Dokumen - Tips QHDM Vol1 Part03 Roadwaydesignelements Octfinal

Volume 1
Part 3
Roadway Design Elements
VOLUME 1 PART 3
ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS

ECTION [?]
[TITLE]
Disclaimer
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Version (1.0) of these manuals, without any minimum liability to MOT.

Under no circumstances does MOT warrant or certify the information to be free of errors or
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reviewed, assessed, and possibly included in the next version.

Copyright © 2015. All rights reserved.

VOLUME 1

‫‪VOLUME 1 PART 3 ‬‬
‫‪ROADWAY DESIGN ELEMENTS ‬‬
‫‪ ‬‬
‫تنويه‬
‫قامت وزارة املواصالت ي دولة قطر بتوف ﺮ دليل تصميم الطرق لدولة قطر )‪ (Qatar Highway Design Manual ‐ QHDM‬ودليل‬
‫قطر للتحكم املروري )‪ (Qatar Traffic Control Manual ‐ QTCM‬ع ى شبكة اإلن ﺮنت وكنسخ مطبوعة باعتبارها اإلصدار رقم‬
‫)‪ (1.0‬من هذﻩ األدلة‪ ‬وذلك دون ادنى مسؤولية ع ى وزارة املواصالت‪.‬‬
‫ُ‬
‫يجب التأكيد ع ى إن وزارة املواصالت‪ ،‬وتحت أي ظرف من الظروف‪ ،‬ال تج أو تتعهد أو تصادق ع ى أن تكون املعلومات املتضمنة ي هذين‬
‫الدليل ن خالية من أي نوع من األخطاء أو العيوب‪.‬‬
‫إن استخدام هذﻩ األدلة ألي عمل ال يعفي املستخدم من إتباع العناية الواجبة أو الفائقة واملمارسة الهندسية السليمة‪ ،‬كما أنه ال يخول‬
‫ُ‬
‫للمستخدم املطالبة أو استالم أي نوع من التعويض عن األضرار أو الخسائر ال يمكن أن تعزى إ ى هذا االستخدام‪.‬‬
‫سوف تكون أي تغي ﺮات او تعديالت متاحة ومتوفرة ع ى موقع اإلن ﺮنت الخاص بالوزارة‪ .‬ويتوجب ع ى املستخدم ن التحقق بشكل متواصل بأن‬
‫لد م أحدث إصدار من هذﻩ األدلة‪.‬‬
‫مالحظة‪ :‬ستقوم وزارة املواصالت بمواصلة تحديث وتعديل ِكال الدليل ن مع األخذ بع ن االعتبار االكتشافات الجديدة والتكنولوجيات الحديثة‬
‫ُ‬
‫واملواضيع املستجدة ال تتعلق بتخطيط وتصميم وتشغيل وصيانة النقل والطرق واملرور‪.‬‬
‫ُ‬
‫إن الوزارة تشجع املستخدم ن‪ ‬ع ى تقديم املالحظات واالق ﺮاحات والتعليقات وردود األفعال‪ ،‬خالل سنة من اصدار ِكال الدليل ن‪ ،‬وذلك من‬
‫خالل موقع الوزارة حيث سوف يتم مراجعة هذﻩ املالحظات واالق ﺮاحات ومن ثم تقييمها وإدراجها ضمن اإلصدار القادم من األدلة‪ .‬‬
‫‪ ‬‬
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‫‪ ‬‬ ‫‪VOLUME 1 ‬‬
‫‪ ‬‬
VOLUME 1 PART 3
ECTION [?]
[TITLE]
Contents Page
Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xi
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................1
1.1 Design Speed ............................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Posted Speed ................................................................................................ 2
1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters .............................................................................. 3
1.2.1 Changeover of Design Speed ....................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Reconstruction and Connection to Existing Roads ...................................... 4
1.2.3 Departures from Standards.......................................................................... 4
1.2.4 Special Considerations ................................................................................. 7
1.3 Sustainability ............................................................................................................... 7
2 Sight Distance ...............................................................................................................11

2.1 Basic Types of Sight Distance..................................................................................... 11
2.2 Stopping Sight Distance ............................................................................................. 12
2.2.1 SSD Model and Parameters........................................................................ 12
2.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance Design Values ...................................................... 12
2.2.3 Horizontal Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance.................................... 14
2.2.4 Vertical Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance ........................................ 16
2.3 Passing Sight Distance ............................................................................................... 17
2.4 Decision Sight Distance.............................................................................................. 19
2.5 Intersection Sight Distance ........................................................................................ 21
2.5.1 Case A: Intersections with No Control ....................................................... 22
2.5.2 Case B: Intersections with Stop Control on Minor Road ............................ 24
2.5.3 Case C: Intersections with Yield Control on Minor Road ........................... 28
2.5.4 Case D: Intersections with Traffic Signal Control ....................................... 31
2.5.5 Case E: Intersections with All-Way Stop Control ....................................... 32
2.5.6 Case F: Left Turns from Major Road........................................................... 32
2.6 Special Considerations ............................................................................................... 33
2.7 Departures ................................................................................................................. 34
3 Horizontal Alignment ....................................................................................................35

3.1 Simple Horizontal Curve and Spirals .......................................................................... 35
3.2 Alignment combinations using simple curves and tangents ..................................... 37
3.3 General Design Considerations ................................................................................. 40
3.3.1 Maximum Centerline Deflection without a Horizontal Curve.................... 40
3.3.2 Minimum Curve Lengths ............................................................................ 41
3.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation ................................................................................ 41
3.5 Superelevation Transition and Spirals ....................................................................... 43
3.5.1 Axis of Rotation .......................................................................................... 44
3.5.2 Rate of Rotation ......................................................................................... 44
3.5.3 Calculation of Superelevation Transition Lengths ..................................... 47
3.5.4 Spirals ......................................................................................................... 49
3.5.5 Positioning of Superelevation Transition ................................................... 50
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3.5.6 Superelevation on Compound Curves ........................................................ 52

3.5.7 Superelevation on Reverse Curves ............................................................. 53
3.5.8 Shoulder Slopes on Superelevated Roadways ........................................... 54
3.6 Traveled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves .......................................................... 58
3.7 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset ...................................................................... 61
3.8 Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections ......................................................... 62
4 Vertical Alignment ........................................................................................................ 65

4.1 Terrain ........................................................................................................................ 66
4.2 Longitudinal Grades ................................................................................................... 66
4.2.1 Maximum Longitudinal Grades .................................................................. 66
4.2.2 Minimum Grades ........................................................................................ 66
4.2.3 Minor Road Grades at Intersections .......................................................... 66
4.3 Vertical Curves ........................................................................................................... 67
4.3.1 Crest Vertical Curves .................................................................................. 67
4.3.2 Sag Vertical Curves ..................................................................................... 67
4.3.3 Crest Vertical Curve Design ........................................................................ 69
4.3.4 Sag Vertical Curve Design ........................................................................... 71
4.3.5 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves ........................................................... 74
4.3.6 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve .................................... 74
4.4 Vertical Clearances .................................................................................................... 76
5 General Considerations ................................................................................................ 79

5.1 General....................................................................................................................... 79
5.2 Harmonizing the Horizontal Alignment ..................................................................... 79
5.3 Harmonizing the Vertical Alignment.......................................................................... 81
5.4 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments ......................................................... 82
5.5 Alignment Coordination in Design ............................................................................. 83
6 Cross Section Elements ................................................................................................. 89

6.1 General Considerations ............................................................................................. 89
6.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 89
6.1.2 Design Principles......................................................................................... 90
6.1.3 Road Network Objectives ........................................................................... 91
6.1.4 Departures .................................................................................................. 93
6.2 Design Requirements ................................................................................................. 93
6.2.1 Travel Lanes ................................................................................................ 94
6.2.2 Shoulders .................................................................................................... 95
6.2.3 Hard Strips .................................................................................................. 97
6.2.4 Auxiliary Lanes ............................................................................................ 97
6.2.5 Medians ...................................................................................................... 98
6.2.6 Service Roads............................................................................................ 102
6.2.7 Frontage Roads ......................................................................................... 102
6.2.8 Parking Bays and Lanes ............................................................................ 105
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6.2.9 Parallel Roadside Parking ......................................................................... 106

6.2.10 Angled Roadside Parking .......................................................................... 106
6.2.11 Off Street Parking ..................................................................................... 107
6.2.12 Off Street Disabled Parking ...................................................................... 110
6.2.13 Curbs ........................................................................................................ 110
6.2.14 Road Restraint System ............................................................................. 114
6.2.15 Side Slopes ............................................................................................... 114
6.2.16 Clearances ................................................................................................ 115
6.2.17 Fencing ..................................................................................................... 116
6.2.18 Roadside Elements and Verges ................................................................ 116
6.2.19 Pedestrian Facilities.................................................................................. 118
6.2.20 Bike Facilities ............................................................................................ 118
6.2.21 Utilities ..................................................................................................... 118
6.2.22 Right-of-Way ............................................................................................ 118
6.2.23 Typical Cross Sections .............................................................................. 119
7 Integrated Road and Landscape Design ....................................................................... 159

7.1 Integrated Road Design Principles ........................................................................... 160
7.2 Road Siting and Alignment ...................................................................................... 160
7.2.1 Earthworks ............................................................................................... 160
7.2.2 Retaining Walls ......................................................................................... 161
7.2.3 Rock Cut ................................................................................................... 161
7.2.4 Interchanges and Roundabouts ............................................................... 162
7.2.5 Gateways .................................................................................................. 162
7.2.6 Special Areas ............................................................................................ 163
7.3 Structures ................................................................................................................ 163
7.3.1 Bridges ...................................................................................................... 163
7.3.2 Pedestrian Bridges ................................................................................... 164
7.3.3 Tunnels ..................................................................................................... 165
7.3.4 Pedestrian Underpasses ........................................................................... 165
7.4 Fences and Walls ..................................................................................................... 166
7.5 Water Management/ and Conservation ................................................................. 166
7.5.1 Detention Systems ................................................................................... 167
7.5.2 Infiltration Systems .................................................................................. 167
7.6 Landscape and Utilities ............................................................................................ 168
7.7 Sustainable Landscape Design ................................................................................. 168
7.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................. 168
7.7.2 Urban Street and Landscape Assessment and Planning .......................... 169
7.7.3 Soils .......................................................................................................... 169
7.7.4 Water Conservation ................................................................................. 170
7.7.5 Plant Species ............................................................................................ 170
7.7.6 Materials .................................................................................................. 170
7.7.7 Landscape Maintenance and Management ............................................. 171
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8 Other Elements Affecting Design ................................................................................ 173

8.1 Erosion Control ........................................................................................................ 173
8.2 Rest Areas ................................................................................................................ 173
8.2.1 Spacing of Rest Areas ............................................................................... 173
8.2.2 Site Selection ............................................................................................ 173
8.2.3 Rest Area Design....................................................................................... 174
8.3 Traffic Control Devices ............................................................................................. 180
8.3.1 Signing and Marking ................................................................................. 180
8.3.2 Traffic Signals ............................................................................................ 181
8.4 Noise Barriers........................................................................................................... 181
8.4.1 Placement ................................................................................................. 181
8.5 Fencing ..................................................................................................................... 182
8.6 Sand Abatement in Dune Areas ............................................................................... 182
References ........................................................................................................................... 185
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VOLUME 1 PART 3
Tables
Table 1.1 Design and Posted Speeds for Various Road Classifications ............................... 2
Table 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters ...................................................................... 3
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Level Roadways with Grades less
than 3 Percent ................................................................................................... 13
Table 2.2 Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Roadways ............................................... 18
Table 2.3 Decision Sight Distance ..................................................................................... 21
Table 2.4 Length of the Sight Triangle Legs, for Intersections with No Control ............... 23
Table 2.5 Adjustment Factors for Intersection Sight Distance Based on
Approach Grade ................................................................................................ 24
Table 2.6 Time Gap—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop.......................................................... 25
Table 2.7 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop .............................. 26
Table 2.8 Time Gap—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and Case B3, Crossing Maneuver .. 27
Table 2.9 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and Case B3,
Crossing Maneuver ............................................................................................ 27
Table 2.10 Crossing Maneuver from Yield Controlled Approaches, Length of Minor
Leg and Travel Time from the Decision Point ................................................... 29
Table 2.11 Length of Sight Triangles along Major Road—Case C1, Crossing
Maneuver from Yield Controlled Intersections ................................................. 30
Table 2.12 Gap Acceptance Time for Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers from
Yield-Controlled Intersections ........................................................................... 31
Table 2.13 Intersection Sight Distance along Major Road—Case C2, Left or
Right Turn at Yield-Controlled Intersections ..................................................... 31
Table 2.14 Time Gap for Case F Left Turn from the Major Road ........................................ 33
Table 2.15 Intersection Sight Distance—Case F, Left Turn from the Major Road .............. 33
Table 3.1 Minimum Radius without Superelevation ........................................................ 42
Table 3.2 Superelevation for Radii and Design Speed (percent) ...................................... 43
Table 3.3 Maximum Relative Gradients ............................................................................ 45
Table 3.4 Adjustment Factors for Number of Lanes Rotated ........................................... 48
Table 3.5 Traveled Way Widening Criteria on Horizontal Curves ..................................... 58
Table 3.6 Traveled Way Widening Criteria at Horizontal Curves, Inside Curve
Radius less 100 m or Less .................................................................................. 59
Table 3.7 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways ........................................ 63
Table 4.1 Maximum Grades .............................................................................................. 66
Table 4.2 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curve Design Based on Stopping Sight
Distance ............................................................................................................. 71
Table 4.3 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves.............................................................. 74
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VOLUME 1 PART 3
Table 4.4 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve ........................................... 75

Table 4.5 Vertical Clearance at Structures ........................................................................ 76
Table 4.6 Sag Radius Compensation ................................................................................. 77
Table 6.1 Mainline Rate of Change of Width for a Standard Lane .................................... 95
Table 6.2 Typical Roadway Cross Sections ........................................................................ 96
Table 6.3 Minimum Median Width ................................................................................... 99
Table 6.4 Roadside Angled Parking Dimensions for One-Way Operation ...................... 107
Table 6.5 Parking Bay Dimensions .................................................................................. 109
Table 6.6 Typical Cross Sections – Urban Roads ............................................................. 120
Table 6.7 Typical Cross Sections – Rural Roads ............................................................... 121
Table 8.1 Demand Assessment Guidelines for Provision ................................................ 179
Table 8.2 Minimum Parking Provision ............................................................................ 179
Figures
Figure 2.1 Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance ................................................................... 15

Figure 2.2 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve ............................................ 16
Figure 2.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve ................................................... 17
Figure 2.4 Passing Maneuver.............................................................................................. 17
Figure 2.5 Sight Triangles (Uncontrolled and Yield Controlled) ......................................... 23
Figure 2.6 Sight Triangles (Stop Controlled) ....................................................................... 25
Figure 2.7 Left Turns from Major Roads ............................................................................. 32
Figure 3.1 Simple Curve Elements ...................................................................................... 36
Figure 3.2 Simple Curve with Spirals .................................................................................. 37
Figure 3.3 Compound Curve ............................................................................................... 38
Figure 3.4 Broken Back Curve ............................................................................................. 39
Figure 3.5 Reverse Curve .................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3.6 Development of Superelevation........................................................................ 46
Figure 3.7 Number of Lanes Rotated for Undivided Roadways ......................................... 48
Figure 3.8 Superelevation Transition for Two-Lane Roadways .......................................... 51
Figure 3.9 Superelevation Transition on Compound Curves (Distance between PC
and PCC is less than or equal to 90 m) .............................................................. 52
and PCC is greater than 90 m) ........................................................................... 53
Figure 3.11 Superelevation between Reverse Curves .......................................................... 54
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Figure 3.12 Superelevation Development for Freeways and Expressways ......................... 55

Figure 3.13 Superelevation Development for Arterial and Collectors with
Narrow Medians ................................................................................................ 56
Figure 3.14 Superelevation Development for Freeway and Expressways
(Shoulder Break Option) .................................................................................... 57
Figure 3.15 Travel Lane Widening on Horizontal Curves ..................................................... 60
Figure 3.16 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset .............................................................. 61
Figure 3.17 Turning Roadway Widths on Curves at Intersections ....................................... 63
Figure 4.1 Minor Road Vertical Alignment Approach at Intersections .............................. 67
Figure 4.2 Vertical Curve Elements ..................................................................................... 68
Figure 4.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve ........................................... 70
Figure 4.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve .................................................... 72
Figure 4.5 Additional Clearances at Underpasses for Sag Vertical Curves......................... 77
Figure 5.1 Example of a Kink and Improvement with Larger Radius ................................. 80
Figure 5.2 Alignment Relationships in Roadway Design—1 of 4 ....................................... 84
Figure 6.1 Cross Section Design Flow Chart ....................................................................... 92
Figure 6.2 Typical Median Layouts ................................................................................... 101
Figure 6.3 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—1 of 2 ................................................ 103
Figure 6.4 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—2 of 2 ................................................ 104
Figure 6.5 Minimum Clearance of Parking Lane from Intersection ................................. 105
Figure 6.6 Roadside Parking Parallel Bay Dimensions...................................................... 106
Figure 6.7 Roadside Parking in Angled Bay Layout .......................................................... 107
Figure 6.8 Parking Bay Dimensions .................................................................................. 108
Figure 6.9 Standard Curb Types ....................................................................................... 111
Figure 6.10 Typical Urban Local Access, One-way System - 10 m Right-of-Way
(Residential)..................................................................................................... 122
Figure 6.11 Typical Urban Local Access - 12 m Right-of-Way (Residential) ....................... 123
Figure 6.14 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)...................... 126
Figure 6.15 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial) .......................... 127
Figure 6.16 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Residential) .................. 128
Figure 6.17 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) ................ 129
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Figure 6.18 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)..................... 130

Figure 6.20 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) ................ 132
Figure 6.21 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)..................... 133
Figure 6.23 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential)
with Service Road ............................................................................................ 135
Figure 6.24 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential)
Figure 6.25 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)
Figure 6.26 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)
Figure 6.27 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)
Figure 6.28 Typical Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial - 40 m Right-of-Way
(Industrial) ....................................................................................................... 140
Figure 6.29 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
(Commercial/Industrial) .................................................................................. 141
Figure 6.30 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
(Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road ..................................................... 142
Figure 6.31 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
Figure 6.32 Typical Urban Minor/Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way
Figure 6.33 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 64 m Right-of-Way
(Commercial/Industrial) .................................................................................. 145
Figure 6.34 Typical Urban Boulevard - 64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational) ........................ 146
Figure 6.35 Typical Urban Boulevard—64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational) ........................ 147
Figure 6.36 Typical Urban Boulevard— 64 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) ........................ 148
Figure 6.37 Typical Urban Expressway – 64 m Right-of-Way
(6-Lane Divided Highway) ................................................................................ 149
(8-Lane Divided Highway) ................................................................................ 150
(8-Lane Divided Highway-with Frontage Road) ............................................... 151
Figure 6.40 Typical Rural Access Road – 16 m to 20 m Right-of-Way ................................ 152
Figure 6.41 Typical Rural Collector – 24 m to 40 m Right-of-Way ..................................... 153
Figure 6.42 Typical Rural Arterial – 64 m Right-of-Way ..................................................... 154
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Figure 6.43 Typical Rural Freeway – 264 m Right-of-Way (with Frontage Road) .............. 155
Figure 6.44 Typical Embankment Cross Sections ............................................................... 156
Figure 6.45 Typical Cut Cross Sections ............................................................................... 157
Figure 6.46 Requirement for Barriers on Embankments ................................................... 158
Figure 8.1 Typical Rest Area Plan ..................................................................................... 174
Figure 8.2 Disabled Parking at Rest Areas ........................................................................ 176
Figure 8.3 Bus Parking Details at Rest Areas .................................................................... 177
Figure 8.4 Truck Parking Details at Rest Areas ................................................................. 178
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ECTION [?]
[TITLE]
Acronyms and Abbreviations
AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
Departure Departure from Standards
DMRB Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
DSD decision sight distance
HSSD horizontal stopping sight distance
HOV high-occupancy vehicle
ISD intersection sight distance
kph kilometers per hour
m meter(s)
MASH Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware
NMU nonmotorized users, such as pedestrians, cyclists, and equestrians
OHPS over-height protection system
PC point of curvature
PCC point of compound curvature
PSD passing sight distance
QHDM Qatar Highway Design Manual
QTCM Qatar Traffic Control Manual
sec seconds
VSSD vertical stopping sight distance
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PAGE XII VOLUME 1

VOLUME 1 PART 3
SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
1 Introduction
This part outlines the following design controls and elements to be applied in the design
of the roadway geometry:
• Design speed
• Roadway cross sections
• Sight distances
• Horizontal alignment
• Vertical alignment
• Grades and cross slope
• Vertical clearances
The roadway design process begins with the establishment of basic design controls and
design criteria, the most important of these being design speed. The design process
proceeds sequentially, with establishment of the basic typical cross section, followed
by the setting of the horizontal alignment and then the vertical alignment.
Roadway design is not performed on a blank sheet of paper, nor is it an automatic or

rote exercise. The context, i.e., the terrain, adjacent land use, and location-specific
features or constraints, influences the design. Good design is necessarily iterative.
There is always more than one reasonable solution to a design problem. The role of the
designer as an engineering professional should be to seek the highest value solution;
with “value” being dependent on the site-specific conditions and stakeholder input.
The unique engineering challenges designers face involve the often conflicting
transportation values of mobility and safety. Traditionally, design focus has been on
meeting the desires of road users to minimize their travel time. This is accomplished by
designing the road for the highest speed that is reasonable given the context. Designing
for high speeds, however, presents challenges because human driving capabilities are
limited at high speeds, and the consequences of human error are heightened because
the severity of crashes is significantly greater at higher speeds.
1.1 Design Speed

The design speed for a road or highway is a selected speed that is used to determine the
dimensions, values, and characteristics of the roadway. A fundamental principle of
design speed is that it applies over relatively long sections of roadway. The professional
designer selects a speed that is logical and reasonable using the guidance provided by
the Qatar Highway Design Manual (QHDM). The selected speed should reflect the
anticipated and desired operating speed, the topography, the adjacent land use, and
the intended primary function of the highway as determined by its functional
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classification. The selection of a design speed should be made with an awareness of the
need to achieve safety, mobility, and efficiency within the constraints of environmental
quality, economics, aesthetics, and social and political impacts. In selecting a design
speed, the designer is setting the basis by which all of the basic elements—cross section
and alignment—will be established.
Meeting the expectations of drivers should influence the selection of a design speed.
Where the reasons for lower speed are obvious, such as the land use or terrain, drivers
are apt to expect and accept lower speed. Drivers do not adjust their speeds to the
importance of the highway, but rather in response to their perception of the physical
limitations of the highway and its traffic.
A related control in highway design is the setting of legal operation of vehicles through
the posting of speed limits. By policy in Qatar, the posted speed limits that apply are
related to the design speeds, as shown in Table 1.1. The design speeds and
corresponding posted speeds vary by functional classification and land use frontage.
1.1.1 Posted Speed

Posted speed is the mandatory speed limit applied to a road. The speed limit is
displayed on the roadside and is enforceable. Table 1.1 lists the posted speed limits to
be implemented in relation to design speed.
Table 1.1 Design and Posted Speeds for Various Road Classifications
Design Posted Traffic
Road Classification Land Use Frontage Speeds (kph) Speeds (kph)
Urban Expressway Commercial, industrial, recreational, park 100 /120/ 140 80/100/120
Commercial or industrial land use 50/60/80
Urban Arterial—Major 50/80/ 100
preferred
Commercial or industrial land use
Urban Arterial—Minor 50/80/100 50/60/80
preferred
Arterial—Boulevard Retail or commercial 50/80/100 50/60/80
Urban Collector— Industrial 50/80/100 50/60/80
Major Commercial 50/80/100 50/60/80
Industrial or commercial 50 50
Urban Collector— 50
Residential 50
Minor
Recreational 50 50
Industrial 50 50
Urban Local Road
Commercial, residential, or recreational 30/40/50 30/40/50
Rural Freeway Not applicable 100/120/140 80/100/120
Rural Arterial Not applicable 80/100/120 60/80/100
Rural Collector Not applicable 50/80/100 50/60/80
Rural Local Not applicable 50/80 50/60
Posted speeds are generally lower than design speeds for roadways with design speeds
greater than 50 kilometers per hour (kph). Posted speed for roadways with design speeds
of 80 kph or greater is 20 kph lower; for roadways with design speeds less than 80 kph
and greater than 50 kph posted speed is 10 kph lower. Design and posted speeds are the
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same for roadways with design speeds of 50 kph or lower. The road classifications are
defined in Part 2, Planning.
Selection of a design speed is one of the very first project decisions. Selection of a
design speed outside the values shown in Table 1.1 shall constitute a Departure from
Standards (Departure). Should a Departure be considered, the process of evaluation
and approval should occur before proceeding with any engineering design. The
selection of design speed shall be approved by the Overseeing Organization. Refer to
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, for more information.
Refer to Section 1.2.4 for design speeds for roads that require special consideration.
They should be agreed to with the Overseeing Organization.
1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters

The design of most elements of the roadway are influenced by the selected design
speed. Table 1.2 details the main design speed related parameters dealt with in greater
depth in their respective clauses in this part.
Table 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters

Parameter Reference
Stopping sight distance Chapter 2: Section 2.2
Passing sight distance Chapter 2: Section 2.3
Decision sight distance Chapter 2: Section 2.4
Intersection sight distance Chapter 2, Section 2.5
Horizontal curvature Chapter 3, Section 3.1
Vertical curvature Chapter 4, Section 4.3
Lane widths Chapter 6: Section 6.2
1.2.1 Changeover of Design Speed

Transitions between roads (or sections of a road) with different design speeds shall be
implemented so as not to present the driver with an abrupt change in the roadway’s
characteristics or appearance. A change in the design speed should not exceed 20 kph.
For example, in transitioning to a lower design speed from 100 kph the new, lower
design speed should not be less than 80 kph.
At the interface between sections of roadway designed to different design speeds,

designers check that the curvature and sight distance is adequate for the approach
design speed. See Chapter 3 regarding transition curves where the road passes through
an area where the curve radius must be reduced beyond the limiting radius to
accommodate design speed.
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Designers should avoid interfaces between different design speeds near horizontal or
vertical curvature less than the requirements for the higher design speed, and at or
near steep vertical grades. Sufficient warning signs should be provided in advance of
reaching the section of the road with lower speed. For details of signing the speed
control refer to Part 2, Planning.
1.2.2 Reconstruction and Connection to Existing Roads

Care shall be taken in the design of road to be reconstructed, with such reconstruction
resulting in a significant change in the roadway geometry. At the project limits, the
design characteristics transition from the newly reconstructed road to the existing road
to remain in place.
The setting of appropriate project limits is one measure of care. Logical limits may
include an intersection, or a tangent highway section at which the vertical alignment
provides stopping sight distance that is greater than the minimum. Careful
consideration should be given for roads passing between rural and urban areas, posted
speed step down and also two lane to single lane roadways, although this latter case
should be limited to intersection locations only.
Clear signing is needed at all locations where there is a speed reduction.
1.2.3 Departures from Standards

The standards herein represent the various criteria and maximum/minimum levels of
provision whose incorporation in the road design would achieve an acceptable level of
transportation performance. In most cases, designs can be achieved that do not require
the use of the lowest levels of given design parameters. At some locations on new roads
or reconstruction of existing roads it may not be possible to provide even the lowest
levels of design parameters in economic or environmental terms because of unique
context features including existing landmarks, high-rises; religious, cultural, and historic
sites; natural preserves; and community resources. Prevailing circumstances may
identify sufficient advantages that may justify a Departure from Standards. The
parameters are not to be regarded as fixed in all circumstances. Departures should be
considered and assessed in terms of their effects on the economic worth of the project,
the environment, and the safety of road users. Designers should always have regard to
the cost-effectiveness of the design provision. The implications, particularly in relation
to safety risk, should be quantified to the extent possible. Engineering judgment is
necessary in many cases. In exercising judgment, professional designers considering a
Departure should have knowledge of the operational and safety effects of roadway
design features. Part 25, Departures from Standards Process, provides technical
guidance including research references that designers can review to enable appropriate
judgments. The QHDM covers a wide range of geometric elements and design
dimensions. Based on a review of international, peer-reviewed research and practices
of major national highway agencies, the following 16 criteria have been identified as
being of sufficient importance that the inability, for whatever reason, to meet the
minimum design value shall require a formal Departure from Standards:
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1. Design speed
2. Lane width
3. Shoulder width
4. Bridge width
5. Horizontal alignment
6. Superelevation
7. Vertical alignment
8. Longitudinal grade
9. Sight distance
10. Cross slope
11. Vertical clearance
12. Lateral offset to obstruction
13. Structural capacity (not a geometric element)
14. Acceleration and deceleration lane lengths on fully access controlled highways
15. Weaving section operations on fully access controlled highways
16. Bike path or shared use path
The Overseeing Organization requires a formal written Departure Application for each
design exception if the specified maximum or minimum criteria related to the
16 controlling criteria above are not met. The process for submitting a written
Departure Application is given in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Other design parameters, values, and policies in QHDM are guidelines to promote
consistency in design and achieve overall quality control in the project development
process. The Overseeing Organization provides oversight on all design and specification
aspects of all projects. Designers should strive to fully apply all published criteria,
regardless of whether they are subject to the Departure process.
This section introduces the concept of a hierarchy of permitted values for geometric
layout parameters such as sight distance, horizontal and vertical curves. That hierarchy
is based upon minimum standards based on design speed. Values equal to or greater
than the minimum results in safer alignments and minimizes journey times. The
hierarchy of values enables a flexible approach to be applied where the strict
application of minimum requirements would lead to disproportionately high
construction costs or severe environmental impact upon people, properties, and
landscapes. Successive levels in the hierarchy invoke more stringent consideration in
line with the need to carefully consider safety.
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Over the years, there have been many advances in road layout design and associated
improvements for the assessment of safety and operational aspects. Research has
strengthened the understanding of driver behavior, and safety audits and other
initiatives in the mechanics of assessing and checking scheme layouts have made the
design process more rigorous and reliable.
Experience in the application of the hierarchy of values indicates that the

environmental and financial benefits gained from this increased flexibility can be
considerable. The designer must carefully consider the benefits and any potential
disadvantages of Departures. Additional guidance in Part 25, Departures from
Standards Process, describes the approach to be taken to assessing Departures. Any
such Departures must be agreed to in writing with the Overseeing Organization. Part 25
gives a procedure for the preparation and submission requirements for Departures.
Principles to follow when preparing options that include Departures are listed below. It
is likewise a list of factors to be taken into account when considering the merits of
options. Designers should consider whether and to what degree the site is:
• Isolated from other Departures

• Isolated from intersections
• One where drivers are provided minimum stopping sight distance
• Subject to momentary visibility impairment only
• One that would affect only a small proportion of the traffic
• On straightforward geometry readily understandable to drivers
• On a road with no frontage access
• One where traffic speeds would be reduced locally by adjacent speed limits or road
geometry, such as uphill sections, approaching roundabouts, major/minor
intersections where traffic has to yield or stop, and so on
Designers should consider whether the following should be introduced in conjunction

with any Departure:
• Crash prevention measures; for safety fencing, increased skidding resistance

• Warning signs and road markings to alert the driver to the layout ahead
Designers should have regard for the traffic flows carried by the link. High flows may
carry a greater risk of queues and standing traffic approaching intersections in the peak
period. Conversely, lower flows might encourage higher speeds.
The road classifications for Qatar are described in Part 2, Planning. The selection of a
design speed is difficult for some roads in the older areas of the city. Those areas are
not so easily classified into land use, and factors such as access and parking must be
assessed in determining the design speed. Other considerations are the number and
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spacing of intersections on a particular section of road. Departures provide a means of

accommodating these areas.
Departures from minimum or maximum values specified for the 16 controlling criteria
may be considered when context, cost, or environmental savings are considered to be
significant, except in the following circumstances:
• Immediately following an overtaking section on undivided roads

• On the immediate approach to an intersection, other than a roundabout, where
frequent turning traffic will occur.
1.2.4 Special Considerations

The posted speed for local roads in residential, commercial, and recreational areas is
50 kph but may be reduced to 30 kph in areas of high pedestrian activity, or where the
local roads are provided for access only. Part 2, Planning, identifies circumstances on
lower category urban roads where the 30 kph posted speed should be applied.
The lower design speeds of 50 kph and 30 kph applied in urban areas do not require
transitions or superelevation on bends. Refer to Section 3.3 and Section 3.4.
One-way roads may be used on local roads for access, usually in the form of discrete
loops. One-way roads should be designed so as not to encourage speeding. This may
be achieved by the use of narrower roadway lanes, avoiding long tangent sections of
road, and implementing traffic calming measures. Refer to Part 23, Design and
Operations for Road Safety.
Care shall be taken to ensure that traffic calming measures being introduced do not
impede emergency service vehicles.
1.3 Sustainability
The key sustainability principles for highway design in Qatar are summarized in Part 1,
Introduction to QHDM and Guidance, and Part 21, Environmental. Early consideration
of potential impacts and how the design can help to avoid or minimize them is a key
principle to be followed. Sustainable design should minimize the need for design
rework and achieve optimal economic feasibility considering costs over the whole asset
life, including costs that may be incurred from changes to traffic volumes, urbanization,
user types, and environmental conditions. The design should consider, from the earliest
stages, opportunities to design out adverse environmental and social impacts and how
enhancements can be incorporated. Regarding the design of roadways, roadway
elements, and intersections, designers should consider the following issues. See also
Part 21, Environmental.
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• Water use: Designers should consider the requirements for water use during
construction and how designs can be optimized to avoid or minimize the need for
water.
• Soil erosion and contamination: The design should minimize soil erosion,
windblown sand, and contamination during construction and operation. Where
possible, the road should avoid areas likely to lead to erosion and contamination
impacts, such as sabkha, sand dunes, and contaminated land. Natural vegetation
should be used as a natural barrier to sand movement where possible.
• Material use and resource efficiency: Designs should minimize the quantity of raw
materials required and when specifying materials or setting technical specifications.
Designers should give due consideration to incorporating sustainable materials into
their designs, such as locally sourced, reused, or recycled materials, or low
embodied energy/ carbon materials. The design should be optimized to minimize
waste during construction and maintenance.
• Climate change adaptation: Designers should ensure that consideration is given to
the potential impacts of climate change on roadways and that resilience is built into
their design for issues such as increased temperatures, rainfall intensity, sea level
rise, and erosion control.
• Provision for sustainable transport: Designers should consider the needs of and
make suitable provisions for both nonmotorized and public transport users in terms
of accessing the road network crossing the roadway, in order to avoid severance
impacts. Where roadways are unsuitable for nonmotorized users, the design should
consider incorporating segregated pathways for bicycle users. Intersections should
be made safe and usable to nonmotorized users to avoid severance.
• Air quality: Designers should take measures to ensure that operational air quality
impacts are minimized through design. Road alignment, traffic management to
control speed and to encourage specific traffic behavior, landscaping, gradients,
cross-slope roads, and corner angles affecting speeds and flows should all be
considered. Roadways should be integrated with the public transport network, and
pedestrian and bike access should be provided.
• Noise: Designers should consider routing alignments to maximize the distance
between receptors and the roadway. Where sensitive receptors are affected by a
roadway, the design should incorporate adequate mitigation measures to reduce
traffic noise through the specification of low-noise surfacing materials or of
environmental barriers.
• Visual impact and landscape design: Landscape design should minimize the visual
impact of the road and seek to enhance the visual amenity value of the area where
possible.
• Ecology and biodiversity: Roadway design should minimize ecological and
biodiversity effects within the roadway corridor and optimize opportunities for
enhancement through landscaping or planting strategies for example. Severance of
wildlife corridors and fragmentation should be mitigated through design
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• Operational energy use: Energy-consuming equipment required to fulfil a function

of the roadway should be specified to maximize energy efficiency in use. Designers
should incorporate opportunities for micro-renewable energy generation co-
located with equipment requiring an energy demand.
• Safety: It is important to ensure that design characteristics, such as stopping sight
distance, curve radius, lane width, and superelevation, are commensurate with the
speed limit of the road. The characteristics of the road determine the safety of the
speed limit and the degree to which road users will accept the speed limit. See
Part 23, Design and Operation of Road Safety.
• Archaeology and cultural heritage: Roadway design should optimize the
protection, preservation, and enhancement of sites of archaeological or cultural
value by routing so as to avoid them where possible and to optimize horizontal and
vertical alignments in order to avoid or minimize severance and visual and noise
intrusion impacts.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
2 Sight Distance
A fundamental principle of road design is that the driver should be able to see the
roadway and its environment sufficiently in advance of the vehicle such that the driver
can maneuver and/or change speeds while maintaining full control of the vehicle. The
term sight distance expresses this fundamental principle. Sight distance is the
continuous length of the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. Drivers should be
able to see far enough ahead to safely and efficiently perform any carry out any legal
maneuvers. They should have sufficient view of the road to safely avoid conflicts that
may occur.
2.1 Basic Types of Sight Distance

The four important maneuvers drivers undertake form the basis for the design for sight
distance in Qatar:
1. Stopping Sight Distance: applicable on all roadways

2. Passing Sight Distance: applicable on two lane undivided roadways
3. Decision Sight Distance: applicable on urban and rural roads where road users
have to make complex decisions, for example exiting at interchanges
4. Intersection Sight Distance: applicable at all intersections
Simple operational models are used to compute design values for each type of sight
distance. Each model employs assumptions for the basic parameters describing the
assumed location of a driver’s eye, and the assumed type and location of an object or
feature that characterizes or controls the design maneuver.
The criteria and models applied to roads in Qatar are based on the latest research
(National Cooperative Highway Research Program [NCHRP] Report 383, 1996 and
NCHRP Report 400, Fambro et al., 1997) and its application to design criteria in other
national design manuals and policies, such as the Design Manual for Roads and Bridges
(DMRB; Department for Transport, 2002).
Two critical features to be considered while evaluating sight distances are object height
and eye height. Eye height is 1.08 m for all sight distances. Object height is 0.6 m for
stopping and decision sight distance and 1.08 m for intersection and passing sight
distance. These heights are in reference to the passenger cars. For large trucks eye
height varies from 1.8 m to 2.4 m with a recommended value of 2.3 m.
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2.2 Stopping Sight Distance

Roads should be designed such that a driver operating a passenger car proceeding at
design speed should be able to perceive an object of sufficient size to represent a risk
if struck, and brake to a full stop in a reasonable manner thus avoiding collision with
the object. This statement expresses what is referred to as stopping sight distance
(SSD).
2.2.1 SSD Model and Parameters

The SSD model is based on human factors research and the capabilities of vehicles. The
following parameters are used (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials [AASHTO], 2011a):
• Height of driver’s eye – 1.08 m

• Height of object in road – 0.6 m
• Driver perception and reaction time – 2.5 seconds (sec)
• Driver brake response – deceleration at 3.4 m/s2
The driver eye height is exceeded by the majority of vehicles in the common fleet. The
height of the object is based on the taillights of a vehicle. The background on this model
is described in (NCHRP 400, 1997).
SSD design values are calculated as the sum of the two distances representing driver
brake reaction distance and vehicle braking distance. Brake perception and reaction
distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle from the instant the driver detects the
object on the roadway and then applies the brake. Braking distance is the distance
traveled by the vehicle from the instant the brake is applied to where the vehicle comes
to complete stop under the assumed deceleration rate. The following equation is used
to calculate SSD.
SSD = Brake Reaction Distance + Braking Distance
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
SSD = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝒂𝒂
where
SSD = stopping sight distance, m,
V = design speed, kph,
t = brake perception and reaction time, 2.5 seconds
a = deceleration rate, m/s2, 3.4 m/s2
2.2.2 Stopping Sight Distance Design Values

Table 2.1 lists the recommended computed stopping sight distance design values.
These apply on grades of less than 3 percent. The values shown are minimum values.
Table 2.1 provides SSD values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in
even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design
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speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through
departure process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.1 Stopping Sight Distance for Level Roadways with Grades less than
3 Percent
Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Brake Reaction Braking Distance
Design Speed (kph) Distance (m) (m) Calculated (m) Design (m)
20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20
30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35
40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105
80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250
130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285
140 97.3 224.8 322.1 325
Note:
Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process.
Source: AASHTO, 2011a.
In general, terrain in Qatar is flat and the SSD design values in Table 2.1 meet the
requirements for level roads with grades less than 3 percent. For grades steeper than
3 percent, the SSD design values could be calculated using the formula shown below
(AASHTO, 2011a).
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
SSD = 0.278 Vt + 0.039� 𝒂𝒂 �
� �±𝑮𝑮
𝟗𝟗.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖
where
SSD = stopping sight distance, m
V = design speed, kph
t = brake reaction time, 2.5 seconds
a = deceleration rate, m/s2, 3.4 m/s
G = grade, m/m
Roadway geometry that limits the available sight distance includes both vertical
alignment and combinations of horizontal alignment and roadside obstructions. Design
parameters for SSD are thus required for all three dimensions. On a tangent roadway,
driver’s line of sight may be limited by the vertical alignment of the roadway surface,
specifically at crest vertical curves. On horizontal curves, the line of sight may be limited
by obstructions outside the traveled way, such as bridge piers, retaining walls, bridge
approach fill slopes, concrete barriers, guardrails, buildings, back slopes in cut areas,
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etc. Providing SSD thus requires analysis and design in both horizontal and vertical
planes.
2.2.3 Horizontal Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance

Horizontal sight lines are based on an assumed location of the driver’s eye within the
roadway or lane. The sight line on a horizontal curve is defined by a chord, which
assumes the eye location is centered on the travel lane, and the object is a point
centered in the road along the curve. The SSD is measured along the centerline of the
lane, as shown in Figure 2.1.
To provide for the SSD as measured along the center of the lane, the sight line chord
must not be obstructed by a feature outside the traveled way. The design process
involved the calculation of what is referred to as the horizontal offset (HO), which is the
radial dimension from the center of the lane to the limiting sight obstructing feature.
Design for the horizontal offset to the obstruction is calculated using the following
formula.
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 × 𝑺𝑺
HO = R�𝟏𝟏 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 � ��
𝑹𝑹
Or the SSD can be calculated for a given horizontal offset using the formula
𝑹𝑹 𝑹𝑹 − 𝑯𝑯𝑯𝑯
S= �𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨 −𝟏𝟏 � ��
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐.𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝑹𝑹
where
S = stopping sight distance, m
HO = horizontal offset measured from the centerline of inside lane, m
R = radius to centerline of inside lane
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28.65𝑆𝑆 𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 − 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 = 𝑅𝑅 �1 − 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � �� 𝑆𝑆 = �𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 −1 � ��
𝑅𝑅 28.65 𝑅𝑅
Where:
HO = Offset to the sight
obstruction measured from
centerline of inside lane, m
S = Stopping sight
distance along the curve, m
R = Radius of the
centerline of inside lane, m

Figure 2.1 Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance
HSSD should be provided for the entire length of the curve and both directions of travel.
The most critical case for a two-lane road will involve the travel lane on the inside of
the curve.
The formula to calculate HO produces exact results when the length of the curve is
greater than the required SSD, in which case both the driver eye location and the point
obstruction are within the limits of the horizontal curve. If the required SSD is greater
than the length of the curve, either the vehicle or the obstruction will be outside the
limits of the horizontal curve. In these cases, the values for HO produced by the formula
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are approximate and may be slightly greater than required and in many cases, it may
not be significant. In these instances and when horizontal alignment consists of
combination of spirals, curves and tangents, HO can determined graphically.
An obstruction to SSD may be a point location (as shown in Figure 2.1) or a continuous
obstruction such as a retaining wall concentric with the curve.
2.2.4 Vertical Restrictions to Stopping Sight Distance

Vertical restrictions to SSD on crest and sag vertical curves. The most common
restriction is a crest vertical curve as illustrated in Figure 2.2. The SSD design
parameters for eye height and object height noted above define the sight line which
the crest curve should provide.
Chapter 4 provides details on design lengths for vertical curvature to provide the
necessary sight lines for SSD.
Figure 2.2 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve
Vertical restriction, as illustrated in Figure 2.3, on sag vertical curves depends on the
ability of the driver to see the roadway surface from the beams of headlights at
nighttime with the following assumptions:
• Height of the head light: 0.6 m

• Height of the object: 0 m
• 1 degree upward divergence of headlight beam
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Figure 2.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve
2.3 Passing Sight Distance

Two-lane rural highways may be designed to enable the ability of drivers to pass slower
vehicles using the opposing traffic lane. The concept of Passing Sight Distance (PSD)
expresses the length of sight line required for a driver to affect a passing maneuver
without coming into conflict with oncoming traffic. It applies only to two-lane undivided
roadways where the fast moving vehicles overtake slow moving vehicles. PSD is the
distance required for a driver to observe the oncoming vehicle traveling in the opposing
direction and to complete the passing maneuver safely without conflict with the
opposing vehicle.
Derivation of design values for PSD is based on a three-step model shown in Figure 2.4.
The model assumes the passing vehicle (passenger car) accelerates to design speed, and
the speed of the vehicle being passed (passenger car) is traveling at the design speed,
while the approaching vehicle (passenger car) traveling in the opposing direction at design
speed.
Figure 2.4 Passing Maneuver
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D1 shows the distance required to complete the passing maneuver by vehicle A. D2 shows
the distance traveled by vehicle B in the opposing lane as vehicle A overtakes vehicle C.
D3 shows the distance required between the opposing vehicles at the end of the
passing maneuver. PSD is sum of the distances D1, D2, and D3. Distances are calculated
using the formulas below. Source: Design Manual for Roads and Bridges (2002).
D1 = 0.85 × t × V
D2 = t × V and
D3 = D2/5
PSD = D1+D2+D3 = 2.05 × t × V
where
PSD = passing sight distance, m
t = time to complete the passing maneuver, 10 sec
V = design speed, m/sec
Table 2.2 lists the passing sight distance design values. Minimum values are shown.
Where practical consider using higher values as the basis of design. Table 2.2 provides
PSD values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph
increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional
classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may, select a design speed
other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure
process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.2 Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Roadways

Design Speed (kph) Passing Sight Distance (m)
20 120
30 180
40 250
50 290
60 345
70 410
80 460
90 520
100 580
110 630
120 690
130 *
140 *
Note:
* Not recommended for facilities with design speeds greater than 120 kph
Source: Department of Transport, 2002
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The provision for PSD is not a design requirement; rather, its presence influences the
capacity of the road. The Transportation Research Board Highway Capacity Manual
(2010) describes methods for determining the capacity of two-lane rural highways. One
of the parameters is the percentage of highway in which passing can occur. This would
be the length of a road’s alignment in which PSD is available divided by its total length.
PSD is measured using both an eye height and object height of 1.08 m. For design of
crest and sag vertical curves using PSD, refer to Chapter 4. PSD should be checked in
both horizontal and vertical plane. Procedures provided in Chapter 2, Sections 2.2.1
and 2.2.2 can be used to check the available sight distance by substituting PSD for SSD
and using object height of 1.08 m.
2.4 Decision Sight Distance

The minimum sight distance design requirement is provision for SSD. The SSD model is
simple and expresses one specific driver action, which is braking in response to an
object in the road.
The operating environment presents many other challenges to human drivers that are
more complex, require more time, and involve different maneuvers or actions. Such
maneuvers involve decision-making by the driver. The concept of decision sight
distance (DSD) expresses the sight line to be provided a driver in advance of roadway
conditions that require decision-making and then other maneuvers. Lengths of DSD are
much longer than SSD given 1) decision-making takes longer time and 2) driver
resultant maneuvers are different.
The decision sight distance (DSD) provides the additional length needed by the drivers
to reduce the likelihood for error in perceiving the necessary information, making a
decision, and executing the maneuver. Providing DSD is not a requirement, but
consideration should be given in providing DSD at certain critical locations along the
roadway. The following are examples of conditions for which designers should consider
providing DSD in advance of the condition:
• Exit and entrance ramps at the interchanges

• Left-hand exits on freeways or expressways
• High-speed roadway diverge and merge areas
• Change in cross section of the roadway, as in lane drops
• At-grade railroad crossings
• Signalized intersection on the downstream end of a crest vertical curves
The derivation of DSD includes two basic types of maneuvers: stop and speed, path, or
direction change. The derivation also considers the context of the road (rural, suburban,
and urban) which reflects driver expectations. The calculation of DSD depends on the
design speed, type of roadway urban or rural and the type of avoidance maneuver needed
to negotiate. QHDM adopts AASHTO’s definitions for the five avoidance maneuvers:
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• Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road

• Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road
• Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed, path, or direction change on rural road
• Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed, path, or direction change on suburban road
• Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed, path, or direction change on urban road
Table 2.3 provides DSD values. Where practical, consider using higher values as the
basis of design. Table 2.3 provides DSD values for a full range of potential selected
design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific
values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1, Chapter 1. However,
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
functional classification through departure process specified in Part 25, Departures
The DSD values in Table 2.3 are determined using the following equations. For
avoidance maneuvers A and B the equation is:
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
DSD = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 + 𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒂𝒂
For avoidance maneuvers C, D, and E the equation is
DSD = 𝟎𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐

where
DSD = decision stopping sight distance, m
a = deceleration rate, m/s2, 3.4 m/s2
t = pre-maneuver time, seconds and varies with the avoidance maneuver
t = 3 seconds for avoidance maneuver A
t = 9.1 seconds for avoidance maneuver B
t = varies between 10.2 and 11.2 seconds for avoidance maneuver C
t = varies between 12.1 and 12.9 seconds for avoidance maneuver D
t = varies between 14.1 and 14.5 seconds for avoidance maneuver E
The longer distances associated with urban conditions reflects the more complex,
visually cluttered urban environment.
The application of DSD is encouraged. As it is not a specific requirement, choosing not

to provide DSD does not require a Departure.
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Table 2.3 Decision Sight Distance

Decision Sight Distance (m) for Avoidance Maneuver
Design Speed (kph) A B C D E
50 70 155 145 170 195
60 95 195 170 205 235
70 115 235 200 235 275
80 140 280 230 270 315
90 170 325 270 315 360
100 200 370 315 355 400
110 235 420 330 380 430
120 265 470 360 415 470
130 305 525 390 450 510
140 345 580 420 490 550
Note:
2.5 Intersection Sight Distance

Drivers approaching and proceeding through intersections require sufficient sight lines
to appropriately complete their maneuvers. Intersection sight distance (ISD) is a critical
design element of intersection design. ISD is the distance required for a driver
approaching an intersection to see the traffic on the intersecting roadway in order to
safely cross or make a left or right turn on to the intersecting roadway. When two
roadways intersect, numerous traffic movements occur that can create more vehicular
conflicts. Providing adequate ISD at the intersection reduces the likelihood of such
conflicts.
The driver approaching the intersection should have a clear view of the entire
intersection and along the intersecting roadway to make the intended maneuver safely.
ISD is determined by using the same principles as SSD, but it incorporates an additional
element; driver behavior at the intersection.
Sight lines for ISD involve varying driver positions along one road, and the object being
avoided – another vehicle on the crossing road. These lines define what are referred to
as sight triangles.
Sight triangles are employed in establishing the ISD. In general, for a typical intersection
with four approaches, there are four quadrants. The sight line establishes a triangular
wedge in each quadrant between the intersection roadways, called sight triangles. The
sight triangles should be clear of obstructions that may block a driver’s view of conflicting
vehicles on the intersecting roadway. The triangle legs shown in Figure 2.5 should be long
enough that drivers approaching the intersection from the two intersecting roadways can
see each other to avoid collision and make the intended maneuver safely.
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In Qatar most intersections are priority intersections (three-intersections) with yield

control on the minor approach. Four-legged intersections are rare and designed
infrequently. For ISD sight triangle illustration purposes and to capture all possible
maneuvers, through, left and right from the minor street, a four-legged intersection is
chosen as an example.
The sight line defining ISD in both horizontal and vertical plane is based on an eye height
and object height of 1.08 m.
The dimensions of the sight triangles depend on the design speed of the major
roadway, type of intersection control (uncontrolled, yield control, stop control or signal
control). QHDM adopts the AASHTO procedures to determine ISD for the following
types of traffic control:
• Case A: Intersections with no control

• Case B: Intersections with stop control on the minor road
− B1: Left turn from the minor road
− B2: Right turn from the minor road
− B3: Crossing maneuver from the minor road
• Case C: Intersection with yield control on the minor road
− C1: Crossing maneuver from the minor road
− C2: Left or right turn from the minor road
• Case D: Intersections with traffic signal control
• Case E: Intersection with all-way stop
• Case F: Left turns from the major road
2.5.1 Case A: Intersections with No Control

Case A may be applicable for low volume and low speed intersecting roadways that are
not controlled by yield signs, stop signs, or traffic signals. Figure 2.5 illustrates the sight
triangles on the major road and the minor road. Distances “a1” and “a2” are from the
major road to the decision point, location of driver’s eye, along the minor road. The
decision point is the point where the driver on the minor road has a clear view of the
intersection and the vehicles approaching the intersection from the major road. The
decision point is represented by the vertex of the sight triangle as shown on Figure 2.5
on the minor road. At the decision point the driver approaching the intersection from
the minor road makes the decision whether to slow down and stop or make the
intended maneuver, left, right or through without stopping. Distance “b” is the required
sight distance along the major road. Distance a2 is equal to a1 plus the additional width
as required. Case A should be used only if authorized by the Overseeing Organization.
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Table 2.4 shows values for “a1” and “b” along the minor and major approaches. The
values shown are minimum values. Where practical, consider using higher values as the
basis of design. Table 2.4 provides ISD values for a range of potential selected design
speeds in even 10 kph increments, from 20 kph to 80 kph. By policy design, speeds are
limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1,
Chapter 1. Designers may, however, select a design speed other than specified in
Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure process specified in
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.5 provides the factors for the approach grade adjustments.
Figure 2.5 Sight Triangles (Uncontrolled and Yield Controlled)
Table 2.4 Length of the Sight Triangle Legs, for Intersections with No Control
Design Speed (kph) Length of Legs “a1” and “b” (m)
20 20
30 25
40 35
50 45
60 55
70 65
80 75
Notes:
1. For approach grades greater than 3 percent, multiply the sight distance values in this table by the
appropriate adjustment factor from Table 2.5.
2. Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure Process per Part 25,
Departures from Standards Process.
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Table 2.5 Adjustment Factors for Intersection Sight Distance Based on Approach
Grade
Design Speed (kph)
Approach
Grade (%) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
-6 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
-5 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
-4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1 1.1
-3 to +3 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
+4 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
+5 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
+6 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Source: AASHTO, 2011a
For an intersection to be considered compliant with the ISD values, the area within the
sight triangle should be clear of obstructions. This enables each driver approaching the
intersection to see the other, adjust speeds accordingly, and negotiate the intended
maneuver without a conflict.
2.5.2 Case B: Intersections with Stop Control on Minor Road

For intersection with stop control on minor roads, sight triangles should be checked for
the following scenarios:
• Case B1: Left turn from minor road

• Case B2: Right turn from minor road
• Case B3: Crossing the major road from minor road
2.5.2.1 Case B1: Left Turn from Minor Road
Figure 2.6 shows the sight triangles at stop controlled intersections. The decision point
represents the position of the driver’s eye on the minor road where the vehicle is
stopped before carrying out the intended maneuver. The distance to the decision point
from the edge of the major road traveled way should be at least 4.4 m; 5.4 m is
desirable. Distances “a1” and “a2” are from the major road centerline of the lanes to
the decision point (location of driver’s eye) along the minor road as shown in Figure 2.6.
Distance b is the required sight distance along the major road. Distance “a2” is equal to
“a1” plus the additional width as required. Minimum length “a1” is equal to 4.4 m plus
the width of pavement from the edge of the major road traveled way to the centerline
of the lane as shown in Figure 2.6 and desirable is equal to 5.4 m plus the width of
pavement from the edge of the major road traveled way to the centerline of the lane
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Figure 2.6 Sight Triangles (Stop Controlled)
ISD required on the major road is calculated using the following equation (AASHTO,
2011a):
b = ISD = 0.278x Vmajor × tg
where
ISD = intersection sight distance
Vmajor = design speed on the major road, kph
tg = time gap for minor road vehicle to enter the major road, seconds; tg depends
on the design vehicle and also number of lanes on the major roadway and the
values in Table 2.6.
Table 2.6 Time Gap—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop

Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg, at Design Speed of Major Road (seconds)
Passenger car 7.5
Single unit truck 9.5
Intermediate Semitrailer 11.5
Note:
Time gaps are for stopped vehicle to turn left on to a two-lane highway with no median and with grades of
3 percent or less. The table values are adjusted as follows:
– For multilane highways—For left turns on to two-way highways with more than two lanes, add
0.5 second for passenger cars or 0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane, from the left, in excess
of one, to be crossed by the turning vehicle.
– For minor road approach grades—if the approach grade is an up grade that exceeds 3 percent, add 0.2
second for each percent grade for left turns.
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Table 2.7 lists ISD values. The values shown are minimum values; where practical,
consider using higher values as the basis of design. Table 2.7 provides ISD values for a
full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy,
design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown
in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design speed other than specified in
Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through departure process specified in
Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 2.7 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B1, Left Turn from Stop
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) Intersection Sight Distance for Passenger Cars (m)
20 20 45
30 35 65
40 50 85
50 65 105
60 85 130
70 105 150
80 130 170
90 160 190
100 185 210
110 220 230
120 250 255
130 285 275
140 325 295
Note:
2.5.2.2 Case B2: Right Turn from Minor Road
ISD is required on the major road for the case in which a vehicle is turning right from a
stop condition from the minor road. The ISD is calculated using the same equation as
that used for Case B1, with tg values as given in Table 2.8. Table 2.9 shows the ISD
values. The values shown are minimum values. Where practical, consider using higher
values as the basis of design. Table 2.9 provides ISD values for a full range of potential
selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited
to specific values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However,
designers may select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
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Table 2.8 Time Gap—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and Case B3,
Crossing Maneuver
Time Gap, tg, at Design Speed of Major Road
Design Vehicle (seconds)
Passenger car 6.5
Intermediate Semitrailer 10.5
Note:
Time gaps are for stopped vehicle to turn right on to or to cross a two-lane highway with no median and
with grades of 3 percent or less. The table values are adjusted as follow:
– For multilane highways—For crossing a major road with more than two lanes, add 0.5 second for
passenger cars or 0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed and for narrow
medians that cannot store the design vehicle.
– For minor road approach grades—If the approach grade is an up grade that exceeds 3 percent, add
0.1 second for each percent grade for left turns.
Table 2.9 Intersection Sight Distance—Case B2, Right Turn from Stop and
Case B3, Crossing Maneuver
Intersection Sight Distance for Passenger Cars
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) (m) ‘b’
20 20 40
30 35 55
40 50 75
50 65 95
60 85 110
70 105 130
80 130 145
90 160 165
100 185 185
110 220 200
120 250 220
130 285 235
140 325 255
Note:
2.5.2.3 Case B3: Crossing Maneuver from Minor Road
In most instances, the ISD provided for right turns from the minor street is adequate to
cross the major street. However, in the following cases consider checking the ISD:
• Where the crossing maneuver is the only maneuver allowed from the approach
• Crossing six or more lanes of major street
• When truck percentages are high, and the minor road is on a steep upgrade
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Table 2.9 shows the ISD values. Designers should adjust values as needed based on the
minor approach grade and the number of lanes on the major road.
2.5.3 Case C: Intersections with Yield Control on Minor Road

The most prevalent condition in Qatar is a priority intersection with yield control for
the minor road. For intersections with yield control on minor roads, sight triangles
should be checked for two scenarios:
• C1: Crossing maneuver from the minor road

• C2: Left or right turn from the minor road
Most intersections in Qatar are priority intersections (T-intersections) with yield control
and the drivers approaching the intersection can make the intended maneuver (either
left or right) without stopping if there are no conflicting traffic on the major road. There
is no crossing maneuver on priority intersections, but guidance is provided in
determining the ISD for a crossing maneuver (crossing major road) at four legged
intersections. See Figure 2.5 for the sight triangles and approaches.
2.5.3.1 Case C1: Crossing maneuver from minor road
ISD provided for the vehicle on the major road should allow the minor road vehicle to
travel from the decision point to the intersection, cross, and clear the intersection
safely. ISD on the major road is calculated using the following equation:
ISD = b = 0.278Vmajortg
where
b = ISD, length of leg of sight triangle along major road, m
Vmajor = design speed on major road, kph
tg = travel time for vehicle on minor road to reach and clear the major road; tg
is calculated using the following equation:
𝒘𝒘+𝑳𝑳𝒂𝒂
tg = ta+
𝟎𝟎.𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝑽𝑽𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎
where
ta = travel time for vehicle on minor road to reach the major road from the
decision point without stopping, sec
w = width of the intersection to be crossed, m
La = length of design vehicle, m
– Passenger car (P) = 5.79 m
– Single unit truck (SU-9) = 9.14 m
– City bus = 12.19 m
– Intermediate Semitrailer (WB-12) = 13.87 m
Vminor = design speed on the minor road, kph
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The length of the minor road approach leg, the time to travel from the decision point to
the intersection, and the time gap, tg are shown in Table 2.10. Table 2.11 lists the length
of the sight triangle values along the major road for different design speeds. Table 2.10
and Table 2.11 provide values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in
even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
Table 2.10 Crossing Maneuver from Yield Controlled Approaches,

Length of Minor Leg and Travel Time from the Decision Point
Minor Road Approach
Travel Time, tgc
Design Speed (kph) Length of Lega (m) Travel Time, taa,b (seconds) (seconds)
20 20 3.2 7.1
30 30 3.6 6.5
40 40 4.0 6.5
50 55 4.4 6.5
60 65 4.8 6.5
70 80 5.1 6.5
80 100 5.5 6.5
90 115 5.9 6.8
100 135 6.3 7.1
110 155 6.7 7.4
120 180 7.0 7.7
130 205 7.4 8.0
140 230 7.7 8.5
Note:
aFor minor road approach grades that exceed 3 percent, multiply the distance to the time in this table by
the appropriate factor from Table 2.5.

bTravel time applies to a vehicle that slows before crossing the intersection but does not stop.
cValues shown are for a passenger car crossing a two-lane highway with no median and with grades ≤3%.
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Table 2.11 Length of Sight Triangles along Major Road—Case C1, Crossing
Maneuver from Yield Controlled Intersections
Major Road Design Values Minor Road Design Speed (m)
Design SSD
Speed (kph) (m) 20 30–80 90 100 110 120 130 140
20 20 40 40 40 40 45 45 45 50
30 35 60 55 60 60 65 65 70 75
40 50 80 75 80 80 85 90 90 95
50 65 100 95 95 100 105 110 115 120
60 85 120 110 115 120 125 130 135 145
70 105 140 130 135 140 145 150 160 165
80 130 160 145 155 160 165 175 180 190
90 160 180 165 175 180 190 195 205 215
100 185 200 185 190 200 210 215 225 240
110 220 220 200 210 220 230 240 245 260
120 250 240 220 230 240 250 260 270 285
130 285 260 235 250 260 270 280 290 310
140 325 280 255 265 280 290 300 315 335
Notes:
1. Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Part 25,
2. Values in the table are for passenger cars and for grades 3 percent or less.
2.5.3.2 Case C2: Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers
Refer to Figure 2.5 for sight triangles. The ISD provided for the vehicle on the major
road should allow the minor road vehicle to travel from the decision point to the
intersection and make the intended maneuvers, left or right safely.
The length of the sight triangle leg on the minor approach is 25 m for both right and left
turns. The distance is established on the assumption that the left and right turns will
slow down to 16 kph without stopping to make the appropriate turn.
The length of the sight triangle on the major approach is calculated using the following
equation and the critical gap time listed in the Table 2.12.
ISD = b = 0.278Vmajortg
where
b = ISD, length of leg of sight triangle along the major road, m
Vmajor = Design Speed on the major road, kph
tg = travel time for the vehicle on the minor road to reach and turn right or left;
for tg values refer to Table 2.12
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Table 2.12 Gap Acceptance Time for Left- and Right-Turn Maneuvers from
Yield-Controlled Intersections
Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg (seconds)
Passenger car 8.0
Combination truck 12.0
Note:
Time values shown are for a vehicle to turn left or right on to a two-lane highway with no median. The
values should be adjusted for multilane highways as follows:
– For right turns no adjustment is required.
– For left turns add 0.5 seconds for Passenger car or 0.7 seconds for trucks for each additional lane.
Length of the sight triangle values along the major road for different design speeds are
shown in Table 2.13. Table 2.13 provides values for a full range of potential selected
design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy design speeds are limited to specific
values for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1, Chapter 1. Designers
may, however, select a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given
Table 2.13 Intersection Sight Distance along Major Road—Case C2, Left or Right
Turn at Yield-Controlled Intersections
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) Length of Leg, b (m)
20 20 45
30 35 70
40 50 90
50 65 115
60 85 135
70 105 160
80 130 180
90 160 205
100 185 225
110 220 245
120 250 270
130 285 290
140 325 315
Notes:
1. Shaded values are for design speeds selected only through the Departure process per Part 25,
2. ISD shown for passenger cars making right or left without stopping on to a two-lane highway.
2.5.4 Case D: Intersections with Traffic Signal Control

No sight triangle analysis is needed for intersections with traffic signal control. ISD at the
intersections with traffic signal control is straight-forward; the first vehicle stopped at one
approach should be able to see the other vehicles stopped on the other approaches.
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2.5.5 Case E: Intersections with All-Way Stop Control

ISD at the intersections with all-way stop control is similar to the Intersections with
traffic signal control. The first vehicle stopped at one approach should be able to see
the other vehicles stopped on the other approaches.
2.5.6 Case F: Left Turns from Major Road

Adequate ISD should be provided for the left turning vehicles from the major road,
when permitted, regardless of the type of traffic control. The ISD provided should be
based on a stopped vehicle selecting the appropriate gap in the opposing traffic and
completing the maneuver, as demonstrated in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7 Left Turns from Major Roads
Table 2.14 shows the time gap for the left turns from the major road and Table 2.15 show
the ISD values required for the vehicles to turn left from major road. The values shown in
the Table 2.15 are for passenger cars turning left from two-lane undivided major road.
Adjust the time and the ISD accordingly if an above average percentage of longer vehicle
are anticipated. Table 2.15 provides values for a full range of potential selected design
speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values
for each functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may select
a design speed other than specified in Table 1.1 for a given functional classification
through departure process specified in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
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Table 2.14 Time Gap for Case F Left Turn from the Major Road
Design Vehicle Time Gap, tg (seconds)
Passenger Car 5.5

Single-Unit Truck 6.5
Combination Truck 7.5
Note:
For left-turning vehicles that cross more than one opposing lane, add 0.5 second for passenger cars and
0.7 second for trucks for each additional lane to be crossed.
Table 2.15 Intersection Sight Distance—Case F, Left Turn from the Major Road
Design Speed (kph) SSD (m) ISD (m)
20 20 35
30 35 50
40 50 65
50 65 80
60 85 95
70 105 110
80 130 125
90 160 140
100 185 155
110 220 170
120 250 185
130 285 200
140 325 215
Note:
2.6 Special Considerations

ISD should be provided at all intersections. If ISD cannot be provided because of
environmental or right-of-way constraints, SSD should be provided at least on the major
road along with additional safety measures, such as advance warning signs or reduced
speed limit zones at the intersection area. The ISD criteria should also be applied to all
private accesses and driveways along the highways.
The ISD criteria should also be applied to all private accesses and driveways along the
highways.
Part 7, Design for Roundabouts, provides the sight distance criterion for roundabouts.
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2.7 Departures
SSD is a controlling criterion subject to a Departure if not provided, If the required SSD
cannot be provided for the given design speed, a Departure shall be required, per the
process noted in Part 25, Departures and Standards Process.
PSD, DSD, and ISD are not subject to the Departure process.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
3 Horizontal Alignment
This chapter provides guidance for the design of horizontal alignments and their
components, such as horizontal curvature, superelevation, traveled way widening on
horizontal curves and horizontal clearance for SSD.
Horizontal alignment consists of combination of straight lines called “tangents” and

arcs called “curves.” Horizontal curves are circular. They are introduced between the
tangents to eliminate the abrupt deflection and to provide smooth transition between
them.
In order to attain a consistent smooth flowing and aesthetically pleasing horizontal

alignment, consideration should be given to the following practices:
• Alignment design should be consistent with topography and be as directional as

possible while preserving community values.
• Use of minimum design criteria should be avoided wherever practical.
• Use of compound curves on high-speed roadways, design speed of 80 kph or higher,
should be avoided and if possible replace it with a simple curve.
• Length of the curves should be long enough to avoid the appearance of a kink.
• On high and long embankments, avoid using sharper curves.
• On high-speed roadways, design speed of 80 kph or higher, where reverse curves
are used sufficient length of tangent between the reverse curves should be
provided to accommodate the change in superelevation.
• Should be consistent with the design of the vertical alignment.
3.1 Simple Horizontal Curve and Spirals

Simple Curve: The simple horizontal curve is an arc of a circle, as shown in Figure 3.1.
Three geometric elements define the circular curve – the radius, central angle, and
length of curve. Establishing any two these elements defines the third.
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Source: Illinois Department of Transportation, 2014

Figure 3.1 Simple Curve Elements
Spiral: The spiral is a transition curve mathematically defined as a curve with radius
decreasing or increasing at a constant rate, as shown in Figure 3.2. The purpose of the
spiral is to facilitate the transitioning of drivers and vehicles in moving between
tangents and circular curve.
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Figure 3.2 Simple Curve with Spirals
3.2 Alignment combinations using simple curves and tangents

Designers establish a horizontal alignment using combinations of simple curves and
tangents as shown in Figure 3.3 through Figure 3.5.
A compound curve is two simple curves with different radii “back to back”. When
compound curves are used in open alignment, the larger radius should desirably be no
more than 1.5 times the smaller radius. The use of compound curves for intersection
design for larger vehicles minimizes the pavement area to enable off tracking.
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Figure 3.3 Compound Curve
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Figure 3.4 shows what is referred to as a broken-back curve in which two curves with
bearings in the same direction are separated by a relatively short tangent. Their use
should be determined case by case.
Figure 3.4 Broken Back Curve
Figure 3.5 shows reverse curves, in which the alignment of the second curve is in the
opposite direction of the first curve. Reverse curves without a tangent between them
(top part of Figure 3.5) should be avoided by designing the road with a tangent between
the curves as shown in the bottom half of the figure. Drivers operating at design speed
cannot instantaneously change the direction and magnitude of their steering response,
which is the action required in a reverse curve.
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Figure 3.5 Reverse Curve
3.3 General Design Considerations
3.3.1 Maximum Centerline Deflection without a Horizontal Curve

Horizontal curves are introduced between tangents to eliminate the abrupt deflections
and provide smooth transition between the two tangents. For small deflection angles
between the tangents, it may be appropriate to design the alignment without a
horizontal curve. As a guide, the designer may use maximum deflection of 1 degree
without a horizontal curve on lower speed roads in urban areas and 0.5 degree on
higher speed roads in rural areas
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3.3.2 Minimum Curve Lengths

If horizontal curves are used for small deflection angles, curves should be long enough
to avoid the appearance of a “kink.” Minimum curve length for an aesthetically pleasing
curve should be at least three times the design speed (Lmin = 3V). Desirable curve length
on freeways and expressways is six times the design speed (Ldes = 6V).
Lmin = 3V
and
Ldes = 6V
where
Lmin = Minimum length of the curve, m
Ldes = Desirable length of the curve, m
V = Design speed, kph
On roadways with design speeds less than 80 kph, if the minimum curve length
(Lmin = 3V) cannot be attained because of right-of-way or topographic constraints,
designers may apply a minimum length of 150 m for a deflection angle of 5 degrees,
with the minimum length increased by 30 m for each 1 degree decrease in deflection
or the greatest attainable length should be used.
3.4 Cross Slope and Superelevation

Cross slope is defined as the transverse slope across the pavement from the centerline
of an undivided roadway or the edge of the median of an divided roadway to the edge
of the traveled way or the face of the curb. Normal cross slope shall be 2 percent.
Horizontal curve design employs the use of superelevation, which is the banking of the
roadway to counterbalance the centripetal forces on the driver and vehicle as they
traverse the curve. When a vehicle traverses a curve, it is subjected to centripetal
acceleration that acts toward the center of curvature. The centripetal acceleration is
balanced by the component of the vehicle’s weight by banking the roadway. This has
the effect of providing a level of comfort to the driver in traversing the curve, thereby
enabling maintaining speed through the curve.
Horizontal curve design is thus based on providing comfort. Design values reflect
studies of driver behavior in which the vast majority of drivers tracked curves at 0.22 g
or less (where g is the acceleration due to gravity). The combination of curve radius,
superelevation, and lateral acceleration establishes the basis for design.
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QHDM adopts the methodology, from the DMRB (Department for Transport, 2002), for
design of curves and superelevation. The methodology involves the calculating of
superelevation using the following equation:
𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
S = 𝟐𝟐.𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖𝟖 𝑹𝑹
where
S = superelevation, %
R = radius of curve, m
The maximum superelevation used for roads in Qatar is set by policy to be 5 percent
for most conditions. Superelevation rates on rural and urban roadways shall not exceed
5 percent, except at interchange ramps where 6 percent to 8 percent may be used for
lower ramp design speeds. Provision of superelevation is encouraged on all roadways.
In urban areas where design speeds are less than 50 kph, it may not be practical or
feasible to provide superelevation, so superelevation may be optional.
A curve may be designed with full superelevation, or merely the removal of the adverse
normal slope. Table 3.1 lists the minimum radii for various superelevation rates and
design speeds. It also lists the minimum radius for which superelevation is not required
or adverse crown removal.
Table 3.1 Minimum Radius without Superelevation
Minimum Radius (m)

Design
Without Superelevation Superelevation (%)
Speed
(kph) or Adverse Slope 2 3.5 5 7 8
30 180 160 90 65 45 40
40 360 320 185 130 90 80
50 510 450 255 180 127 115
60 720 640 365 255 180 160
70 1,020 900 510 360 255 not applicable
80 1,280 1,140 650 450 325 not applicable
90 1,620 1,430 820 575 410 not applicable
100 2,040 1,800 1,020 720 510 not applicable
110 2,420 2,140 1,230 860 610 not applicable
120 2,880 2,550 1,460 1,020 720 not applicable
130 3,380 3,000 1,710 1,200 860 not applicable
140 3,920 3,470 1,980 1,390 990 not applicable

Note:
Source: DMRB, Department for Transport, 2002.
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Table 3.2 lists values of the superelevation expressed as a percentage of the difference
in elevation between the rotated edges of pavement over the width of pavement. It is
based on the selected design speed and radius of the curve. The values were derived
based on the superelevation equation shown above. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 provide values
for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even 10 kph increments. By policy,
design speeds are limited to specific values for each functional classification as shown
in Table 1.1. However, designers may select a design speed other than specified in
Table 1.1 for a given functional classification through the departure process specified
in Part 25, Departures from Standards Process.
Table 3.2 Superelevation for Radii and Design Speed (percent)
Radius Design Speed (kph)
(m) 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
2,600 2.3 2.7
2,400 2.1 2.5 2.9
2,200 2.3 2.7 3.2
2,000 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.5
1,800 2.4 2.8 3.3 3.9
1,600 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3
1,400 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.3 5.0
1,200 2.4 3.0 3.6 4.3 5.0
1,000 2.3 2.9 3.6 4.3
800 2.3 2.8 3.6 4.5
600 2.1 3.0 3.8 4.8
400 2.3 3.2 4.5
200 3.2 4.5
100 6.4
80 8.0
Shaded values are for Design Speeds selected only through the Departure Process per Part 25, Departures
The use of design values for radius of curve and superelevation outside those shown in
Tables 3.1 and 3.2 shall require a Departure from standards.
3.5 Superelevation Transition and Spirals

Superelevation transition is the length needed to change the slope of the pavement
from a normal cross slope section to a fully superelevated section. Most simple curves
begin directly at the end of a tangent alignment. The length of the superelevation
transition has two parts:
• Tangent run-out length (TR)

• Superelevation runoff length (LR)
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To achieve full superelevation it is necessary to begin rotating the pavement on the

tangent approach. The tangent run-out is the length required to remove the adverse
pavement cross slope by rotating the outside edge of the traveled way. This cannot be
too abrupt so the driver can adjust to the rotation of the pavement.
Superelevation runoff length is the length required to change the pavement cross slope
from zero percent to the required superelevation rate by rotating the outside edge of
traveled way.
Before calculating the tangent run-out length and the superelevation runoff length, it
is important to establish the axis of rotation and the rate at which the pavement is
rotated to achieve the change in cross slope.
3.5.1 Axis of Rotation

There are four methods available to establish the axis of rotation and to attain the
superelevation transition, as illustrated on Figure 3.6.
• Method 1: Rotating the traveled way about the centerline of the roadway
• Method 2: Rotating the traveled way about the inside edge of the traveled way
• Method 3: Rotating the traveled way about the outside edge of the traveled way
• Method 4: Rotating straight cross slope about the outside edge of the traveled way
Method 1 is the method most commonly used for undivided two-lane roadways. It
could be used for divided roadways where the divided segments are not crowned, for
divided roadways the inside median edge will act as the axis of rotation. Methods 2 and
3 are used on divided highways with a crown in the pavement. Method 4 is the method
most commonly used for divided highways with straight cross slope and for interchange
ramps where there is no crown. All four methods are acceptable.
3.5.2 Rate of Rotation

Rate of rotation is the maximum allowable grade difference between the longitudinal
grades at the axis of rotation and the outside edge of the pavement. The grade
difference is called the maximum relative gradient, which varies based on the design
speeds. QHDM adopts the relative gradient values from AASHTO (2011a). Table 3.3 lists
the relative gradient values.
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Table 3.3 Maximum Relative Gradients
Maximum Relative Gradient Equivalent Maximum Relative

Design Speed (kph) (%) Δ Slope (G Value)
30 0.75 1:125
40 0.70 1:133
50 0.65 1:143
60 0.60 1:167
70 0.55 1:182
80 0.5 1:200
90 0.47 1:213
100 0.44 1:227
110 0.41 1:224
120 0.38 1:263
130 0.35 1:286
140 0.32 1:313

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Figure 3.6 Development of Superelevation
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3.5.3 Calculation of Superelevation Transition Lengths

The superelevation runoff and the tangent run-out are calculated using the equations
in the following sections taken from AASHTO (2011a).
3.5.3.1 Superelevation Runoff Length
Superelevation runoff length is calculated using the following equation:
LR = (ed) × (W) × (G) × (n) × (bw)

where
LR = superelevation runoff length, m
ed = design superelevation rate, m/m
W = width of one traffic lane, m
G = equivalent maximum relative slope (from Table 3.3)
n = number of traffic lanes rotated
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated
The adjustment factors for number of lanes rotated are calculated using the following
equation and the calculated values are listed in Table 3.4 from AASHTO (2011a);
examples are shown in Figure 3.7:
[𝟏𝟏+𝟎𝟎.𝟓𝟓(𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 −𝟏𝟏)]
bw = 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏
where
bw = adjustment factor for number of lanes rotated
n1 = number of lanes rotated
The adjustment factors listed in Table 3.4 generally apply to undivided roadways with
axis of rotation at the centerline of the roadway. For divided roadways, rotated about
the median edge, and for interchange ramps, the adjustment factor should be 1
regardless how many lanes are rotated.
Providing longer transition lengths may be desirable. However, designers should

establish transition design with consideration of the longitudinal vertical alignment.
The combination of roadway geometry (both horizontal and vertical) and rotation of
the pavement may result in sections of road that are essentially flat and hence will not
drain properly. In these cases, the designer may opt to use the adjustment factors on
the divided roadways to reduce the length of the transition to avoid the flat areas and
still comply with the design criteria.
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Table 3.4 Adjustment Factors for Number of Lanes Rotated
Number of Lanes Rotated, n1 Adjustment Factor, bw n1 × bw

1 1.00 1.00
1.5 0.83 1.25
2 0.75 1.50
2.5 0.70 1.75
3.0 0.67 2.00
3.5 0.64 2.25
4.0 0.63 2.50
4.5 0.61 2.75
5.0 0.60 3.00
Figure 3.7 Number of Lanes Rotated for Undivided Roadways
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3.5.3.2 Tangent Run-Out Length
Tangent run-out length is calculated using the following equation.
𝑺𝑺
TR = 𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒏 (𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓 )
𝒅𝒅
where
TR = tangent run-out length, m
Sn = normal cross slope, m/m
ed = design superelevation rate, m/m
3.5.3.3 Superelevation Transition Length
Superelevation transition length is calculated by adding the superelevation runoff

length and the tangent run-out length.
L = LR + TR
The transition length should have a constant equivalent maximum relative slope
(G value) for the entire length. Superelevation transition creates break points at the
beginning and end of the transition, as shown in Figure 3.8. The break points should be
rounded to obtain smooth edge profiles.
QHDM adopts guidance provided in AASHTO (2011a) in determining the minimum

vertical curve lengths to round the break points. The minimum vertical curve length
should be 20 percent of the design speed of the roadway (in kph).
The designer shall plot the edge of pavement profiles to an exaggerated scale at all
superelevation transition areas to determine any drainage issues and low points and
the profiles should be submitted with the conceptual plans.
3.5.4 Spirals
Spirals are transition curves with radius varying from infinity at the tangent end to the
value of the radius at the curve end. The purpose of the spiral is to provide the
superelevation transition from the tangent to a simple curve, or between simple curves
in a compound curve. In addition, spirals are perceived to promote uniform speeds by
providing the natural turning path of a vehicle and minimizing the encroachment on to
the adjacent lanes.
Spirals are encouraged to be used on all high-speed roadways, design speeds 80 kph
and higher, to facilitate the development of superelevation. The Highway Safety
Manual (AASHTO, 2010) shows that the use of spirals on two-lane rural highways has a
small but significant effect on reducing run-off-road crashes.
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The length of the spiral is calculated using the following equations, and higher value of
the two lengths should be used (Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997).
𝑽𝑽𝟑𝟑
Ls = 𝟒𝟒𝟒𝟒.𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕
or
Ls = LR + TR
where
Ls = Length of the Spiral, m
q = rate of increase of centripetal acceleration,𝑚𝑚� 3 , where q = 0.3 𝑚𝑚� 3
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
R = radius, m
TR = tangent run-out length, m
3.5.5 Positioning of Superelevation Transition

Once the superelevation transition length or the spiral length is calculated, the next
step is how to position the length with respect to the curve beginning and ending. The
following methodology should be applied:
3.5.5.1 Curves without Spirals
For curves without spirals the preferred method is to place two-thirds of superelevation
runoff (LR) on the tangent and one-third on the curve and the tangent run-out length
(TR) be placed ahead of the two-thirds of the superelevation runoff length, as shown in
Figure 3.8.
The ratio of the superelevation runoff length on the tangent and on the curve could be
changed, depending on site conditions and geometrics, such as presence of a bridge
approach or presence of the low point on a sag vertical curve within the limits of the
transition. The maximum superelevation runoff distribution ratio allowed shall be
50 percent on the tangent and 50 percent on the curve with justification.
3.5.5.2 Curves with Spirals
The entire superelevation runoff length shall be placed over the length of the spiral
(between TS and SC) and the tangent run-out is placed on the tangent. See Figure 3.8
for the distribution.
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Figure 3.8 Superelevation Transition for Two-Lane Roadways
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3.5.6 Superelevation on Compound Curves

Superelevation transition on compound curves depends on the distance between the
point of curvature (PC) of the first curve and the point of compound curvature (PCC) of
the second curve. Guidance is provided for two-lane roadways for two cases. The same
guidance should be applied for multilane roadways (Illinois Department of
Transportation, 2014 and California Department of Transportation, 2014).
• Case I: Distance between the PC and PCC is 90 m or less

• Case II: Distance between the PC and PCC is greater than 90 m
3.5.6.1 Case I: Distance between the PC and PCC is 90 m or Less
Figure 3.9 illustrates the development and positioning of superelevation transition

length. For Case I provide two-thirds of the design superelevation rate of curve 1 at the
PC and provide design superelevation rate of curve 2 at the PCC. The equivalent
maximum relative slope shall be constant for the entire transition length.

and PCC is less than or equal to 90 m)
3.5.6.2 Case II: Distance between the PC and PCC Greater than 90 m
Figure 3.10 illustrates the development and positioning of superelevation transition

length. For Case 2, provide two-thirds of the design superelevation rate of curve 1 at
the PC, provide design superelevation rate of curve 2 at PCC, and maintain the full
superelevation of curve 1 between the PC and PCC for some distance, before
transitioning to curve 2 design superelevation rate, as shown in the Figure 3.10.
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and PCC is greater than 90 m)
3.5.7 Superelevation on Reverse Curves

Figure 3.11 illustrate the method for development and positioning of superelevation
transition length between reversing curves. The reverse curves should be separated by
adequate tangent length to enable development of superelevation.
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
The preferred tangent length should be equal to 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 + 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝟑𝟑 𝟑𝟑
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
At minimum tangent length should be equal to 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 + 𝑳𝑳𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓
𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
where
Lr1 = superelevation runoff length for curve 1
Lr2 = superelevation runoff length for curve 2
If there is no tangent present the superelevation, runoff shall be positioned such that
zero percent cross-slope is at the point of reverse curvature.
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Figure 3.11 Superelevation between Reverse Curves
3.5.8 Shoulder Slopes on Superelevated Roadways

Normal paved shoulder slopes are 2 percent. For two lane roadways, the shoulder
slopes away from the travel lanes. For the divided roadways with open median or raised
median, the left shoulder slopes towards the travel lanes and the right shoulder slopes
away from the travel lanes, see Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13. While developing
superelevation the shoulder slopes are rotated in the same plane as the travel lanes as
shown in the Figure 3.12 and Figure 3.13.
A general guidance is also included in Figure 3.14 showing how to treat the shoulders
on divided roadways if the left shoulder is sloping towards the median. In this case, two
critical areas should be evaluated with respect to the shoulders. The areas are high side
of the shoulder and low side of the shoulder.
On the high side of the shoulder, a break occurs between the shoulder and the travel
lane slope since they slope away from each other. For normal cross slope section, the
algebraic difference in slope is 4 percent between the shoulder and the travel lane
(2 percent cross-slope on shoulder and 2 percent cross-slope on travel lanes, sloping
away from each other). Maximum allowed algebraic difference shall not exceed
7 percent. For example if the super elevation is 5 percent, the shoulder slope should be
2 percent sloping away from the travel lanes to maintain the 7 percent break. On the
low side of the shoulder, the slopes of the travel lane and shoulder are the same,
2 percent, and they should be rotated concurrently to achieve the design
superelevation.
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Figure 3.12 shows the application of shoulder sloped for rural freeways and
expressways with wide medians, and Figure 3.13 shows the application of shoulder
slope on arterials and collectors with a raised median.
Figure 3.12 Superelevation Development for Freeways and Expressways
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Figure 3.13 Superelevation Development for Arterial and Collectors with Narrow
Medians
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Figure 3.14 Superelevation Development for Freeway and Expressways (Shoulder

Break Option)
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3.6 Traveled Way Widening on Horizontal Curves

Depending on the design speed, horizontal curvature, width of the traveled way and
the design vehicle used, additional widening may be necessary on horizontal curves to
facilitate the operating conditions of larger vehicles on the curves. On the tangent or
straight sections of the roadway the rear wheels follow or track the front wheels,
however on the curves the rear wheels do not follow or track the front wheels exactly
and hence the vehicle occupies greater width and may need additional widening as
compared to the tangent or straight sections. The width of the additional widening
depends on the following:
• Characteristics of the design vehicle, such as, length, width and turning radius
• Radius of the curvature of the roadway
• Width of the lane on the tangent or straight section
The additional width provided will allow the driver to comfortably maneuver through
the curve without encroaching on the opposing lane or shoulder. The additional widths
for a given design vehicle depend on the design speed and the radius of the curvature.
Widening is expensive and small amounts of widening, less than 0.3 m per lane, are not
cost effective and may be disregarded. Table 3.5 shows the widening criteria.
Table 3.5 Traveled Way Widening Criteria on Horizontal Curves

Additional width
Lane width Description per lane(m)
Standard Inside Curve Radius less than or equal to 100 m See Table 3.6
(3.65 m per lane)
Standard Centerline Radius between 100 m and 150 m
0.3 m
(3.65 m per lane)
Standard Centerline Radius greater than 150 m
None
(3.65 m per lane)
Less than standard (less Inside Curve Radius less or equal to than 100 m
See Table 3.6
than 3.65 m per lane)
Less than standard (less Centerline Radius between 100 m and 150 m subject
than 3.65 m per lane) to maximum roadway widths of 7.9 m for 2 lanes, 0.6
11.9 m for 3 lanes, and 15.8 m for 4 lanes.
Less than standard (less Centerline Radius between 150 m and 300 m subject
than 3.65 m per lane) to maximum roadway widths of 7.3 m for 2 lanes, 0.5
Less than standard Centerline Radius between 300 m and 400 m subject
(3.65 m per lane) to maximum roadway widths of 7.3 m for 2 lanes, 0.3
PAGE 58 VOLUME 1
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Table 3.6 Traveled Way Widening Criteria at Horizontal Curves, Inside Curve
Radius less 100 m or Less
Two Lane Width for one way or

Two Way Traffic (excluding
Inside Single Lane Single Lane Width with provision
shoulder width) (m)
Curve Width (excluding for passing a stationary vehicle
Radius Shoulders) (includes shoulder width) Inside Outside
(m) (m) (m) Lane Lane Total
10 8.4 10.9 8.4 6.5 14.9
15 7.1 9.6 7.1 6.0 13.1
20 6.2 8.7 6.2 5.6 11.8
25 5.7 8.2 5.7 5.2 10.9
30 5.3 7.8 5.3 5.0 10.3
40 4.7 7.2 4.7 4.6 9.3
50 4.4 6.9 4.4 4.3 8.7
75 4.0 6.5 4.0 4.0 8.0
100 3.8 6.3 3.8 3.8 7.6

Curves radii less than 100 m can be used on mainline with a departure from standard
and the additional travel lane widening values required are shown in Table 3.6.
Traveled way widening transition on curves should be applied in gradual manner, on

both the approach end and departing end of the curve. The transition should produce
a smooth edge of traveled way alignments and should fit the natural path of the vehicle.
On simple curves without spirals the widening should be placed on the inside edge of
the traveled way. On curves with spirals the widening may be placed either on the
inside edge of the traveled way or split equally on both sides of the centerline.
The distribution of the widening with respect to the, beginning and end of the curve
should be consistent with the application of superelevation transition methodology
specified in Chapter 3.5. For simple curves without spirals the widening should be
developed over the length of superelevation transition. For curves with spirals, the
widening should be developed over the length of the spiral. The centerline marking
after the application of the widening shall be equidistant to the edge of the traveled
ways. Figure 3.15 shows the widening application on two lane roadways.
Widening values obtained from Table 3.5 and Table 3.6 can be checked and adjusted
accordingly using commercially available truck turning template software.
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Figure 3.15 Travel Lane Widening on Horizontal Curves
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3.7 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset

For uncurbed roadways horizontal clearance or lateral offset is defined as the minimum
distance from the edge of traveled way to the face of the vertical obstruction, see
Figure 3.16. For curbed roadways the horizontal clearance or lateral offset is defined as
the minimum distance from the face of the curb to the face of a vertical obstruction, see
Figure 3.16. The lateral offset generally applies to urban areas where right-of-way is
limited.
Provision for a sufficient horizontal clearance or lateral offset is intended to negate

conflicts between the opening of car doors, side mirrors of larger trucks and other similar
actions. The design objective is to place roadside elements, such as barriers, bridge piers,
sign and traffic signal supports, trees, landscaping items, and power poles away from the
edge of traveled way.
Minimum lateral offset for uncurbed roadways shall be 1.2 m from the edge of the
traveled way and for curbed roadways; a minimum lateral offset shall be 0.6 m from
the face of the curb. At the curbed intersections and curbed driveway openings, a
minimum lateral offset from the face of the curb to the obstruction shall be 0.9 m.
Figure 3.16 Horizontal Clearance or Lateral Offset
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3.8 Widths for Turning Roadways at Intersections

The width of turning roadways at intersections and interchanges is a function of the
design vehicle, design speed, and the radius of the curvature. Selection of the design
vehicle is based on the type, size, and frequency of vehicles expected to use the
roadway. The width of the turning roadway is determined from the track width of the
design vehicle in combination with the radius of the curvature and the design speeds
that typically range between 20 kph to 30 kph. The roadway width includes the width
of the lane, width of the shoulders or clearances to the face of curb. See table 6.2 in
Part 2, Planning, for details of typical design vehicles.
Width of turning roadways also depends on the operational purposes of the roadway
and design traffic conditions. Operational purposes of the turning roadways include the
following three cases and are illustrated in Figure 3.17;
• Case I: One way operation without provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case II: One way operation with provision for passing a stalled vehicle,
• Case III: Two way operation.
Design traffic conditions are described as follows:
• Traffic Condition A: Predominantly passenger cars with few single unit trucks (SU-9
and SU-12).
• Traffic Condition B: Includes sufficient number of single unit trucks (SU-9 and
SU-12) that govern the design and consideration is also given to intermediate
semitrailers (WB-12 and WB-15).
• Traffic Condition C: Includes sufficient number of intermediate semitrailers (WB-12
and WB-15) and interstate semitrailer (WB-20) that govern the design.
The radius of curvature of the inner edge of pavement depends on the design speed
and the expected design vehicles using the roadway. Table 3.7 shows pavement width
values for various design traffic conditions, operational purposes and curvature of the
inside edge of pavement. The values are adopted form AASHTO, 2011a.
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Table 3.7 Design Widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways
Pavement Width, m
Radius on
Case I, One-Lane, One-Way Case II, One-Lane, One- Case III, Two-Lane, One-
Inner Edge
Operation – no provision Way Operation – provision Way or Two-Way
of
for passing a stalled vehicle for passing a stalled vehicle Operation
Pavement,
Design Traffic Condition
R, m
A B C A B C A B C
15 5.4 5.5 7.0 6.0 7.8 9.2 9.4 11.0 13.6
25 4.8 5.0 5.8 5.6 6.9 7.9 8.6 9.7 11.1
30 4.5 4.9 5.5 5.5 6.7 7.6 8.4 9.4 10.6
50 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.3 6.3 7.0 7.9 8.8 9.5
75 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 6.1 6.7 7.7 8.5 8.9
100 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.2 5.9 6.5 7.6 8.3 8.7
125 3.9 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.9 6.4 7.6 8.2 8.5
150 3.6 4.5 4.5 5.1 5.8 6.4 7.5 8.2 8.4
Tangent 3.6 4.2 4.2 5.0 5.5 6.1 7.3 7.9 7.9
Note: Only use the turning roadway widths in this table as a guide and check with a turning template or
computer simulated turning template program.
Sourece: AASHTO, 2011a

Figure 3.17 Turning Roadway Widths on Curves at Intersections
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Residential roads serve or give access to private properties. They should be designed
to serve the needs of the residents while discouraging through traffic from using the
roads as a short cut.
Generally, the design of roads in residential areas should consider the following:
• Minimizing pedestrian–vehicular conflict.

• Minimize through traffic movements.
• Road patterns that minimize excessive vehicle travel.
• Schools, mosques, or shopping facilities should be considered in the overall design.
• Uniform intersection spacing to reduce speeds.
• Parking requirements should be provided without reducing sight distance
requirements.
• Design that discourages excessive speeds.
• Location of street lighting and roadside furniture.
• Specifications for trees and planting.
• Location of public art.
• Relation to topography from the standpoint of drainage, economics, and amenities.
• Routing and details of public utilities.
• Arrangements for maintenance and servicing.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
4 Vertical Alignment
This chapter provides guidance in designing vertical alignment. The components of
vertical alignment include longitudinal grades, vertical curves, and vertical clearances.
Another commonly used term for vertical alignment is the profile of the road.
Design of vertical alignment is typically based on minimizing the total earthwork

required for the roadway, providing drainage, and facilitating the operation of heavier
vehicles.
Vertical alignment consists of a series of tangent longitudinal grades connected by

vertical curves. Vertical curves are parabolic, with length symmetrical about the vertical
point of intersection of the two tangents.
The design of the vertical curves depends on the design speed, and other factors like
drainage, grades, and existing topography. To attain a consistent smooth flowing and
aesthetically pleasing vertical alignment, consideration should be given to the following
practices:
• Vertical alignment developed should be consistent and fit in to the topography.

• A “roller coaster” or “hidden dip” type of profile should be avoided.
• Broken-back vertical curves – two crest or two sag curves separated by a short
tangent, less than 100 m, should be avoided.
• In flat terrain, the elevation of the profile is often is controlled by drainage. The
profile should be developed such that adequate drainage can be provided. In areas
where the surface water can be above the ground level or the groundwater table is
immediately below the surface, the profile of the low edge of the finished shoulder
should be at least 1.0 m above the water level. Requirements should be checked
and confirmed following detailed ground investigation and analysis.
• In areas of rock cut, if practical, the profile should be developed so that the low edge
of the finished shoulder is at least 0.3 m above the rock level to avoid excess rock
excavation.
• Avoid sag or crest vertical curves at the superelevation transition areas of the
horizontal curve.
• Avoid sag vertical curves in cut areas unless adequate drainage could be provided.
Also, avoid sag vertical curve low points on bridges.
The following sections describe the components and design requirements of the
vertical curves.
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4.1 Terrain
Variations in topography of the site affects both the horizontal and vertical alignments,
but the impact of the topography on vertical alignments is more pronounced than on
horizontal alignments. The variations in topography are classified into three terrain
conditions: level, rolling and mountainous.
Level terrain is generally flat and has minimal effect in developing vertical alignments.
Vertical alignments can be designed with greater degree of flexibility (either long or
short) without much impact on the construction cost. The terrain in Qatar is level and
the guidance provided in this section is based on the level terrain.
4.2 Longitudinal Grades

Roadway longitudinal grades impact the vehicle operations, especially trucks, and
therefore longitudinal grades designed should be consistent to provide uniform
operations.
4.2.1 Maximum Longitudinal Grades

Maximum longitudinal grades depend on the functional classification and design speed
of the roadway and Table 4.1 list the maximum grades. Wherever practical use flatter
grades and avoid using maximum grades.
Table 4.1 Maximum Grades
Functional Classification Maximum Grade (percent)
Freeways and Expressways 3
Arterials (Major & Minor) 4
Collectors (Major & Minor) 6
Local & Service Roads 8
4.2.2 Minimum Grades

For uncurbed roadways, minimum longitudinal grade should be 0.5 percent and for
curbed roadways, the preferred longitudinal grade should be 0.5 percent and minimum
shall be 0.3 percent to provide adequate longitudinal drainage. For drainage
requirements, refer to Part 10, Drainage.
4.2.3 Minor Road Grades at Intersections

At intersecting roadways carry the major road cross slope onto the minor road and
develop the minor road profile meeting the established design criteria for the vertical
design. The distance that the major road cross slope is carried onto the minor road
depends on the grades of the minor road and the vertical design. Figure 4.1 shows
graphical representation of the profile on the minor road and provided for guidance
only.
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Figure 4.1 Minor Road Vertical Alignment Approach at Intersections
Grade is one of the controlling geometric criteria requiring a Departure should the
specified criteria not be met. This includes values in Table 4.1 and Section 4.2.2.
4.3 Vertical Curves

In highway design, two types of vertical curves are used -- crest and sag. Regardless of
the type of curve, crest, or sag, the vertical curves are defined by three points.
• VPC – Vertical Point of Curvature: point where the tangent grade ends and vertical
curve begins.
• VPT – Vertical Point of Tangency: point where the curve ends and tangent grade
begins.
• VPI – Vertical Point of Intersection: points where the two tangent grades intersect.
4.3.1 Crest Vertical Curves

Crest vertical curves are used when the change in tangent longitudinal grades are
negative. Crest vertical curves have a convex shape. There are two forms of crest vertical
curves:
• Type I: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to negative.

• Type II: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to positive or negative to
negative.
4.3.2 Sag Vertical Curves

Sag vertical curves are used when the change in tangent longitudinal grades are positive.
Sag vertical curves have a concave shape. There are two forms of sag vertical curves:
• Type III: Longitudinal grade changes from negative to positive.
• Type IV: Longitudinal grade changes from positive to positive or negative to
negative to negative.
Figure 4.2 illustrates the type and forms of the vertical curves.
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Figure 4.2 Vertical Curve Elements
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The rate of change of longitudinal grades is defined as the algebraic difference between
the intersecting grades divided by the length of the curve. The rate of vertical curvature,
a measure of vertical curvature, is defined as the distance required for a 1 percent change
in longitudinal grade. The rate of vertical curvature is called the K-value. The rate of slope
change and the rate of vertical curvature (K) are expressed using the following equations.
𝑨𝑨 (𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮−𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮)
Rate of change of slope =
𝑳𝑳
= 𝑳𝑳
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝑳𝑳
K= 𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
= (𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮−𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮)� = (𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮−𝑮𝑮𝑮𝑮)
𝑳𝑳
𝑳𝑳
K= 𝑨𝑨
where
K = rate of vertical curvature
L = length of vertical curve, m
A = algebraic difference in longitudinal grades, percent
G1, G2 = longitudinal grades, percent
K values are used in conjunction with the longitudinal grades to calculate the curve
lengths for various design speeds.
4.3.3 Crest Vertical Curve Design

Design of the crest vertical curve lengths depends on the sight distance requirements for
a given design speed, primarily Stopping sight distance (SSD); as well as passing sight
distance (PSD) as detailed in Chapter 2. Design controls used in calculating the crest
vertical curve lengths are:
1. Eye Height of 1.08 m for both SSD and PSD

2. Object height of 0.6 m for SSD and 1.08 m for PSD
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There are two design conditions to consider when determining the length of the crest
vertical curves. The lengths are determined using the following equations (AASHTO,
2011a):
Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve (see Figure 4.3)
𝑨𝑨𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐
L = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏(�𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉 𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝟏 +�𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐 )
or
Condition 2 - When SSD is greater than length of the curve
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐(�𝒉𝒉𝟏𝟏 +�𝒉𝒉𝟐𝟐 }𝟐𝟐

L = 2S –
𝑨𝑨
where
L = length of the curve, m
h1 = height of eye above roadway surface, 1.08 m
h2 = height of object above roadway surface, 0.6 m
Figure 4.3 Stopping Sight Distance at Crest of Vertical Curve
Condition 1 is most common; however, condition 2 can occur when the algebraic
difference in longitudinal grades is small. The values from condition 1 can also be used
with condition 2 without significant errors. Table 4.2 lists the K-values calculated using
the equation for condition 1 for different design speeds.
Table 4.2 also lists the K-values using the equation for condition 1 for passing sight
distance controls with eye height and object height of 1.08 m.
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Table 4.2 provides values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even
10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
functional classification as shown in Table 1.1. However, designers may, select a design
Table 4.2 Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curve Design Based on Stopping
Sight Distance
K-values for K-values for

Design Speed Stopping Sight Passing Sight Stopping Sight Passing Sight
(kph) Distance (m) Distance (m) Distance Distance
20 20 120 1 20
30 35 180 2 40
40 50 250 4 75
50 65 290 7 100
60 85 345 11 140
70 105 410 17 195
80 130 460 26 245
90 160 520 39 315
100 185 580 52 390
110 220 630 74 460
120 250 690 95 555
130 285 * 124 *
140 325 * 161 *

Note:
4.3.4 Sag Vertical Curve Design

Design of the sag vertical curve lengths depends on the sight distance requirements for a
given design speed. Stopping sight distance (SSD) requirements detailed in Chapter 2.
QHDM adopts AASHTO (2011a) criteria for designing sag vertical curves. Sag curves are
designed using the following criteria:
• Headlight sight distance criteria for roadways that are not lighted.
• Comfort criteria for roadways that are lighted.
4.3.4.1 Headlight Sight Distance Criteria
Headlight sight distance criteria should be used in designing sag vertical curves for the
roadways that do not have roadway lighting. Headlight sight distance criteria uses
headlight height of 0.6 m and a 1 degree upward divergence of the headlight beam from
the horizontal axis of the vehicle to calculate the length of sag vertical curves. The
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distance between the vehicle and where the 1 degree beam of light intersects the
roadway surface is called the light beam distance and is the available sight distance. The
length of the curves designed should be long enough so that the light beam distance is
equal to the sight distance. Figure 4.4 illustrates the criteria.
There are two design conditions to consider when determining the length of the sag
vertical curves. The lengths are determined using the following equations (AASHTO,
2011a):
Condition 1 - When SSD is less than length of the curve
𝑨𝑨𝑺𝑺𝟐𝟐
L = 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[𝒉𝒉+𝑺𝑺(𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 )
or
Condition 2 - When SSD is greater than length of the curve
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐[𝒉𝒉+𝑺𝑺�𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝟏𝟏𝟎𝟎 �]
L = 2S –
𝑨𝑨
where
L = length of the curve, m
h = height of headlight, m, 0.6 m
Figure 4.4 Stopping Sight Distance at Sag Vertical Curve
Condition 1 is most common however the values from condition 1 can also be used with
condition 2 without significant errors. Table 4.3 lists the K-values calculated using the
equation for condition 1 for different design speeds.
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4.3.4.2 Comfort Criteria for Roadways with Lighting
Comfort criteria should be used in designing sag vertical curves for the roadways that
have roadway lighting. The length of the sag vertical curve can be calculated using the
following equation (AASHTO, 2011a).
𝑨𝑨𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
L = 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
where
L = length of the sag vertical curve, m
The K-values derived from the above equation for sag vertical curves are listed in
Table 4.3.
The sag vertical lengths calculated by using comfort criteria are almost 50 percent lower
than the values calculated by the headlight sight distance criteria. Based on the sight
conditions of the project, such as urban, rural, roadway lighted or unlighted, residential
or commercial etc., the design should coordinate with the Overseeing Organization in
establishing the appropriate design criteria for designing the sag vertical curves for a
given project.
Table 4.3 provides values for a full range of potential selected design speeds in even
10 kph increments. By policy, design speeds are limited to specific values for each
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Table 4.3 Design Controls for Sag Vertical Curves
Design Speed Stopping Sight K-Values Lighted K-Value

(kph) Distance (m) Roadways Unlighted Roadways
20 20 1 3
30 35 2.5 6
40 50 4.5 9
50 65 7 13
60 85 10 18
70 105 13 23
80 130 17 30
90 160 21 38
100 185 26 45
110 220 31 55
120 250 37 63
130 285 43 73
140 325 50 84
Note:
Lengths of vertical curves are included in the design criteria subject to a Departure if
not met. Designers shall apply the design criteria in Tables 4.2 and 4.3.
4.3.5 Minimum Length of Vertical Curves

Calculated lengths for both crest vertical and sag vertical curves using Sections 4.4.2
and 4.4.3 should be checked against the minimum curve lengths established in this
section and use the higher of the two values.
Minimum curve lengths should be 0.6 times the design speed in kph (AASHTO, 2011a).
Lmin = 0.6 x V
where
Lmin = minimum length of vertical curve, m
4.3.6 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve

Vertical curves are not required when the change in grade is small. The change in
longitudinal grade has an impact on the drivers comfort. The impact is more on sag
curves compared to the crest curves due to the centripetal and gravitational forces act
in the same direction rather than opposing directions
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Table 4.4 lists the permitted maximum grade change without a vertical curve for various
design speeds. Maximum grade change is calculated based on the comfort control criteria
presented in Section 4.4.3 and it varies with the design speed (Ohio Department of
Transportation, 2014).
𝑨𝑨𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
L= 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
𝑳𝑳 𝒙𝒙 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟑
A= 𝑽𝑽𝟐𝟐
where
L = length of the vertical, assume 7.6 m vertical curve
A = change in grade, percent
Table 4.4 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve

Design Speed (kph) Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve (%)
50 1.20
60 0.83
70 0.61
80 0.47
90 0.37
100 0.30
110 0.25
120 0.21
130 0.18
140 0.15
Note:
Limit the minimum distance between consecutive grade breaks to 100 m.
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4.4 Vertical Clearances

The minimum vertical clearance between two roads that are grade separated are
specified to prevent vehicles or their loads from coming into contact with any
structures, such as bridges, lighting, ventilation shafts, sign gantries, overhead cables,
or suspended lighting and other vertical roadside furniture. Table 4.5 lists the minimum
vertical clearances.
The clearance shall be provided across all traffic lanes, including shoulders. Clearance
should also allow for 200 mm of future pavement resurfacing, which may be applied
during road maintenance. The design should always allow for alternative routes for
over-height vehicles so that they can bypass the structure if needed.
Table 4.5 Vertical Clearance at Structures

Category of Road/Structure Type Clearance Required (m)
High load routes 6.5
Gantries/lightweight structures 6.5
Pedestrian over bridge 6.5
Freeway and expressway bridges 6.5
Camel underpass crossings 6.0
All other road structures 6.0
Pedestrian and bicycle underpasses 3.5
Roads over heavy Rails/all other Rails 7.7a/7.0a
Tunnels 6.5b
aUnless otherwise agreed with the Railway Authority
bTunnels greater than 150 m long – additional clearance of 250 mm shall be provided for lighting and
ventilation plant equipment in accordance to the guidance in DMRB, BD 78/99, Department for Transport,
2002
Where a public utility specifies a minimum vertical clearance to its plant, the designer
should check that clearance requirement against Table 4.5 and provide the greater of
the two clearances. Protective measures may be required at overhead cable crossings
such as guard wires. Guidance may be sought from the Overseeing Organization
regarding the vertical clearances when planning work near electricity and water
installations.
Road designers must work with designers of the bridges or overcrossing structures to
provide the necessary vertical clearances at all points along the width of the roadway
including shoulders. This design process will often be iterative, with the bridge engineer
determining optimal bridge types, configurations and depths of structure; and the
roadway designer adjusting the profiles of the roadways accordingly to establish the
required clearances.
Special attention is needed when a roadway with a sag vertical curve underpasses a
structure. The clearance established in Table 4.5 shall be increased by the values shown
in the Table 4.6. The values in the Table 4.6 are established based on a sag radius
measured along the sag vertical curve over a 25 m chord, see Figure 4.5. The 25 m chord
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is established based on the average length of the semitrailer and the radius of the sag
vertical curve is approximated using the following formula:
R = 100K
where
R = radius of sag curve, m
K = rate of vertical curvature
Figure 4.5 Additional Clearances at Underpasses for Sag Vertical Curves
Table 4.6 Sag Radius Compensation

Sag Radius (m) Additional Clearance (mm)
1000 80
1,200 70
1,500 55
2,000 45
3,000 25
6,000 15
>6,000 nil
Source Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, 1997
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Minimum clearances shall be per Table 4.5. Minimum vertical clearance is one of the
controlling criteria for departures and if required clearance per Table 4.5 cannot be
provided, a departure shall be obtained, per the process noted in Part 25, Departures
from Standards Process. The designer shall prepare the Departure. If the vertical
clearance is less than 5.7 m, the designer shall prepare the Departure along with design
considerations in designing over height protection system. The overhead protection
system shall be designed per guidance provided in Ashghal’s Intelligent Transportation
Systems Deployment Manual (in preparation).

One of the main issues confronting the highway engineer in Qatar is the flatness of the
topography in large areas and the associated issues in providing adequate measures to
accommodate surface water drainage see Part 10, Drainage for additional details.
During the vertical alignment design, consideration should be given to the following
practices specific to conditions in Qatar.
• Residential and Commercial

− Preferred maximum slope across housing plots is 1 in 30.
− Sag curves should be designed such that low points are not in the middle of the
driveway.
− Road alignment should preferably be kept below adjacent property level.
− Existing utilities should be considered during the design of the vertical
alignments.
− Sidewalk maximum longitudinal gradient should be 1 in 20 and refer to Part 19,
Pedestrian, Bicycle and Public Transportation for additional details.
− Maximum driveway gradients to properties should be 1 in 15 (6.67 percent).
• Industrial
− Maximum roadway gradients should be limited to 1 in 20 (5.00 percent) due to
use of heavy vehicles.
− After long or steep down gradients, heavy vehicles may require additional level
areas for braking distance or emergency run-off lanes.
− Change in transverse or longitudinal grade should not be significant enough to
cause loss of load.
It is important that the designer understand the significance of proper geometric design
and its influence on road safety and the harmonization of horizontal and vertical
alignments to provide safe, functional, and aesthetic roadways.
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SECTION [?]
[TITLE]
5 General Considerations
5.1 General
Horizontal and vertical alignments are permanent design elements that warrant
thorough study. It is extremely difficult and costly to correct alignment deficiencies
after a highway is constructed. On freeways and expressways, there are numerous
controls such as multi-level structures and costly right-of-way. On most urban roads,
heavy development takes place along the property lines, making it impractical to
change the alignment in the future. Thus, compromises in the design of alignment
should be weighed carefully, because any initial savings may be more than offset by the
economic loss to the public in the form of crashes and delays.
Horizontal and vertical alignment should not be designed independently. They

complement each other, and poorly designed combinations can spoil the good points
and exacerbate the deficiencies of each. Horizontal alignment and profile are among
the more important he permanent design elements of the highway. Excellence in the
design of each and their combination increases usefulness and safety, encourages
uniform speed, and improves appearance, nearly always without additional cost.
It is difficult to discuss combinations of horizontal alignment and profile without

reference to the broader issue of highway location. These subjects are interrelated, and
what is said about one generally is applicable to the other. It is assumed that the general
location of a facility has been fixed and that the task remaining is to develop a specific
design to harmonize the vertical and horizontal lines, such that the finished highway,
road, or street will be an economical, pleasant, and safe facility on which to travel. The
physical constraints or influences that act singly or in combination to determine the
alignment are the character of roadway based on the traffic, topography, and
subsurface conditions, the existing cultural development, likely future developments,
and the location of the roadway’s terminals. Design speed is considered in determining
the general roadway location, but as design proceeds to the development of more
detailed alignment and profile it assumes greater importance. The selected design
speed serves to keep all elements of design in balance including curvature, sight
distance, width, clearance, and maximum gradient.
5.2 Harmonizing the Horizontal Alignment

The choice and arrangement of linear elements are crucial factors in whether the road
will look right in its surroundings and pleasing to the driver of the vehicle. The design
should provide a safe road, with the necessary stopping sight distances.
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The aim of flowing alignment is to combine the various components in a manner that
results in the road being experienced by the road user as a free-flowing, harmonious
form without visual discontinuities. Such a design results in better integration of the
road into the landscape and helps to make the road a construction that is visually
pleasing from the viewpoint both of its users and those outside the road reservation.
The principles of flowing alignment are closely linked with the way in which the driver
sees the road line and in particular with the shape of the road edges.
It is advisable to avoid small changes in direction in a flowing alignment, because these

likely will appear unsatisfactory from the vehicle. Furthermore, small transverse
displacements can present a confusing prospect for the driver.
When two straight road segments are connected, the use of a short horizontal curve is
likely to cause the appearance of a kink, as shown in Figure 5.1, which can be improved
by employing a larger radius. The perception of an improvement is realized only when
the views being compared are taken from the same distance from the vertex of the
curve. If the viewpoint is at the same distance from the start of the curve, then
improvement is not achieved; in fact, the kink will appear to be more pronounced.
Figure 5.1 Example of a Kink and Improvement with Larger Radius
Even with a large radius curve, it is not possible to avoid the illusion of a sharp change
in direction if the approach tangents are sufficiently long. The best results are likely to
be achieved with a flowing alignment, where tangents can be dispensed with. This is
not always possible or even desirable. For example, the sight lines on an undivided
roadway where passing is permitted must be based on passing sight distances, not on
stopping sight distances.
Smooth-flowing alignments are required for sustaining posted speeds. The following
are the principles to be followed in securing a satisfactory alignment.
• Care should be taken to ensure that embankments and cuttings do not make severe
breaks in the natural skyline. This can be achieved by designing the road on a curve
whenever possible to preserve an unbroken background.
• Short curves and tangents should not be used. Adjacent curves should be similar in
length. See Figure 5.3, Sketch L.
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• Small changes of direction should not be made, as they give the perspective of the
road ahead a disjointed appearance. See Figure 5.1.
• Curves of the same or opposite sense which are visible from one another should not
be connected by a short tangents. It is better to introduce a flat curve between
curves of the same sense, or to extend the transition curves to a common point
between curves of the opposite sense. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• Changes in horizontal and vertical alignment should be phased to coincide
whenever possible. See Figure 5.3, Sketches I and J.
• Flowing alignment can most readily be achieved by using large radius curves rather
than tangents. See Figure 5.3, Sketch G.
• The profile of the road over bridges should form part of the easy flowing alignment.
See Figure 5.2, Sketch B.
• At the start of horizontal curves, superelevation should not create large flat areas
on which water would stand. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• Horizontal and vertical curves should be made as generous as possible at
interchanges to enhance sight distance. Refer to Chapter 3 of this part on Sight
Distance.
• Sharp horizontal curvature should not be introduced at or near the top of a
pronounced crest. This is hazardous especially at night, because the driver cannot
see the change in horizontal alignment. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
• The view of the road ahead should not appear distorted by sharp horizontal
curvature introduced near the low point of a sag curve. See Figure 5.4, Sketch M.
Typical alignment and profile relationships are shown in Section 5.4.
5.3 Harmonizing the Vertical Alignment

Vertical curvature plays an equally important part in achieving a harmonious alignment
as horizontal geometry. The designer should aim for a well-balanced alignment and
make use of vertical curvature in preference to tangent gradients where feasible.
Inappropriate combinations of vertical curves and gradients can lead to a disjointed
appearance and should be avoided. The following undesirable combinations of vertical
elements should be avoided:
• Either a short crest curve between two grades or a short sag curve between two
grades. See Figure 5.5, Sketch R.
• Either a short grade between crest curves or short tangents between sag curves.
See Figure 5.5, Sketch P.
• Reverse vertical curves causing small changes in height on level or near level
sections of road. See Figure 5.2, Sketch B.
• A consistent gradient containing either a shallow sag curve or a shallow crest curve.
See Figure 5.5, Sketch Q.
• Terracing on which two crest curves can be seen at one time. See Figure 5.5,
Sketch S.
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As is the case with horizontal curves and tangents, vertical curve radii must be large
enough to avoid the appearance of a kink and visual discontinuities. Even large radii will
sometimes give the appearance of an abrupt change in direction if the viewpoint is
sufficiently far from the curve. Driver perception is such that it is not considered visually
disturbing until the driver is within about 500 m from the start.
Typical alignment and profile relationships are shown in Section 5.4.
5.4 Phasing of Horizontal and Vertical Alignments

Coordination of the horizontal and vertical alignments should be carefully considered
at the earliest stages of design development when adjustments to either can be made.
To obtain a satisfactory alignment, it is important to consider the road as a three-
dimensional unit to properly integrate the vertical and horizontal aspects of the line.
The elements of horizontal and vertical alignment should be in phase wherever
possible. In other words, the corresponding elements in the horizontal and vertical
planes should start and end at approximately the same points.
If the out-of-phase lengths are small, this is not likely to be significant; in fact, it is
probably advantageous to have an overlap. This may be seen to contribute to the
integration of the two aspects of the road alignment. When an overlap is used, it should
be small in comparison with the length of the element. If prevailing conditions prevent
using longer, coincident curves, it is possible to achieve significant improvement if
longer overlapping curves are implemented.
Ideally, the coordinated use of large radius horizontal and vertical curvature will
provide the best appearance and more readily accommodate solutions to drainage
issues arising from the creation of large flat areas. The following combinations of
horizontal and vertical alignment provide some additional examples of those likely to
result in an awkward appearance and should be avoided if possible.
• A short sag curve within a horizontal curve. This is similar to the case of a short sag
curve occurring along a tangent grade but with a more pronounced impression of a
discontinuity. See Figure 5.2, Sketch E.
• A short vertical curve connecting gradients in a long horizontal curve. This
arrangement is liable to result in the illusion of a pronounced kink in the alignment.
Small changes in direction between tangents are as undesirable in the vertical plane
as they are in the horizontal plane. See Figure 5.5, Sketch T.
• A horizontal curve following a tangent on a sag curve that follows a grade. This
combination tends to give the horizontal curve the appearance of a sharp bend. See
Figure 5.2, Sketch E.
• Sag curves joined by a level length or gradient and occurring along a tangent
followed by a horizontal curve. Sag curves joined by short tangent gradients are
undesirable by themselves but when combined with a horizontal curve in this way
the disjointed appearance is exaggerated. See Figure 5.5, Sketch P.
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• A crest curve followed by a sag curve occurring along a tangent followed by a

horizontal curve. A disjointed effect is liable to result when the beginning of the
vertical curve is hidden from the driver by an intervening summit while the
continuation of the curve is visible in the distance beyond. See Figure 5.4, Sketch M.
A short horizontal curve in combination with a short crest curve. This can be dangerous
since the driver is unable to see the continuation of the curved horizontal alignment.
More unsatisfactory would be the horizontal curve starting immediately beyond the
summit of the crest curve. See Figure 5.5, Sketch U.
• A reverse horizontal curve with the change in curvature situated at the top of a
sharp crest curve. This can be dangerous as the driver is not able to anticipate the
change in direction of the road ahead. See Figure 5.2, Sketch D.
Examples of these points are shown in the sketches in Figure 5.2 to Figure 5.4
Visualization software should be used to examine the appearance of the proposed
alignment throughout the development of the design.
5.5 Alignment Coordination in Design

Coordination of horizontal alignment and profile should not be left to chance but
should begin with preliminary design when adjustments can be readily made. All
aspects of terrain, traffic operation, and appearance should be considered. Horizontal
and vertical lines should be adjusted and coordinated during the feasibility study stage
and before the development of the detailed design and the preparation of construction
plans.
The procedures described above should be modified for the design of typical local roads
or streets, as compared to higher type highways. The alignment of any local road or street
is governed by existing or likely future development, whether for a new roadway or for
reconstruction of an existing roadway. The crossroad or street intersections and the
location of driveways are dominant controls. Even for street design, it is desirable to work
out long, flowing alignment and profile sections rather than a connected series of block-
by-block sections.
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Source: AASHTO, 2011b.

Figure 5.2 Alignment Relationships in Roadway Design—1 of 4
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6 Cross Section Elements

6.1 General Considerations
6.1.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the principles to be followed when designing highway cross
sections for new roads and improvements to the existing road network.
The cross section is made up from a combination of distinct components that vary
depending upon the type of highway and the facilities provided for the various users of
the road. Some decisions relating to the cross section are made during project
development, such as the capacity and number of lanes. Other decisions, such as the
road function and its place in the road hierarchy, are made earlier in the process.
This standard defines and describes the components and presents guidance on details
of their design. The basic components are listed below and identified separately in the
following sections of this section to simplify definition and interpretation as an aid to
design consistency and application.
The cross section of a road includes some or all of the following elements:
• Traveled way and cross slopes

• Lane widths
• Shoulders and hard strips
• Medians
• Curbs and traffic barriers
• Sidewalks and bike or shared use paths
• Utility and landscape areas
• Drainage channels and sideslopes
• Clear zones and lateral offset
• Frontage or service roads
Different arrangements of the components are to be used depending on the functional

classification of the highway. The designer’s role is to decide which of the components
to include and the selection of the appropriate dimensions. Considered together, all
these cross section elements define the highway right-of-way.
This standard provides details of the cross sections and horizontal clearance requirements
to be used for all rural and urban roads, both at and away from structures. The information
covers freeways, expressways, arterials, collectors, and local roads, both single and
divided roadway, together with associated ramps and service roads.
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This standard does not give mandatory requirements for headroom near airports or at
power lines. The designer should contact the relevant authorities to agree on
requirements as part of the design process.
Where existing or proposed land use requirements necessitate amendments to the

standard roadway cross sections, approval from the Overseeing Organization must be
sought. In such instances, amendments to the utilities layout may be required to suit the
specific road cross section proposed. Any proposed revisions to the standardized utility
locations must have the approval of the appropriate utility authorities.
Certain special routes, such as abnormal or exceptional load routes or scenic routes,
may require specific requirements and in these situations, consultation should be
sought with the Overseeing Organization to agree on appropriate solutions.
6.1.2 Design Principles

Highway components are based on numerous interrelated design decisions. Integrating
these components to satisfy competing demands for highway space and functionality
requires effective decision making from the outset. Designers must balance elements
within the available space to meet safety needs, address environmental impacts, and
satisfy cost, constructability, and operation and maintenance requirements.
Appropriate basic design will allow both new roads and improvements to existing
highways to fit harmoniously into their surroundings. Challenges can be avoided by
ensuring that approximate sizes and locations of detailed design features are identified
early so that space requirements can be determined. During final design, designers
must sometimes accommodate additional detailed design features, such as potential
future widening near structures, into the available highway.
In general, the different road reservations are intended to provide drivers with
adequate sight distances and allow the public utilities sufficient space for existing and
proposed plant. Where space for utilities is limited, “way leaves” outside the road
reservation may be obtained by contacting the relevant planning authority.
Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43 show typical cross sections depicting the essential elements
for two-way single and divided roadways for urban and rural roads. The final layout of
the reservation should be agreed on with the Overseeing Organization.
The recommended reservation details for rural roads are similar to those for urban
roads but reflect the reduced access and drainage requirements of the rural situation.
Generally, for rural roads the right side of the roadway would not be curbed, although
flush curbing may be considered at certain locations. Raised curbing to the median of
rural divided roadways should be provided only at specific locations: near bridges and
at-grade intersections. In all cases, an edge strip shall be provided between the curb
and lane edge. Verges shall be designed to fall away from the road in rural settings and
thus water will drain to surrounding ground.
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It is recommended that usable traveled way and shoulder be provided for all rural roadways
based on traffic volume. Minimum traveled way is 3.65 m, and shoulder widths are
1.2 meter for average daily traffic volumes of 400 or less; 1.8 meters for average daily traffic
volumes up to 2,000; and 2.4 meters for average daily traffic volumes over 2,000.
Furthermore, it is recommended that shoulders be paved for high volume roads.
A standard lane width of 3.65 m has been used on typical cross sections and should be
provided for all roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater. Exceptions are
permitted where it is necessary to maintain continuity with an existing road, and for
roads providing access to residential and some commercial and industrial areas. Clause
6.2.1 describes permitted variations.
A standard cross slope of 2 percent has been applied for roads and medians to achieve
adequate drainage.
Figure 6.1 presents is a flow chart depicting the process of cross section design.
6.1.3 Road Network Objectives

The aim is to deliver an economic, accessible, integrated, safe, reliable, efficient, and
environmentally acceptable road network for all users. This includes adapting and
improving some highways for the benefit of nonmotorized users. The designer must
consider maintenance needs, such as ensuring that proposed cross section and lane
widths are adequate for maintenance to be undertaken safely.
In urban areas, numerous items of street furniture and underground utilities are likely
to be found within the highway cross section, offering less scope for coordinating
features than in rural areas. However, coordination with utility owners could be
extensive to map, analyze potential conflicts, and design around or relocate utilities to
avoid or minimize service disruption. The designer must achieve a careful balance
among the many competing demands wherever economically and environmentally
practical to do so.
Rural areas may have fewer underground utilities, but those that exist are likely to be
high-capacity services that could affect the economical and effective delivery of
subsequent maintenance and operation of the network.
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Figure 6.1 Cross Section Design Flow Chart
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6.1.4 Departures
Occasionally roadway design engineers may face situations where they believes they
cannot develop a road project that would be in accordance with the standards defined
for it, then it may propose a Departure from Standards. They must follow the standard
process for documenting the reasons and providing mitigations for the Departure from
Standards process. Careful consideration must be given to layout options incorporating
departures, having weighed potential advantages and disadvantages. Particular
attention must be given to the safety aspects, including operation, maintenance,
construction, and demolition, and to the environmental and economic advantages and
disadvantages that would result from the use of Departures. The consideration process
must be recorded. The preferred option must be compared against options that would
meet full standards.
In these situations, the Overseeing Organization may be prepared to agree to a Departure

from Standard where the Standard is not realistically achievable. Designers facing such
situations and wishing to consider pursuing this course must discuss the option at an early
stage in design with the Overseeing Organization. Proposals to adopt Departures from
Standard must be submitted by the designer to the Overseeing Organization and formal
approval received before incorporation into a design layout.
6.2 Design Requirements

This section identifies components of the cross section and presents guidance on details
of their design. It applies to all cross sections other than those through or across
structures. Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43 show sections with detailed dimensions to indicate
how the various components should be brought together to form the cross section of
different types of roads. Numerous changes in highway cross section are not desirable,
and a consistent width along a road is preferred.
In selecting cross section elements and dimensions, designers need to consider the
following factors:
• Safety of users
• Volume and composition of the vehicular traffic expected to use the facility, e.g.,
the percent of trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles
• The likelihood that bicyclists and pedestrians will use the road
• Climatic conditions
• The presence of natural or manmade obstructions adjacent to the roadway, such as
rock outcrops, large trees, wetlands, buildings, and power lines
• The presence of underground utilities
• Type and intensity of development along the highway section under design
The most appropriate design for a highway improvement is the one that balances the
accessibility and mobility needs of the motorists, pedestrians, or bicyclists using the
facility with the physical constraints of the corridor in which the facility is located. The
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likelihood of pedestrian and bike traffic is one factor, while the functionality of the
facility to provide access and/or mobility to vehicular traffic is another factor, to
consider when designing the cross section of a facility.
Access is needed for every area served by a highway while mobility is provided to users
at varying levels of service. The primary function of local roads and streets is to provide
access to properties, and the primary function of arterials is to provide mobility to
users. Highway and street cross sections should be designed to serve the primary
purpose of the facility and balance the accessibility and mobility needs of the users
accordingly.
6.2.1 Travel Lanes

The travel lane is the part of a roadway designated for the movement of vehicles in a
single line, exclusive of shoulders and bike lanes. It controls and guides drivers to avoid
or minimize conflicts with other vehicles on adjacent lanes or objects near the roadway.
Roadways can have more than one lane in each direction. Some typical roadway
sections, including number and width of lanes, medians, shoulders and other roadside
features are shown in Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43. Standard width of a travel lane is
3.65 m, except under the following conditions:
• Where existing roads are being reconstructed, lane width may be reduced to 3.30 m
for roads with a design speed of 80 kph or less, provided the percentage of heavy
truck traffic is less than 5 percent. Prior approval of the Overseeing Organization is
needed.
• Lane widths can be reduced to 3.30 m in urban commercial and retail areas where
speeds are 50 kph and below.
• Lane widths can be reduced to 3.00 m for local roads in urban areas where traffic
volumes are low, speeds are 50 kph and below, and the percentage of heavy truck
traffic is low.
• Single lane one-way roads in urban areas with a minimum width of 5.0 m between
curbs to allow motorists to pass a stalled vehicle.
• Wider lanes on curves with shorter radii to allow for the swept path of long vehicles
or to provide sufficient sight distance.
Lane widths outside this guidance may be provided under a departure process with full
justification provided by the designer to the Overseeing Organization.
Notwithstanding the advice given elsewhere in this manual, variations in cross section
may be encountered over the length of a road. Table 6.1 shows the required mainline
rate of change in width based on a standard 3.65 m lane. This may also be used where a
lane is introduced or terminated far from an intersection; that is, not as part of an
auxiliary lane. The rate of change for introducing a lane is somewhat less than the values
in this table. In all cases where Table 6.1 is used, the transition taper should correspond
with the higher design speed of the two adjoining links under consideration.
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Table 6.1 Mainline Rate of Change of Width for a Standard Lane
Transition Taper Rate

Design Speed (kph) Lane Drop Adding Additional Lanes
40 1:20 1:8
50 1:25 1:10
60 1:30 1:12
70 1:35 1:14
80 1:40 1:16
90 1:45 1:18
100 1:50 1:20
110 1:55 1:22
120 1:60 1:24
130 1:65 1:26
140 1:70 1:28
Lines marking the edge of roadways are outside the traveled way and are provided
within the shoulder or hard strip. Lane widths within the traveled way include the lane
lines.
Public transport strategy for Qatar identifies high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) routes as
part of the road network, but the identification of the need to provide HOV lanes does
not require a change to standard lane widths. Any changes to the standard cross
sections to add additional lanes to accommodate HOV routes shall be addressed in the
project-specific documentation.
6.2.2 Shoulders
The shoulder is a contiguous part of roadway used in case of emergency, law
enforcement, and to accommodate stopped vehicles. Shoulders provide structural
support for the pavement edges and side clearance between moving vehicles and
stationary objects. Shoulders of sufficient width provide additional space for access by
emergency service vehicles. They can also be used as temporary lanes to facilitate
traffic movement during road maintenance operations. For these reasons, shoulders
should be constructed to the same structural strength as the adjacent roadway.
Width of stabilized roadway shoulder (graded shoulder) refers to the roadway width
between the edge of traveled way and the intersection of the shoulder slope and the
embankment slope (foreslope) plane. The usable width of the shoulder is where a
motorist can make emergency or parking stop. Graded shoulder and usable shoulder
widths are the same where foreslopes are 1V:5H or flatter. The normal rounding of
1.5 m will not reduce the useful width of the usable shoulder. Where the foreslope is
steeper than 1V:5H, shoulder width should be increased to accommodate the barrier
and the rounding behind it. Depending on the width of the barrier, the increased width
of the shoulder could be up to 2.5 m.
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Normal width of paved shoulder along higher speed and higher volume roads is 3.00 m.
A width of 3.60 m paved shoulder is preferred on roads carrying 250 or more trucks per
hour. On low volume rural roadways, roadway shoulders may be 1.5 m paved and 1.5 m
graded. Alternatively, the full width can be paved but to a lower strength; or the entire
width of the shoulder graded (stabilized) beyond the roadway pavement.
Where shoulders are provided as shown in the standard roadway cross sections, they
should be constructed with a standard cross slope of 2 percent or as extension of
roadway superelevation. Shoulders shall be of the widths listed in Table 6.2.
Table 6.2 Typical Roadway Cross Sections

Min. Shoulder Width
Design Lanes in Lane Median Parking
Roadway Type and Speed Each Width Width Left Right Width
Design Year AADT (kph) Direction (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
Urban expressway 120 3 3.65 3.20 1.20 3.00 —
50,000 to 80,000 120 4 or more 3.65 6.80 3.00 3.00 —
3.20
Major urban arterial
100 3 3.65 1.20 3.0 —
30,000 to 60,000
Minor arterial
80 3 3.65 12.20 0.350 0.350 —
20,000 to 50,000
Boulevard 60 3 3.65 12.00 0.35 0.35 —

30,000 to 60,000 80 3 3.65 12.2 0.35 0.35 —
Major urban 50 3 3.30 6.35 0.35 0.35 —
collector
10,000 to 50,000 100 3 3.65 1.80 0.50 0.50 —
Minor urban 50 1 3.00 5.7 0.35 0.35 2.50

collector 50 1 3.30 — — — 2.50
5,000 to 20,000 50 1 3.65 — — — 3.00
1 (one -
50 3.9 - - 2.5
way)
Urban local and 50 1 3 - - - 2.4
service road less 50 1 3.00 — — — 2.50
than 5,000
50 1 3.30 — — — 2.50
50 1 3.65 — — — 3.00
Rural freeway 140 2 3.65 10 3.00 3.00 —
Greater than 8,000 140 3 or more 3.65 10 3.00 3.00 —
Rural arterial
120 2 or 3 3.65 10 3.00 3.00 —
2,000 to 8,000
Rural collector
100 1 3.65 — - 3.00 —
1,000 to 2,000
— 3.00
Rural local road
50 1 3.65 — (1.50 —
Less than 1,000 paved)
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Where a curb is provided, a lateral offset from the edge of traveled way should be
applied. The lateral offset width varies with the design speed.
6.2.3 Hard Strips

Hard strip is an extra width of the road along the outside edges of the traveled way
built contiguous to and with the same strength and from the same material as the
traveled way. Hard strips provide a safer roadway, facilitate the removal of surface
water, and provide additional roadway width to maneuver around stopped vehicles in
case of an emergency. Hard strips keep roadside debris away from the running width
of an outside lane and maintain pavement integrity and stability.
The hard strip width is included within the standard median width. Hard strips should
be provided adjacent to the outer traveled lanes on all uncurbed roads unless replaced
by a paved shoulder.
Curbs with narrow hard strips or lateral offsets apply to roads with posted speeds less
than 80 kph. For roads with posted speeds 80 kph or greater that require a curb for
drainage, the width of the hard strip should be increased or replaced with a wider
shoulder, with the curb located at the outside edge of the widened hard strip or
shoulder. On curbed divided roadways with posted speeds of 80 kph or greater, a hard
strip of 0.35 m shall be added to the outside edge as a gutter.
Table 6.2 includes outside edge and median edge standard widths for shoulders and
hard strips for various road types and speeds.
Lane widths and shoulder widths listed in Table 6.2 are among the controlling design
criteria requiring a Departure should the specified values not be met.
6.2.4 Auxiliary Lanes

An auxiliary lane is an additional lane over a short distance that is provided to enable
speed changing, turning, weaving, merging, and diverging, and separation of slower
heavy vehicles from higher speed traffic on steep upgrades. Auxiliary lanes may be used
to maintain the desired speeds, densities, and levels of service on the highway and at
intersections.
Auxiliary lanes should have a width equal to that of the through lane or 3.65 m.
A speed change auxiliary lane provides for the acceleration or deceleration of vehicles
entering or leaving through traffic lanes. A speed change lane should be sufficient in length
to enable a driver to comfortably make the necessary speed change. Design criteria for
speed change lanes are shown in Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway
Corridors.
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6.2.5 Medians
A roadway median is a designated space separating traffic moving in opposite
directions. Medians can be open, include traffic barriers, raised with curb, or flush. The
width of a median is that dimension between the left edges of traveled way of the
opposing roadways. Medians serve any of the following traffic functions:
• Separate high-speed traffic in opposing directions, thereby reducing or eliminating

severe head-on crashes
• Control by limiting or eliminating access to adjacent land uses or intersections by
left-turning vehicles
• Provide space for shoulders on the left sides of the roadways
• Provide space for the placement of traffic barriers that may be implemented to
prevent head-on crashes
• Provide space for development of left-turning lanes at signalized intersections
• Provide refuge for pedestrians crossing the roadway
The median space may be used for placement of utilities. Medians may also be designed
with sufficient width to enable the addition of future roadway capacity. Medians also
offer the opportunity to provide landscaping between the roadways.
The appropriate width of a median depends on the functions served and available right-
of-way. A median may vary in composition from 1.2 m wide with a pedestrian barrier
to 20 m wide with street lighting, drainage, and landscaped areas. Consultation with
the relevant planning authority often is required regarding the width and function of
the median. See Table 6.3 for median widths.
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Table 6.3 Minimum Median Width
Road Functional Urban Rural Remarks

Classification
Local Road - -
Service Road - -
Minor Residential 4 - Urban-Flush Median
Collector Commercial - -
Industrial - -
Major Residential 4.0 Raised median-with provision for LTL
Collector Commercial 6.0 Raised median-with provision for LTL
Industrial 6.35 Raised median-with provision for LTL
Arterial 10 Rural- Median with guard rail and provision
for windblown sand
Minor Arterial 12.2 Urban-Raised median with provision for two
LTL
Major Arterial 3.2 Median with double face barrier
12.2 Raised median-with provision for two LTL
12 Raised median-with provision for two LTL
Boulevard 12.2 - Raised median-with provision for two LTL
Expressway 6 Lane Divide 3.2 - Median Barrier

8 Lane 6.8 - Median Barrier
Divided
Freeway 8 Lane Divide 10
6.2.5.1 Rural Highway Medians
Medians on high-speed rural highways should be of sufficient width to prevent run-off-

road, high-speed, head-on crashes. Curbs should not be used in rural medians because
they contribute to loss of control when struck at high speeds. Median widths of 20 m
are generally sufficient to minimize the risk of head-on crashes. Lesser median widths
should incorporate traffic barriers as discussed in Part 23, Design and Operations for
Road Safety. A median of 8 m with a barrier is sufficient to accommodate left shoulders.
Medians beyond the shoulders should be graded at 1:5 with ditches for drainage and
stormwater retention.
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6.2.5.2 Medians on Urban Expressways
Medians on urban expressways shall be designed with sufficient width to accommodate

the shoulders in both directions of the travel; the horizontal stopping sight distance
through the mainline curvature; and provide width for traffic barriers in accordance
with the requirements in Part 23, Design and Operations for Road Safety. Median
barriers should be of sufficient width that left shoulders can be maintained at their full
width at locations that include bridge piers and columns, overhead sign supports and
gantries, and overhead lighting poles.
6.2.5.3 Medians on Urban Arterials and Collectors
Medians on urban arterials and collectors provide access control, width for
development of left-turn and U-turn lanes at signalized intersections, and pedestrian
refuge. The selected median width should reflect both the functional needs and
available space. Widths of travel lanes and the roadside (for pedestrians, utilities, and
landscaping) should be maintained with the median width adjusted to reflect the
available right-of-way. The following guidance should be used in designing medians for
their functional requirements:
• A minimum dimension of 1.2 m is sufficient to provide a raised curb and positive

separation between opposing traffic flows.
• A minimum dimension of 2.0 m is needed by pedestrians to feel comfortable when
using the median as refuge between opposing traffic on both sides of them. A
greater dimension is always desirable; 3 m being a reasonable goal.
• A minimum dimension of 5.0 m is sufficient to enable development of a left turn
lane with minimum raised curb positive protection. A dimension of 4.8 m can be
used with slight narrowing of the left turn lane, which would not reduce its
effectiveness or functionality.
• A width of 5.3 m is the desirable minimum for one-left turn lane (3.3 m) and a
residual median of 2.0 m.
• A width of 10.4 m is the desirable minimum for two 3.3 m left-turn lanes, a residual
median of 2.0 m, and another median between the through lanes and the left turn
lanes. This dimension also enables U-turn movements by passenger cars and smaller
trucks.
In the design of an arterial, the median may vary to fit the available right-of-way and
minimize land-use impacts and right-of-way acquisition. Narrower widths can suffice
between signalized intersections where left-turn lanes are not being provided.
Widening can occur on approaches to such intersections to provide the dimensions
cited above.
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Where landscaping is desired, the median width should be sufficient to support the
type of landscaping desired. It is common practice to landscape medians, to provide an
aesthetic environment and to help reduce driver stress. Careful consideration should
be given to the choice of planting to prevent the potential for foliage to block the
necessary sight lines. See Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design, for more details.
If the median is curbed, its surface should be designed to drain toward the center of the
median if unpaved or toward the roadway if paved. Paved medians may require positive
stormwater drainage systems incorporating manholes and pipes. Unpaved medians may
be self-draining, but consideration should be given to providing additional storage capacity
or outlets for storm conditions. Drainage inlets in the median should be designed with the
top flush with the ground, and culvert ends should have safety grates to minimize the risk
to errant vehicles.
Two abutting sections of highway with different roadway widths should transition
together smoothly. The transition should be as long as possible for aesthetic reasons
and preferably occur within a horizontal curve. For typical median widths and layouts,
refer to Table 6.2, Figure 6.2, and Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43.
Figure 6.2 Typical Median Layouts
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6.2.6 Service Roads

Service roads are roads that run roughly parallel with, and are connected to, the main
through highway. Their function is to provide access to adjacent property and land
where only minor volumes of traffic are envisaged. They are not intended to be used
for through traffic. They are generally of low design speed and typically one-way.
The provision of service roads reduces the number of access points on to the main
highway and segregates the higher speed through traffic from the lower speed local
traffic. This reduces interruption of traffic flow, makes the best use of road capacity,
and improves the safety performance of the major road.
Service roads may also provide an alternative route if maintenance is required on the
through road or in case of an emergency.
The width of the service road depends on the classification of traffic expected to use it,
such as light vehicles, delivery vehicles, or heavy trucks. It should comply with the lane
widths described in Section 6.2.2. Further consideration should be given to the turning
and passing requirements of such vehicles, type and number of access points, and type
of street parking, if required.
6.2.7 Frontage Roads

Frontage roads generally run parallel to and on one or both sides of arterials. They serve
many different functions depending on the type of arterial they serve. Most prominent
function of frontage roads is control of access to the arterials. Frontage roads provide
access to and circulation of neighborhood traffic on each side of the arterial.
Continuous frontage roads provide an alternative route to arterials. Typical
arrangement of frontage roads are shown in Figure 6.3 and Figure 6.4.
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Figure 6.3 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—1 of 2
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Figure 6.4 Typical Frontage Road Arrangements—2 of 2
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6.2.8 Parking Bays and Lanes

The need for on- and off-street parking is determined by the existing and future
development of the immediate surrounding area.
Wherever possible parking should be provided away, off-street from the roadway. In
urban locations, parking may be provided contiguous with the road in designated
parking lanes. Parallel parking lanes should be provided only on roads with posted
speeds of 50 kph or less. On-street parking is most appropriate on local roads and
service roads.
On-street parking along one-way service roads is generally preferred along the right
side of the road for the convenience of those using the spaces. Where driveways and
access points are so frequent as to greatly limit the availability of parking on the right,
it may be located on the left side of the service road. The separation between the
service road and parking should be increased in these cases to enable drivers to open
the driver’s side car doors.
The lay-out of on-street parking should support the functionality of the road. Parking
should be prohibited:
• Within sight triangles at intersections, in order to maintain visibility.

• Within 20 m of an intersection, measured between the center line of the side road
and the end of the parking lane taper on the principal road (see Figure 6.5).
• Opposite vehicle or pedestrian access points to properties
• At and ahead of pedestrian crossing points.
• Within 5 m of fire hydrants.
Figure 6.5 Minimum Clearance of Parking Lane from Intersection
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Two types of on-street parking are used parallel and angle parking. Guidance on design
for each is provided in the following sections. The dimensions are the minimum
requirements and consideration should be given to increasing these depending on the
size and class of vehicle anticipated.
6.2.9 Parallel Roadside Parking

Parallel parking may be provided adjacent to the right lane of the roadway. Parallel
parking should be provided on roads with posted speed of 50 kph or less. The bay
dimensions for parallel parking bays should be a minimum of 2.5 m wide by 6.0 m long.
This is illustrated in Figure 6.6.
Figure 6.6 Roadside Parking Parallel Bay Dimensions
6.2.10 Angled Roadside Parking

Angle parking on public streets must be pre-approved by the Overseeing Organization.
On-street angle parking should only be provided by backing in into the parking space.
In other words, vehicles should enter angle parking spaces only by reversing. The
decision whether to use angle parking on street should be based on safety and
consideration of:
• Width of road
• Traffic volume
• Type of traffic
• Traffic speed characteristics
• Vehicle dimensions
• Expected turnover
• Land use served
• Functional road classification.
A buffer lane between the edge of the traveled way and the nearest part of the parking
bay of 1.0 m should be provided.
Figure 6.7 and Table 6.4 shows the angled parking width perpendicular to the road,
buffer lane width requirements, the minimum width of the through lane (in addition to
the buffer lane width), for one-way operation.
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Figure 6.7 Roadside Parking in Angled Bay Layout
Table 6.4 Roadside Angled Parking Dimensions for One-Way Operation

Minimum through
Angle of parking θ Width Occupied (A) Buffer lane (B) lane (C)
45 5.1 1.0 3.8
60 5.4 1.0 4.5
75 5.3 1.0 6.5
90 4.8 1.0 7.0
6.2.11 Off Street Parking

Off street parking areas are located outside the roadway right-of-way in parking lots or
garages. Generally off street parking lots are designed for angled parking. Occasionally
some parking lots may have parallel parking option as well.
Angled parking will require a wider facility. The overall width of facility provided will
vary depending on the angle of parking bays. A larger angle between the direction of
flow and the direction of parking will require a wider lane. Angle of parking will be
affected by the level of parking required and the space available within the right-of-
way. There is a need for adequate space to maneuver into an angled bay, and this
usually requires the adjacent through lane to be widened from the standard widths.
For typical parking bay layouts, refer to Figure 6.8 and Table 6.5.
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Figure 6.8 Parking Bay Dimensions
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Table 6.5 Parking Bay Dimensions

A B C D E F G
2.4 2.4 3.7 7.0 8.5 -
2.6 2.6 3.7 7.0 8.8 -
0 2.7 2.7 3.7 7.0 9.1 -
2.9 2.9 3.7 7.0 9.4 -
3.0 3.0 3.7 7.0 9.8 -
2.4 4.3 3.4 7.1 11.9 9.6
2.6 4.4 3.4 7.6 12.2 9.8
20 2.7 4.6 3.4 8.0 12.5 9.9
2.9 4.7 3.4 8.5 12.8 10.1
3.0 4.8 3.4 8.9 12.8 10.2
2.4 5.0 3.4 4.9 13.4 11.3
2.6 5.2 3.4 5.2 13.7 11.4
30 2.7 5.3 3.4 5.5 13.9 11.5
2.9 5.4 3.4 5.8 14.2 11.7
3.0 5.5 3.4 6.1 14.4 11.8
2.4 5.8 4.3 3.4 15.9 14.2
2.6 5.9 4.1 3.7 15.9 14.2
45 2.7 6.0 4.0 3.9 16.0 14.2
2.9 6.1 4.0 4.1 16.2 14.2
3.0 6.2 4.0 4.3 16.5 14.3
2.4 6.2 5.8 2.8 18.2 17.0
2.6 6.3 5.6 3.0 18.3 16.9
60.0 2.7 6.4 5.5 3.2 18.3 16.9
2.9 6.5 5.5 3.4 18.4 16.9
3.0 6.6 5.5 3.5 18.6 17.1
2.4 6.3 6.1 2.6 18.7 17.8
2.6 6.3 5.9 2.7 18.6 17.7
70.0 2.7 6.4 5.8 2.9 18.6 17.6
2.9 6.5 5.6 3.1 18.6 17.6
3.0 6.5 5.5 3.2 18.4 17.4
2.4 6.1 7.6 2.5 19.9 19.4
2.6 6.2 7.3 2.6 19.6 19.2
80.0 2.7 6.2 7.3 2.8 19.6 19.1
2.9 6.2 7.3 2.9 19.6 19.1
3.0 6.2 7.3 3.1 19.8 19.3
2.4 5.8 7.9 2.4 19.5 -
2.6 5.8 7.6 2.6 19.2 -
90.0 2.7 5.8 7.3 2.7 18.9 -
2.9 5.8 7.3 2.9 18.9 -
3.0 5.8 7.3 3.0 18.9 -
Source: MMUP, Traffic Division
Notes:
All measurements in meters E = curb length per car
A = parking angle F = overall width of double row with aisle
B = stall width between
C = stall depth to curb G = center to center width of double row with
D = aisle width aisle between
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6.2.12 Off Street Disabled Parking

Disabled parking spaces must be designed so that a disabled person does not travel
within the maneuvering lane for vehicle traffic to reach the safe travel path to a building
or other site location. Disabled parking spaces should be 90 degrees, minimum of 3.5 m
wide and 6 m long with a minimum of 1.6 m wide space between the two 3.5 m spaces.
The 1.6 m space must have diagonal striping on a 45-degree angle, using 0.3 m wide
stripe at 0.6 m spacing. Concrete curb stops should be provided for each parking space.
A minimum 1.6 m area must be provided in front of each parking space leading to
handicap ramp. There must be an additional 1.6 m diagonal striped area between a
regular parking space and an adjacent handicap space.
There are no special handicap parallel parking spaces provided on public streets.
However, when angle parking spaces are provided on public streets, it is recommended
that the end spaces adjacent to the corner crosswalks be made available to the
handicap access vehicles. Handicap ramps are not permitted at the curb of the street,
unless they are located on both sides of the street and they must be located within a
striped crosswalk. When a visually impaired or blind person feels a handicap ramp
adjacent to the curb of the street, it indicates to him that he can cross the street within
a crosswalk and vehicles will yield to them.
6.2.13 Curbs
A curb is a raised stone or concrete edging at the edge of pavement that separates the
roadway from another feature, such as a roadside, island, or median. Curbs can be
constructed of the same material as the pavement or from a different material. Curbs
may have various design features and dimensions based on the needs and functions
and the type and characteristics of the road.
Curbs provide structural side-support for pavement layers, delineate the edges of a
road, collect and channelize storm runoff at the curb face, and confine vehicles to the
roadway area. They can also serve to delineate and protect pedestrian paths and
provide erosion protection from storm runoff. Several variations of curb exist, each
designed for specific uses, as described in the following paragraphs.
Curbs are used on all low-speed urban roads (50 kph or less) and, except where needed
for drainage purposes, at special locations on rural roads, such as priority intersections
where there is a need to give a clear delineation of the road edge. Curbs are also used
where right-of-way is restricted or there is a need for access control. Sloping curbs with
a height of 100 mm could be used on high speed facilities.
The provision of street lighting shall be considered where curbing is provided,

particularly in rural areas where obstructions adjacent to the traveled way must be
clearly identified.
Curb configurations include both vertical face and sloping or mountable types.
Figure 6.9 presents various types of curb used for the purposes summarized below:
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Figure 6.9 Standard Curb Types
6.2.13.1 Upstand Curbs
There are two types of upstand curbs (see top of Figure 6.9) – non-mountable and
mountable. A nonmountable upstand curb is used to confine vehicles to the road
pavement. It is available in a range of sizes and shapes. The vertical face resists vehicle
wheel mounting at low speeds and can form an efficient hydraulic edge for drainage
channel flow.
Non-mountable curbs struck at high speed will not confine vehicles to the roadway, and
can result in the vehicle vaulting (becoming airborne) and the driver losing control.
Road restraint barriers should not be used in conjunction with nonmountable curbs.
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A mountable upstand curb is used where it is less important to contain vehicles,

allowing vehicles to mount the curb if it is struck or in case of emergency. It retains all
other functionality of the nonmountable curb, but with less capacity at the curb face
for channel flow, which is restricted to the height of the curb above the finished level.
Mountable curbs with heights of up to 100 mm may be used on high speed facilities
when necessary due to right-of-way restrictions, drainage considerations or access
control. Road restraint barriers may be used in conjunction with mountable curbs if the
face of the barrier is flush with the curb.
6.2.13.2 Drop Curbs
A drop curb has a low, flat profile. It is used to demarcate edges of slightly raised areas
but can allow easy wheel passage at low and high speeds with minimum effect on
vehicle direction. It has very little hydraulic value given the limited curb height.
6.2.13.3 Flush Curb
A flush curb is usually used to separate two types of pavement surfacing, such as
asphalt and concrete blocks. It provides a visual break to delineate the joint between
the surfaces and serves to structurally contain the materials on either side. It has no
hydraulic or drainage value.
6.2.13.4 Edge Curb
An edge curb is used specifically for edging at sidewalks and other similar amenity
areas. It remains flush with the adjacent ground level, provides structural containment
of the pedestrian path construction, and provides a hard, neat edge to the surfaces at
either side of the sidewalk.
For details and use of containment curbs, refer to Part 10, Drainage.
6.2.13.5 Guidelines for Curb Type Application
The following guidelines demonstrate the typical application of the various curb types
to highway design situations.
Nonmountable Curbs apply:
• All urban roads generally with speed limits below 80 kph

• All roads with adjacent pedestrian paths
• Roads that have adjacent pedestrian activity
• All urban intersections, including all channelization and central island roundabout
edges
− Rural intersections that have footways for adjacent pedestrian activity
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Mountable Curbs apply:

• Urban roads with posted speed limits at or greater than 80 kph with no pedestrian
activity
• Where guardrail is to be provided
• Rural intersection roadway edges that do not have adjacent pedestrian activity
• Rural minor road splitter islands
− Central island roundabout edges at rural intersections
Drop curbs apply:

• Rural priority intersections with approach speed limits of 80 kph or higher for use
on central median physical islands
• At edges of dropped curbs on pedestrian paths and crossings
• At road edges where private access drives are provided
− At roundabout situations to delineate where limited long vehicle overrun is
allowed around the central island
Flush curbs apply:

• Delineation of change in surfaces, such as asphalt roadways and block paving for
bus stop areas and parking areas and bays
− Edge of roadway extra support in flat areas where drainage can only be
provided by allowing roadway runoff over the edge of the pavement
Edge curbs
• Mainly provides edge structural support and delineation of pedestrian paths and
other amenity areas.
Where there is a need to install a road restraint system alongside a curbed section of
road, the road restraint system, curb, and drainage design should be designed as a unit.
The road restraint system will influence the selection of curb type. The combined
drainage/curb facility should not affect the intended operation of the road restraint
system when struck by an errant vehicle.
Dropped curbs enable pedestrians with mobility problems and wheelchair users to
navigate more easily crossing points on roads and at intersections. They should always
be located to direct the user to the crossing point designated by the designer. Breaks
in pedestrian path grades should be consistent with the maximum change in grade not
to exceed 10 percent, as this is may affect wheelchair clearances. Where a difference
of 10 percent is unavoidable, a short length (0.6 m) of flat transition should be used to
create two breaks of gradient, both below 10 percent.
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6.2.14 Road Restraint System

A road restraint system infrastructure comprises longitudinal barriers to protect
motorists and pedestrians from natural or manmade risks in the road reserve. With
respect to motorists, these risks include opposing traffic or objects in the roadside. For
pedestrians on paths adjacent to the roadway, restraint systems serve to protect them
from out-of-control vehicular traffic.
Roadside barriers are designed to prevent an errant vehicle from leaving the roadway
and striking a fixed object or feature located along the roadside, by containing and
redirecting the errant vehicle.
The Clear Zone is the total width of traversable land free of objects to the right or
outside the roadway within the right-of-way. The Clear Zone is measured from the right
edge of traveled way. It includes the shoulder or hard strip.
The concept of Clear Zone applies to roads in rural environments and those without
vertical face curbs. The Clear Zone dimension is selected for design of the roadside.
Refer to Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, for detailed guidance on road
restraint systems and their provision in association with Clear Zones.
6.2.15 Side Slopes

The most prevalent type of crash on two-lane rural roads is a single-vehicle run-off-road
crash. The severity of the crash, i.e., the outcome as measured by injury or fatality to
the occupants, is influenced by the design of the roadside, which includes the sideslope.
Side slopes should be designed to provide a reasonable opportunity for drivers who run
off the road to recover or come to a stop without overturning. Earth cut-and-fill slopes
should be flattened and liberally rounded as fitting with the topography and consistent
with the overall type of highway. Sideslope is expressed as a ratio of elevation change
to lateral dimension from the beginning of the slope (V:H). See Figures 6.44 and
Figure 6.46.
Vehicle performance during roadside encroachments is better the flatter the slope.
Research that forms the basis for international design standards shows that roadside
slopes flatter than 1:4 can be successfully traversed by vehicles, and in most cases, the
driver can maintain control and fully recover. Roads designed with such slopes may
experience multiple roadside encroachments that are never recorded as crashes,
because the driver is able to recover. Sideslopes as steep as 1:3 are generally
traversable, but not recoverable.
Where possible, the embankment side slopes should be 1:5 or flatter if conditions
permit. Roadside barriers are considered when sideslopes are between 1:5 and 1:3 and
the height of the embankment is greater than 6.0 m. For embankment slopes between
1:2 and 1:3, a roadside barrier is required when the embankment height is greater than
2.0 m. Where embankment slopes are steeper than 1:2, roadside barriers are required
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at all locations for embankments of 0.5 m or more. Part 23, Design and Operations for
Road Safety, provides details on the applications and type of roadside barriers.
Effective erosion control, low-cost maintenance, and adequate drainage of the

subgrade are depend largely upon proper shaping of the side slopes. The rounding and
flattening of slopes minimizes drifting and washout of loose material such as sand,
thereby reducing maintenance costs. Detailed analysis of soil data determines the
stability of the slopes and the erosion potential. The design should reflect not only
initial construction cost but also the cost of maintenance, which is dependent on slope
stability. Guidance and standards relating to side slopes is contained in Part 14,
Earthworks.
Slopes in earth cuts should not be steeper than 1:2 and preferably should be 1:3 to
allow the use of mechanical maintenance equipment on the slope. If insufficient width
requires slopes steeper than 1:2, then partial or full retaining walls or some method of
slope stabilization should be used. Retaining walls should be set back from the roadway.
Steep-sided cuts greater than 1:2 must be protected by a roadside barrier.
An adequate geotechnical investigation along the route of the proposed new road
works must be carried out prior to specifying slopes. The investigation will determine
the slopes for long-term stability for cut and fill and the criteria for benching or erosion
protection if required.
Where benching is required, the desirable maximum height is 6.0 m with a horizontal
width, ideally of 4.0 m, and laid to falls of roughly 1:20 to avoid ponding of water and
consequential slip failure.
In rock cuts, ditches and a debris verge can provide a landing and catchment for
possible rock fall and removal of surface water runoff outside the roadway. This
additional width provides a useful area for rock face maintenance. Where rock
outcroppings are left in place for reasons of economy or aesthetics, the conditions
described above with respect to steep-sided cuts apply, and a roadside barrier must be
provided if the rock face outcrop occurs within the Clear Zone. A minimum of 1.0 m
space should be provided between the rock face and the rear of the safety barrier to
permit access for the removal of rock debris. Refer to Part 14, Earthworks, regarding
sand slopes, wind-blown sand, and dune control.
6.2.16 Clearances
The Clear Zone is the total width of a traversable land free of objects for the recovery
of errant vehicles measured from the edge of the traveled way. It includes shoulders,
bike lanes, and auxiliary lanes, unless the auxiliary lane functions as a through lane. The
width of the Clear Zone is a function of the speed, traffic volume, and embankment
slope. The Clear Zone should be clear of any unyielding fixed object including trees,
utility poles, sign supports, and structures. The positioning of signs and other street
furniture should be in accordance with the Qatar Traffic Control Manual (QTCM; 2014).
If it is not possible to position an object or structure outside the Clear Zone, providing
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a road restraint system or safety cushions should be considered. Refer to Part 23,
Design and Operation of Road Safety.
In urban areas where right-of way is limited, it is not practical to provide the required
Clear Zone. Urban areas are characterized by curbs and sidewalks, lower operating
speeds, frequent traffic stops, and turning movements. It is recommended that fixed
objects must have a minimum clearance (lateral offset) from the face of the curb. Fixed
objects include but are not limited to structures, traffic signs, sign supports, light poles,
utility poles, fire hydrants, and roadside furniture. Structures and fixed objects should
not be placed within 1.2 m of the edge of hard shoulder or 0.6 m from the face of the
curb. For further discussion on clearances and lateral offsets, refer to Section 3.7.
6.2.17 Fencing
Many different types of fences can be used within the road right-of-way, each for
particular applications:
• Right-of-way fencing delineates and separates private property from the road right-
of-way.
• Road restraint systems should be erected where considered necessary.
• Animal fencing prevents animals from entering the highway reservation. The size
and type of fencing should be effective to control the type of animal intended to
control; for example, a camel versus a goat.
• Acoustic fencing or sound walls may be required in sensitive designated locations,
such as residential areas, to lower the traffic noise level. The wall forms a barrier,
and the sound is reflected away from the sensitive area.
• Headlight barriers or glare screen may be implemented at locations where it is
desirable to minimize the glare of headlights from oncoming vehicles, such as unlit
bends on rural roads.
• Pedestrian access fencing may be required where pedestrians are numerous, such
as on commercial streets and outside schools or large sports complexes where
crowds may gather. The fencing controls the movement of pedestrian traffic and
lowers the risk of a pedestrian accidentally walking into the roadway.
6.2.18 Roadside Elements and Verges

The verge or roadside is a width of the right-of-way that facilitates functions essential
for operation of the road. Verges accommodate placement of highway signs,
structures, utility services, drainage, traffic signals, street lighting, and associated
ducting. Where a verge is adjacent to a development, a setback may be required. Verge
widths may vary from a desirable minimum of 3.0 m up to the limits of the reservation,
which could be greater than 15.0 m. Paved verges should be designed such that they
drain to the roadway and not the adjacent property.
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In placing structures, signs, and landscaping the required sight lines shall be
maintained. Additional care should be taken at traffic signals and intersections where
extra signage is often used.
Verges may be paved, landscaped, or graded depending on the intended use. The
proposed width of verges shall be considered if soakaways are to be provided in the
verge as part of the drainage design solution. Detailed investigations for the provision
of services and utilities in verges must be undertaken during the design stage for both
new roads and improvements to existing roads, such that all can be accommodated
within the verge provision.
Although a traversable and unobstructed roadside is desirable, some items will

inevitably be placed near the traveled way in the urban environment. Manmade fixed
objects that frequently occupy highway rights-of-way include highway signs, roadway
lighting, traffic signals, railway warning devices, intelligent transportation systems, and
utility poles. Part 23, Design and Operations of Road Safety, contains information on
Clear Zone requirements and roadside safety.
The designer shall consider all fixed objects likely to be present along the roadside. The
design decision process is outlined below in order of desirability:
• Remove the obstacle

• Redesign the obstacle so it can be traversed
• Relocate the obstacle to a point where it is less likely to be struck
• Reduce impact severity by using an appropriate breakaway device
• Shield the obstacle with a longitudinal traffic barrier designed for vehicle redirection
or impact attenuation
• Delineate the obstacle if the above alternatives are not appropriate. This solution is
practicable only where the design speed of the road is ≤ 50 kph.
The first two options are generally preferred but not always practical, especially for
highway signing and lighting, which should remain near the roadway to serve their
intended functions. The use of breakaway or collapsible posts is a preferred solution
over shielding with roadside barrier.
Trees are potential obstructions by virtue of their size and location in relation to
vehicular traffic. Generally, a tree with an expected mature size greater than 100 mm
at about 1.0 m above ground level is considered a fixed object. When trees or shrubs
with multiple trunks or groups of small trees are close together, they may be considered
as having the effect of a single tree with their combined cross sectional area. Large trees
should be removed from within the selected Clear Zone for new construction and for
reconstruction.
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6.2.19 Pedestrian Facilities

Pedestrian facilities generally are found within the verge and at road-crossing points.
The provision of paved pedestrian areas is related to the function of the roadside
development. To obtain reliable estimates of pedestrian volumes and movements,
studies should be conducted at the concept and preliminary design stage. Urban roads
and intersections shall allow space for pedestrian paths unless the area strictly forbids
walking. Further detailed information on the provision and design of pedestrian paths
can be found in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike and Public Transportation.
6.2.20 Bike Facilities

The bicycle is an important element for consideration in the highway design process.
To provide safe and effective routes, segregated bike paths are required for higher
capacity and higher speed roads.
To provide adequately for cyclists, the designer should be familiar with bike
dimensions, operating characteristics, and needs. These factors determine acceptable
turning radii, grades, and sight distance. Further detailed information on the provision
and design of cycling facilities can be found in Part 19, Pedestrian, Bike and Public
Transportation.
6.2.21 Utilities
Figure 6.30 to Figure 6.43 depict various road corridors. These are intended to provide
adequate space for cross section requirements, while giving public utilities sufficient
space for existing and proposed utilities. Where space for utilities is limited, way leaves
outside the road reservation may be required. Full details for the provision of utilities
is given in Part 11, Utilities, and also in the National Public Realm Guidelines (Ashghal,
2014).
6.2.22 Right-of-Way
The width of right-of-way for the development of roads and streets is influenced by
traffic demands, topography, land use, cost, intersection design, and the extent of
ultimate expansion. The width of right-of-way should be the summation of the various
cross sectional elements as described above and, where appropriate, frontage roads,
roadside Clear Zones, side slopes, drainage facilities, utilities, and retaining walls. The
width of right-of-way in developed areas should be based on the practical extent of the
preferable dimensions of each element.
The designer is confronted with the problem of providing an overall cross section that
will give maximum service within a limited width of right-of-way. Right-of-way widths
in urban areas are governed primarily by economic considerations, physical
obstructions, or environmental concerns. Along any road, conditions of development
and terrain vary, and accordingly, the availability of right-of way varies. For this reason,
the right-of-way on a given facility should not be a fixed width predetermined based on
the most critical point along the facility. Instead, designers should strive to provide a
desirable right-of-way width along most of, if not all, the facility.
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Where space for utilities is limited, “way leaves” outside the road reservation may be
obtained by contacting MMUP and other relevant planning authorities.
6.2.23 Typical Cross Sections

Figure 6.10 to Figure 6.43 are cross sections depicting the essential elements in typical
sections for one-way and two-way single and divided roadways for urban and rural
roads within predefined right-of-way widths and adjacent land uses. The cross sections
shown are typical. Final dimensions including right-of-way for any project should be
agreed to with the Overseeing Organization. A summary of the cross section figures
provided is in Table 6.6 and Table 6.7. Some of the typical sections can be used for one
or two highway functional classifications depending on the right-of-way width, design
speed, and traffic volume.
The centerline of the main roadway is usually centered within the right-of-way. In
reconstruction projects, it may be appropriate for right-of-way acquisition to occur on
only one side, or in unequal widths based on the uses acquired and costs. In the case
of road centerlines being offset from the reservation, the utilities plan should be revised
to suit the specific road cross section proposed.
Determination of the typical section is among the very first design decisions made. For
projects in which the recommended widths of either right-of-way or basic cross section
dimensions cannot be achieved, discussion and agreement on the project-specific
dimensions should occur between the designer and the Overseeing Organization.
Certain special routes, such as abnormal or exceptional load routes or scenic routes,
may require individual reservations to satisfy their unique performance criteria. In such
cases, the Overseeing Organization should be consulted.
For public realm dimensions including width, extent, and location of landscaping
strips, sidewalks, bike paths, shared use paths, utility corridors and so on, refer to the
National Public Realm Guidelines (Ashghal, 2014).
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Table 6.6 Typical Cross Sections – Urban Roads
Right of Way Width / Typical Cross Section Figure Numbers
Functional > 64 m to 264

Classification Adjacent Land Use 10 m 12 m 16 m 20 m 24 m 32 m 40 m 50 m 64 m m
Residential 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13
Local Access Road Commercial 6.14
Industrial 6.15
Residential 6.16 6.19 6.22
Minor Collector Commercial 6.17 6.20
Industrial 6.18 6.21
6.23
Residential
6.24
6.25
Major Collector Commercial
6.26
6.27
Industrial
6.28
Commercial 6.29/6.30/6.32
Minor Arterial
Industrial 6.28 6.29/6.30/6.32
6.31
Commercial 6.33
6.32
Major Arterial
6.31
Industrial 6.33
6.32
6.34
Recreational
Boulevard 6.35
Commercial 6.36
6.37
Expressway - 6.39
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Table 6.7 Typical Cross Sections – Rural Roads

Functional Classification Right of Way Width / Typical Cross Section Figure Numbers
10 m 12 m 16 m 20 m 24 m 32 m 40 m 50 m 64 m > 64 m to 264 m
Local Road 6.40 6.40
Collector 6.41 6.41 6.41
Arterial 6.42
Freeway 6.43

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Figure 6.10 Typical Urban Local Access, One-way System - 10 m Right-of-Way (Residential)
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Figure 6.11 Typical Urban Local Access - 12 m Right-of-Way (Residential)

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Figure 6.14 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.15 Typical Urban Local Access - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.16 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Residential)

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Figure 6.17 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.18 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.20 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.21 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 24 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.23 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential) with Service Road
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Figure 6.24 Typical Urban Major Collector - 32 m Right-of-Way (Residential) with Service Road
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Figure 6.25 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.26 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Commercial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.27 Typical Urban Major Collector - 40 m Right-of-Way (Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.28 Typical Urban Major Collector/Minor Arterial - 40 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)

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Figure 6.29 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial)

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Figure 6.30 Typical Urban Minor Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.31 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.32 Typical Urban Minor/Major Arterial - 50 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial) with Service Road
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Figure 6.33 Typical Urban Major Arterial - 64 m Right-of-Way (Commercial/Industrial)

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Figure 6.34 Typical Urban Boulevard - 64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational)

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Figure 6.35 Typical Urban Boulevard—64 m Right-of-Way (Recreational)

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Figure 6.36 Typical Urban Boulevard— 64 m Right-of-Way (Commercial)

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Figure 6.37 Typical Urban Expressway – 64 m Right-of-Way (6-Lane Divided Highway)

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Figure 6.38 Typical Urban Expressway – 64 m Right-of-Way (8-Lane Divided Highway)

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Figure 6.39 Typical Urban Expressway – 264 m Right-of-Way (8-Lane Divided Highway-with Frontage Road)
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Figure 6.40 Typical Rural Access Road – 16 m to 20 m Right-of-Way

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Figure 6.41 Typical Rural Collector – 24 m to 40 m Right-of-Way

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Typical Rural Arterial – 64 m Right-of-Way
Figure 6.42
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Figure 6.43 Typical Rural Freeway – 264 m Right-of-Way (with Frontage Road)
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Figure 6.44 Typical Embankment Cross Sections
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Figure 6.45 Typical Cut Cross Sections
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Figure 6.46 Requirement for Barriers on Embankments
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7 Integrated Road and

Landscape Design
Integrating a road into its landscape and urban context is essential for delivering a road
that is environmentally sensitive, culturally responsive, and economical. An integrated
approach will lead to a better and more acceptable road design that achieves its vision
and objectives.
This is particularly important for roads that pass through urban areas, valued open
landscapes, and natural areas. These locations pose many complex issues that need to
be considered and resolved successfully. For details, refer to Part 20, Context Sensitive
Design and Solutions, and Part 22, Landscape and Planting Design.
Designs for major and large-scale road corridor elements are opportunities to create a
sense of place and to provide interest for the user. Small-scale elements such as signs
and lighting need to be considered early, so that they can be incorporated into the
design and not added at a later stage.
An integrated road design approach requires a collaborative approach across the whole
design team, as well as stakeholders of the project to understand the plans and vision
for the study area and consider them early in the design process. All the design
elements need to be considered by the design team together. It is an approach that can
lead to a road network that fits into its setting, and preserves and enhances accessibility
for all landscape, aesthetic, industrial, cultural, and environmental resources.
Typical features of an integrated design approach could include the following:

• A commitment from senior officials
• A multi-disciplinary team established early, based on the needs to the project
• Consultation of stakeholders early and throughout the lifetime of the project
• A clear vision statement and established project objectives
• A road design process developed to meet the needs of the project
• Effective use of design tools and technology
• An understanding of the landscape, environment, and community resources and
needs before engineering design is started
• A public involvement process that meet the needs of the project
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7.1 Integrated Road Design Principles

The following general design principles should be part of an integrated approach:
• Understand the landscape and urban context and respond accordingly.

• Have a thorough understanding of the functions of the adjacent land use.
• Challenge road design guidance and standards to achieve more creative solutions.
• Respond to existing landform and match earthworks to surrounding slopes.
• Balance earthwork volumes to achieve a more sustainable solution.
• Identify appropriate planting solutions respond to context and are sustainable in
the long term.
• Maintain and improve community access across a range of transport modes.
• Use local materials and styles that can add to and create character.
7.2 Road Siting and Alignment

The successful integration of a road into its landscape or urban context can be achieved
if the siting and alignment of the road is designed to fit into the existing landscape. The
selection of the most appropriate route should include a consideration of landform and
minimizing the effects on earthworks.
7.2.1 Earthworks
The following should be considered in the design of earthworks:
• Select a route that is the least damaging to the landscape and offers the best
opportunities for mitigation.
• Follow the contours to reduce earthworks and to minimize effects on adjacent land
uses.
• Use earthwork and slopes to integrate structures into the landscape and reflect the
surrounding topography.
• Respond to topographical patterns to emphasize existing features that create visual
interest for motorists with vistas and views to landmarks.
• Use graded out slopes to integrate and blend earthworks into the adjacent
landform.
• Use a variety of slope angles to create visual diversity and a more natural and softer
appearance.
• Consider removing minor landforms adjacent to the roadway beyond the right-of-
way that may result in a better overall fit with the existing landform.
• Consider using surplus materials on-site or close to the site to reduce transport of
waste material off-site.
• Adjust earthwork slopes to retain existing vegetation.
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• Use false cuttings or mounding earthworks to create a visual screen in sensitive and
special areas.
• Use shallow slopes to minimize surface erosion.
• Use appropriate slopes to allow planting to establish.
• Consider splitting the roadway with a wide median to reduce the need for
earthworks and to retain existing features such as trees.
• Take special care with earthworks within grade separated interchanges in
considering the slopes between roadways and the interfaces with structures.
7.2.2 Retaining Walls

In some instances, retaining walls may be required where it is not possible to use
steeper slopes to achieve the required changes in level within the right-of-way or to
protect features next to the roadway. The following should be considered in the design
of retaining walls.
• Select structures or slope stabilization techniques that blend into the adjacent
landscape or urban context.
• Provide space for planting at the base or top of the wall to soften the appearance
of the wall.
• Adequate space for planting between terraces.
• Use climbers and trailing plants.
• Stagger or offset alignments of retaining walls to create visual interest.
• Integrate retaining walls into adjacent structures, such as bridge abutments, using
common materials, finishes, and alignments.
• Use bold and decorative patterns and finishing textures on high-speed roads so they
are visible for motorists moving at speed.
7.2.3 Rock Cut

Rock cuttings and outcrops can provide interesting features along the roadway and
form features that are characteristics of the local landscape. The following should be
considered in the design of rock cut slopes:
• Understand the geology, site requirements, and landscape context to achieve a

slope natural in form, texture, and color and which matches existing rock features.
• Design terracing, if required, to work with the natural bedding planes of the rock,
be irregular to create variety.
• Avoid planting which looks unnatural and artificial.
• Reduce the need for rock fall protection.
• Blend with natural bedding planes to create a natural appearance.
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• Provided sufficient land within the right-of-way to design, build, and maintain the
rock face.
• Incorporate soil pockets or benches for planting.
• Integrate structures into rock cuttings by using stone walling and cladding to match
existing rock types and patterns.
7.2.4 Interchanges and Roundabouts

Interchanges and roundabouts can form significant features on a highway both in a
wider landscape and within the urban context. Their landscape and urban design could
be considered as a specific project. Within all interchanges and roundabouts, visibility
lines and sight distances are critical to safety. The following should be considered in the
design:
• Develop an overall landscape theme for the interchange as a whole.

• Employ a coordinated aesthetic approach to the whole interchange, covering
structures, walls, bridges, lighting, and landscape considering color and texture to
create unity.
• Use distinctive planting to differential the interchange visually.
• Use strong patterns in the layout of planting, either formal or informal.
• Plant trees and palms in larger numbers.
• Use colored gravel mulches, pebbles, and rocks to provide different textures within
the planting providing their use is consistent with the landscape concept.
• Use frangible planting only within Clear Zones and at a low height to maintain
visibility.
• Provide adequate space for interchange facilities, such as pumping stations, storm
water features, utility chambers and utility buildings, and provide access to these
facilities.
• Design attractive features, but limit access to them (except for maintenance) by
motorists and pedestrians for safety purposes.
• Minimize features that require regular or extensive maintenance, such as water
features.
• Provide safe access for landscape maintenance.
7.2.5 Gateways
Gateways are used to create a sense of arrival to a place. Gateways can take many
forms and use structures within the road corridor such as bridges, interchanges,
lighting, landscape, and public art features. The following should be considered in the
design of gateway features:
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• Reflect the importance of the place in the gateway.

• Respond to scale of the landscape surroundings and urban context.
• Respond to the requirement of different users of the highway public realm, for
example, both motorists and pedestrians.
• Asses views on the approach to the gateway to determine the most appropriate
location and form of the feature.
• Reduce visual clutter near the gateways.
• Use trees and other plantings as an integral part of the gateway design to frame
views and increase visibility.
• Use feature lighting to highlight the gateway feature or focal point.
7.2.6 Special Areas

Special areas are those deemed to have particular importance for cultural, historical,
or environmental reasons. The area should have been identified as a special area during
the landscape or urban context appraisal stage. The highway landscape and urban
design should therefore enhance the design of the special area and mitigate any
adverse effects identified during the environmental appraisal. The designer should
consider the following:
• Adjust the right-of-way to reduce or eliminate the land take to mitigate effects on
special areas that cannot be replaced once lost.
• Provide land for mitigation or enhancement if the right-of-way must be increased.
• Design a vertical alignment that reduces or eliminates physical damage to
underground features.
• Undertake a detailed appraisal of the special area, and work with stakeholders to
define the objectives and design requirements.
• Identify special landform, ecology, landscape, or public realm requirements.
• Minimize noise and visual intrusion into the setting of heritage buildings or features.
• Open up views towards heritage buildings and features.
7.3 Structures
Structures can be significant features on the highway and can take many forms. Their
impact on the landscapes can be significant and a multi-disciplinary approach is
required to integrate them into the landscape and make a positive contribution to the
landscape.
7.3.1 Bridges
Bridges can be dominant features and can be dramatic and sculptural elements in the
landscape and urban context. They can serve as gateways or landmarks at the local or
national levels. Successful and attractive bridge designs will need a multi-disciplinary
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approach with the bridge engineer working with a bridge architect and a landscape
architect considering all the elements of the bridge together with the surrounding
landscape. The following should be considered:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design, and determine if the bridge is to
become a landmark structure or one where a simple low-key design solution is more
appropriate.
• Provide shade and balustrades or barriers in conjunction with proposed paths
where pedestrian and cyclist provision is required.
• Consider visually lightweight and slender structures rather than bulky structures so
they are unobtrusive.
• Integrate the bridge into the adjacent landform visually, with approach abutments
integrated into the adjacent landform.
• Integrate pattern and texture into surfaces to reduce visual scale and dominance.
• Consider all the bridge elements together in a coherent design.
• Integrate planting into the overall design to enhance the structure.
• Allow views out from the roadway.
• Consider the detailed design of bridge piers, as they are highly visible part of the
structure.
• Select and place planting materials to complement the design of the structure and
the landscape.
• Consider the detail and how the various bridge components work together and
complement each other.
7.3.2 Pedestrian Bridges

Pedestrian bridges are increasingly prominent feature in the landscape and, in
particular, the urban context where they are seen as a way of getting pedestrians and
cyclists across wide roads in a safe manner. The principles of a multi-disciplinary design
team considering the whole of the structure apply equally to the design of pedestrian
bridges. The following should be considered:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design and whether the bridge is to
become a landmark structure or one where a simple low-key design solution is more
appropriate.
• Consider using a curved alignment or dynamic form to add visual interest and act as
a gateway or landmark.
• Make the bridge accessible to all pedestrian users with appropriate path widths,
slope of ramps, landings, and handrails.
• Provide lighting to allow use after dark.
• Feature lighting to emphasize the bridge as a gateway or landmark.
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• Provide touch-down places with sufficient pedestrian space for orientation with
seats, shade lighting, and clear directional signage.
• Place planting to enable clear visibility.
• Use skid-resistant materials on ramps and slopes.
7.3.3 Tunnels
Tunnels or underpasses can be dominant features for the motorist and can create
dramatic features on the highway. As with bridges, successful designs will rely on a
multi-disciplinary team including landscape architects. The design of the structure
should consider the following:
• Establish the vision and objectives for the design to determine if the tunnel is to be
a landmark feature or a simple design solution.
• Integrate the structure into the surrounding landscape.
• Integrate approach walls, medians, and portals with the design of the tunnel itself.
• Avoid monotonous schemes by using decorative treatments with color, texture, and
pattern.
• Integrate artistic features with the potential for cultural, heritage, or iconic
landscapes and other elements.
• Incorporate planting, taking care with irrigation and drainage to reduce or minimize
potentially damaging the structure
• Consider the detail of the structure and how the elements work together to form a
cohesive design.
• Consider how the detail of the structure integrates with adjacent details and
features.
7.3.4 Pedestrian Underpasses

Pedestrian underpasses are another way of getting pedestrians across wide roads. They
require particular attention to ensure that they are safe and are well used. Crucial to
their success is the creation of open, visible, and welcoming entrances. Other design
considerations include:
• Promote a sense of security and minimize the sense of enclosure.

• Identify direct and efficient routes.
• Make the entrance visible and obvious from the surrounding landscape and public
realm.
• Create high quality plazas or open spaces as gateways at entrances to underpasses
that integrate with the design of the underpass, as with paving materials.
• Use straight alignments to allow pedestrians to see along the whole length to the
exit.
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• Provide good lighting, including natural light wells where space in the median
allows.
• Provide for natural ventilation.
• Make the underpass accessible to all users with appropriate path widths, slopes of
ramps, landings, and handrails.
• Use light colors and materials.
• Provide for decorative treatments for the walls and roof and for the incorporation
of public art.
7.4 Fences and Walls

Roadside fences and walls can have a significant effect on the appearance of the road.
Their design should form an integral part of the road design, respond to their context
and appropriate types, styles, and alignments should be used. The following should be
considered in their design:
• Employ alignments that respond to other road features and property boundaries to
achieve the best fit.
• Pay particular attention to fence at bridge abutments and the interface with
parapets in order to create a unified appearance.
• Integrate fences and walls to planting layouts.
• Select materials to match the materials and color of other elements of the road
design and that are of durable and tamper-proof construction.
• Avoid obstructing pedestrian or bicycle bike crossings.
7.5 Water Management/ and Conservation

The increased surface water run-off from a road can be successfully managed through
a sustainable drainage system that is integrated into the adjacent landscape. Typical
water management systems include detention ponds and infiltration systems through
swales and ditches. The landscape designer should work with the engineer to achieve
an integrated system that is functional, sustainable, and attractive. The system should
be capable of managing pollution, reducing the impact on the surrounding landscape,
filtering silt, and providing water for planting.
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7.5.1 Detention Systems

Detention systems store surface water and release it over time through control
structures. The following should be considered in the design of detention systems:
• Use natural shapes to integrate ponds into the landscape, acquiring additional land
to achieve this if necessary.
• Design the detention facility, where possible and appropriate, as a multi-use facility
by including recreational facilities for walkers or cyclists.
• Understand the proximity to groundwater, and therefore the potential to create
wet ponds with increased habitat and biodiversity value.
• Coordinate the design of structures together and with adjacent structures through
common use of color, texture, pattern, and materials.
• Use planting to screen drainage structures and to create an attractive landscape
feature.
• Provide shallow slopes at the edges to allow planting to establish.
• Plantings should not interfere with the drainage function.
• Blend maintenance access into the layout and context of the landscape to be
unobtrusive.
• Integrate fencing into the landform and planting.
• Use rock rip-rap to stabilize water flow, and color slopes to blend into the
surrounding landscape.
• Select plant species that are able to withstand variable water levels.
7.5.2 Infiltration Systems

Infiltration systems collect storm water and allow it to filter through the permeable
soils at the base of an excavated basin, swale, or ditch. They are usually level and
shallow with the following other characteristics:
• Place the base of the feature sufficiently below the highway level so that water does
not damage the road structure.
• Provide a very shallow or near flat base to prevent erosion and allow filtration to
take effect.
• Use shallow slopes to reduce the potential for erosion.
• Vegetate the slopes of basins, swales, and ditches to prevent erosion.
• Use gravel or rock for side slopes and the base, providing that it is stable.
• Coordinate the design of structures together and with adjacent structures through
common use of color, texture, pattern, and materials.
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7.6 Landscape and Utilities

Planting requires space both above and below ground, for it to establish successfully
and for it to create the desired design effect in the long term.
The need for space can create conflicts, with underground utilities in particular.
Conflicts need to be resolved through a collaborative approach based on a common
understanding of the vision and design objectives for the highway, urban road, and
landscape. The vision and design objectives should allow clear priorities for the various
highway design elements to be determined. For example, if the vision for the highway
is to create a tree-lined road, then the positioning of utilities should be of a lower
priority and their design driven by the need to locate the trees in the most effective
position to create the tree-lined effect. This would not be possible if the tree positions
are determined by the space left over between the utilities.
Tree planting pits should consider the size of the root ball at the time of planting, and
the long-term needs of the tree by providing space that will allow the tree to mature to
its natural size. Adequate soil volume is required so that the root ball can expand to
support the tree with nutrients, water, and sufficient roots to maintain the tree in a
stable and secure position.
Easements and access for future maintenance of the utilities should be considered and
where practicable, the planting design should respond to these. It may be appropriate
that ground cover planting can be located over services in the knowledge that if
required, the planting can be lifted and replaced.
The landscape architect and engineer should explore innovative technical solutions that
would allow trees and utilities to be positioned closer together if space is constrained.
Tree soils and root barriers could be used to help reduce conflicts for example.
7.7 Sustainable Landscape Design
7.7.1 Introduction
The design of urban roads and landscape offers significant opportunities to integrate
sustainability into the design of roads. The designer should establish sustainability
objectives for the project and develop a plan, which sets out how these objectives are
to be achieved. A sustainable urban road and road landscape should adopt a holistic
and wide ranging approach which addresses environmental, economic and social
criteria and consider minimizing use of energy, conserving water, incorporating native
plants, is cost effective to implement and maintain in the long term while creating high
quality, attractive landscapes.
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7.7.2 Urban Street and Landscape Assessment and Planning

The success of sustainable roads starts from an understanding of the existing site, its
context and identifying its constraints and opportunities.
• Cultural landscapes: Identify historical or cultural landscapes and places,

understand their cultural value, and look for ways to protect, conserve, and
enhance their value.
• Eco-systems: Understand natural systems and habitats, and design the landscape
to protect and enhance them.
• Protected species: Avoid areas that are habitats for protected species, and design
the landscape in a way that minimizes disturbance and supports their ongoing
protection.
• Minimize use of energy: Reduce the amount of earthworks, and minimize areas to
be disturbed.
• Neighborhood linkages: Connect to existing footways and bike paths, and link open
spaces and community facilities to support walking and cycling and sustainable local
communities.
• Use of space: Use the right-of-way space effectively and creatively to enhance open
space and to create safe and attractive places for outdoor social interaction.
7.7.3 Soils
Soils should be seen as an important living material which serves a number of functions
in addition to providing a growing medium for plants.
• Storage and filtration of water: The soil structure has a crucial role in retaining
water within the soil for plants and water management.
• Topsoil preservation: Preserve topsoil by stripping for later replication and storing
correctly to prevent damage.
• Damage during construction: Handle soils to minimize damage, prevent
compaction by heavy equipment, and prevent pollution, and store them correctly
through careful construction planning and methods.
• Soil improvements: Enhance soils by relieving compaction, and use amendments
through the incorporation of balanced nutrients.
• Soil replacement: Handle soils carefully in placing them in the landscape for plant
success and long-term survival. This should include consideration of the treatment
of subsoils.
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7.7.4 Water Conservation

Water conservation achieved through carefully designed irrigation and drainage offers
significant opportunities for sustainability in the design of roads.
• Drainage: On-site sustainable drainage systems are a cost-effective way to allow

storm water to percolate the soil and reduce the risk to drainage systems.
• Landscape features: Ponds, swales and other storm water drainage features can be
designed to create attractive landscape features and to provide water to support
plants.
• Drought tolerant plants: Water-efficient plants reduce the demand and use of
water for planting.
• Efficient irrigation systems: Well-designed systems will manage water demand and
minimize waste.
7.7.5 Plant Species

Plant species that are native or adapted to the regional climate require fewer resources.
Appropriate species can enhance habitats and biodiversity, and to create distinctive
landscapes.
• Existing trees and vegetation: Identify and seek to protect or incorporate mature
trees into the design of the road landscape.
• Use appropriate species: Use plants appropriate to the climate and conditions, as
they will use fewer resources and reduce maintenance requirements.
• Micro-climate: Use trees to provide shade to pedestrian areas, reduce dust, and
reduce wind speed.
• Mature plants: Provide space to allow trees and plants to achieve their nature size
where their benefits will be greatest.
7.7.6 Materials
Selecting sustainable materials includes sourcing materials, using them efficiently and
considering waste as a potential material.
• Reuse materials on-site where possible; for example site-won rock for gravel
mulches.
• Use energy in production to identify potential materials with a low embedded
carbon value to demonstrate efficient use of energy in their production, including
transport.
• Minimize waste by using materials efficiently, so as not to create waste.
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7.7.7 Landscape Maintenance and Management

The designer should consider the ongoing maintenance and management as an
important aspect of sustainable design:
• Provide efficient irrigation systems, ensuring irrigation systems continue to work as

designed to reduce water wastage, flooding of the road, and damage to the
highway.
• Employ management plans that implement plans that share the sustainability
objective to help achieve those objectives.
• Employ maintenance activities that reduce the amount of maintenance without
comprising safety to the desired landscape design; for example annual pruning of
shrubs.
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8 Other Elements Affecting

Design
8.1 Erosion Control
Erosion Control is the practice of preventing or controlling erosion due to water or
wind. Depending on the topography of the site, erosion control could be a major factor
during construction and maintenance. Based on the topography and site conditions
erosion control techniques to prevent the erosion should be considered during the
early part of planning as well as during the design process.
For further details on erosion control, refer to the following:
• Part 10, Drainage, for pollution control requirements and sustainable drainage
systems
• Part 14, Earthworks, for dune stabilization
• Part 21, Environmental, for erosion control and contaminated land
8.2 Rest Areas

Rest areas are areas where the travelers can stop and rest for short periods, giving them
a chance to relax, use washroom, freshen up, reconfirm the trip plan, obtain traveler
information, change drivers, make phone calls, and use other services such as food and
refueling. Rest areas are provided on rural freeways in Qatar.
8.2.1 Spacing of Rest Areas

Recommended spacing interval between rest areas is 100 km, which equates to about
one hour between the stops. However, the exact spacing and location of these
facilities shall be agreed in advance with the Overseeing Organization.
8.2.2 Site Selection

The goal of site selection should be to provide rest area locations to be sites in attractive
surroundings with adequate parking for both cars and trucks.
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The following criteria should be considered in selecting a site suitable for a rest area
and developing the plan for the rest area:
• Available utilities or ability to obtain utilities, such as water, electricity, telephone,

gas, wastewater, and disposal.
• Scenic qualities of the site, cultural or historical features within the site or adjacent
to the site and potential for tourism.
• Soil suitability for construction
• Soil types adequate for wastewater disposal.
• Topography and available right-of-way adequate and suitable for all rest area
functions, including allowance for potential future expansion of the rest area should
traffic volumes increase on the freeway.
• Spacing to the nearest rest area and interchanges.
• Land use adjacent to the site.
• Projected annual average daily traffic 15 years after year of opening of the rest area.
• Projected percent heavy vehicles.
• Potential environmental impacts on human environment such as air, noise, visual,
and land issues.
• Potential environmental impacts on natural resources such as endangered species,
wetlands, or archaeological sites.
8.2.3 Rest Area Design

Access to and egress from the rest area shall only be from the freeway, with ramps
designed. Figure 8.1 shows a design of a typical rest area. The rest area should be
screened from the main roadway, preferably using shaped and landscaped berms with
a height of at least 2 m.
Figure 8.1 Typical Rest Area Plan
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Access to and egress from the rest area shall only be from the freeway, with ramps
designed in accordance with Part 9, Interchanges and Freeway or Motorway Corridors.
The internal roadway cross section should be in accordance with Chapter 6. With
respect to roadway width, provision should be made to allow traffic to pass a broken
down vehicle on one-way single roadways.
A minimum sidewalk provision of 2 m should be provided on pedestrian desire lines.

Where desire lines cross over the internal roads within the rest area, a pedestrian
crossing facility should be provided with dropped curbs.
Depending on the proposed location, a traffic enforcement area, as highlighted in

Figure 8.1 may require to be incorporated into the design of the rest area. The provision
and layout details of the traffic enforcement area shall be agreed with the Overseeing
Organization.
On certain sites, a grassed picnic area may be designated to the rear of the site away
from the main roadway. A recommended area of at least 150 square meters should be
provided.
The boundary of the rest area should be enclosed by a 2 m high secure fence to prevent
animals straying into the rest area facility and preventing access to the rest area from
the adjacent properties outside the freeway. Public access to the rest area shall only be
allowed from the exit and entrance terminal from the freeway. Access for emergency
or maintenance vehicles may be allowed from a local street with the agreement of the
Overseeing Organization. In such cases, security should be provided to prevent
unauthorized entry.
8.2.3.1 Facilities for Users
The following minimum facilities should be provided at rest areas:
• Prayer rooms and ablution areas, men’s and women’s.

• Toilet blocks, including disabled facilities, at least 2 men’s cubicles, 2 women’s
cubicles, 1 cubicle for the disabled
• Refuse points
• Petrol stations for refueling
• Picnic areas
• Information point
• Lighting
To inform visitors of local services and tourist attractions, and to provide essential
travel information, each rest area should also include an information center, with an
information board provided as a minimum.
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8.2.3.2 Parking Layout
Adequate parking should be provided within the rest area facilities.
Provision for car, bus, truck, staff and maintenance parking should be considered at the
early stages of the design process to maintain a balanced distribution of spaces.
The general layouts of the car parking should be in accordance to the details provided
in Part 3, Roadway Design Elements. Bus parking and truck parking bay layouts should
be similar to the details provided in Figures 8.3 and 8.4 (AASHTO, 2001). The dimensions
shown in the figures are minimum dimensions; the designer should check these
dimensions using the appropriate design vehicles specified in Part 2, Planning and
adjust the dimensions accordingly. Bus parking, where required, should be segregated
from truck parking. The designer should also refer to Bus Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit
Planning (Mowasalat, 2014) for additional details on parking dimensions.
Disabled parking bays should be provided at the rate of 5 percent (Irish National Road
Authority, 2013) of the total car parking, the layout should be similar to the detail
provided Figure 8.2 (AASHTO, 2001). Also refer to Section 6.2.12, Off-Street Disabled
Parking for additional details.
Figure 8.2 Disabled Parking at Rest Areas
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Figure 8.3 Bus Parking Details at Rest Areas
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Figure 8.4 Truck Parking Details at Rest Areas
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8.2.3.3 Capacity
The number of parking spaces needed for the rest area is based on the traffic volumes
on the mainline. Demand will be affected by factors such as traffic flow, rest area
spacing, and proximity to other interchanges.
Provision should be made during the site development for future expansion of parking if
the demand arises. The actual provision should be determined by demand assessment.
This should be taken as a percentage of projected one-way annual average daily traffic,
15 years after opening of the rest area, in accordance with Table 8.1.
Table 8.1 Demand Assessment Guidelines for Provision

Vehicle Type Percent of Mainline One Way Annual Average Daily Traffic
Car 0.40
Trucks 0.80
Buses 0.02
Source: Irish National Road Authority, 2013
Regardless of the demand assessment for parking provision, the minimum number of
parking bays should be provided in accordance with Table 8.2.
Table 8.2 Minimum Parking Provision

Vehicle Type Minimum Number of Parking Bays to be Provided
Car 40
Trucks 10
Buses 3
Source: Irish National Road Authority, 2013
8.2.3.4 Signing and Markings
With rest areas at regular intervals, drivers have a choice whether to stop at specific
areas. Good advance signing assists in these decisions. Advance signage indicating
parking and the other available facilities at the rest area should be provided based on
consultation with the Overseeing Organization.
Signing and pavement markings at the exit and entrance ramp terminals to the rest
area should be in accordance with the QTCM (2014).
8.2.3.5 Lighting
The rest area, including car, heavy vehicles and bus parking areas and internal
roadways, should be adequately lit to should provide visual security and physical safety
to rest area patrons. Guidance on the level of lighting required should be determined
from Part 18, Street Lighting, and through consultation with the Overseeing
Organization.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 179

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Lighting installations should be designed to provide a high standard of illumination

using high efficiency light sources with low maintenance costs. Care should be taken to
prevent inconvenience to properties adjacent to the rest area.
8.2.3.6 Landscaping
The design of the rest area should complement the surrounding area, implementing
local design features and materials that blend in with the local environment and thus
reducing visual impact.
The landscaping needs require careful consideration as to type and location of

vegetation, number of picnic tables and waste bins, and any barriers that may be
required to protect pedestrians from natural or manmade objects.
For design guidelines and details on landscaping, refer to Part 22, Landscape and
Planting Design.
8.3 Traffic Control Devices
8.3.1 Signing and Marking

Signing and marking are directly related to the design of the roadway. They are features
of traffic control and operation that the designer should consider in the geometric layout
of such a facility. The signing and marking should be designed concurrently with the road
geometry. Signs and pavement markings specified by the designer depend on the traffic
volume, type of facility, and extent of traffic control appropriate for efficient operation.
Although safety and efficiency of operation depend to a considerable degree on the

geometric design of the facility, the physical layout should be supplemented by
effective signing as a means of informing, warning, and controlling drivers. Signing plans
coordinated with horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance obstructions,
operational speeds and maneuvers, and other applicable items should be coordinated
before completion of design. For details regarding design, locations, and application of
signs, refer to the QTCM (2014).
Markings and markers; such as signs, control traffic to encourage safe and efficient
operation. They either supplement regulatory or warning signs or serve independently
to indicate certain regulations or warn of certain conditions present on the highway.
Pavement markings include centerlines, lane lines, and edge markings. These may be
supplemented by other pavement markings, such as approach to obstructions, stop and
yield lines, and various word and symbol markings. For design details, methods and
pavement marking criteria refer to QTCM (2014).
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8.3.2 Traffic Signals

Traffic-signals are one of the critical elements of traffic control, which need to be
considered during the geometric design of roadways and intersections. The planned
signal operation at the intersections should be integrated with the roadway design to
maximize operational efficiency. The design and layout of the roadway and the
intersection should provide good signal visibility to the drivers to maintain effective
operations. For design details refer Part 8, Design for Signalized Intersections and refer
to QTCM (2014) for signal warrants, signal phasing and timing details.
8.4 Noise Barriers

Traffic noise is among the significant environmental problems to be addressed in a
design. Noise barriers are used to shield sensitive land uses such as residences, schools,
hospitals, and parks from traffic noise. Coordinate with the Overseeing Organization
early during the project development process to determine the need for noise studies
and potential inclusion of noise barriers in the project. Noise barriers may be
constructed along both new and existing highways.
8.4.1 Placement
Careful consideration should be exercised to ensure that the construction of noise
barriers will not compromise the safety of the highway. Designers should strive to
locate noise barriers to not conflict with sign placement and to provide the horizontal
clearances to obstructions outside the edge of traveled way. For noise barriers to be
effective they must be continuous (i.e., not have breaks) and be of sufficient height to
deflect noise from the receptor. Noise wall design involves the measuring of
background noise at key receptors, modeling of noise for design year traffic, and then
modeling of noise from the designed roadway with and without the barrier.
Sight distance is another important design consideration. Noise barriers designed along
the inside of horizontal curves should be placed outside the horizontal offset that is
necessary for stopping sight distance as given in Chapter 2.
Some designs incorporate a concrete “safety shape” either as an integral part of the noise
barrier or as a separate barrier between the edge of roadway and the noise barrier. Care
should be exercised in the location of noise barriers near intersections. Barriers at such
locations should begin or terminate, as the case may be, at least 60 m from the back of
the nose.
In many locations, noise walls will not be effective because of the need for frequent
breaks for intersections. Certain pavement types, referred to as “quiet pavements”, that
mitigate tire noise, have been proven effective. See Part 12, Pavement Design, for quiet
pavement discussion.
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8.5 Fencing
Fencing delineates the acquired control of access for a highway. Fencing primarily
serves to discourage or prevent pedestrians, vehicles, and animals from entering the
right-of-way at other than legally designated and designed locations. When the fencing
is placed to prevent the animals from entering the highway, the type and size of the
fence shall be dependent on the type of animal the fencing is intended to control, such
as camel or goat.
Any part of a highway with full control of access may be fenced except in areas of
precipitous slopes, or natural barriers, or where it can be established that fencing is not
needed to preserve access control. Fencing is usually located at or just inside the right-
of-way line or, where frontage roads are used, in the area between the through
highway and the frontage road (outer separation).
Fencing for access control is usually owned by and the responsibility of the Overseeing
Organization.
8.6 Sand Abatement in Dune Areas

Drifting and blowing sand is quite common in Qatar. Low-level sand dunes are
predominant in southwest and western Qatar and Barchan sand dunes are
predominant in southeast Qatar. Barchan sand dunes are crescent shaped dunes
formed under winds that blow in one direction and are also known as transverse dunes.
Sand deposits due to the drifting and blowing sand have safety implications on the
roadway users, especially in rural areas.
Strategies or mitigation measures to control and minimize sand deposits on the

roadway should be considered at the early stages of the design process and roadway
design criteria developed accordingly. The wind patterns may be different at different
locations and mitigation measures may be different depending on the location. It is
imperative that each project should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis, with regard
to the prevailing wind direction, wind speeds and topography and geology of the area
and mitigation measures introduced and implemented accordingly.
During the planning studies, avoid planning roadways through the sand dune areas. If
it is not possible, consider the following in establishing the roadway alignment:
• Run the alignment towards the windward side of the dunes.

• Run the alignment parallel to the prevailing wind direction to minimize the sand
accumulation.
• Avoid roadway excavation as much as possible try to raise the profile and build
roadway on an embankment.
• Run the alignment such the prevailing winds can pass through the bridge openings.
Where there is likelihood of sand deposits, consider the following during establishing
the roadway design criteria:
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• Raise the roadway profile 1.5 m to 2.0 m above the surrounding terrain. The wind
across the paved surface clears the sand on the pavement and minimizes the sand
deposits.
• Cut slopes of 1V:10H or flatter.
• Fill slopes of 1V:6H or flatter.
• Limit superelevation to 4 percent maximum.
• Wide shallow medians to eliminate the need of guardrail or concrete median
barriers.
• Single span bridges are preferable and the bridge railings should be open tubular
type instead of concrete parapet.
• Avoid using concrete barrier in lieu use guardrail or cable barriers.
For additional design details and construction of roadways in dune areas, refer to
Chapter 6 in Part 14, Earthworks.
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References
AASHTO. Guide for Development of Rest Areas on Major Arterials and Freeways. 3rd edition.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC. 2001.
AASHTO. Highway Safety Manual. 1st edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. Washington DC. 2010.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. A Policy on Geometric Design
of Highways and Streets. 6th edition (the Green Book). Washington, DC, United States. 2011a.
AASHTO. Roadside Design Guide. 4th edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials. 2011b.
Ashghal. The New Qatari Street, Interim National Public Realm Design Guidelines. Qatar Public
Works Authority. 2014.
Ashghal. Intelligent Transportation Systems Standards and Specifications. State of Qatar Public
Works Authority: Doha, Qatar. In preparation.
California Department of Transportation (Caltrans). Highway Design Manual. “Chapter 200—
Geometric Design and Structure Design.” 2014.
Department for Transport. “Highway Link Design.” Design Manual for Roads and Bridges.
Volume 6, Section 1, Part 1, TD 9/93. UK Highways Agency: London, England. February 2002.
Fambro. D. B., K. Fitzpatrick, and R. J. Koppa. National Cooperative Highway Research Program
Report 400: Determination of Stopping Sight Distances. Transportation Research Board.
Washington, DC. 1997.
Illinois Department of Transportation. “Chapter 32—Horizontal Alignment.” Bureau of Design &
Environment Manual (BDEM). 2014.
Irish National Road Authority. Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, Volume 6, Section 3, Part 3,
NRA TA 70/13, the Location and Layout of On‐Line Service Areas. 2013.
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture. Qatar Highway Design Manual. 2nd edition. Civil
Engineering Department. 1997.
Ministry of Transport (MOT). Qatar Traffic Control Manual. Doha, Qatar. 2015.
Mowasalat. Bus Stop Guidelines: Mass Transit Planning. Doha, Qatar. 2014.
National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP). Intersection Sight Distance. Report
383. By Q. W. Harwood, J. M. Mason, R. E. Brydia, M. T. Pietrucha and G. L. Gittings.
Transportation Research Board: Washington, DC. 1996.
VOLUME 1 PAGE 185

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Ohio Department of Transportation. Location and Design Manual, Volume 1, Section 200.
Figure 203-2. 2014.
Transportation Research Board (TRB). Highway Capacity Manual, 5th edition. Washington DC,
2010.
PAGE 186 VOLUME 1

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Volume 1

Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xi

2 Sight Distance ...............................................................................................................11

3 Horizontal Alignment ....................................................................................................35

3.5.6 Superelevation on Compound Curves ........................................................ 52

4 Vertical Alignment ........................................................................................................ 65

5 General Considerations ................................................................................................ 79

6 Cross Section Elements ................................................................................................. 89

6.2.9 Parallel Roadside Parking ......................................................................... 106

7 Integrated Road and Landscape Design ....................................................................... 159

VOLUME 1 PAGE III

8 Other Elements Affecting Design ................................................................................ 173

References ........................................................................................................................... 185

Table 4.4 Maximum Grade Change without a Vertical Curve ........................................... 75

Figure 2.1 Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance ................................................................... 15

Figure 3.12 Superelevation Development for Freeways and Expressways ......................... 55

VOLUME 1 PAGE VII

Figure 6.18 Typical Urban Minor Collector - 20 m Right-of-Way (Industrial)..................... 130

PAGE VIII VOLUME 1

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Acronyms and Abbreviations

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

Departure Departure from Standards

DMRB Design Manual for Roads and Bridges

DSD decision sight distance

HSSD horizontal stopping sight distance

HOV high-occupancy vehicle

ISD intersection sight distance

kph kilometers per hour

MASH Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware

NMU nonmotorized users, such as pedestrians, cyclists, and equestrians

OHPS over-height protection system

PCC point of compound curvature

PSD passing sight distance

QHDM Qatar Highway Design Manual

QTCM Qatar Traffic Control Manual

VSSD vertical stopping sight distance

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PAGE XII VOLUME 1

Roadway design is not performed on a blank sheet of paper, nor is it an automatic or

1.1 Design Speed

1.1.1 Posted Speed

1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters

Table 1.2 Design Speed Related Parameters

1.2.1 Changeover of Design Speed

At the interface between sections of roadway designed to different design speeds,

1.2.2 Reconstruction and Connection to Existing Roads

Clear signing is needed at all locations where there is a speed reduction.

1.2.3 Departures from Standards

Experience in the application of the hierarchy of values indicates that the

• Isolated from other Departures

Designers should consider whether the following should be introduced in conjunction

• Crash prevention measures; for safety fencing, increased skidding resistance

spacing of intersections on a particular section of road. Departures provide a means of

• Immediately following an overtaking section on undivided roads

1.2.4 Special Considerations

• Operational energy use: Energy-consuming equipment required to fulfil a function

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2.1 Basic Types of Sight Distance

1. Stopping Sight Distance: applicable on all roadways

2.2 Stopping Sight Distance

2.2.1 SSD Model and Parameters

• Height of driver’s eye – 1.08 m