlberg’s cognitive-develop-
A second model is based on Kohlberg's cognitive-develop¬
mental schema
mental schema of moral judgment
of moral judgment and and onon the
the experiments
experiments of of
Blatt and
Blatt and Kohlberg.
Kohlberg. BlattBlatt (1969) has shown
(1969) has shown thatthat it
it is
is possible
possible
to stimulate growth in the level of children's
to stimulate growth in the level of children’s moral maturity moral maturity
in
in aa school
school setting. Two questions
setting. Two questions remain unanswered, how-
remain unanswered, how¬
ever, by the experimental teaching in schools.
ever, by the experimental teaching in schools. First, is the First, is the
most
most important factor in
important factor in producing
producing change
change thethe method
method of of dis-
dis¬
cussion
cussion or or the personality of
the personality of the
the experimenter
experimenter and and hishis rela-
rela¬
tionship to the children? And, second, if there
tionship to the children? And, second, if there is a method or is a method or
technique involved in
technique involved in stimulating moral maturity,
stimulating moral maturity, is is it
it teach-
teach¬
able
able oror transmittable
transmittable to to teachers
teachers who
who do do not
not have
have extensive
extensive
familiarity with the development of children's
familiarity with the development of children’s moral judg- moral judg¬
ment? These two
ment? These questions are
two questions are of
of crucial significance if
crucial significance if a
a cur-
cur¬
riculum is to be developed for wide application
riculum is to be developed for wide application in the schools. in the schools.
Implications for
Implications Future Work
for Future Work
The goal
The goal ofof all
all of
of these models of
these models of moral education is
moral education is to
to de-
de¬
velop curricula which
velop curricula which can can be
be used by trained
used by trained teachers
teachers in in al-
al¬
most any school with equally positive results. A
most any school with equally positive results. A great deal of great deal of
work
work remains
remains to be done
to be done inin developing such a
developing such a generalizable
generalizable
curriculum.
curriculum. Some important questions
Some important questions toto be
be asked
asked about
about thethe
Blatt and Kohlberg model are: what kinds
Blatt and Kohlberg model are: what kinds of materials are of materials are
relevant for
relevant what kinds
for what kinds ofof children? what methods
children? what methods of of presen-
presen¬
tation best
tation best engage
engage children's
children’s interest in the
interest in the moral
moral dilemmas
dilemmas
and
and concerns being discussed? what elements should aa moral
concerns being discussed? what elements should moral
dilemma
dilemma have have for
for it
it most effectively and
most effectively productively to
and productively chal¬
to chal-
lenge
lenge aa child's thinking and
child’s thinking help move
and help him to
move him to aa more
more mature
mature
level of moral judgment? and, what are the
level of moral judgment? and, what are the conditions for conditions for aa
good discussion
good discussion of of moral
moral dilemmas? Because this
dilemmas? Because curriculum
this curriculum
is more concerned with the process of
is more concerned with the process of change and how change and how to to
induce
induce it it than
than with
with imparting information, the
imparting information, the development
development
of the
of the curriculum
curriculum is is particularly
particularly complex
complex andand requires
requires keen
keen
I‘.
200 /
200 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: Tar Rrrucnmr Profession
naturalistic observation
’ naturalistic observation and study. But
and study. But the promise of
the promise of a
a sys-
sys¬
tematic curriculum
tematic curriculum in
in moral
moral education
education is
is very
very great.
great.
A PROJECT
A PROJECT IN
IN PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION
PSYCHOLOGICAL EDUCATION
The current
The current work at
at Harvard in
in "deliberate
“deliberate psychological
education” has
education" several roots
has several roots? The first
.2 The first is
is aa critique
critique of
of typical
typical
guidance and
guidance and psychological
psychological services
services in
in schools;
schools; aa second
second is
is an
an
appraisal of
appraisal of the
the unacknowledged
unacknowledged but but massive
massive psychological
education which
education which students
students experience
experience in schools. M.
in schools. M. A.
A. White
White
has described
has described this
this as
as the
the dual
dual problem
problem of
of "the little white
clinic in the little red school."
school.”
Background and Theory

Psychological and guidance services are probably unavailable
in a majority of American schools. Where they do exist, there
is frequently a significant gap between professional rhetoric
about these services and the actual role they play in students'
lives. Stripped of their myths, such psychological services
really perform two functions within the school. The first is
to "adjust" students to the institution. By testing, counseling
or referral to community treatment agencies, an attempt is
made to adjust the underachieving student or the discipline
“case” to "normal"
"case" “normal” functioning in the school. Satisfactory
academic achievement and conformity to school codes of ac- ac¬
ceptable behavior are the real objectives of the treatment. A
much more characteristic guidance service is essentially ad- ad¬
ministrative: determining, with the student, what courses he
should take or what college he will attend. In mental health
terms, these are low-order secondary prevention activities,
attending to symptoms rather than causes.
One of the principal jobs of the psychological personnel
within aa school
within school is, then,
then, to
to adjust
adjust children
children to the institution.
In so doing, they assume that the school is a static norm, and
1Por a full description of this project, see Mosher and Sprinthall (1970).
2For
Nrw DIRECTIONS AND
New Directions and Nrw
New LEADERS / 201
Leaders / 201
rarely acknowledge
rarely acknowledge that
that the
the school
school environment
environment may
may be
be the
the *
"problem,"
"problem," rather
rather than
than the individual student.
the individual student. A
A contributory
contributory
factor is
factor is the separate and
the separate often unequal
and often unequal professional
professional status
status of
of
guidance personnel
guidance personnel or or school psychologists in
school psychologists in relation
relation to to
teachers and
teachers and administrators.
administrators. They They occupy a marginal position
within the school. Often, too, the
within the school. Often, too, the psychological
psychological training
training of of
school guidance personnel
school personnel is limited; they typically have a
significant
significant involvement with
involvement with only
only aa small proportion (perhaps
small proportion (perhaps
15
15 percent)
percent) of of all
all students
students in in school
school and and probably
probably aa lower lower
proportional involvement
proportional involvement with with teachers
teachers and and parents.
parents. In In brief,
brief,
for a majority of the children in our secondary
for a majority of the children in our secondary public schools public schools
no
no significant
significant psychological
psychological services
services or or education
education exist.
exist.
A second
A second impetus
impetus to work in
to work in psychological education is
psychological education is
recognition of a more general effect
recognition of a more general effect and deficiency of the and deficiency of the
school
school itself.
itself. Attention
Attention has has recently
recently been been directed
directed to to various
various
unanticipated psychological consequences
unanticipated psychological consequences of schooling. We of schooling. We
refer
refer to the effects
to the effects ofof school
school on on thethe student’s
student's attitude
attitude toward
toward
learning or
learning or his
his motivation,
motivation, his his self-concept
self-concept and and hishis ability
ability to to
think independently. Studies of this phenomenon
think independently. Studies of this phenomenon (see Cole- (see Cole¬
man,
man, Friedenberg, Jackson, Grannis,
Priedenberg, Iackson, Sprinthall and
Grannis, Sprinthall and Mosher)
Mosher)
suggest that schools are educating students'
suggest that schools are educating students’ attitudes, self- attitudes, self-
concepts
concepts and and values;
values; that
that there
there is is a "hidden curriculum”
a "hidden curriculum" ac- ac¬
companying
companying formal formal academic instruction which
academic instruction which deeply
deeply affects
affects
the student's psychological development.
the student’s psychological development. In an indirect and In an indirect and
unacknowledged
unacknowledged manner, manner, schools
schools affect how the
affect how the student
student sees sees
himself,
himself, his his competencies,
competencies, his his worth
worth and and hishis prospects
prospects as as aa
human being. The school, at minimum,
human being. The school, at minimum, reinforces the self- reinforces the self-
image
image withwith which
which the the child
child enters
enters school,
school, andand often
often confirms
confirms
the negative expectations of large groups
the negative expectations of large groups of children (espe- of children (espe¬
cially
cially poor
poor black
black and and white children). In
white children). In short,
short, teachers
teachers are, are,
whether they realize it or not, psychological
whether they realize it or not, psychological educators. In educators. In
addition to
addition to teaching mathematics or
teaching mathematics spelling, they
or spelling, they often
often teach
teach
children that
children that adults have power
adults have power and that children
and that children are are im-im¬
potent and irresponsible and should be intellectually
potent and irresponsible and should be intellectually and per- and per¬
sonally
sonally dependent.
dependent. Schools Schools value achievement and
value achievement and competi-
competi¬
tiveness
tiveness (or (or cheating),
cheating), andand foster
foster the belief that
the belief that self-worth
self-worth is is
»~
202 / Supervision:
202 / SUPERVISION: THE Rrrucraur Profession
The Reluctant Paorrssrou
synonymous with
synonymous with academic
academic achievement.
achievement. This
This is
is a
a harsh
harsh
critique of the school, but evidence suggests that this hidden
curriculum is
curriculum is typically
typically more
more inimical
inimical and
and psychologically
crippling than
crippling than it
it is
is positive and developmental.
positive and developmental. That
That these
these
effects of schooling are largely unrecognized (and presumably
unintended) is hardly an extenuating factor.
It is encouraging that this hidden curriculum of psycho- psycho¬
logical and social learnings is increasingly being acknowl- acknowl¬
edged. But as it exists it remains a largely hidden and un- un¬
planned consequence of how schools are organized and what
knowledge and activities are considered most worthwhile.
Furthermore, there presently exist few provisions to correct
for these negative effects and no formal mechanism (except
the little white clinic) for the deliberate development of posi- posi¬
tive psychological growth for all children in the school. It is
this that is the essential concern of the psychological educa- educa¬
tion project. Several assumptions underlie this project in
psychological education:
1. The
1. The project assumes
assumes aa belief in in the
the value
value of self-knowl-
self-knowl¬
edge and of the examined life; this kind of knowledge is im- im¬
portant for the individual, it enables him more fully to real- real¬
ize his
ize his own
own potential
potential and
and humanness
humanness and and itit will affect how he
behaves.
2. Personal psychological
2. Personal psychological growth
growth may may develop
develop according
according
to aa predictable
to predictable sequence
sequence or or series
series ofof stages.
stages. Erik Erikson and
others have suggested
others suggested that
that such
such stages
stages exist;
exist; Kohlberg’s
Kohlberg's stages
of moral
of moral development
development may be be analogous
analogous to to the levels of per-per¬
sonal psychological
sonal psychological development.
development. An An important
important goal of the
research
research willwill be
be to
to establish
establish whether
whether certaincertain basic
basic psycho-
psycho¬
logical processes (e.g., learning to listen to another person,
logical processes (e.g., learning to listen to another person,
learning to
learning to identify feelings
feelings and
and toto respond
respond to them, learning
to act
to act on
on behalf
behalf of
of aa personal
personal value)
value) cancan indeed
indeed be be located
located on on
a continuum
a continuum of development and
of development and complexity.
complexity.
3. Despite
3. Despite two
two thousand
thousand years
years of of arguments
arguments for for the
the de-de¬
velopment
velopment of of self-knowledge
self-knowledge through education, the
through education, the project
project
assumes that
assumes that formal
formal schooling
schooling has has little
little positive
positive intentional
intentional
Nrw
New DIRECTIONS
Directions AND
and Nrw
New LEADERS
Leaders /
/ 203
203
effect on
effect on the
the process
process of
of achieving
achieving self-awareness.
self-awareness. Learning
Learning
about Macbeth's
about Macbeth's emotions is
is not
not the
the same as systematically
one’s own emotions.
learning about one's
4. We assume
assume that
that psychological or emotional processes,
such
such as
as perceiving people correctly
perceiving people and efficiently
correctly and efficiently and
and ex-
ex¬
pressing feelings,
pressing feelings, can
can bebe taught.
taught. Learning
Learning suchsuch processes
processes can
can
contribute
contribute notnot only
only to
to the
the individual's self-understanding and
individual's self-understanding and
emotional
emotional development
development but also to
but also to his understanding of,
his understanding of, and
and
ability to relate to, other people. It is
ability to relate to, other people. It is the deliberate develop¬
develop-
ment of of these processes, by by education,
education, which constitutes the
main concern of the project.
5. Personal
5. psychological growth
Personal psychological growth and and deliberate
deliberate psycho-
psycho¬
logical education
logical education intended
intended to facilitate these
to facilitate these processes
processes are
are
both considered subjects which merit careful study.
both considered subjects which merit careful study. Such re- Such re¬
search
search and
and development
development couldcould bebe undertaken
undertaken as as a
a separate
separate
project, but there
project, but there can
can bebe considerable value in
considerable value in doing
doing both
both
concurrently and thus benefitting from the
concurrently and thus benefitting from the special trainingspecial training
and
and interests
interests ofof both
both psychologists
psychologists and and clinical
clinical faculty
faculty inin
education.
A Curriculum
A Curriculum in
in Personal
Personal and Human Development
and Human Development
The curriculum
The curriculum being
being developed
developed can
can be described most
be described most simply
simply
as
as aa coordinated
coordinated set
set of
of courses
courses in individual and
in individual and human
human de-
de¬
velopment to
velopment to be
be taught
taught toto high
high school juniors and
school juniors and seniors.
seniors.
Offered as an elective for credit in psychology, the curricu¬
Offered as an elective for credit in psychology, the curricu-
lum,
lum, to
to date,
date, has been tried
has been with 10
tried with 10 experimental
experimental classes.
classes.
Students elect
Students elect one
one ofof aa number
number of of "laboratories,"
"laboratories,” oror ex-
ex¬
perience-based
perience-based courses
courses inin psychology
psychology and and the
the humanities.
humanities.
These include
These include Improvisational
Improvisational Drama,
Drama, The The Psychology
Psychology of of
Interpersonal Behavior, a Laboratory in Teaching,
Interpersonal Behavior, a Laboratory in Teaching, a Seminar a Seminar
and
and Practicum
Practicum in in Counseling,
Counseling, Communication
Communication and and the
the Art
Art of
of
the Motion
the Motion Picture,
Picture, aa Laboratory
Laboratory in in Child
Child Development
Development and and
Child Care. Respectively and in brief, these laboratories
Child Care. Respectively and in brief, these laboratories inin¬
volve
volve the
the student
student in the exploration,
in the through dramatic
exploration, through dramatic im-
im¬
provisation, of
provisation, his own
of his own andand others' behavior; intensive
others' behavior; intensive ex-
ex¬
perience of the group process in a self-analytic group,
perience of the group process in a self-analytic group; teachingteaching
204 / Supervision:
Tm: Reluctant
Rrrucraur Pnorrssrou
Profession
in a variety of settings institutionalized mentally retarded

children, normal elementary school children and geriatric
patients in a mental institution; studying theory and practice
of counseling
of counseling and,
and, under supervision,
supervision, counseling younger
adolescents; the study of several intensely realistic films about
adolescents or young adults, and studying the psychology of
child development in conjunction with operating a nursery
schooL
school.
Each laboratory has three main objectives:
1. To teach material from psychology and/or
and /or the humani-
humani¬
ties pertinent to an understanding of individual and human
development. The resource material used to study adolescence,
for example, includes excerpts from publications by Erikson,
Coleman, Keniston and Harvard Project Pathways; units on
intelligence and personality testing; contemporary novels of
adolescence and autobiography (e.g., The Cool World and The
Autobiography of Malcolm X)-,X); biographical films (e.g., “The
"The
Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner,"
Runner,” “Nobody
"Nobody Waved
Goodbye,” "Phoebe");
Goodbye," “Phoebe”); and comprehensive psychological case
studies (e.g., Inburn in The Uncommitted and several analo-
analo¬
gous case work-ups specifically developed for this project).
2. To
2. To give
give the
the student
student systematic
systematic personal
personal experience
experience and
and
responsibility-in,
responsibility— for example,
in, for example, teaching,
teaching, counseling or child
care—relevant to his formal studies in psychology or the
humanities. To
humanities. To involve
involve the
the student
student personally
personally with the issues
he is
he is studying—whether
studying—whether it it be how
how human
human behavior is deter-
deter¬
mined, what
what is
is meant
meant byby intelligence,
intelligence, how
how to “mother” chil-
"mother" chil¬
dren oror how
how to
to listen
listen to
to another
another person and and comprehend what
he thinks
thinks and
and feels—is the the essential
essential “method”
"method" of the
laboratories.
3. To
3. To encourage
encourage the student to
the student to consider
consider or
or make
make conscious
conscious
what he learns
what he about himself
learns about himself from his formal
from his formal study
study and
and from
from
his laboratory experience.
his laboratory experience. Students
Students learn
learn aa great
great deal
deal about
about
themselves from
themselves from such
such experiences
experiences as
as counseling
counseling aa high-school
high-school
junior
junior about college admission or teaching mentally retarded
about college admission or teaching mentally retarded
children. In
children. In the
the context
context of this book,
of this book, the
the finding
finding that
that people
people
N1-:w
New DIRECTIONS
Directions AND
and N1-:w
New Lmoras
Leaders /
/ 205
205
make very
make very significant
significant personal
personal meaning
meaning out
out of
of their
their initial
initial ex-
ex¬
periences of
periences of teaching
teaching or
or counseling
counseling will
will hardly
hardly come
come as
as a
a sur-
sur¬
prise. What
prise. What is intriguing
intriguing is
is that
that this is as true for adolescents
as it is for graduate students.
This
This work
work in deliberate psychological
in deliberate psychological education
education is
is in
in the
the
first
first year
year of
of aa projected
projected three-year development. The
three-year development. The results
results
are tentative but strongly encouraging. The Harvard
are tentative but strongly encouraging. The Harvard faculty faculty
members are
members are convinced,
convinced, for
for example, that the
example, that students in
the students in the
the
top half of
top half the high-school
of the high-school class
class are
are more
more effective
effective as
as coun-
coun¬
selors
selors than
than is
is the bottom half
the bottom half of
of their graduate-level guidance
their graduate-level guidance
class (and
class (and the
the high school students
high school students have
have had
had much
much less
less actual
actual
counseling practice).
counseling practice). In
In summary,
summary, the combination of
the combination of formal
formal
study and real tasks for which the adolescent has defined
study and real tasks for which the adolescent has defined
responsibility evokes
responsibility evokes not only aa rigorous
not only rigorous approach
approach to
to psy-
psy¬
chology but
chology but also,
also, and more important,
and more important, an
an enhanced
enhanced sense
sense of
of
competence
competence and
and aa significant personalization of
significant personalization of the
the experi-
experi¬
ence. Sensitive
ence. teachers and
Sensitive teachers and counselors can help
counselors can help the
the adolescent
adolescent
forge these new personal competencies and new
forge these new personal competencies and new personal personal
knowledge.
SUMMARY
These
These examples of basic
examples of basic curriculum innovation bring
curriculum innovation bring us
us back
back
to
to the
the question of the
question of the function
function of
of supervision. Our own
supervision. Our own opin-
opin¬
ion is
ion is that
that there is a
there is a need
need and
and aa place for several
place for several kinds
kinds of
of edu-
edu¬
cational leadership.
cational The existing
leadership. The existing school, the traditional
school, the traditional cur-
cur¬
riculum
riculum framework
framework and
and the
the teacher all need
teacher all need nurturance
nurturance and
and
further
further development.
development. The methods of
The methods of supervision
supervision discussed
discussed
in Chapters Five
in Chapters Five through
through Seven
Seven contribute to the
contribute to the maintenance
maintenance
and
and improvement
improvement of
of the
the existing
existing educational system. Without
educational system. Without
such innovative
such innovative approaches
approaches to
to the
the curriculum and governance
curriculum and governance
of
of the
the school,
school, we
we can
can envisage
envisage aa progressive
progressive paralysis
paralysis of
of
much of
much of that
that system.
system. Such
Such aa breakdown
breakdown manifestly can hap-
manifestly can hap¬
pen
pen here—regardless
here—-regardless of
of whether
whether wewe are
are talking
talking about
about a
a city
city
high school
high convulsed by
school convulsed by racial
racial strife or a
strife or a struggle
struggle over
over com-
com¬
munity control,
munity control, or
or about
about aa prestige
prestige Ivy League university
Ivy League university shut
shut
206 /
206 / Supervision:
SUPERVISION: The
THE Rrrucmwr
Profession
down by
down by aa strike
strike protesting
protesting R.O.T.C.
R.O.T.C. or
or the
the widening
widening of the
war in Southeast Asia.
For the writers,
For writers, however, the
the dominant educational
educational need at
present is the development of alternative educational modes.
This involves nothing less than the reformulation or recon- recon¬
struction of
struction of the
the educational
educational system, aa task which requires a
new kind of educational leader. We have described him as a
clinical researcher whose profession it is to reformulate the
context, content and the method of children's education. Such
a clinician may be the first truly professional educator. The
challenge he faces is to develop a vision of a noble society in
which free men can live in wisdom and with humanity. From
such visions only can a valid curriculum develop. A society
which prides itself on pluralism and diversity must, by defini-
defini¬
tion, offer a pluralistic and diversified education. This means
that we must have leaders of broad and varying outlook on
what constitutes the good man and the good society, and who
are interested in translating these notions into appropriate
educational patterns. Their perspective must be broader than
the confines of materials, group process techniques and school
organizations. Our needs are all too apparent, public interest
has never
never been
been higher
higher and the rank
rank and
and file of the profession
show increasing
show increasing signs ofof frustration and
and despair
despair with existing
arrangements. The
arrangements. The major
major factor
factor which is
is lacking
lacking is the hall-
hall¬
mark ofof valid
valid supervision—leadership.
supervision-leadership.
Rrnanrncrs
References / 207
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J
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_
INDEX
Academic qualifications, for Bruner, Jerome

Ierome S., 116; Toward
teachers, 183 a Theory of Instruction, 39
Allport, Gordon, 55, 126
American Federation
American Federation of
of Teach-
Teach¬ Case materials. See Videotape
ers, 184 Certification standards, upgrad-
upgrad¬
Amidon, E., 40 ing,183
ing, 183
Analysis in
Analysis in supervision,
supervision, 79-81,
79-81, Change, ambivalence toward, 152
82 Classroom behavior, changing,
Anderson, C. C., 51 116-117
Anderson, G. I., 44 Classroom Interaction Newslet-
Newslet¬
Anxieties in student teaching, ter I, 56n.
119 Classroom social climate, affect-
affect¬
Anxiety, in T-group, 173-174, ing individual learning, 40
177-178 Classroom social unit, and learn-
learn¬
Association for
Association for Supervision
Supervision and
and ing, 43-44
Curriculum Development, 21 Clinical professor, described, 192-
Ausubel, David, 39n. 193; training for, 193-194
Authoritarians, sensitivity to per¬
per- Clinical supervision
sonality of others, 43 analysis in, 79-80
and curriculum develop-
develop¬
Bar Yam, M., 48 ment, 110
Barr, A.S., 50 focus on teaching, 96
Beginning teacher inadequacies in, 111
in ego counseling, 132-134 and the lesson plan, 81-82
and semester effect, 58 objectives, 78-79
needs from supervisors, 53 origin of, 77-78
Belanger, M. L., 56 planning conference, 84-89
Bellack, Arno A., 40 records in, 89-91
Bennington, G. H., 59, 125 stages, 81
Biddle, B. I., 36 supervisory conference, 99-
Biological Sciences Curriculum 107, 108-109
107,108-109
Study, 184
Study,184 and teacher autonomy, 107-
Birnbaum, Max, on T-group, 108
155n.
155m. and teacher interaction with
Black studies curricula, 31 pupils, 91
Blatt,M.,197,199
Blatt, M., 197, 199 and teaching pattern, 79-80
Bloom, B. S., 40 Clinical training programs, 194
Blumberg, Arthur, 40; system of Cogan, Morris L., 98, 108, 123
98,108,123
supervision study, 53-54, 60, Cognitive flexibility, def. 42; and
61 student-teacher relationship,
Brown, R. V., 61 43
<
2.17
217
218
Coleman Report on Equality of Discipline, and indirect teach-

teach¬
Educational Opportunity, 10 ing, 48; by student teacher,
Communication in T-group, 163; 115
facilitating, 166 Domas, S. I.,
]., 36
Communication ability, in teach¬
teach-
ers,92-93
ers, 92-93 Edmund,
Edmund, N.
N. R.,
R., 53
53
Iames B., 63
Conant, James Educafion
Education
Counseling alternative modes, 190
client centered, 124-125 development of, 7
of student teacher, 122-123 reformation of, 5-6
See also Ego-counseling restructuring, and teacher
Cremin, Lawrence A. autonomy, 186-187
quoted, 16 Education and Ecstasy (Leon-(Leon¬
program of curriculum revi-
revi¬ ard),7
ard), 7
sion, 19
19n.
n. “Education
"Education for Responsibility”
Responsibility"
The Transformation of the (Lukinsky), 198
School, 14 Education Index, 49
Curriculum, def. 5; modern, 30- Education materials business,
31 185-186. See also Curricu-
Curricu¬
Curriculum development, as lum package
function of supervision, 20-21 Educational Services Incorpo-
Incorpo¬
Curriculum innovations, 189, 195 rated, 87
Curriculum leadership, distinct Educational television, and teach-
teach¬
from managerial responsibil¬
responsibil- er autonomy, 186
ity, 9 Ego counseling
Curriculum package, 30-31 analysis in, 130-132
as business, 185-186 application in supervision,
and educational television, 134-138
186 avoiding deep interpreta-
interpreta¬
government
government involvement
involvement tions, 128
with, 186
With, client for, 130
client for, 130
and teacher autonomy,
and autonomy, 184- constraints on relationships
185 in, 129-130
Curriculum structure, validity of, defined,
defined, 124,
124, 125
125
65 of experienced teachers,
139-140
Democratic supervision, 15-17 focus of
of discussion in, 126-
Denver Program of Curriculum 127
Revision, 19
19n.
n. individual vs.
us. group meth-
meth¬
Department of Education, 27 od,145-146
od, 145-146
Direct behavior, 138n. intellectual analysis in, 126
219
number of conferences nec¬

nec- and individual perspectives,
essary, 147 154
phases in, 132-133 See also T-group
problems encountered by Guidance personnel, status, 201
beginning teacher, 132- Guidance services, 200-201
134 Guilford, I.
Guilford, J. P.,
P., on
on ideational
ideational flu-
flu¬
distinct from psychoana-
psychoana¬ ency,42.
ency, 42
lytic approach,128
approach, 128 Gwynn, I.J. Minor, on supervi-
supervi¬
supervisor's stance toward
supervisor’s sion, 29; Theory and Practice
sion, 29; Theory and Practice
group, 146 of Supervision, 14
topics considered, 128-129
Encounter groups, basic, 154-
155 Harris, Ben M.
Erikson, Erik, 202 super¬
on characteristics of super-
visor, 28
on data
on data onon supervision,
supervision,
Fattu, Nicholas A., 36
Feedback 27-28
Z7-28
effect on student teacher, on supervision
on supervision research,
research, 49
49
56-57 Harvard-Boston program, 78
Harvard Bureau
Harvard Bureau of
of Study
Study Coun-
Coun¬
methods compared, 58
of study data, 55 sel, 158n.
158 n.
Flanders, N. A., 60, 61 Harvard Graduate School of Ed- Ed¬
on classroom time, 6 ucaflon,193
ucation, 193
and indirect
indirect teaching, Harvard-Lexington program,
Harvard-Lexington program, 7878
and teaching, 47-
47-
Harvard-Newton summer pro- pro¬
48
and interaction analysis, 47 gram, 77-78
Harvard Training
Harvard Training of
of Teacher
Teacher
method for
for analyzing
analyzing teach¬
teach-
ing, 39-40 Trainers (T.T.T.) division,
on verbal
verbal behavior and pu¬
and pu- 195
pil learning, 38-39 Heidelbach, R., 61

Friedenberg, Edgar, 10 Hidden curriculum, 205, 20i>, ad-
ad¬
verse effects, 201-202
Getzels, I.
J. W., 36 "High School”
School" (film), 10
Goodman, Paul, 10 High school supervisor, com- com¬
Government involvement in super¬
pared with elementary super-
Government involvement in cur¬
cur-
riculum packages,
packages, 186
186 visor, 62
Group analysis session, Hollister, G. E., 52
Group analysis session, format,
format,
109 Hough, I.
J. B., 40
Group
Group supervision
supervision Human development, 203-205
as basis
as basis for
for individual
individual learn¬
learn- Hummel, Raymond,
Hummel, Raymond, 125-128
125-128
ing,150
ing, 150 passim, 131
2.2.0
220
Hunter College, research in su¬

su- individual, through
individual, through group
group
pervision, 57 supervision, 150
and teacher-pupil interac-
interac¬
Ideational fluency, def., 42 tion, 45-46
tiOl'\,
Indirect teaching, and discipline and verbal interaction, 46
problems, 48 Learning outcome, measuring, 40
Individual supervision vs. group Leonard, George, Education and
supervision, 178-179 Ecstasy, 7
Inspection Levinson, D. I.,
J., and role defini-
defini¬
dangers of, 18 non,121
tion, 121
deemphasized, 21 Lindemann, Erich, 119
as function of supervision, Lombardi, Vince, 2
18-19 Lucio, William H., and Iohn
John D.
and teacher resistance of McNeil,17
McNeil, 17
supervision, 24 on supervision, 50
Instruction, formal, 4 on supervisory roles, 28
Interaction analysis, 58 Supervision: A Synthesis
International Business Ma- Ma¬ of Thought and Action,
chines (IBM) and curriculum 14, 15
materials, 184 Lukinsky, Dr. Ioseph,
Joseph, “Educa-
“Educa¬
tion for Responsibility,”
Responsibility," 198
Iohn Adams High School, 194n.
John
Iones, E. E., 42
Jones,
Iones, V., 196
Jones, Managerial responsibility, dis-
dis¬
Iournal of Experimental Educa-
Journal Educa¬ tinct from curriculum leader-
leader¬
tion (1945), 51 ship, 9
McConnell, G., 53
McGee, H., 43
Knoell, measures of ideational
MacGraw, F. M., 56
fluency, 42
Miel, Alice, on changing curric-
curric¬
Kohl, Herbert, 10
ulum, 20-21
Kohlberg, L.,195-197,
Kohlberg, 202
L., 196-197, 202
Minnesota Multiphasic Person-
Person¬
Ionathan, 10
Kozol, Jonathan,
ality Inventory,
Inventory, 37
Kyte, G.
Kyte, G. C.,
C., on
on supervision,
supervision, 16-
16-
Molchen, Kenneth I.,
J., 58, 116
17; study of supervisory con¬
con-
Moral education, 195, 200
ference, 54
curriculum goals, 199-200
experimental attempts, 197
Learning experiment results, 198
classroom social climate 1920's, 196
in 19Z0'S,
and,40 research in, 198-199
effect of teacher personal-
personal¬ Moser, J.
I. M., 56
ity, 4-5 M.O.S.A.I.C.S. system,
system,, for ana-
221
lyzing supervisory conference, Public school

61-62 forces for change in, 9
Motivational effect of teaching lack of resources, 8, 21
behavior, 93-94 responsibility of, 8
and social problems, 9
National Commission for Teach-
Teach¬ symptoms of malaise in, 10
er Education and Professional Pupil behavior, categories, 91-
Standards, 183 92
National Education Association, Pupil learning, influenced by
183-184 teacher trait, 40
Newlon, Jesse,
Iesse, 19n.
19 n. Pupil motivation, establishing,
93-94
Observation Schedule and Re-
Re¬ Pupil-supervisor relationship,
cord (OScAR3), 57 70-71
Pupil-teacher relationship, and
Pupil-teacher relationship, and
Packaged curricula.
Packaged curricula. See
See Curricu¬
Curricu- teaching behavior, 95-96
lum package
Parkways Project, 195 “Realization ”
"Realization " 151-152
Perspective, through group su-
su¬ Rogers, Carl, on client-centered
Rogers, Carl, on client-centered
pervision, 154 counseling, 124; on teaching,
Physical Science Study Commit¬
Commit- 46n.
46 n.
tee, 31, 184
31,184 Role definition, personal, 121
Personal development, 203-205 Rosenthal, Robert, 38
P.O.E. cycle, 81 Roth, L. H., 53
Practice classroom, emotional Ryans, D. G., 39
challenge in, 118-119
Practice teaching, defenses ana¬
ana- re¬
School, basic purpose, 4; as re-
lyzed,120
lyzed, 120 search center, 194n.
and teacher development, School board, supervisory
School board, supervisory influ-
influ¬
137 ence,27
ence, 27
Progressive
Progressive education
education tradition,
tradition, School Mathematics Study
16
Group, 184
Psychological education,
Psychological education, 200-205
200-205 School principal, supervisory
projected development, 205 function, 26-27
Schools of education, supervi-
supervi¬
underlying assumptions in,
in,
202 sors in, 27
Psychological educator, 5 Schueler, H., 55,
56, 57
Psychological growth,
growth, 202 Scientific supervision, 15-16
Psychotherapy,
Psychotherapy, compared with
compared with Scodel, A., 42
supervision, 122-123 Seager, G. B., 56
Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy vs.
vs. supervision,
supervision, Secondary School Mathematics
148 Group, 31
2.22
222
Self-awareness, 203 Supervision: A Synthesis of

Semester effect, 58 Thought and Action (Lucio
Sensitivity Groups, 154-155. See and McNeil), 14, 15
also T-group Supervisor
Shaplin, Iudson, com-
Judson, 120; on com¬ altering relationship in
paring supervision with psy¬
psy- teaching, 15-16n.
chotherapy, 122-123 analytic skills needed, 71-
Smith, B. O., 40 73
Smith and Meux, quoted, 6 communication skills, 73,
Social problems, and role of 140-142, 144-145
public school, 9 as community leader, 182
Sprinthall, l\I.,
N., 42 curriculum competence re- re¬
Stern, G. G., 48 quired,
quired, 73-74
73-74
Student teacher and context for learning,
counseling for, 122-123 156-157
defenses against anxiety, as educational leader, 64-65
119 experience as teacher, 71
and discipline, 115-116 knowledge of instruction
self-knowl-
importance of self-knowl¬ content, 83-84
edge,123
edge, 123 major functions, 63-64
personality changes in, 115- need for sensitivity, 72
116 objectives, 137
typical outlook, 118 and personal growth of
Superintendent of schools, su¬ su- teacher, 137
pervisory function, 26 in relation to pupil, 70-71
Supervision relationship with super-
super¬
ambivalence toward, 2 visee, 20
client of, 8 relationship with teacher,
defined, 4, 17 74
effective observation of, 61 role defined, 27-28
ego counseling in, 134-138 role in T-group, 177-178
interest in renewed, 29-30 as social leader, 66, 74
origins, 110 stance toward group in ego
research in, 49-52 counseling, 146
and teacher as individual, as teacher, 64
114-115 training for, 143-144
traditions in, 14 value
value judgments,
judgments, 108
108
values in, 110 Supervisory analysis, identify-
identify¬
See also Democratic super¬
super- ing teaching patterns in, 97-
vision; Scientific super¬
super- 106; post teaching conference
vision session, 108
223
223
Supervisory conference, 99-109 21,23-24

21, 23-24
passim responsibilities, 183
observation methods, 61 retraining for new curric-
curric¬
optimal number of agenda ula,31
ula, 31
items, 54 role in scientific supervi-
supervi¬
studied, 54-55
studied, 54-55 sion, 16
Supervisory functions, 51-53 self-acceptance, 59
Supervisory program, long range status, 183
individual, 108-109; planning, T-group for, 155-156
108 Teacher autonomy, 68, 70, 90
Supervisory techniques, 57; in clinical supervision, 107-
studied, 55-57 108
Swineford, E.,
Swineford, E., 52-53
52-53 and educational restruc-
restruc¬
turing, 186-187
Iessie, 175
Taft, Jessie, and educational television,
Teacher. See also Beginning 186
teacher; Student teacher importance of, 187-188
ability to produce, 41 and packaged curricula,
academic qualifications, 184-185
183 Teacher behavior, communica-
communica¬
altering relationship with tion ability and, 92-93; rein-
rein¬
supervisor, 15-16n. forcing,58
forcing, 58
anxiety about supervision, Teacher development, as func- func¬
90 tion of supervision, 19-20
certification standards, 183 Teacher effectiveness, and ver- ver¬
changing classroom behav-
behav¬ satility, 153
ior, 116-117 Teacher expertise, difficulty of
and cognitive flexibility, 42 determining, 25
communication with su¬su- Teacher personality
pervisor, 140-142, 144- affecting teaching, 67-68
145 effect on student learning,
defenses analyzed, 120 4-5, 36
defined, 6 research on, 37
effective, defined, 41 Teacher-pupil interaction, in
instruction of, 4 clinical supervision, 91; and
importance of practice learning, 45-46
teaching, 137 Teacher-pupil relationship, 67-
as professor, 182-183, 188 68
as psychological educator, Teacher quality, affecting super-
super¬
202-203 vision, 22-23
resistance to supervision, Teacher roles, expansion of, 32
224
Teacher shortage, 32-33 measured, through verbal

Teacher talk, categories, 47 behavior, 46
Teacher traits, and pupil learn-
learn¬ rating scales for, 37-38
ing, 40 research on, 36-43
Teaching and teacher personality, 36
analysis of, 97-106, 168- Teaching practices, evaluation of,
170 8
assumptions about, 168 Teaching process, defining, 3;
defined, 6-7 modifying, 8
effective, def., 41 Teaching profession, changes in,
indirect, 47-48 32-33
methods of analyzing, 39- Tenure laws, 24-25
40 Theory and Practice of Supervi-
Supervi¬
methods of categorizing, 58 sion (Gwynne), 14
personal factors in, 67-68, T-groups (Therapy groups), 154-
117-118 155
personal role definition, anxiety in, 172-174
120-121
120-121 communication in, 163, 166
as social process, 7 community participation
Teaching behavior in,160-161
in, 160-161
categorization, 91 consensus in, 171-172
in,171-172
changes in, recorded, 57 format, 161-162
perform-
instrumental task perform¬ group experience in, 176-
ance, 93 177
measurable improvement, growth-limits, 174-176
136-137 vs. individual supervision,
motivational effect, 93-94 178-179
178-179
relation-
and pupil-teacher relation¬ initial approach in, 162-163
ship,
ship, 95-96
95-96 meeting duration, 159
and student personality de-de¬ mutual support, 156
velopment, 116 participants, 159-160
successful, reinforcing, pauses in, 166-167
106-107 size, 158-159
teaching strategy, 93 supervisor's control, 161-
variance in analyses of, 167,177-178
167, 177-178
50-51 use of case materials, 157-
verbal, and pupil learning, 158
38-40 voluntary formation, 157-
Teaching conditions, 188 158
Teaching effect Time, Inc., and curriculum ma-
ma¬
and indirect teaching, 47- terials, 184
48 Toward a Theory of Instruction
225
225
(Bruner), 39 group, 164-165

group, 164-165
Transformation of
Transformation of the
the School,
School,
The (Cremin), 14 Walberg, H.
Walberg, H. I.,
J., 40
40
Travers, R. M., 119 Welch, W.
Welch, W. W.,
W., 44
44
Trimmer, R. L., 53 Weller, Richard H., on
Weller, Richard H., on supervi¬
supervi-
sory groups, 61-62
Verbal interaction, and
Verbal interaction, and interac¬
interac- Wiseman, Frederick,
Wiseman, Frederick, “High
“High
tion analysis,
analysis, 47;
47; as
as learning School" (film), 10
School” (film), 10
condition, 46
Versatility, and teacher
teacher effect¬ Xerox Corp., and curriculum
Versatility, and effect- Xerox Corp., and curriculum
iveness, 153 materials, 184
materials, 184
Videotape, as
Videotape, as supervisory
supervisory tool,
tool,
55-57, 91, 169-170; use in T- Zahn, R.,
Zahn, R., 58
58
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Supervision - The Reluctant Profession - Mosher, Ralph L

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F

>' w‘J- I . I " 1-:| I

' - ' ' | I w |

79'... . ' 9*.

RALPH L. MOSHER AND DAVID E. PURPEL

Graduate School of Education

with the assistance of

MIFPLIN COMPANY -. BOSTON

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in

Printed in the U.S.A.

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-158636

Perhaps the most

This book reflects

Chapter One Definitions and Directions 1

for Supervision 181

Despite the numberless speeches, textbooks and journal arti-

The concept of supervision is a simple one, describing a proc-

of administrative and clerical tasks, complicate the problem

Considerable support can be found in the literature for a def- def¬

Working With Teachers as People

LEADERSHIP IN THE REFORMULATION OF EDUCATION

It is a second major function of supervision to provide pro-

Our working definition of teaching is comparably pragmatic.

volving talk and interaction between at least two people, a

The implications of these operational definitions of super-

educational program, the children in the schools will continue

THE HISTORY AND TRADITIONS OF SUPERVISION

Books on supervision often approach these questions by

from about 1920 to

The scientific approach to supervision emphasizes careful

Scientific management proposed to alter the personal relations be-

Democratic supervision, which has its roots in the Progressive

1. The integrity of the individual teacher must be protected

Inspection involves the assessment of teachers for the pur-

SUPERVISION AS TEACHER DEVELOPMENT

Supervision as teacher development focuses on the individual

1. That the individual teacher is the key agent of education.

*We are talking, in this section, about traditional conceptions of supervision

Teacher development is a legitimate and important func- func¬

SUPERVISION AS CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

CURRENT CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS

1. With the notable exception of many urban school systems,

3. School systems have generally put limited resources into

Probably the most significant factor in the present condition

the job? Or, if they're so good, why do we need supervisors

There is another roadblock to clear and vital supervision

of the most frustrating barriers to the improvement of teach-

There is still another major deterrent to the development of a

The questions of what supervision is and should be are ob-

also in for a disappointment. It is extremely difficult to find

To be more concrete, Harris regards the Director of Curric-

pervisor“ (p. 28). It will

CHALLENGE—THE NEW SUPERVISION

This then is the broad context of supervision: society de- de¬

THE CURRICULUM REVOLUTION

CRITICISM OF THE CURRICULUM

Another important trend in education of special concern to

and meaning, particularly from the students themselves. Ed-

CHANGES IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION

A third powerful impetus to the increased interest in super-

Expanded Teacher Roles

The basic questions in any supervisory conference are three:

RESEARCH ON TEACHER EFFECTIVENESS