Cardboard in Architecture Research in Architectural Engineering 2008

CARDBOARD IN ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE IN CARDBOARD
Research in Architectural Engineering Series
Volume 7
ISSN 1873-6033
Previously published in this series:

Volume 6. M. Veltkamp
Free Form Structural Design – Schemes, Systems & Prototypes of Structures for Irregular Shaped Buildings
Volume 5. L. Bragança, C. Wetzel, V. Buhagiar and L.G.W. Verhoef (Eds.)
COST C16 Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes – Facades and Roof
Volume 4. R. di Giulio, Z. Bozinovski and L.G.W. Verhoef (Eds.)
COST C16 Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes – Structures
Volume 3. E. Melgaard, G. Hadjimichael, M. Almeida and L.G.W. Verhoef (Eds.)
COST C16 Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes – Needs
Volume 2. M.T. Andeweg, S. Brunoro and L.G.W. Verhoef (Eds.)
COST C16 Improving the Quality of Existing Urban Building Envelopes – State of the Art
Volume 1. M. Crisinel, M. Eekhout, M. Haldimann and R. Visser (Eds.)
EU COST C13 Glass and Interactive Building Envelopes – Final Report
CARDBOARD IN ARCHITECTURE
ARCHITECTURE IN CARDBOARD
edited by Mick Eekhout, Fons Verheijen, Ronald Visser
IOS Press
© 2008 IOS Press and the authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without prior permission from the publisher.
Published and distributed by IOS Press under the imprint Delft University Press
PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS
Publisher & Distributor

IOS Press
Nieuwe Hemweg 6b
1013 BG Amsterdam
Netherlands
fax: +31-20-687 0019
email: info@iospress.nl
www.iospress.nl
www.dupress.nl
Legal Notice
The publisher is not responsible for the use which might be made of the following informa-
tion
ISBN
978-1-58603-820-5
Editors
Mick Eekhout, Fons Verheijen, Ronald Visser
Layout & Bookcover Design

Ronald Visser
Cardboard in Architecture. M. Eekhout et al. (Eds.). IOS Press, 2008.
© 2008 The authors and IOS Press. All rights reserved.
Preface
The paper and cardboard industry, just like the building
industry, is a long-established business sector with considerable
knowledge and experience. Apart from the honeycomb door
and paper-based round column formwork, there are few
contacts between the two industries. But architects have
made many attempts, further back in the past and also more
recently, to use cardboard as a building material.
~ 1930 – paper house, USA
~ 1970 – temporary accommodation, TU Delft
~ 1980 – two temporary theatres, Apeldoorn
~ 1990 – temporary accommodation Japan, Shigeru Ban
~ 2000 – Japanese pavilion, Hanover, Shigeru Ban
What is characteristic of these attempts is that experience

and knowledge acquired during the work threatens to become
lost because there is no framework for systematic collection,
processing and development of relevant information.
Despite the poor image of cardboard, projects by such

architects as Ban, Eekhout and recently the interior of
Scherpontwerp in Eindhoven show that cardboard is an
architecturally attractive material that also has good structural
and acoustic properties. Cardboard, with all the accompanying
knowledge already present in the mature cardboard industry,
has the potential to become a valuable element of the
architectural repertoire. Each (building) material has its own
FKDUDFWHULVWLFV ZKLFK JHQHUDWH VSHFL¿F DSSOLFDWLRQV LQ WKH
building industry.
Cardboard consists of ~ 90% endlessly recycled material and,

following use, can be recycled again to a degree of ~ 90%.
Moreover it is cheap. These two properties allow the material
to be viewed in a different light, in contrast to the traditional
approach in the building industry of applying materials
HFRQRPLFDOO\ DQG HI¿FLHQWO\ 7KH RSWLRQ RI WKURZLQJ WKH
material away once it has reached the end of its life – without
harming the environment – creates another perspective on
sustainability.
v
The Department of Building Technology at the Faculty of
Architecture at TU Delft plans to study and develop cardboard
as a potential building material on a broad, systematic and
where possible comprehensive basis. The guiding research
question here is:
“How can cardboard be used in both architectural and

VWUXFWXUDOWHUPVDVDIXOO\ÀHGJHGEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO
PDNLQJXVHRIWKHPDWHULDOVSHFL¿FSURSHUWLHV"´
An exploratory phase from 2003 to 2005 – including an outdoor

pilot structure (multished), a pilot pavilion accommodating an
H[KLELWLRQZRUNVKRSVRQUHVLVWDQFHWR¿UHDQGWRGDPSD
¿UVWSDWHQW.&3.WKHGHVLJQRIDQLQWHULRUZDOO%HVLQWZR
MSc students and the publication of the exploratory booklet
Cardboard Architecture – was concluded by an international
symposium attended by both the paper industry and the
building industry. This publication comprises the report on
that symposium.
In making this publication possible, special thanks goes out to

Prof. Richard Horden (Technische Universität München), Prof.
Chris McMahon (University of Bath), Prof.dr. Joop Paul (NL)
Delft University of Technology, who reviewed the capters and
gave constructive and usefull comments in order to improve
the overall quality.
Prof. Fons Verheijen

Contents
Cardboard Technical Research and Developments

at Delft University of Technology 1
Mick Eekhout
Cardboard in Architecture; an Overview 21

Elise van Dooren, Fons Verheijen
Paper Leaves 49
Peter Gentenaar
The Design and Building Process of a Cardboard Pavilion 59

.HHVYDQ.UDQHQEXUJ(OLVHYDQ'RRUHQDQG)UHG9HHU
A House of Cardboard 69
Elise van Dooren & Taco van Iersel
Structural Engineering and Design in Paper and Cardboard 95

Helen Gribbon, Florian Foerster
Application of Cardboard in Partitioning 119

Taco van Iersel, Elise van Dooren
Mechanical Behaviour of Cardboard in Construction 131

Julia Schönwälder, Jan Rots
The Cardboard Dome as an Example of an Engineers Approach 147

Mick Eekhout
Epilogue 165
Author Details 167

This page intentionally left blank
Cardboard Technical Research and Developments

at Delft University of Technology
Mick Eekhout
Abstract
Cardboard research at the TU Delft is performed by 4 researchers,

who divide their interest between, fundamental research,
technology development and application designs. However these
domains have strong relationships and need one another in
order to become effective. The research in cardboard has 8 or 9
different aspects to cover all relevant aspects in architecture. The
approach at the TU Delft is methodical; one of these methods
is based on the development of new products and could give
D SURSHU OHDG WR HI¿FLHQW SURGXFW GHYHORSPHQW HYHQ LQ QHZ
territories. At the end a number of 12 different questions are
posed on aspects that matter in fundamental research; 14 on
development questions and another 14 on design questions. With
WKHVHTXHVWLRQVUHVHDUFKFRXOGEHHI¿FLHQWDQGSHUPDQHQW
for the coming 5 years. The industry should respond to these
questions by selection and support. If not, the TU Delft has its
own preferences.
1. Cardboard research on the TU Delft
This congress on Cardboard has the character of a spontaneous

eruption, releasing many interests both form the academia
as well as from the industry. In the last year a number of
discussions took place at the university that introduced a
global ambition and vision to precede the cardboard industry
with new knowledge and insight on cardboard for use in
architecture. Naturally, this industrial market has completely
other characteristics. Yet the interest from the industry is
very positive, the university is geared up and presents its
SRVVLELOLWLHV5HVHDUFKLQWKH¿HOGRIµ&DUGERDUGLQ$UFKLWHFWXUH¶
has been set op in the department of Building Technology at
the faculty of Architecture by the professors dr. Jan Rots
(Chair of Structural mechanics), Fons Verheijen (Chair of
Architectural Engineering) and dr. Mick Eekhout (Chair of
Product Development) since 2003 and has gradually grown
WRWKHFXUUHQWOHYHO7KHUHVHDUFKVXESURJUDPµ&DUGERDUG¶LV
SDUWRIWKHµ=DSSL¶UHVHDUFKSURJUDPZKLFKFRQWDLQVUHVHDUFK
1
development and design of new materials, new techniques
and their applications in architecture. The current cardboard
research group is composed of:
• PhD student Julia Schönwälder
µ0HFKDQLFDO3URSHUWLHVRI&DUGERDUG¶
• PhD student Maria den Boom
µ&DUGERDUG3DUWLWLRQLQJ:DOOV¶
• PhD student Taco van Iersel
µ$SSOLFDWLRQ'HVLJQV&DUGERDUG&DEOH'XFW¶
• Staff member Elise van Dooren for co-ordination
and integration;
• In 2006 a research fellow from Washington State
university, architect Robert Barnstone, has been
invited to spend his sabbatical in the cardboard
research group.
2. Research, Development & Design
In the world of technical sciences, Research & Development

and Design & Development are both very related, yet
sometimes on extreme polarities. The family relationship
between research and design has been illustrated in the Fig.
1. which, as a principle, reveals the six different categories as
VFLHQWL¿FDUHQD¶V
• Fundamental Research
• Fundamental Technical Research
• Building Technology Development
• General Systems Development
• Commercial Systems Design
• Architectural Application Design
Fig. 1. The relationship between

Research and Design
2 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

The two fundamental research domains (on the left) have
been attended by Julia Schönwälder. Elise van Dooren and the
crew of the Chair of Architectural Engineering are engaged
with the right hand domains of Architectural Application
Design. Maria den Boom and Taco van Iersel develop General
Systems and Commercial Systems.
The distinction between the fundamental research and

application design becomes apparent when illustrated in the
case-study of the IJburg/Utrecht cardboard dome (2003). The
project was undertaken in 3 domains simultaneously:
x fundamental technical research on the behavior
of cardboard tubes,
x the cardboard technology of production of
elements, connection to components and the
assembly to a structure and
x the design of a suitable structural system and
application of this system in as the project dome.
The development of the basic structural technology to enable
us to produce a 30m span cardboard dome, initially took us
4 months of Research & Development were spent on the
statical analysis and material composition research of spirally
wounded cardboard tubes as load bearing elements, including
the glue spiraling method of cardboard tubes up to their
connections. After these four months the gained technology
of cardboard tubes was fertilized with the well-known space
frame technology of engineering single layered domes
Fig. 2. The scheme of Fig. 1., including their nodal designs. It was also linked with the
showing the relationship project design wishes of the Japanese architect Shigeru Ban,
between the Chairs at who had proposed at the invitation of the client a 10-frequency
Builting Technology Buckminster Fuller iconosahedronal type dome. From these
at Delft University of requirements plus the available funding a general system was
Technology designed and developed, and worked out as a compromise
0,&.((.+287 3
between the proposals of Ban and Eekhout. The engineering
took 2 weeks and the production and assembly took a further
some 4 weeks. For future possibilities the developed project
system ought to be developed to become a commercial
(marketable) system with more general applications.
3. Research embedded in the department of

Building Technology
The department of Building Technology has 6 major researcj
programs (Fig. 3):
x Blobs
x Zappi
x Industrial Building
x Informatics
x 5HWUR¿WWLQJ
x Climate Design
The Cardboard research is one of the subprograms of Zappi

Research, that is directed towards Material Design: Designing
with Materials. Originally targeted to obtain unbreakable glass
strong and stiff enough for structural purposes, the name
µ=DSSL¶ LQWURGXFHG E\ WKH DXWKRU LQ ZDV ZLGHQHG WR
embrace also other material research approaches.
In the section of building technology design, consisting of

the three Chairs of Architectural Engineering (prof. Fons
9HUKHLMHQ'HVLJQRI&RQVWUXFWLRQVSURIGU8OULFK.QDDFN
and Product Development (prof.dr. Mick Eekhout), one of the 3
sections of the department of Building Technology, a survey of
the research topics is illustrated in Fig. 4 (the research of the
Chair of Statics has not been enclosed as this Chair belongs
to another section, but is strongly related, as is the (vacant)
Chair of Material Science and the Chair of Building Physics).
Also the Chair of Sustainability of prof. Cees Duivesteijn has
to be involved. The most important clusters of research in this
overview of BTD are:
x Zappi/Cardboard,
x Blobs
x Industrial Buildings/Concept House
It is imperative that the relationship between these subprograms
ZLOOEHLQWHQVL¿HGDIWHUWKLVLQDXJXUDOFRQJUHVVDQGRQFHWKH
cardboard research group is growing towards maturity.

Fig. 3. Overview of research From Research Overview of Building Technology dated November
programs in Building 2005 (internal publication) the following pages of the
Technology subprogram “Cardboard Structures and Constructions“ have
been selected. They have been worked out by the researchers
involved and display the aim [quote]: “to establish cardboard
DVDUHDOEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO´,QWKHVXESURJUDPWKH¿HOGVDQG
possibilities are investigated on how and where cardboard
can be integrated in the building sector.
Cardboard, traditionally used for packaging, has potential for

DSSOLFDWLRQLQPDQ\VWUXFWXUDO¿HOGVEHFDXVHLWLVUHF\FODEOH
0,&.((.+287 5
OZ School Material
Bouw Platform DDi
DSD
Speerpunt Delft
Bouw Scientific
Tillman
Design
Klein
Thimo Complex
2006
Ebbert Processes
post-doc vacancy
Walter
Karel
Façades Reinhardt Hein
Lockefeer
Vollers Hasselbach
Complex Doeksen
Daan
Design
Rietbergen
Stefanos
&
Shore BLOBs Anestasiou Engineering
Shahnoori (Bath)
Wim
GRP Poelman
Structures 2006
Martijn vacancy Joris Martin
Veltkamp Molenaar Smit
Jordan Chair
Brandt Constructions Research
Jeroen Kunça
Geurts Saher
Product
Development
ZAPPI Architectural
Dave
van
Eijnsbergen
Zappi Engineering
design 2006
Pablo vacancy
vd Lugt Elise
Sannie
van Robert
Verwey And
Andreas
dr
Vögler Dooren Barnstone
Huib
Plomp
KNAW Ties
Rijcken
Rijck
Concept marketing
2006
vacancy
House
Elise
van Robert Cardboard
Wind Dooren Barnstone Ype Maria Taco
Cuperus Domotica
Erik vacancy 2006 den van
Vreeden- Boon Iersel
burg
vacancy vacancy Cardboard
1 2 Maria Taco
MKB den van
Boon Iersel
Julia
Schönwälder
Julia
Schönwälder
Glass
industry
NWO vacancy
Composites
industry Façades STW Ring of PhD students
industry
Satelite Orbit
Research Arenas
Research overview BTO

December2005
biodegradable and made from renewable resources. It is an Fig. 4. Relationships of research

inexpensive material which is remarkably strong considering its clusters of Building
low weight. Technical Design Section
Several examples and case studies (e.g. by Shigeru Ban)

GHPRQVWUDWHWKDWFDUGERDUGLVDQHI¿FLHQWEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO
for temporary structures“ [end of quote]. The opportunities of
FDUGERDUGIRUWKHEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\DUHVWURQJO\LQÀXHQFHGE\
its low unit price, and inferior quality yet numerous technical
potential improvements. The main question is how to upgrade
quality-wise an inferior material for serious building purposes.
Marketing studies and technological opportunity studies
should go hand in hand.
7KHFHQWUDOVFKHPHRI:LP3RHOPDQ¶VGLVVHUWDWLRQ1 shows that

for a trustworthy and long lasting match between demand
and supply side both the opportunities from the design side
(demand) and the functionalities from the production and

Fig. 5.3RHOPDQ¶VPDWFKRIVXSSO\
and demand
supply side have to be developed simultaneously.
It should be understood that, while the Dutch cardboard

industry is focused on packaging, the interest of the research
group Cardboard is only directed towards building products,
whether as parts of permanent buildings, temporary buildings,
or interior parts. It is good to recognize a sliding scale for the
VDNHRIDYRLGLQJFRQIXVLRQLQRXUUHVHDUFKLQGLIIHUHQW¿HOGV
of interest:
x Cardboard for Structural Purposes, that is load
bearing structures, which generally speaking could
lead to a progressive collapse of the entire structure
after failure of one single structural element or
component; (Example: the 30m dome of Ijburg/
Utrecht)
x Fundamental Research on Structural
Behaviour of Cardboard, to support the new
structural applications of cardboard, including the
PDMRULQÀXHQFHVRIKXPLGLW\RQWKHUHPDLQLQJ
strength of structural elements and components
0,&.((.+287 7
x Cardboard for Constructional purposes, where
the element or component has a stand alone
function of minor structural nature (wind loading
as a outside wall) and major cladding nature of
separating spaces
x Cardboard for Temporary Buildings, where
cardboard has both a structural and a constructional
use (example the Apeldoorn theatre designed by
architect Hans Ruijssenaars)
x Cardboard for Emergency Housing Purposes
in combinations of structural and constructional use,
with assistance of other materials like plastic foil;
(Many examples in the work of Shigeru Ban)
x Cardboard for Interior Purposes, to be applied
in cupboards, kitchens furniture (examples Ikea
products)
x Cardboard for Furniture Purposes, to be
worked out on the Faculty of Industrial Design
Engineering of TU Delft, rather than Architecture
x Cardboard for Installation Purposes, where the
packaging practically could be deformed to become
GXFWVH[DPSOHV7DFRYDQ,HUVHODQG7KH;;RI¿FH
by Jouke Post)
x Cardboard for secondary purposes in
structures like honeycomb sandwich cores, tubular
FRUHVRIUHLQIRUFHGFRQFUHWHÀRRUDQGFDUGERDUG
castings for concrete columns
next pages:
Fig. 6. Project 4.6. Cardboard

Structures and
Constructions
Fig. 7. Project 4.6.1. The

Mechanical Properties of
Cardboard
Fig. 8. Project 4.6.2. Product

Cardboard Wall for
2I¿FHVDQG+RXVLQJ
Fig. 9. Project 4.6.3. Product

Cardboard Cableduct for
Unit Building Industry

0,&.((.+287 9
0,&.((.+287 11
4. Working methods of engineers & architects
The general approach in research in engineering is to state
a certain research challenge, to analyze the problem in
sub-problems, brainstorm on these sub-problems, come to
synthesis of the different sub-problems and combine them
in overall product solutions which are examined in overall
technical and (later) economic feasibility. (This approach
is described in books on the methodology of product
development and2). In general in the development of new
building products 5 main phases are distinguished:
x Concept Design Phase
x Preliminary Marketing Phase
x Prototype Phase
x 'H¿QLWLYH0DUNHWLQJ3KDVH
x Production phase
,Q)LJWKHOD\RXWRIWKH¿UVWSKDVHµ&RQFHSW'HVLJQ¶LV
given as an illustration of the above given description. In
my opinion it is unavoidable in order to attain ambitious
targets to work systematically as an engineer. This route
unavoidably leads to a planned and time consuming
enterprise. This approach is called a deductive approach.
Reference is made to the dissertation of Mieke Oostra
„Componentontwerpen, de rol van de architect in
productinnovatie“3. I would rather call this approach the
engineers approach.
In the world of architects and designers another approach is

often followed: to make a design and to see whether there
is a market for it and how to optimize the design. This could
lead to a short route with surprising results. This is more
or less the approach which was followed by professor Fons
Verheijen and has lead to the pavilion in the Blokkenhal
on Bouwkunde, currently on exposition. This approach is
characterized as an inductive approach. I would even call it
for the sake of the debate the architect’s approach.
The cardboard pavilion that was on exposition at the Faculty

was the result of a spontaneous eruption of activities by the
group of researchers around the super-enthousiastic prof.
Fons Verheijen, supported by the fundamental researchers
of prof. Jan Rots and dr. Fred Veer in order to try to tie
together architectural design and fundamental research.
His typical architects approach and the short time schedule
0,&.((.+287 13
involved show an absence of cautious product development.
The pavilion is also the result of the massive support by the
cardboard industry to sponsor the cardboard necessary for Fig. 10. Concept Phase of Mick
the building of the pavilion. (HNKRXW¶V2UJDQRJUDP
of Product Development

5. Transition of knowledge and technology in
Cardboard
During the development of the cardboard dome in Amsterdam
in 2002/2003 no practical material data was available from
the side of the architect Shigeru Ban. No data was obtained
form the city of Hannover concerning the Japanese pavilion.
Hence the research had to start all over. One year later a
beautiful book was published in which many data were
available4. I heard structural designer Jörgen Schlaich once
say on a conference in Stuttgart, 1988: “Es ist nichts Neues
GDVV:LVVHQYHUJHKW´RU³1RWKLQJQHZWKDWNQRZOHGJHIDLQWV´
%XWGRHVLWKDYHWRJRWKDWIDVW"$UHZHDVGHVLJQHUVLQWKLV
LQIRUPDWLRQDJHKRQHVWRUVHO¿VKWRRQHDQRWKHU":K\GRQ¶W
ZH VKDUH PRUH NQRZOHGJH" ,Q WKLV FDVH 2FWDWXEH KDG WR
regain the knowledge that has been already available on other
places, by other designers and engineers. Octatube is willing
to share a major part of its knowledge via the Delft University
of Technology to the Dutch industry and to other cardboard
researchers at other universities in order to increase the body
of knowledge. It is the task of the universities to generate and
distribute knowledge and insight. Therefore the cardboard
research group sees it as one of its immediate tasks to make
an extensive overview on all cardboard research in Europe
directed towards architecture and structural use, most likely in
the form of a book. Hopefully this avoids that new researchers
have to start from the bottom upwards.
6. Ambitions on the short run in cardboard

research
The best cardboard research on the TU Delft has an
equilibrium between:
1. Fundamental technical research (to
develop the packaging material to a structural/
constructional material),
2. Technology development (mixing
appropriate cardboard elements with suitable
structural and constructional systems) and
3. Design of commercial systems and project
applications (for a match between society
needs and the supplied cardboard technology in
the building industry).
It is imperative that the industry, waiting for the TU Delft to

develop a new cardboard market in the building industry for
0,&.((.+287 15
them, will be involved in all three major phases, of the earlier
mentioned 6 main stages of Fig. 1. The industry shall not
expect to consume easily prefabricated cardboard knowledge:
LWWDNHVPXFKHIIRUWWRGHYHORSDQHZ¿HOGRIH[SHUWLVHDQG
the support and time of many. The university cannot develop
new technology without the practical remarks of the current
industry, but never in absence of creative future-directed
marketing.
I would like to give you a number of around 40 interesting

topics for research, development & design with which the
research group at TU Delft has to occupy itself, coming from a
one-person brainstorm while writing this lecture/article.
A further strategic brainstorm and analysis seems inevitable,

as well as a logical chain of related activities through research,
development and design in preference and feasibility as well as
in view of positive market opportunities. The production may
be done by the Dutch cardboard industry, but the application
market is worldwide.
6.1. Research topics

1. Research on improved glue for better strength,
humidity indifference
2. Improved strength of the basic cardboard
material
3. Appropriate statical systems for cardboard in
separate bending, compression and tension
systems
4. Appropriate element connection methods for
structural and constructional loadings
5. Improved winding methods with larger overlaps
increasing strength of CHS tubes
,QÀXHQFHRIKXPLGLW\DQGPRLVWXUHRQ
cardboard in constructions and structures
7. Creep behavior and structural safety, especially
for cardboard structures
,PSURYHG¿UHUHVLVWDQFHRIFDUGERDUGHOHPHQWV
and components
9. Extrusion possibilities of (improved) solid
cardboard material with complex cross sections
for multiple connections
10. Casting of nodular connection elements based
on (improved) cardboard material

11. Research in load carrying walls for housing with
LPSURYHGFUHHSDQG¿UHSURWHFWLRQ
5HVHDUFKLQORDGFDUU\LQJUHLQIRUFHGÀRRU
components for smaller spans (houses)
6.2. Development topics
13. Make marketing studies of opportunities for
cardboard in the building industry seen its
current and potentially improved properties
14. Development of glued connections between
elements
15. Development of (de)mountable connections
between components
16. Development of protection of cardboard against
humidity, moisture and rai
17. Development of a vocabulary of structural forms
most suited for the use of cardboard
18. Development of suitable production methods
for improved cardboard for use in building
structures and constructions
19. Develop a kit of tools for do-it-yourself use
of cardboard sandwich panels for non-load
carrying partitioning walls
20. Develop self supporting book storing shelf
systems of cardboard
21. Develop 2,5 D paneling system (curved in 1
direction) for outside cladding carriers
22. Develop e production methodology for cast
improved cardboard nodes
23. Use temperature and moisture as deformation
techniques in production of elements
GHYHORSRSSRUWXQLWLHVRIµQDQR¶VWUHQJWKHQLQJRI
skins for cardboard sandwiches
25. Develop improved skins of cardboard sandwich
constructions with improved resistance against
PRLVWXUH¿UHDQGVWUXFWXUDOORDGLQJLQERWK
stressed skins
26. Develop demountable printing techniques for
the sandwich surfaces
'HYHORSZDOODQGUHLQIRUFHGÀRRUFRPSRQHQWV
for semi-permanent housing
6.3. Design topics

28. Design folding systems with constructional
sandwich cardboard for large spaces
0,&.((.+287 17
29. Design large scale pre-fabricated emergency
housing with minimal transport volume
30. Design structural skeleton systems with tubular
elements and cast cardboard nodes
31. Design interior partitioning systems with
cardboard for do-it-yourself use
32. Design one-off structural systems with
honeycomb core for 3D blob surfaces
33. Design cardboard chalets for use in private
gardens
34. Design self-build partitioning walls for
spontaneous accommodation of home guests
35. Design cardboard outdoor storage spaces, to be
VXVSHQGHGIURPEDOFRQLHVRIÀDWV
36. Design summer house units for temporary use;
'HVLJQHDVLO\GHPRXQWDEOHRI¿FHSDUWLWLRQLQJ
with printing surfaces and acoustic absorbing
qualities
38. Design structurally independent indoor
partitioning system for museum purposes
39. Design Student housing for fast expanding
needs
'HVLJQURRIWRSH[WHQVLRQRIÀDWURRIVXVLQJ
cardboard constructions and structures
41. Design Concept Houses with load carrying walls
DQGÀRRUV
7. Conclusion for Cardboard Research

Research with potential possibilities for cardboard in the
building industry is impossible without a serious and strategic
approach and research set-up. This approach has to be
consciously designed and developed both analytically as
well as with creativity and originality. It should be looking
over the borders of the current Dutch cardboard industry,
translating possibilities from the current building industry as
well as transmitting knowledge from other disciplines. This
approach has yet to involve both marketing, sustainability
DQGRWKHUUHVHDUFKSURJUDPVOLNHµ=DSSL¶µ%OREV¶DQGµ&RQFHSW
+RXVH¶ DURXQG WKH FHQWUDO FRUH RI &DUGERDUG UHVHDUFK LQ
fundamentals, development in technology and design of
architectural applications. For a long term and successful
research, development & design program appealing to the
Dutch industry a strong, structurally interwoven cardboard
research set-up has to be made. Funding from both sides
(university and industry) has to be pursued at a later

stage when the cardboard research program has become
convincing and appealing.
The proposal given in this article is the result of short notice

FRQVLGHUDWLRQV ¿WWLQJ LQ H[LVWLQJ UHVHDUFK SURJUDPV DQG
needs continuous response from my colleague researchers
and from the industry. At the moment the researchers are
paid by the university or on temporary hold, waiting for
PRUH HQWKXVLDVP DQG ¿QDQFLDO VXSSRUW 7KH 78 'HOIW ZLOO
SURYLGH¿QDQFLDOVXSSRUWIURPLWVLQWHUQDOUHVHDUFKSURPRWLRQ
tendering system. The industry is also asked to read this
article carefully as a proposal and consider participation,
SK\VLFDOO\DQGRU¿QDQFLDOO\,QRWKHUUHVHDUFKSURMHFWVZH
have successfully introduced a consortium-form of sponsoring
around individual researchers. This is a method suited for the
VPDOOHUDQGPHGLXPLQGXVWULHVµ0.%¶LQ'XWFKZKHUHWKH
amounts per industry are modest and the consortium effort
leads to larger research impulses.
References
1 Wim Poelman, Technology diffusion in product design: towards
an integration of technology diffusion in the design process, S.l:
S.n, Delft, 2005, ISBN 9051550235
2 Mick Eekhout, POPO, Delft University Press, Delft 1996, ISBN
9040716315
3 Mieke Oostra “Componentontwerpen, de rol van de architect in
SURGXFWLQQRYDWLH´(GLWRU(EXURQ'HOIW,6%1
4 Matilda McQuaid, Shigeru Ban, Phaidon, London, 2003, ISBN
0714841943
5 Mick Eekhout, Ontwerpmethodologie 28 en 29 mei 1998, TU
Delft Faculteit der Bouwkunde, Delft, 1998, ISBN 9052692556
0,&.((.+287 19
Cardboard in Architecture; an Overview
Elise van Dooren, Fons Verheijen
Abstract
The image of cardboard still remains that of a packaging material,

but in the last few years, at home and abroad, different projects
have been built using cardboard. This article gives a broad
spectrum of projects and products using cardboard.
Cardboard tubes are being used by Shigeru Ban as a means

RI FRQVWUXFWLRQ LQ D VKRZ RI OLJKW DQG RSHQ VSDFH $G YDQ .LO
DSSOLHV WKH VSHFL¿F WH[WXUH RI KRQH\FHOO ERDUG 7KH OLJKWQHVV
DQGWKHDELOLW\WRUHF\FOHDUHSURSHUWLHV¿WWLQJDVKRUWOLIHVSDQ
and temporary applications. As a result of these properties, two
temporary theatres and one party tent have been built.
Cardboard is a lightweight, cheap and environmentally positive

material. The packaging industry has a lot of knowledge on
cardboard as a packaging material, in the building industry it is
VWLOODODUJHO\XQNQRZQPDWHULDO7RDFTXLUHDVLJQL¿FDQWUROHLQ
architecture, the mechanical and physical properties will have to
EHUHVHDUFKHGDQGGHWHUPLQHG,QSULQFLSDOWKH¿UHDQGGDPS
resistance problems could be overcome. Research also will have
to be done into the possible areas of appliance, considering its
characteristic properties. The lightness of the material and the
possibility to fold and slide it, already led to a number of designs
for temporary housing in disaster and war stricken areas.
1. Introduction
Materials – we want to know everything about them.
Where they come from, how you work with them,
how far you can push them, what else you can make
from them.1
Paper and cardboard have earnt their success in history2

mainly as writing paper and packaging. Especially with the
exchange of stone and hides by the relatively light and more
easily writable paper and the development of book printing,
two quantum leaps were made in the world of communication
and science.
The wooden box (a few thin plates reinforced at the corners

and connected using small laths) has been replaced by
21
a cardboard box; foldable, lighter, easy to discard of and
recyclable after use.
Especially Japan has a rich paper tradition2. Well known types

of paper are Washi (hand scooped paper, which stands out
because of its strength, shine, natural colour, life span and
low weight) and Nagashizuki (extremely thin paper, multi
OD\HUHGFURVVHGZLWKDVWURQJ¿EUHEXLOGXS.QRZQIURP
architecture are the semi-transparent sliding doors (Shoji and
Fusuma). The measurements vary from 33,3 x 24,2 cm up
to (in extreme custom cases) 620 x 210 cm The material is
also being used in interiors and furniture. A very well known
and traditional application of paper in the building industry
is wall paper. Paper is, regarding the enormous success of
typography, probably the best material for printing.
The Wiggle chair3 by architect Frank Gehry is probably the

best known piece of cardboard furniture. Tables, cupboards
and even beds have been designed using cardboard. With the
furniture of Stange Design4 in Germany there is a cheap way of
decorating your house. Moreover, the lifespan of this furniture
coincides with the average time we own our furniture.
,Q$G.LOHQ5R.RVWHUGHVLJQHGDFRPSOHWHRI¿FHLQWHULRU
using cardboard5. The explicit demand was an interior which
would give a soul to the somewhat boring space. By gluing
cardboard in several layers on top of each other, walls with
an exceptional texture were created, which moreover had a
positive affect on the sound inside the room.
The walls of honeycell board serve a double function; as

separation as well as being spacious because of the many
Fig. 1.,QWHULRURIWKHRI¿FHRI
Scherpontwerp, a graphic
design company in
Eindhoven.
22 CARDBOARD IN ARCHITECTURE; AN OVERVIEW

recesses, wherein niches, workplaces, shelves, a canteen, a
library and presentation area have been placed. Honeycell
plates of 1.2 by 3.0 metres (thickness varying from 1.2, 2, 3
and 8 centimetres) were cut to pieces and glued together. A
computer drew in the design layer by layer.
The worktops have been covered with a transparent acrylic

plate in order to keep out moist and protect the vulnerable
HGJHV RI WKH WDEOHV 7KH ¿UH GHSDUWPHQW DQG LQVXUDQFH
companies issued the demand that each building element
KDG WR EH LPSUHJQDWHG ZLWK D ¿UHUHWDUGDQW 7KH VHDOLQJ
boards were also made from honeycell cardboard. The neon
tube lighting above the desks was placed inside semi-circle
cardboard tubes
Historically Japan has a rich tradition in the use of paper,

even to the present day the Japanese architect Shigeru Ban
is the best known architect when it comes to cardboard as a
building material. Paper and wood for him form a direct line,
one evolves from the other6. Therefore he sometimes uses the
WHUPµHYROYHGZRRG¶IRUFDUGERDUG6KLJHUX%DQLVFRQVWDQWO\
VHDUFKLQJ IRU PDWHULDOV ¿WWLQJ WKH DVVLJQPHQW RU VLWXDWLRQ
(QYLURQPHQWDO FRQVLGHUDWLRQV VLPSOLFLW\ DQG HI¿FLHQF\ DUH
key words to him. Cardboard tubes, originally used for the
transportation of tapestry, are being used as constructive and
architectonic elements.
For a theatre production of a dance/ mime company in the

Netherlands, Shigeru Ban was asked to design a temporary
space using cardboard. In cooperation with building architect
and construction engineer Mick Eekhout, a dome from
cardboard tubes was built in 2004.7 Covering the cardboard
Fig. 2. Close-up of the Paper

Dome.after application of
the membrane
ELISE VAN DOOREN, FONS VERHEIJEN 23

construction a coated polyester fabric was used. The
cardboard tubes were interconnected by use of steel nodes.
7KHVHQRGHVDOVRJXDUDQWHHGDQHI¿FLHQWGHDVVHPEO\7KH
dome has already been taken down and rebuilt on another
site functioning as an expo-centre as well as skating-ring. The
latter turned out to be not such a good idea, because of the
humid condititions.
The projects of Shigeru Ban are beautiful examples of using

cardboard in architecture. Still the image of cardboard remains
WKDWRIDSDFNDJLQJPDWHULDORUWKDWRIDKRPHOHVVSHUVRQV¶
sleeping place. That invokes a few questions. Why use
FDUGERDUGDVDEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO":KDWDUHWKHDGYDQWDJHV
DQGZKDWWKHGLVDGYDQWDJHV",VLWDSDVVLQJRQHWLPHHYHQW"
The last couple of decades, here as well as abroad, different

projects from cardboard or using cardboard have been
designed and built. This article gives an overview of most of
WKHSURMHFWVµEXLOGLQJZLWKFDUGERDUG¶WKHPDWLFDOO\RUGHUHG
2. Projects
2.1. Shigeru Ban
Shigeru Ban placed cardboard tubes in circular shapes behind
a (semi) transparent façade in his Paper House and Paper
Church (1995), thus creating beautiful spaces, each with their
own character, in a show of light. His designs intertwine two
WUDGLWLRQV -DSDQHVH VLPSOLFLW\ DQG WKH RSHQ ÀXLG VSDFH RI
modern architecture. These and other projects, were he used
cardboard tubes in construction, like Library of a poet (1991)
and the Japan Pavillion at the Expo in Hannover (2000) are
YHU\ZHOOGRFXPHQWHGLQWKHERRNµ6KLJHUX%DQ¶6
Shigeru Ban also used cardboard tubes for temporary housing

shaped like tents and small houses for the shelter of victims
after natural disasters and refugees from war stricken areas,
for it is a cheap material, abundant, recyclable and easy
build with. Moreover, cardboard tubes can be produced on-
site and will not be sold on for some quick money as has
happened with aluminium. It also does not require any extra
tree-logging. After research using prototypes and testing, Ban
placed cardboard tent frames in Rwanda (1995) spanned
E\D7HÀRQWHQW3UHFHGHGE\DVKRUWLQVWUXFWLRQWKHORFDO
inhabitants were soon able to build them themselves.

Fig. 3. Temporary emergency
KRXVLQJLQ.REH-DSDQ
after the earthquake that
hit the area in 1995.
In Japan (1995) and later in Turkey and India (2000/2001)

small houses have been built, small square spaces with a few
windows and a door. The tubes were standing next to each
other thus forming the walls; the roof was a tent canvas.
Depending on the site where the dwellings will have to be
built, a solution for the foundation will be devised. This has to
be as simple as possible using local materials. In Japan sand
¿OOHGEHHUFUDWHVZHUHXVHGLQ,QGLDGHEULVIURPWKHGLVDVWHU
2.2. Emergency housing

Between 1970 and 1980, Paul Rohlfs8 designed emergency
housing from cardboard during his graduation project for
buldingproducttechnology and thereafter as researcher for the
University of Technology in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. The
structure has been built from load bearing wall panels with
rubber strips for glazing. He developed a few prototypes. The
wall panels in prototype 1 consist of a core of honeycell board
ZLWKWZRRXWHUOD\HUVRI³7ULZDOO´DWULSOHOD\HUHGFRUUXJDWHG
cardboard with an extra thick top layer (liner). It proved to
be very strong and stabile, but laborious prototype. For the
development of types 2 and 3, a different building method was
chosen: Honeycell cardboard with an exterior breather foil and
DQ LQWHULRU YDSRXU UHWDUGDQW OD\HU 7KH HYHUPRUH VLPSOL¿HG
form provided for easy detailing, less manual production, less
waste and quicker assembly in prototype 4. This prototype
was actually inhabited for a while and survived a harsh winter,
while the entire site in the province of Groningen was cut off
by a thick layer of snow from the rest of the Netherlands.
2.3. Temporary housing prototype

In the Netherlands, Rene Snel9 developed a temporary
housing prototype. Using a machine, he developed himself,
KHZLQGVHOHPHQWVÀRRUZDOODQGURRIIRUPRQHFRQWLQXRXV

element. Connecting several elements comprises a small
dwelling. When covered in a protective layer they can be
erected on site en a relatively short amount of time.
,Q 6\GQH\ WKH H[KLELWLRQ µ+RXVHV RI WKH )XWXUH¶10

was being held. Prefabrication and durability are the central
themes in these buildings which were projected at the future.
Six houses were built, each from a different material: concrete,
wood, steel, glass, masonry and cardboard.
The cardboard house could be delivered to the building site

as a relatively lightweight package with cardboard frames
and panels. It takes only two people to assemble one house
in approximately 6 hours. The construction consists of a
few roof frames, stabilized by cardboard lateral baulks. The
construction-elements can be slid together like the partitions
of a wine-box. The construction is covered by a synthetic
FORWKWKLVKHOSVNHHSLQJWKHEXLOGLQJ¿UPWRWKHJURXQGDQG
also permits light to pass inside.
2.4. Temporary theaters

On the occasion of the 1200-year anniversary of the city
of Apeldoorn (1993) both Rudy Uytenhaak11,12 and Hans
Ruijsenaars13 were asked to design a temporary theatre.
The choice for cardboard as the building material was made
EHFDXVHRI$SHOGRRUQV¶VLWXDWLRQQH[WWRWKH9HOXZHKDYLQJD
long tradition of paper and cardboard manufacturers. Visitors
could buy a foldable cardboard stool as their entrance fee;
they could take them home after the show.
Hans Ruijsenaars in cooperation with ABT building technology

consultants, designed a theatre with a total span of 12 metres
and a length of 20,5 metres. The entire building weighed
less than a large car! It could seat 100 – 150 visitors. The
cylindrical theatre was built using a construction of rods. each
1200 mm in length and 250 mm in height. Each rod consists of
7 layers of corrugated cardboard glued together. At the node,
where 6 rods connect, wooden plates have been glued into
the rods. With a block of two plates and a steel connection the
nodes were kept together. The thus created triangles in the
structure were covered with plasticized corrugated cardboard
covers. The seams were sealed with tape. The necessary
tools were a hammer and screwdriver. Finally the theatre was Fig. 4. Theater in Apeldoorn.
covered with an exterior tent canvas, allowing ventilation and Designed by Hans
the entrance of daylight at the nodes. The entire theatre was Ruijsenaars.

placed on prefabricated concrete slabs.
5XG\8\WHQKDDNGHVLJQHGDÀRDWLQJWKHDWUHRQWZRSRQWRRQV
in the Apeldoorn canal. The load bearing structure was to be
made from steel, with beams and cables. The roof and some
of the side-wings were to be made from cardboard elements.
The elements in the roof were coated with polyethylene
to ensure water-resistance. Inside the side-wings they are
uncoated.
2.5. Barn
In the nineteen seventies and eighties research was being
done into the development of cheap cattle barns. The aim
LV WR PDNH WKH EDUQV¶ WHFKQLFDO OLIHVSDQ HTXDO WR WKH VKRUW
economical writing off term. Different materials were tested
amongst which corrugated cardboard. With triangular
cardboard beams large spans are achieved and the demanded
insulation values are met. The cattle barn remained standing
for a couple of years.
2.6. Cardboardschool
Cottrell and Vermeulen in cooperation with bureau Happold
designed an after school child care connected to a school
in England14,15 :HVWERURXJK SULPDU\ 6FKRRO 8.
2002). The central idea for the design of the extension was
the folding of paper. Furthermore the aim was to use as
much recyclable and recycled material as possible. At the
end of its 20 year lifespan all the materials used (cardboard,
wood, natural rubber tiles) are to be recycled. Before actually
building the extension, a scale model of 6 x 2.4 metres was
EXLOW7KHNQRZOHGJHDFTXLUHGIURPWKLVPRGHOVLPSOL¿HGWKH
design. One of the major changes was the application of
wooden edges on the entirely cardboard panels. To protect
the cardboard from water during the actual build, a temporary
scaffolding structure covered in plastic was erected.
The cardboard was made water resistant in of couple of

ZD\V$W¿UVWDVXEVWDQFHZDVDGGHGWRWKHSXOSPDNLQJWKH
material itself more vapour-retardant, but without interfering
with the process of recycling the product. The second step
was the addition of an interior coating to stop vapour and
water resistant building paper on the outside. The third and
¿QDOVWHSZDVPDNLQJWKHSDQHOVPRUHGDPDJHUHVLVWDQWD
1 mm cardboard layer on the inside and a product on the
outside which can be seen as close to cardboard: wood-

¿EUHFHPHQWSDQHOV7KHFDUGERDUGDQGDLUEHWZHHQWKHVH
materials provides enough insulation and acoustically the
material meets the standards. The façades were covered in
prints with patterns drawn by the children themselves. Next
to the panels, cardboard tubes were used, supporting the
ZRRGHQ EHDPV 7KH %%& SURJUDP µ7RPRUURZV :RUOG¶ KDV
WHVWHGWKHH[WHQVLRQLQWHQVLYHO\E\OHWWLQJWKH¿UHGHSDUWPHQW
WU\WRPDNHWKHIDoDGHOHDNDQGGRLQJ¿UHWHVWVDVZHOODVD
test with the weight of a car.
2.7. Multished
On the occasion of the opening of a paper recycling company
in Duiven (2002), a temporary extension was designed and
EXLOWDFDUGERDUGSDUW\WHQWWKH³0XOWLVKHG´HUHFWHGIURP
cardboard tubes, honeycell and solid cardboard.14 7KH ¿UH
UHVLVWDQFH SURYHG WR EH VXI¿FLHQW LQ FDVH RI D WHPSRUDU\
structure, because the solid cardboard plates meet the
demands of fire-class 4 (non-housing structures). The
extension is built up from a skeleton of cardboard tubes with
honeycell plates laminated with solid cardboard between the
tubes. With a minimal addition of cellophane and a small
amount of PE foil, water resistance of the tubes and the plates
was achieved. In order to also waterproof the end grain, black
tape was used in all connections.
3. Products
3.1. Ventilation duct
7KH;;DUFKLWHFWVRI¿FHLQ'HOIWE\-RXNH3RVW16, was based on
the thought, that when the economical lifespan of a building
does not coincide with the technical lifespan, the latter should
DGDSWLWVHOIWRWKH¿UVW7KLVOLIHVSDQZDVVHWRQ\HDUV7KH
materials were chosen in such a way, that they could be re-
used or returned to nature. Part of this concept is the use of
cardboard tubes as ventilation ducts.
3.2. Floor-heating system

&DUGERDUGZDVDOVRXVHGLQDÀRRUKHDWLQJV\VWHPZKLFKFRXOG
be de-assembled17. Aluminium heat conducting plates were
placed on pre-shaped corrugated cardboard plates, sandwiching
DPP3(WXEH7KHÀRRU¿QLVKLQJERDUGVZHUHVXEVHTXHQWO\
ODLGRQDORDGGLYLGLQJOD\HURIJ\SVXP¿EUH7KHFRUUXJDWHG
FDUGERDUG KDV DQ LQVXODWLQJ IXQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH ÀRRU DQG
the ground itself. The materials used have little to no negative
environmental effects and are easy to move or recycle.

Fig. 5. Multished
Fig. 6. Close-up of the Multished
3.3. Cable-duct
The cardboard cable-duct by Taco van Iersel18 is an example
RIDSUHIRUPHGÀDWSODWHZKLFKFDQEHIROGHGDWWKHZRUNVLWH
and placed into brackets. The predecessor of this cable-duct
in the design process was the semi-round tube. However, the
IROGDEOHSODWHLVPXFKPRUHHI¿FLHQWEHFDXVHLWUHTXLUHVOHVV
space during transport.
3.4. Cardboard duct in a sound barrier

$ORQJVLGH WKH $ KLJKZD\ )RQV 9HUKHLMHQ GHVLJQHG µ7KH
:DOO¶19 (2005) which at the same time functions as a sound
barrier for the residential area behind it. The building is being
EXLOW LQ GLIIHUHQW SKDVHV ¿UVW D VROLWDU\ IDoDGH DV D QRLVH
controlling screen, then the rest of the building. Directly
behind the screen will be a delivery street for the shops inside
WKHEXLOGLQJ7KHIDoDGHZLOOKDYHWREHFORVHGIRUWKH¿UVW
years in order to block the noise of the highway, where after

the façade will have to be partly open to ventilate the exhaust
fumes of the cars on the delivery street. The lower part of the
façade is built from concrete slats of which the grooves will
EH¿OOHGZLWKFDUGERDUGWXEHVDVORQJDVWKHIDoDGHIXO¿OVWKH
function of sound barrier. This is a simple and cheap solution
ZKLFKVXI¿FHVDVDVRXQGEDUULHU7KHDGYDQWDJHKHUHLVWKDW
the 5 km of tube can be recycled after having been through
the shredder.
Fig. 7. The cardboard cable-

duct. Designed by Taco
van Iersel.
3.5. Cellulose insulation

In principle, paper is suitable to be used as an insulation
material. Using cellulose, different kinds of insulation plates
KDYHEHHQPDGHHFRORJLFDOO\VSHDNLQJ¿WWLQJLQWKHFDWHJRU\
µEHVWPDWHULDO¶7KHSODWHVDUHFRQWLQXRXVO\EHLQJGHYHORSHG
making them just as usable as their less ecological competition.
For example, Homatherm20 has developed a plate with an
LQVXODWLRQFDOFXODWLRQYDOXHRIP.:ZKLFKLVEHQGDEOH
and can be processed, dust free, using standard equipment.
Moreover, the plate breaths, thereby temporarily buffering
moist and has a higher warmth accumulating value than
comparable isolation materials. Isovloc20 are loose cellulose
ÀDNHVZKLFKFDQEHVSUD\HGEORZQRUPDQXDOO\GLVSHUVHGLQ
VHDOHGFRQVWUXFWLRQVOLNHZDOOVÀRRUVDQGFHLOLQJVLQVXODWLQJ
warmth.
3.6. Dividing wall

Out of the building community the idea was born to develop
a dividing wall from cardboard. The evermore strict building
legislation (maximum weight to be lifted by man: 25 kg) and
the demand for increasingly shorter building trajectories, led
to new solutions. Because of companies moving, merging and
JRLQJEDQNUXSWPDQ\GLYLGLQJZDOOVLQRI¿FHEXLOGLQJVKDYH
a very short lifespan. The building industry is therefore the
industry with the greatest amount of waste. Cardboard has as
one of its main advantages its re-usability; when the wall has
worn out or has become obsolete, it can easily be dumped as
used paper.

Fig. 8.'HWDLORI³7KH:DOO´
alongside the A2
highway near Utrecht.
Fig. 9.³7KH:DOO´DORQJVLGHWKH
A2 highway near Utrecht.
The cardboard interior wall uses the lightweight and high

strength properties of honeycell board. The panels consist
of honeycell plates with a solid cardboard liner. Both sides of
the panel contain grooves, wherein a connecting element can
be placed. This way, different panels can be assembled into
a smooth wall. Inside the wall, hollow channels have been
incorporated, offering space for electricity cables. The walls
will be built from panels 90 x 280 cm each, but still lighter than
25 kg. By using these large panels the building speed can be
guaranteed and because of its ability to be covered in any kind

RI¿QLVKIURPZDOOSDSHUWRWLOHVWKHGLIIHUHQFHZLWKWUDGLWLRQDO
interior walls is invisible.
7KHZDOOKDVEHHQVXEPLWWHGWRPDQ\WHVWV¿UHFRPSUHVVLRQ
tension) and experiments (Sandbag swinging test). On
some points the wall reached a surprisingly high score, but
sometimes improvement of the wall is necessary. Some of the
growing pains can be deduced from the way of production.
7KHSDQHOVZHUHDVVHPEOHGE\KDQG7KLVKDVJUHDWLQÀXHQFH
on the total quality of the wall. For many applications the wall
in its current shape is satisfying, but optimisation will improve
the chances for cardboard as a partition.
3.7. Paper composite

In Australia Adriano Pupilli20 and others developed a prototype
shelter for those forced to live in marginal, insecure or
LQDSSURSULDWHKRXVLQJ,PSRUWDQWSDUWRIµ7KH3DSHU+RXVH¶
is the Armacel composite technology. Recycled and renewable
materials, like paper, cardboard, straw and rice, are cocooned
in a impermeable membrane of recycled Polyethylene
Terephthalate (PET). So the often delicate and porous material
is protected and strengthened by a process of vacuum forging
a thin layer of part recycled, part virgin polymer.
4. Study projects
It is clear that cardboard is a relatively new material in
the building industry and not a lot of data is known yet.
We need research on a broad basis, as well as in depth
research, meaning: research in a designing, synthesizing
way and research in a specialized way (e.g. research into the
mechanical properties and moisture-resistance of cardboard)
The broad-range research combines many different aspects.

Especially this kind of research results in associations and
leaps of thought as well as relations which are less obvious
in specialized research. Broad-range research asks questions
and makes mutual and unexpected ties. At the Faculty of
Architecture of Delft University of Technology an increasing
amount of research is being done into cardboard, broad-range
as well as specialized. Part of it is done by researchers, part of
it as student (graduation) projects.

4.1. Graduation project Chiel van der Stelt, Hans
Mesman and Wim Kahmann
,Q&KLHOYDQGHU6WHOW+DQV0HVPDQDQG:LP.DKPDQQ
designed temporary housing for their graduation project20.
When folded, one house could be transported inside a
container. The transport packages are about 3.00 x 1.80 x 0.30
metre and weigh about 200 kg. The aluminium foundation,
protecting the houses from drawn up moisture functions
also as impact protection of the package. The elements are
connectable at both sides.
Cardboard panels gain in strength by folding them into piers.

The roof needs to be converted, folded out and covered with
aluminium as well. Between the piers closed, semi-open and
rotating parts are placed. Normally these are cardboard, but
Fig. 11. Temporary housing as local materials could be used as well. The outside is covered
a graduation project by in a white coating, the inside in a transparent one. The
Chiel van Stelt, Hans connections are made from glue and synthetic materials. The
Mesman and Wim uplift by wind is counteracted by a rope from the edge of the
.DKPDQQ roof to the foundation.

4.2. Graduation project Taco van Iersel
During his graduation project (2002), Taco van Iersel
developed a wall built from cardboard boxes21. With this
system he designed a dwelling for temporary use on wasteland
(building locations). The principle idea is based on converting
DSDFNDJLQJER[WRDµFDUGERDUGEULFN¶7KHER[HVDUHEHLQJ
stacked in a stretching bond. The boxes also slide together
XVLQJ ÀDSV DQG WKHUHDIWHU JHW JOXHG WRJHWKHU 2Q WKH WKXV
created wall of boxes a liner of cardboard gets glued, assisting
in the force transmission in the wall like in a sandwich panel.
7KLVFRQVWUXFWLRQFRXOGEHXVHGIRUZDOOVÀRRUVDQGEHDPV
In order to stack the boxes, there are two different sizes: a

small box (150 x 300 x 300 mm) and a large box (150 x 300 x
600 mm). In the fall of 2005 student Arne Arends developed
a corner-box, which will improve the stability of the walls.
6SHFL¿FWHFKQLTXHVXVHGLQWKHSDSHUDQGFDUGERDUGLQGXVWU\ Fig. 12. Wall made of stacked
are: folding, creasing, scribing, bruise and blanking out. The boxes by Taco van
boxes used were made with a computer operated blanking Iersel.
knife. A blanking knife is a wooden pate with knives, steel
strips, and rubbers mounted on it. The plate is placed in a
blanking machine, which gets fed a cardboard plate where the
NQLIHJHWVSXVKHGLQWR7KHUHVXOWLVDSODWHVKDSHGOLNHDÀDW
7$.2ER[7KLVVXEVHTXHQWO\QHHGVWREHIROGHGDQGJOXHG
The type of cardboard determines largely the accuracy of

WKHZDOO:KHQFDUGERDUGPDGHIURPDORWRIYLUJLQ¿EUHLV
used, the result will be a dimensionally stable box. When
FDUGERDUGZLWKDORWRIUHXVHG¿EUHVLVEHLQJXVHGWKHER[
will be weaker and less dimensionally stable. Also the accuracy
during the folding and gluing of the boxes is of importance.
Fig. 13. Corner box in order to

improve stability by
Arne Arends.
Fig. 14. Dwelling for temporary

use on wastelend.

4.3. Paper building, Monique Verhoef
During her Building-technology graduation project (2002),
Monique Verhoef designed and researched a cardboard
structure22. The objective of the project was “to research
the ways in which cardboard can be applied in the
building industry responsibly, whereby it clearly retains
Fig. 15. Strength test of DQ LPDJH RI LWV RZQ´ 7KH UHVHDUFK ZDV FRQFHQWUDWHG RQ
triangular folded the different shaping-possibilities of cardboard. Eventually
packaging material WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI D VSHFL¿F EXLOGLQJV\VWHP D IROGLQJ
structure, was chosen. Cardboard has a relatively low
stiffness in comparison with other materials (i.e. steel).
With a folding construction relatively large spans can be
made because of the form stiffness achieved by the shape
of the structure. Also the type of connection used – a glued
connection – is positive: cardboard has problems handling
concentrated loads. And this construction expressively uses
Fig. 16. Section of a cardboard one of the characteristics of the material: cardboard can be
construction using folded easily.
triangular folds by
Monique Verhoef The structure simultaneously performs a structural and a
parting function. Laminated layers of corrugated cardboard
form the inside of the structure. Corrugated cardboard is
relatively lightweight with a great stiffness and it isolates. The
LQVLGHDQGRXWVLGHRIWKHFDUGERDUGLV¿QLVKHGZLWKDOD\HURI
solid cardboard. The solid cardboard can well be protected
from moisture and forms a good water end damp resistant
layer. Furthermore, it handles impact loads better, thereby
protecting the corrugated cardboard from damages.
The folding structure was built from similar triangles. Using

the ability to easily fold the material, the building elements
can be made from several triangles, thereby reducing the
number of connections and the associated risk of moisture
getting through. The outer layer of solid cardboard is one
strip covering many triangles. The laminated corrugated
cardboard and the inner layer of solid cardboard are divided
in triangular elements glued to the outer layer of solid
cardboard.
Fig. 17. Elevation of a cardboard

buidling using triangular
folds by Monique
Verhoef

4.4. Blobboard
Blobboard was entered in a design competition for the
new Stylos bookshop (2003) by Pim Marsman and Jop
van Buchem19. The design originated from a cooperation
EHWZHHQ WKH ODERUDWRULHV ³%OREDUFKLWHFWXUH´ DQG ³%XLOGLQJ
ZLWK FDUGERDUG´ DW WKH IDFXOW\ RI $UFKLWHFWXUH RI WKH 'HOIW
University of Technology. Blobboard consists of double curved
surfaces. In the design a new way of building with cardboard
instead of using the traditional building techniques has been
researched. The motive and inspiration for the design were
found in honeycell cardboard and egg-boxes; it turned out to
be very easy to make double curved surfaces from egg-boxes
by making them moist and letting them dry in the desired
shape. The load bearing structure consists of honeycell strips,
connected by glue or bolts. This structure is then covered in a
skin, formed into the desired shape while wet.
Fig. 18-20. Blobboard Pavilion

4.5. Umbrella shaped roof, Henk van Dijke
The graduation project of Henk van Dijke at the Design
Academy, Eindhoven19 (2003) was inspired by examples
IURPWKHZRUOGRIÀRUDQHUYHVWUXFWXUHVRIOHDYHVDQGEUDQFK
formations on trees) and by the work of Antoni Gaudi and
Frei Otto. He designed an umbrella shaped roof construction,
PHDQWDVDWHPSRUDU\VSDFHZLWKDVSHFL¿FDWPRVSKHUHIRXQG
underneath the vaults of classical buildings.
Fascinated by the abundance of cardboard as well as by the

recyclable properties, Henk van Dijke searched for shapes on
the boundaries of the possibilities of the material. This project
XVHV µIRUPLQJ FDUGERDUG¶ RU GLPHQVLRQDO FDUGERDUG WKH
Fig. 21. An umbrella shaped roof SDSHU¿EUHVDUHEHLQJPL[HGZLWKDORWRIZDWHUFUHDWLQJD
construction made of pulp which subsequently gets sucked through a porous mould.
cardboard. Designed by 7KHZDWHUSDVVHVWKURXJKWKHSRUHVDQGWKH¿EUHVIRUPDOD\HU
Henk van Dijke. on the surface of the mould. The umbrella shaped construction
has been fabricated in such a way that the entire structure
can be placed on columns or hung. During the graduation
process, experiments have been conducted and a model was
built. Through the interest taken into the production process,
all kinds of problems have been discovered, solved and used
DVDSRVLWLYHFRQWULEXWLRQWRWKH¿QDOGHVLJQ
4.6. Paper parasite, Jop van Buchem

7KHLPDJHRIFDUGERDUGLVVHHQDVZHDND¿UHKD]DUGQRW
capable of handling humid conditions, material for packaging
and the homeless. In his graduation project23 (2004), Jop van
Buchem assumes that it is possible to improve the image of
cardboard by designing a temporary house following current
trends and developments; he wants to design a trendy house
which belongs to the consumptive society. His concept is that
cardboard is a suitable material to design a house according to
the wishes of the users, where after the structure, once out of
grace, can be discarded of without shame. The house is seen
as a fashion article, an expression of individuality.
The designer was inspired by the car-industry, with its

marketing and anticipation of trends. He assumes that new
GHYHORSPHQWVVXFKDVZLUHOHVVQHWZRUNVZLOO¿QGWKHLUSODFH
in the housing market, decreasing the amount of cables in
buildings. The dwelling is meant for two well earning partners,
who wish to live in the city temporarily and covers about 80
±P7KHGZHOOLQJZLOOEHXVHGIRUDPD[LPXPRI¿YH
years. It has been designed as an autonomous object in the

city and can be built on locations which are temporarily out
of use (e.g. during planning) or on rooftops; locations that
otherwise would remain unused.
The design consists of a cocoon-like shape with double curved

surfaces. This shape combines two wishes: a clear identity and
a stable form. The mechanical properties of this shape are very
favourable and, moreover, with the choice of a fabric as the
outer layer a certain degree of expansion by moist and creep
by loads is possible.
The characteristic of the house is mainly determined by

the choice of material: cardboard, with its plastic and
architectonical aspects en building technological possibilities.
7KHHQWUDQFHVFRQVLVWRIDRXWIROGLQJÀRRUFRPSDUDEOHWRWKH
integration of the steps in the door of small aeroplanes. The
dwelling is prefabricated at the factory and can be assembled
on site in a relatively short time. The interior blocks can be
placed prefabricated, the exterior is foldable.
The boundaries consist of the load bearing structure and an

outer skin. From outside to inside the skin is built up from
a transparent membrane (cloth) against the rain, a foil with
chosen print and isolating air cushions. The choice for a fabric
came from the degree of form freedom of this material and
the transparency. The variation in colouring and print and the
amount of transparency ensures different views, chosen by
the owner. The fabric forms a tight outer skin, because as the
DLUFXVKLRQVJHWLQÀDWHGWKHWHQVLRQRQWKHVNLQLQFUHDVHV
Through a strip the skin gets connected to the structural frame
and tightened.
The structural frame consists of three shells, each with parallel

placed trusses with beams in between them. The trusses are
made from solid cardboard, glued together with a lighter
corrugated cardboard core. Trusses and beams are connected
in the factory; the beams are folded in and folded out on site.
7KHVKHOOVDUHNHSWWRJHWKHUE\µEDFNERQHV¶ULEVIRUPLQJWKH

spinal chord from the design. They are kept under tension
with bracing wires, just like the beams. The wires connect at
WKHHQGVDWFDSV7KHZLUHVOLHLQSODVWLFGXFWVIRUPLQJD¿UVW
waterproof barrier for the cardboard of the backbones and
the beams. Because of the wiring, point shaped connections,
in order to keep the structure together, such as bolts, are

avoided. Cardboard is vulnerable for concentrated loads,
EHFDXVHRILWV¿EUHVWUXFWXUH
,Q WKH FRFRRQ VKDSHG IRUP D KRQH\FHOO ÀRRU KDV EHHQ

placed covered with solid cardboard in order to distribute
DQ\ FRQFHQWUDWHG ORDGV %HQHDWK WKH ÀRRU LV WKH SRVVLELOLW\
of storage. The kitchen, bathing room and toilet are inside
the interior blocks. These blocks are supplied with water
DQGHOHFWULFLW\WKURXJKÀH[LEOHSLSHVIURPDQLQVWDOODWLRQER[
EHQHDWKWKHÀRRU
The interior blocks consist of layers of corrugated cardboard,

putting the monolith character of the block in perspective
through the slenderness of the corrugated cardboard. Inside
the blocks the space for the bathing room, kitchen, toilet and
pipes has been cut out in voluptuous shapes and covered in a
synthetic waterproof foil.
Fig. 22. Model of the paper

parasite by Jop van
Buchem
Fig. 23. Model of the main

structural element

4.7. Pavilion Delft University of Technology (2006)
During the second half of 2005, researchers and students
designed and built a temporary cardboard pavilion in the
hall of the Faculty of Architecture. Around the pavilion an
exhibition and a conference about cardboard was organized.
With the idea of showing the different aspects and stages
RIWKHF\FOHµWUHH±SDSHU±FDUGERDUG±EXLOGLQJSURMHFWV±
UHF\FOLQJ¶7KHSDYLOLRQZDVEXLOWIURPDIHZSDUDOOHOZDOOVZLWK
DÀRRUEHWZHHQWKHP
The walls were built from a few layers of honeycell glued

together, creating a beautiful texture. The wall actually consists
of two slabs, with a honeycell stair between them. This wall
also provides a large part of the stability. The Block wall is
a follow-up from the graduation project of Taco van Iersel.
Cardboard boxes are stacked and glued, like the bricks in a
masonry wall are being stacked and connected with glue or
mortar. The cardboard boxes are somewhat special compared
to standard cardboard boxes; they have been provided with
ÀDSVZKLFKVOLGHLQWRWKHRWKHUER[HV%HFDXVHRIWKLVDQGDOVR
because of a layer of solid cardboard glued on the “cardboard
PDVRQU\´WKHZDOOVJDLQWKHLUVWUHQJWK7RVKRZSDUWRIWKH
Fig. 24-26. Cardboard Pavilion

Fig. 27-28. Structural tests on paper recycling process, a few paper bales were shown. The
cardboard idea of using these bales to create a wall failed because of the
large weight of the bales (500 – 600 kg each). Finally, one wall
was built from panels which are meant as an interior wall. This
wall has been developed as a result of cooperation between
'HOIW8QLYHUVLW\RI7HFKQRORJ\WKH.QRZOHGJH&HQWUH3DSHU
DQG&DUGERDUG.&3.WKHFDUGERDUGLQGXVWU\DQGDEXLOGHU
of units. The purpose of the wall is using the low weight of
cardboard, light relatively large elements, making them easy
to place and not too heavy for the participants.
Researching the mechanical properties of cardboard, the

TU Delft uses cardboard beams. Building the pavilion,
these beams turned out to be inadequate and because of
WKHVKRUWDJHRIWLPHWKHVZLWFKZDVPDGHWRDµVROLG¶SODWH
of honeycell. Further research will have to prove this, but it
seems that rectangular beams are not the ideal solution when
XVLQJ FDUGERDUG ÀRRULQJ $ ÀRRU XVLQJ IROGHG DQG VOLGLQJ
solid cardboard plates appears to be more promising. History
often shows that when searching for the possibilities of a new
material, the solutions coming from the materials properties,
DUHRQO\GLVFRYHUHGDIWHU¿UVWWU\LQJDQGH[SORULQJH[LVWLQJ
and well-known directions. For example, the caves in Petra
(Jordan) were created as square spaces, which, from a
FDUYLQJSRLQWRIYLHZLVDQLOORJLFDOZD\$OVRDW¿UVWVWHHO
plates were not connected using welding; these solutions
surfaced later on.
During the building of the pavilion a few preliminary

conclusions were drawn regarding the mechanical and physical
properties. The type of cardboard, the type of glue and the

ZD\WKHFDUGERDUGHOHPHQWVDUHPDGHKDYHJUHDWLQÀXHQFH
on the end result. The handling, often manual because of
test situations, produces a number of problems which could
be solved when factory conditions are simulated. Cardboard
is also a very vulnerable material to work with, for example:
WKHHGJHVIROGHDVLO\7KH¿UHUHVLVWDQFHLVDFFHSWDEOHVROLG
FDUGERDUG KDV VXI¿FLHQW ¿UH UHVLVWDQFH WKH KRQH\FHOO ZDOO
when impregnated, as well. Creep is a problem; cardboard
EHQGVIDUWRRHDV\XQGHUWKHLQÀXHQFHRIODVWLQJORDGV7KLV
seems to point in the direction of small spans, instead of large
spans.
Fig. 29. Model of a cardboard

ÀRRU
5. Conclusion
5.1. Fascination
There is a lot of enthusiasm. Architects, researchers and
students feel challenged by an unknown material (in their
area of expertise).
People will always be fascinated by the texture or the structure

of a material. And experiments follow. Tom Dixon1, who we
quoted before, has become fascinated by the possibilities of
recycled glass. Without drawings he creates objects in an
evermore evolving series.
The core of honeycell cardboard provides a beautiful texture

DQGLQVSLUHVGHVLJQHUV$G.LODQG5R.RVWHU5WRFUHDWHDQRI¿FH
interior with a soul. The cardboard tubes lying around on a
building site which were used to transport carpet, inspired
Shigeru Ban6 into designing a few beautiful dwellings with a
cardboard structure.

The choice of cardboard for the theatres in Apeldoorn by Rudy
Uytenhaak11 and Hans Ruijsenaars12 followed from the wish
to show the rich paper related past of the Veluwe during a
centennial party.
The temporary housing projects in cardboard are based

on the relatively low price of the material, the possibility of
local production sites and the relatively low weight during
transport.
For the dwelling in Sydney10 the possibility to recycle the

material played an important role. The cardboard ventilation
tubes in the building of Jouke Post16¿WWHGLQWKHVHDUFKIRU
a new environmental concept, whereby the lifespan of the
chosen materials is being adapted to the user life of the
building.
5.2. Temporality/Lifespan
Looking at all the realised projects up till now, the amount
of temporary projects stand out. This must be inherent to
the material. Packages have a relatively short lifespan. After
having been used for a few times, boxes will have been torn or
become wet and should be discarded. Formulated differently:
FDUGERDUGLVD¿UPPDWHULDOEXWHVSHFLDOO\FRQVLGHULQJVKRUW
periods of time. When used for longer periods it becomes a
vulnerable material.
Some consideration is needed, because especially the

temporary projects which are most suitable for experiments
with new (and relatively cheap) materials. For the Multished13
WKHUHTXLUHG¿UHUHVLVWDQFHZDVPHWEHFDXVHWKHGHPDQGIRU
temporary spaces is relatively low.
5.3. Recycling
Environmentally, cardboard seems to get high scores. Further
research will have to acknowledge this. One of the aspects in
such research are the additives which can be added during the
production process. During this process this additive could be
many natural materials, such as clay, chalk and starch. After
the production process many different kinds of paint, coating
DQGIRLOPDNHFDUGERDUGZDWHUUHVLVWDQWDQG¿UHUHWDUGDQW
Also the types of glue used to glue the different layers of
paper together, could play an important role. In a number of
cases the quality of the cardboard improves, like the moisture
resistance, but at the same time the ability to recycle the

material decreases.
5.4. Economy
Cardboard is a relatively cheap material. This means that there
is a reasonable margin for experimenting and working the
material, so that products and applications can be marketed
reasonably positively considering its price.
The material also seems to be suitable for temporary housing

after natural disasters.
5.5. Humidity
Next to some clearly positive properties, there are also a
few properties, which are without a doubt, a nuisance when
cardboard is being used as building material. The behaviour
when in contact with moist is a perfect example.
A successful application of cardboard is mainly achieved

inside a building (structural tubing by Shigeru Ban6, texture
KRQH\FHOOLQDQRI¿FHLQWHULRUE\$G.LODQG5R.RVWHU5 and a
structural rib-structure in the cardboard House of the Future
in Sydney10.
As soon as cardboard comes into direct contact with water,

measures must be taken. The easiest one is cladding it with
PE foil (Multished13) The cardboard school14,15 might have
a cardboard outer layer, but one can wonder whether this
material still has any relation with the original cardboard
material. The paper and cardboard industry experiments with
increasing the water resistance of paper and cardboard, yet
the question remains whether the current developments can
be of immediate use for building with cardboard.
5.6. Knowledge
Up till now different projects have been designed or built
using cardboard and cardboard has been applied inside
buildings. However, most of the knowledge is bound to the
VSHFL¿FSURMHFWDQGQRWDORWRIH[FKDQJHWDNHVSODFH0RUH
general information is only accessible through the book by
Mathilda McQuaid about Shigeru Ban6 and on the website of
the cardboard school.15
With a rich variation of production techniques and raw materials

OLNHIUHVKDQGUHXVHG¿EUHVDEURDGVSHFWUXPRIW\SHVRI
paper and cardboard are created. The paper and cardboard

industry has a lot of knowledge about these products, but in
DQHQWLUHO\GLIIHUHQW¿HOGRIDSSOLFDWLRQDQGRQDFRPSOHWHO\
different scale than in the building industry, where materials
are described with mechanical and physical characteristics and
accepted design rules (like tensile strength, bending strength
DQG FODVVL¿FDWLRQ RI TXDOLW\ /RQJ WHUP JXDUDQWHHV DUH
demanded from the quality of building materials. Cardboard
is an unknown material in the building industry. In further
research, the demanded mechanical and building physical
characteristics, standards, design rules and guarantees will
KDYHWREHGHWHUPLQHG(DFKLQGXVWU\KDVLWVRZQµODQJXDJH¶
ZLWK VSHFL¿F GH¿QLWLRQV DQG YDOXHV &DUGERDUG DV LW LV
currently produced, is meant for packaging etc. The machines
and mindset are aimed at just that. The use of cardboard in
WKHEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\GHPDQGVWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIµEXLOGLQJ
FDUGERDUG¶ZLWKLWVRZQPDFKLQHVDQGPLQGVHW
5.7. Development
Cardboard has been used as a building material a few times,
and some cardboard products have been designed and
produced. Most of the time, it is not really clear why a product
did not make it on to the market. It seems that most of the
committed parties abandon the project when the product is
EHLQJGHYHORSHGWHFKQLFDOO\DQGWKHSURFHVVRIFHUWL¿FDWLRQ
KDVWRVWDUW,WPLJKWEHZRUWKZKLOHWU\LQJWR¿QGRXWZK\WKH
process stagnated. Does it happen because the viability of the
product is limited or because there is a lack of perseverance
and the right type of people.
5.8. Future
Experiments with cardboard as a building-material are being
conducted worldwide. The many practical examples seem to
support the search for a broader application of the material.
Cardboard is not expected to replace current building materials.
When there is a place for paper and cardboard in architecture
and as a building material, then it will be for its own content,
LQUHODWLRQWRWKHVSHFL¿FSURSHUWLHVRIWKHPDWHULDO
The future will have to determine what will be the role of

cardboard in architecture and the building industry. Thereby,
the properties of cardboard and its context are of importance.
An example of external developments is the change in
legislation. The environmental demands in the national
building decree are hardly extensive. It can be imagined that
in the near future building elements or products will come with

a removal fee. The moment something costs money, cheaper
re-usable alternatives like cardboard are likely to be accepted
easier. The properties determine the uniqueness of a material.
The characteristic structure of honeycell cardboard gives it a
special texture. An unexpected advantage appeared to be
the damping quality of honeycell: the typical sound nuisance
LQVLGHDQRSHQSODQRI¿FHFDQEHUHGXFHG
6FLHQWL¿FFXULRVLW\DQGWKHQHZQHVVRIDPDWHULDOVWLPXODWH
researchers, students and architects to think further than
traditional materials and solutions. The different appearances
(tubes, honeycell, solid and 3D) and the characteristic
properties of cardboard, like folding, sliding together, printing,
lightness and temporality are an inspiration and starting point
in the research into the possibilities.
References
1 Brower, Mallory, Ohlman, Experimental eco design, architecture/
fashion/product. Rotovision, 2005, ISBN 2-88046-817-5
2 Therese Weber, die Sprache des Papiers, eine 2000-jahrige
Geschichte, Verlag Haupt, ISBN 3-258-06793-7
3 http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection
4 http://www.stange-design.com
5 BN/DeStem van 9 juli 2005 op: www.besin.nl
6 Mathilda Mc Quaid, Shigeru Ban, Phaidon, 2003, ISBN 0-7148-
4194-3
7 Prof.dr.ir.Mick Eekhout, Het ontwikkelen van de kartonnen
IJburgkoepel, in: kartonnage, Rumoer 30, sept 2003, jaargang
9, Periodiek voor de bouwtechnoloog, uitgave van Bout,
praktijkvereniging Bouwtechnologie faculteit Bouwkunde, TU
Delft. ISSN 1567-7699
8 Taco van Iersel, report interview Paul Rohlfs
9 http://www.rsdevelopments.nl
10 http://www.housesofthefuture.com.au
11 T.Verstegen, Rudy Uytenhaak, 010 Publishers, 1996, ISBN 90-
6450-241-2
$.RRLVWUD'RRVMHGRRVJURWHGRRVIHHVWWKHDWHU%RXZZHUHOG
nr. 13 (25 juni 1993)
13 Taco van Iersel, Feesten in kartondoos, detail in architectuur,
maart 2003
14 Andrew Cripps, Cardboard as a construction material: a case
study, Building Research & Information (may-june 2004)
15 Buro Happold en Cotrell & Vermeulen, Constructing a prototype
cardboard building, on www.cardboardschool.co.uk
.ORPSHQ3RVWOHYHQVGXXUJHEUXLNVGXXU;;HHQJHERXZ
als prototype van een nieuw mileiuconcept, Stuurgroep

Experimenten Volkshuisvesting, Rotterdam, 1999, ISBN 90 5239
153 X
&KULVWRSK0DULD5DYHVORRW,QGXVWULHHOÀH[LEHOHQGHPRQWDEHO
vloerverwarmen, Gezond Bouwen & wonen, 2001-2
18 Henk Wind, Leidinggoot eerste bouwproduct van karton,
Bouwwereld nr.9, 10 mei 2004
19 Fons Verheijen, The wall, highway architecture, Fons Verheijen,
2005, ISBN 10 9081015710
20 http://www.warmteplan.nl
21 Adriano Pupilli, The paperhouse report, op:
www.thepaperhouse.net
22 Hans Mesman en Chiel van der Stelt, Nooddorp ontwerp van een
noodwoning voor rampgebieden, 2004, ISBN 90-6450-001-0
23 Graduation project Taco van Iersel
24 Graduation report Monique Verhoef
25 Jop van Buchem en Pim Marsman, Blobboard, in: kartonnage,
Rumoer 30, sept 2003, jaargang 9, Periodiek voor de
bouwtechnoloog, uitgave van Bout, praktijkvereniging
Bouwtechnologie faculteit Bouwkunde, TU Delft. ISSN 1567-
7699
+HQNYDQ'LMNH)RUP¿QGLQJPHWNDUWRQLQNDUWRQQDJH
Rumoer 30, sept 2003, jaargang 9, Periodiek voor de
bouwtechnoloog, uitgave van Bout, praktijkvereniging
Bouwtechnologie faculteit Bouwkunde, TU Delft. ISSN 1567-
7699
27 Graduation report Jop van Buchem

Paper Leaves
Peter Gentenaar
$SDSHUVKHHWLVWKLQVWURQJDQGÀDWWKDWLVZKDWZHDUHXVHG
WR,WLVIRUFHGWREHÀDWDQGWKHSDSHULQGXVWU\XVHVORWVRI
HQHUJ\GU\LQJLWVSDSHUVÀDW
However, if you would make a sheet of paper, scooping pulp

on a mould and onto a felt and leave it there to dry, you would
see that the paper dries up like a deep fried potato chip.
Paper can be compared to a leaf on a tree or plant. If we

reinforced the sheet of paper with very thin ribs of bamboo
that look like the ribs of a leaf, the analogy between the sheet
of paper and the leaf form is emphasized even more.
$WULDQJOHPDGHZLWKEDPERRULEVDQGEOHDFKHGÀD[SXOSZDV
DFRPSOHWHO\ÀDWVKDSHZKHQLWZDVOD\LQJZHWRQP\VFUHHQ
After drying you see that a triangle keeps its shape, because
as architects know, triangles are stiff and are great to build
railroad bridges with.
A square made in the same way, on the other hand completely

changes shape and, looking for the smallest and shortest way,
the shrinking pulp turns it into something like a leaf fallen off
a tree in the autumn. The evaporation of the water shrinks the
leaf and also the sheet of paper. In the process of drying the
cellulose molecules fall back on their internal form memory
and that is the spiral. A leaf in autumn curls up just like a
sheet of paper that is not been pressed after it is formed. This
discovery became the most important reason for me to stay
in papermaking
To make a sheet of paper is like making a wild weaving with

SDQW¿EHUV7KH¿EHUVDUHFOHDQHGEHDWHQLQD+ROODQGHUWRD
pulp and than poured onto a screen where this wild weaving
RI¿EHUVUHPDLQZKLOHWKHZDWHUGUDLQVRXW
This is a rough sketch of papermaking. It was developed over

the last 2000 years in different places of the world in more or
49
OHVVWKHVDPHZD\EXWZLWKGLIIHUHQWSODQW¿EHUV
The industry has taken these techniques and urged by the

paper consumers, speeded up the production in an amazing
way. Eventually all the research in paper factories is mainly
directed to higher and cheaper production. In this way very
good paper is being made but there is little time to play
around.
,¶PDQDUWLVWVRPHRQHZKRSOD\VDURXQGSURIHVVLRQDOO\ZLWK
a background in sculpture, painting and printmaking, etchings
and lithography. I recently spent a year at the California
College for Arts & Crafts in Oakland where I was getting my
Master of Fine Arts (MFA). I made engravings on thick sheets
of Plexiglass (polymethyl methacrylate). The plexiglass had
air bubbles in them and the factory had dumped them on the
campus.
In order to use the 2 cm thickness of the plexiglass, I took a

drill and made deep grooves, in which the paper was too be
pressed. This worked if I did not make the grooves too deep, Fig. 1. Blauwe Wolken
WRPPPD[LPXP7KHGHHSHUJURRYHVZHUHQRW¿OOHGE\ Blue Clouds
the printing paper, which was made by Arches.
Back in the Netherlands I started my own studio where I

worked on metal sculptures, color lithography and etchings.
Somehow sculpture and printmaking came together and the
old idea of the high relief print made on the thick plexiglass
was taken up again. I hoped to obtain a higher relief by making
my own paper. Experiments with old newspaper pulp beaten
up in even older washing machines were not very satisfying. I
decided to go to the source and learn about papermaking.
A letter to the Royal Dutch Paperfactory in Maastricht resulted

in an invitation and I ended up staying 3 days playing in the
¿EUHODEZLWKWKHKHDGRIWKHODE-R3HUVRRQ
My introduction to paper was a very industrial and mechanical,

one of sheet formers that suck water out of pulp with vacuum,
pulp which is made in Hollanders and a dazzling white
laboratory with scales and glasses. The factory itself was like a
visit to outer space. I had never seen machinery like that and
I was convinced that I needed at least a small paper factory
in my own studio.
50 PAPER LEAVES
I built mixers, sheet formers and presses and with those I
made huge relief prints.
Paper was still a serving material for me then. You used it

HLWKHUWRZULWHRUGUDZRQRU\RXFRXOG¿OODPRXOGZLWKLWDQG
press it into a 3-dimensional print.
This changed when I could buy a laboratorium Hollander

IURPWKH.13SDSHUIDFWRU\LQ0DDVWULFKWDQGP\SDSHUPXVK
became real paper pulp.
What I mean is, until that time I had been using industrial
cellulose halfstuff which I mixed with water in a 200l mixer.
,WVHSDUDWHGWKH¿EHUVIURPHDFKRWKHUEXWQRWKLQJPRUH
Great amounts of wood glue were added to give the paper
some coherence. The paper I made was felty and thick. I put
big coloured sheets of this paper on top of each other and
built great coloured layered multi sheets, which took ages to
press dry. Once it was dry I sawed the sheets into shapes with
DEDQGVDZ,QWKHHQGLWZDVRQO\DJORUL¿HGVRUWRISDSLHU
mâché, nothing more.
7KH +ROODQGHU IURP WKH .13 ODE ZDV DQ 8PSKHUVWRQ W\SH
built by Voight in Germany 1954. Working with it I found
RXW DERXW ¿EUH OHQJWK ¿EULOODWLRQ RYHU EHDWLQJ DQG DOO WKH
different paper types that come from these pulps. In short I
learned what all papermakers know, that paper is really made
in the Hollander. The machine was impressive, high speed
water cooled and a motor of 7 brake horsepower, and all I
did was beat cotton linters. After some years I became more
GDULQJZLWKWKHEHDWHUDQGERXJKWP\VHOIDIHZEDOHVRIÀD[
ZDVWHLQ=HHODQG,EHDWWKLVYHU\WRXJKDQGZRRG\¿EUHVR
PXFKWKDWLWWXUQHGJROG$W¿UVW,ZDVDPD]HGODWHU,UHDOL]HG
that it was the bronze of the knives and bedplate wearing of
RQWKH¿EUHV7KHSDSHUEHFDPHFULVS\MXPS\DQGLPSRVVLEOH
WRGU\ÀDW7KHZRRGWKDW,ODLGRQWRSRILWWRNHHSLWÀDWVWXFN
to it sometimes and on other places the paper pulled away
from under it and in those places the paper curled up wildly.
7KRVHZHUHWKH¿UVWWLPHV,QRWLFHGDZD\WRSOD\ZLWKGU\LQJ
paper. At the time the paper product I was making probably
was a failure because of this curling. Make something of your
failures was the motto and it still is. Putting sticks in paper
pulp and letting them dry up together became a great way to
work. The paper in itself became my tool of expression, it was
PETER GENTENAAR 51
not only a carrier for other media but it became the subject
RIWKHVWRU\3OD\LQJZLWKORQJEHDWHQ¿EUHVQH[WWRYHU\VKRUW
beaten ones and seeing how both dried up and effected
HDFKRWKHU%XLOGLQJWKHWKLQIUDPHV¿QGLQJWKHULJKWNLQGRI
bamboo. Finding the relation between beating times, beater
adjustments and the shrinkage of the pulp gives you a control
over part of your matter, While in other later stages of your
work, during the drying, nature really takes its own course and
leaves you standing in the side line.
The tension between the two materials transforms them into

forms reminiscent of a slowly curling autumn leaf. All the
forms in my work are caused by pulp drying and shrinking Fig. 2. Trapezium
in unison. All my sculptures start as totally 2-dimensional, coated with epoxy
coloured sheets of pulp. 180 x Ø 120 cm
The simplicity of this material, which is carrier, colour, texture

and form, all together, make working with it wonderful and
direct. Control over the shapes almost completely lays in the
preparation of the bamboo frame work. Because there is no
turning back on things when you have put the wet paper on
the frames and the drying shapes the sculpture. The only way
to make a change is in repeating the whole exercise. I see it
as my form of sport, I have to do it every day in order to get
to grips with forms which slowly evolve, one shape triggers
the next.
During the drying processes of a paper sculpture the paper

will shrink considerably, up to 30%, and the forces associated
with that, put the non shrinking bamboo framework under Fig. 3. Witte wolk
stress. This process goes on through the whole sculpture at White Cloud
WKHVDPHWLPH,XVHIRUFHGDLUDQGGHKXPLGL¿HUVWRVSHHGXS 120 x 60 x 110 cm
the drying process, because the faster something dries the
more dramatic the movement of the paper will be.
But all this comes at great risk, if the paper is too wet it will fall
of the bamboo frames. You want to take this risk because the
shrinking will be all the more baroque and unexpected when
you dare to take the paper of the screen as wet as possible.
The more water there is to evaporate the more movement
the shrinking will make. The process gives every form its own
tension. To enlarge the forms to three or four meters raises
the drama caused by the drying process.
Last year I was asked to make two 4 meters high sculptures,
52 PAPER LEAVES
to be placed outside on both sides of a bridge in Capelle aan
den IJssel.
$IWHU FRPSOHWLQJ WKH VFXOSWXUHV , KDG WR ¿QG D EURQ]H

caster who would take on the job of casting these two paper
sculptures. This was not too hard. Since paper burns very
well, you can cast it with the lost wax technique.
Following the casters instructions, I covered the inside of

the sculpture with a thin layer of wax, about 4 mm thick. At
the bronze caster the sculpture was going to be covered in
D ¿UHSURRI SODVWHU PL[WXUH RQ WKH LQ DQG WKH RXWVLGH 7KH
plaster mould with the sculpture inside it was than placed in
a furnace for 3 days. All the wax, paper and bamboo were
burned away, leaving a negative form of the sculpture in the
plaster mould. This is the principle, in reality the sculptures
ZHUHFXWLQSLHFHVWR¿WLQWRWKHIXUQDFHDQGWRHQVXUHQR
ash would stay behind in the mould.
After casting the plaster is taken off the bronze and the three
pieces are welded back together to one big sculpture. I spend
a month bringing up the patina and polishing the bronze
so that a result of gold skin with blue ribs through it was
reached.
On January 14 I could place the sculptures at the head of the

bridge. It was a weird experience to see the sculptures which
I had carried in by hand had to leave the foundry with the help
of cranes and trucks.
Fig. 4. Tabakswolken
Tobacco Clouds
1230 x 120 x 45 cm
PETER GENTENAAR 53
Fig. 5. Two paper sculptures
cast in bronze on
a bridge near the
Fascinatio district,
Capelle a/d IJssel, 2005
This was an exceptional case, usually my work is commissioned

E\SHRSOHOLNH-RRSYDQGHQ(QGH*UHDWKDOOVRURI¿FHDWULXPV
asking for a organic forms in a natural material. Because
of the lightness of the material it can be hung anywhere
ZLWKRXWKDYLQJWRPDNHGLI¿FXOWKDQJLQJSUHSDUDWLRQV7KH
SDSHUVFXOSWXUHVDUH¿UHSURRIHGZLWKDÀDPHUHWDUGHUZKLFK
I tested out. For the occasion of the 100st birthday of Frits
Philips, last year I made electric paper sculptures, lit up by a
VHULHVRI/('¶VDQGSDSHUVKDSHGE\WKHSOD\RIHOHFWULFFRUGV
I have covered paper sculptures with epoxy which turns the
paper more translucent and makes it look like porcelain. This
whole paper road I have taken has given me opportunities
to satisfy my curiosity and to make new forms using forces
stronger and older than my own.
When I went to the Royal Dutch Paper factory in 1974 I was

the only papermaking artist I knew of, but it must have been
in the air because now there are hundreds of them all over
the world. Which is a good thing too, because as you know
³WKH'XWFKIDUPHUZLOORQO\HDWZKDWKHNQRZV´DQGLWZDV
quite hard to sell my paper art works in the beginning years.
7RKDYHVRPHLQFRPH,NHSWPDNLQJHWFKLQJVDQGOLWKR¶VDQG
taught painting and drawing classes at the academy in The
+DJXH $IWHU D ¿JKW ZLWK WKH GLUHFWRU WKHUH , ORVW WKDW MRE
DQGZLWKPRQH\,JRWZKHQ,ZDV¿UHG,GHYHORSHGP\RZQ
Hollander. The old Lab Hollander from Maastricht was not
UHDOO\EXLOWWRSURFHVVORQJ¿EUHVOLNHKHPSDQGÀD[ZKLFKKDG
EHFRPHP\PDLQ¿EHUPDWHULDO
7KH ORQJ ¿EUHV VSXQ DURXQG WKH D[OH DQG RQFH WKH\ GULHG
54 PAPER LEAVES
up prevented the machine from starting. It was very hard to
reach the axle and clean it, because it was an Umpherston
type machine, with a completely enclosed water/pulp canal.
So time after time I had to take the machine apart what made
me very familiar with the way it was built.
7KH¿UVW+ROODQGHU,GHVLJQHGZDVEXLOWLQDPDFKLQHIDFWRU\
in The Hague. In the design I had mounted the knives roll on
a moving arm so it could bounce over lumps and knots in the
ORQJ¿EUHDOVR,JDYHLWDFRXQWHUEDODQFHZLWKZHLJKWVRQ
LWWRUHJXODWHWKHZHLJKWLPSDFWRIWKHUROORQWKH¿EHUVDQG
combined it with a more traditional open arena shaped tub. In
the new machine all the parts, like bedplate and axle are easy
to reach and clean. I took the new machine home and placed
it next to the old one and found out that my new creation was
very unpractical and had a too weak electro motor. So I kept
using the old Hollander. One day a stainless steel nut from the
QHZ+ROODQGHUIHOOLQWRDEXFNHWIXOORIVRDNLQJ¿EUHV:KHQ
I threw this bucket full into the old machine all the bronze
knives of the ground plate broke loose and I was forced to
continue pulp making with my own new and very unpractical
beater. I improved it, gave it a stronger electro motor but it still
GLGQRWZDQWWREHDWÀD[RUKHPS,GHVLJQHGDQHZLPSURYHG
machine and found a better machine and tool factory who
built a beautiful good working Hollander. When I could sell this
Fig. 6. Venus Hollander I quickly did, improved the design further and had 3
Ø 110 x 200 cm machines built which all sold within a year. This brought on a
whole new development. Clients who bought a Hollander also
wanted a paper press and a drying box, which I designed and
had made also. Over a 100 paper making machines, mostly
the Hollanders are sold to places like a university in South
.RUHDDQGWKH6&$IDFWRULHVLQ6ZHGHQ
My wife Pat Torley who works as a painter uses paper pulp

too. Her paintings are not made with paint but with very
watery coloured paper pulps made of a great variety of
different plants. The images she makes are painted with the
IURQWVLGHGRZQ6KHDSSOLHVKHUFRORXUHG¿EUHVGLUHFWO\RQWKH
screen starting with what would be the last brush stroke in a
UHJXODUSDLQWLQJ6RZKHQRQHRIKHUSDLQWLQJVLV¿QLVKHGVKH
looks at the back side of it.
Fig. 7. Blauwe Sigaar The coloured pulp is the colour and the carrier or the substrate
µ%OXH&LJDU¶ in one. Her pulp palette gives her much more choice in colour
Ø 90 x 320 cm and texture than normal paint would. A red pigmented hemp
PETER GENTENAAR 55
¿EUHZKLFKKDVEHHQSLJPHQWHGLQWKH+ROODQGHUZLOOEHGHHS
red, through and through, comparable with dyed textiles.
7KHGLIIHUHQW¿EUHVDOOWDNHWKHSLJPHQWVLQDGLIIHUHQWZD\
also depending on how long they have been in the Hollander.
'LIIHUHQWSODQW¿EUHVDOVRUHÀHFWWKHOLJKWGLIIHUHQWO\KDYHD
different surface and a different texture. It is the richest and
most natural material to paint with I know. A great deal off the
VXEMHFWPDWWHURI3DW¶VSDLQWLQJVFRPHVIURPKHUSKRWRJUDSKV
which she makes in our garden.
To share my excitement about all these new possibilities of

this old medium I started the Holland Paper Biennial in 1996
in the Museum of my home town Rijswijk. Together with this
2 yearly group exhibition I publish a book and catalogue with
the help of my wife, Pat Torley and our friend Loes Schepens
a book designer. In 2000 the publishing of the biennale books
was taken over by Compres Publishers in Leiden but I still
make the contents of the book and Loes still does the book
design, which won us several prices including two best book
of the year awards.
In 2002 I asked the new Museum in Apeldoorn CODA to join

the Holland Paper Biennial which they gladly did, and the
biennial got twice as big, which was a good thing because
the paper art works which are sent in, get bigger every year
and more paper artists seem to come from all over the world.
In the series of biennial books, 6 books have been published.
The formula of these books is always a combination of a story
part and a catalogue in which the 27 artists who took part in
the Biennial exhibitions in the summer of 2006. My hope is
that builders and architects are inspired by my talk and will do
some playful experiments with paper pulp yourselves.
PETER GENTENAAR 57
The Design and Building Process of

a Cardboard Pavilion
Kees van Kranenburg, Elise van Dooren and Fred Veer
Abstract
The Faculty of Architecture, University of Technology Delft, has

been looking at the possibilities that cardboard offers architectural
engineers since 2000. Different disciplines are involved in this
research group.
One step in this research program was the design, building

and exhibition of a pavilion, made of cardboard. The pavilion is
designed by master students of the Architecture department and
build by master students of the Building Technology department.
All work is done in strong corporation with the Dutch cardboard
and paper industry. The pavilion has been presented at a 2-day
international symposium in January 2006. This paper focuses on
the design, engineering and building process.
1. Background
In 2000, the Faculty of Architecture started a research project
around the material cardboard. Main goal is to establish
cardboard as real building material. Cardboard is almost 90%
renewable, relatively cheap and can, just because of these
aspects, be used shameless. In the past, some temporary
constructions were built, using cardboard. Well known
examples in The Netherlands are two temporarily theatres
in Apeldoorn, built because of the celebration event of “1200
\HDUV$SHOGRRUQ´8\WHQKDDN1,2 and Ruijssenaars3, 1992) and
more recently the Paper Dome in Utrecht4 (Octatube, 2003).
One step in the ongoing cardboard research project is the
GHVLJQDQGEXLOGLQJRIDFDUGERDUGSDYLOLRQVHH¿JXUH%RWK
GHVLJQDQGEXLOGLQJSURFHVVRIWKLVSDYLOLRQFDQEHGH¿QHGDV
³DQHGXFDWLRQDOH[SHULPHQWDOH[HUFLVH´$KXJHVORJDQRQD
billboard claims the setting of the pavilion project: “Starting
SRLQW RI UHVHDUFK´ VHH ¿JXUH 7KLV SDSHU GHDOV ZLWK WKH
problems encountered during the building of the cardboard
pavilion.
59
Fig. 1. The card board pavilion,
an overview
Fig. 2. A huge slogan on a bill

board claims the setting
of the pavilion project:
“Starting point of
UHVHDUFK´
60 THE DESIGN AND BUILDING PROCESS OF A CARDBOARD PAVILION

Fig. 3. Top and side view of
WKH¿QDOGHVLJQ)RU
clearness, the roof at
the top of the stairs
wall is not shown in
this scheme. Exact
dimensions of the
intended construction
could not be given and
had to be determined
during the engineering
phase.
2. Architectural design
2.1. Architectural concept
The design of the cardboard pavilion is made by students
working on their MSc in Architecture. An important goal
for the design concept, was that the pavilion could act as
an exhibition in itself: what possibilities offers cardboard as
D EXLOGLQJ PDWHULDO" 0RUHRYHU WKH SDYLOLRQ KDG WR KDYH D
spacious character from an architectural point of view.
A number of design and construction alternatives have been

examined. Evaluation of design alternatives learned that a
GHVLUHG ÀRRU RQ ÄQRUPDO³ KHLJKW RI DERXW PHWHU ZDV
impracticable because of the need of a balustrade. It was
simply impossible to construct and test a safe (cardboard)
balustrade within the available time. For this reason a
FRPSURPLVHZDVPDGH$WRSKHLJKWRIWKHÀRRURIFPZDV
selected which provides safety without a balustrade.
2.2. Final design

7KH ¿QDO GHVLJQ RI WKH FDUGERDUG SDYLOLRQ FDQ URXJKO\ EH
GHVFULEHGDVFRPSRQHQWVDÀRRUDQGIRXUGLIIHUHQWZDOOV
VHH¿JXUH([DFWGLPHQVLRQVRIWKHLQWHQGHGFRQVWUXFWLRQ
could not be given in this stage and had to be determined
during the engineering phase. Each component is named, and
.((69$1.5$1(1%85*(/,6(9$1'225(1$1')5('9((5 61
a brief description is given below:
2.2.1. Stairs wall

The stairs wall is built up from layers of honeycomb cardboard.
Total height of the stairs wall is about 3.5 meter. The open cell
structure of the honeycomb board is visible. The stairs leads to
a small terrace of 1 square meter at a height of 2.7 meters.
2.2.2. Taco wall

The Taco wall is build up from boxes, made of corrugated
board. Dimensions of these boxes are: a height of 30 cm,
a width of 60 cm and depth 15 cm. The thickness of the
corrugated board is about 2 mm. The boxes can be used as Fig. 4. Scheme of impact test
built-up blocks and offer the possibility to construct large walls
partition.
The boxes are glued together and a top surface layer is applied.
Because of the top layer, a rigid construction arises. Further Fig. 5. 4-point bending tests on
LQIRUPDWLRQFDQEHIRXQGLQ³&DUGERDUG$UFKLWHFWXUH´5. a reinforced card board
beam

2.2.3. The Paper bale wall
The third wall is formed using paper bales. The bales have
a weight of 600 kg each. Dimensions of the paper bales are
approximately: height 1m, depth 0.6m and a width of 1m.
Only 4 bales are used to suggest a wall of paper bales; it was
QRWSRVVLEOHWREXLOGDVROLGSDSHUEDOHZDOODVWKHÀRRUZRXOG
not support the weight.
2.2.4. The Bee wall

The Bee Wall is a cardboard based inner wall system. One
panel is been built up from two cardboard blades, which are
coupled by styles of honeycomb cardboard. Both blades are
¿QLVKHGZLWKPPVROLGERDUG7KHZHLJKWRIRQHWRWDOO\
Fig. 6a. Fire resistance test recyclable) panel is less than 25 kilograms.
3. Building technology
3.1 Mechanical tests
In general, the mechanical behaviour and the failure behaviour
of cardboard in an architectural engineering setting were not
well understood yet. For safety reasons, mechanical properties
and failure behaviour of the different cardboard elements used,
HJZDOOVVWDLUDQGÀRRUKDGWREHGHWHUPLQHG&DUGERDUG
beam specimen in different compositions are made and tested
to get an indication of the reliability of structural components,
VHH¿JXUH5HVXOWVDUHXVHGWRGHWHUPLQHIRUH[DPSOHORDG
FDUU\LQJFDSDFLW\DQGSRVVLEOHVSDQRIWKHÀRRUDUHD7KUHH
more advanced series of tests were conducted to characterize
Fig. 6b. Impregnation of the the mechanical behaviour of the (soon commercial) Bee Wall.
stairs wall 7KH¿UVWVHULHVFRPSUHVVLRQDQGEHQGLQJWHVWVDUHPDGHRQ
small sections of the wall. In a second series impact tests
DUHSHUIRUPHGVHH¿JXUH,QWKHWKLUGVHULHVDIRXUSRLQW
bending test is made on a whole wall element.6
3.2. Flame resistance

7KHULVNRI¿UHKDGWREHPLQLPL]HG'LIIHUHQWWHVWVHULHVDUH
PDGHLQRUGHUWRJHWDQLQGLFDWLRQRIWKHÀDPHUHVLVWDQFHRI
VROLGERDUGDQGKRQH\FRPEERDUGDVZHOOVHH¿JXUHD
A chemical flame retardant was added to specimen of

combustible open cell structure of honeycomb board, to
give them a better protection to ignition. This protection
was working very well: it was even impossible to ignite the
specimen for 5 minutes, while an untreated specimen burns
LPPHGLDWHO\6ROLGERDUGKDVDQDWXUDOÀDPHUHVLVWDQFHGXH
.((69$1.5$1(1%85*(/,6(9$1'225(1$1')5('9((5 63
to the burning process. During burning, a layer of carbon is
formed, protecting the underlying material from burning. Flame
resistance of both solid board and treated open cell structure
of honeycomb board can be marked as moderate7. For this
reason only the visible open cell structure is impregnated with
DFKHPLFDOÀDPHUHWDUGDQWVHH¿JXUHE
3.3. Technical engineering

Mechanical measurement results and observations are used
as input for the technical design of the cardboard pavilion.
Results are used, for example, to estimate the needed
dimensions for thicknesses of the stairs and terrace and
WKLFNQHVVDQGVSDQRIWKHÀRRU
Measurements on a layered honeycomb construction, i.e.

WKH ÀRRU VKRZ WKH SRVVLELOLW\ RI ODUJH EHQGLQJ EHIRUH ¿QDO
failure. Because of this large unexpected bending effect,
WKHÀRRUFRXOGQRWEHFRQQHFWHGSURSHUO\WRDQ\ZDOOV$VD
consequence of this, every wall had to be stable by it self or
VWDELOL]HGXVLQJDGGLWLRQDOHOHPHQWV7KHÀRRULVQRWDWWDFKHG
(in)to the stairs wall, to allow expected movements of the
ÀRRU0RUHRYHUWKHVWDLUVZDOOLVSURYLGHGZLWKDVPDOOFDYH
VXI¿FLHQWWRDOORZEHQGLQJRIWKHÀRRUVHH¿JXUH
7KH ¿QDO WKLFNQHVV RI WKH ÀRRU LV FP ZLWK VSDQV RI
PHWHUV7KHXSSHUSDUWRIWKHÀRRUKDVEHHQ¿QLVKHGZLWK
a top layer of solid board in order to protect the underlying
honeycomb from intrusion.
Fig. 7. The stairs wall is

provided with a small
FDYHVXI¿FLHQWWRDOORZ
EHQGLQJRIWKHÀRRU

Fig. 8. A soft push on the
balustrade on the terrace
on 3 meters height results
in movement of the
entire construction with
considerable amplitude
Shown are two principal
solutions to make the
construction more rigid
3.4. Building process

'LIIHUHQWSDUWVRIWKHSDYLOLRQLHÀRRU7DFRZDOODQG%HH
ZDOOKDYHEHHQSUHSDUHGLQGLYLGXDOO\)LUVWWKHÀRRUKDVEHHQ
build as a „massive solid“ of layered honeycomb plates. The
honeycomb plates are glued with woodworking adhesive.
7KH VWDLU ZDOO LV EXLOW XS WR D KHLJKW RI FP WKH ÀRRU LV
placed and thereafter the stair wall was almost built up to the
designed height of 3.5 meter. Afterwards, respectively the Bee
Wall and the Taco wall have been placed.
3.5. Use
After building, the pavilion in used as part of the exhibition on
the 2-days symposium. During „service life“, no considerable
problems appeared, except some problems with the weak top
layer of the rungs. The rungs were covered with multiplex
plates in order to protect them from damage. After a short life
cycle of three weeks, the pavilion was demolished and offered
for recycling.
4. Conclusions
We have faced a number of technical, engineering problems
during the design and building process of the cardboard
pavilion. In some cases, these problems can be marked as
VSHFL¿FWRFDUGERDUGUHODWHG7KHPRVWUHPDUNDEOHSUREOHPV
are described below. Moreover, some possible solutions are
provided.
4.1. Bending stiffness

The density of the used honeycomb board is about 100 kg/
m3. This is low compared to traditional building materials,
for example a brick wall of >2000 kg/m3. Another difference
between cardboard wall and a brick wall is the bending
stiffness of the construction. A wall made of cardboard lacks
.((69$1.5$1(1%85*(/,6(9$1'225(1$1')5('9((5 65
EHQGLQJVWLIIQHVV7KLVVSHFL¿FFRPELQDWLRQORZGHQVLW\DQG
low bending stiffness, leads to a problem. A soft push on
the balustrade on the terrace on 3 meters height resulted
in movement of the entire construction with considerable
DPSOLWXGH DV LOOXVWUDWHG LQ ¿JXUH D %HFDXVH RI WKLV WKH
decision was made not to build higher than 3.40 meter.
A logical solution to tackle this problem is to reinforce the

ZDOOXVLQJDEXWPHQWVRUJLUGHUVVHH¿JXUHE%\LQWURGXFLQJ
these girders, for example every 15th layer, the construction
becomes more rigid.
4.2 Deformation
A second problem is the permanent deformation introduced
during manufacture. The cardboard elements are glued
together using adhesive. The adhesive diffuses into the
paperboard, as a result of which the paperboard softens and
loses its original form. After drying, this deformation becomes
permanent.
$VLPSOHVROXWLRQFDQEHIRXQGLQ¿[LQJWKHHOHPHQWVXQWLO
WKHJOXHKDVGULHG+RZHYHULQVRPHFDVHVLWLVGLI¿FXOWWR¿[
glue and dry large elements at the same time, for example the
¿QLVKLQJWRSOD\HURIWKH7DFRZDOO
4.3. Moisture and temperature

Cardboard is very sensitive to environmental effects like
PRLVWXUHDQGWHPSHUDWXUHÀXFWXDWLRQV7KHSDYLOLRQZDVEXLOW
in an exposition hall of the Faculty of Architecture, just to
SUHYHQWWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQIURPODUJHWHPSHUDWXUHÀXFWXDWLRQV
and direct contact of water vapour. However, during Christmas
time, the temperature in the empty building was lowered,
and as a result the relative humidity increased. This change
in temperature and relative humidity lead to a deformation of
WKHÀRRUDQGVWUHVVHVDSSHDUHGLQWKHDGKHVLYHOD\HUV
Any corner, pollution, or hollow areas in the internal area

of the material can result in stress concentration and small
cracks. Most times, the de-bonding process will begin in one
of these areas, simply because of this phenomenon. It is an
ongoing process: once a crack exists in a structure, it will tend
to grow. Evidently, accumulation of (local) damage zones can
OHDGWRIDLOXUHRIWKHZKROHÀRRU+LJKO\LPSRUWDQWLVWKDWLQWKH
manufacturing process the introduction of residual stresses is
avoided to prevent local high stress concentrations.

4.4. Plate edges
Plate edges seem to be a problem, not only in a mechanical
PDQQHU EXW DOVR EHFDXVH RI PRLVWXUH WUDQVSRUW DQG ÀDPH
resistance.
4.5. Adhesive
General problem, in a mechanical sense, is the joint between
Fig. 9.'HODPLDWLRQRIWKHÀRRU different parts of cardboard. Failure caused by delamination is
RIWHQREVHUYHGVHH¿JXUH0XFKUHVHDUFKKDVWREHGRQH
LQWKLV¿HOG
5. References
1 T. Verstegen, Rudy Uytenhaak, 010 Publishers, isbn 90-6450-
241-2, Amsterdam, 1996
2 http://www.uytenhaak.nl
3 http://www.architectengroep.nl/hansruijssenaars
4 http://www.octatube.nl
5 E. Van Dooren and T. Van Iersel, Cardboard architecture,
drukkerij Groen, Leiden, The Netherlands, 2006
6 M. Veldhuizen, Mechanical tests on the Bee Wall, (in Dutch),
Delft, december 2005
)$9HHUDQG&YDQ.UDQHQEXUJ9HUJHOLMNLQJYDQGH
brandwerendheid van het Bee Wall binnenwandsysteem met
verschillende afwerkingen, (in Dutch), Delft, december 2005
Special thanks to the Audiovisuele dienst, Faculty of Architecture, TU

'HOIWIRUWKHXVHRIFRS\ULJKWHGPDWHULDOLH¿JXUHDQG
.((69$1.5$1(1%85*(/,6(9$1'225(1$1')5('9((5 67
A House of Cardboard
Elise van Dooren & Taco van Iersel
Abstract
Paper and cardboard are being used on a small scale in the

building industry. One of the most common products is wallpaper,
less well known are honeycomb door cores and cellulose insulation
panels. Some architects use the material for an advanced agenda
and more professionally: Shigeru Ban uses cardboard tubes for
construction purposes and there are various projects in the realm
of temporary housing.
This text describes the building of a cardboard house: it describes

the current understanding of cardboard as a player in the building
industry and the knowledge still missing.
,VDKRXVHPDGHRIFDUGERDUGIHDVLEOH":K\ZRXOG\RXZDQWWR
XVHDFDUGERDUGKRXVH",QRUGHUWRJLYHD±WHPSRUDU\±DQVZHU
a few thoughts have been written down.
Summarized: in the foundation the only application is that of

building-aid; constructively, tubes are a proven application.
Connections in cardboard are still rather tricky, mainly because of
failure at concentrated loads.
Thanks to water we have cardboard, and despite water it will

have to remain in tact. Building components of cardboard
separating the inside from the outside – whereby the material
must be water-repellent and the many seams which exist in a
building must be sealed – at the moment seem to be far from
day-to-day use.
Cardboard is recyclable, cheap, lightweight, foldable and printable.

Which of these properties is a real addition to the existing
WUDGLWLRQDODVVRUWPHQWRIEXLOGLQJPDWHULDOV"$QHZFRPHUPXVW
be equal to the existing materials in the existing marketplace and
to stand out in order to acquire a place in the building industry.
Ecology (recycling, short life-span, light weight) seems to be

its greatest advantage. But, considering the thoughts afore
mentioned, the application of the materials will often only be
feasible in a combined shape, as composites
69
1. Designing a cardboard house?
When asked why he climbed Mount Everest (1959) Sir Hillary
DQVZHUHG³%HFDXVHLWLVWKHUH´$FRPHGLDQRQFHVSRNHRI
a house where, because of sounds, everything was knitted:
knitted china, knitted doors, etc.
In this text we ask ourselves a few questions: is it possible to

EXLOGDFDUGERDUGKRXVH"$QGIRUZKDWUHDVRQVGRZHZLVK
WREXLOGDFDUGERDUGKRXVH"
,VWKHIROGRIFDUGERDUGHTXLYDOHQWWRWKHKLQJH",I\RXIROG
open a cardboard door, how long will the fold last during
QRUPDOXVH"2UFDQWKHGRRUVLPSO\EHDUHPRYDEOHFDUGERDUG
SDQHO"%HFDXVHFDUGERDUGLVDOLJKWDQGWHPSRUDOPDWHULDODQG
seems therefore to be appropriate to be applied as movable
parts in a building. Is this example another way of thinking
DERXWWKLQJVZHFRPPRQO\DFFHSW"2UFDQWKHQDWXUHRIWKH
material cardboard change the way we think about building
DQGDUFKLWHFWXUH"
There is always the challenge to play and explore. In our

minds we can have the most beautiful and crazy thoughts and
we are capable of building entire alternative (utopian and/
RUYLUWXDOZRUOGV%XWZKDWKDSSHQVZKHQZHKLWUHDOLW\",V
it possible to build a house from cardboard, or use as much
FDUGERDUGDVZHFDQLQEXLOGLQJDKRXVH"
Fig. 1.&DUGERDUGER[DVµD
KRPH¶
70 A HOUSE OF CARDBOARD
Paper and cardboard are being used in the building industry on
very small scale. Cardboard (side) products are the ventilation
ducts in the XX building by Jouke Post (1995, Delft)1 and the
formwork tubes for concrete columns. Cardboard is the bearer
RIGXFWVLQDÀRRUKHDWLQJV\VWHP2. Wooden doors often have
D¿OOLQJRIKRQH\FHOOFDUGERDUGDQGLQVXODWLRQFDQEHDFKLHYHG
with cellulose plates3,4. Building paper (paper with asphalt) is
used in constructions as a protective layer for resisting water.
%HIRUHEHLQJLQÀXHQFHGE\:HVWHUQDUFKLWHFWXUHDQGFXOWXUH
the Japanese build in wood and paper. Or maybe better: the
Japanese built in wood. Because in fact paper is a derivative
of wood. Shigeru Ban, nowadays a well known architect,
Fig. 2. Projects by Shigeru Ban VRPHWLPHVXVHVWKHWHUPµHYROYHGZRRG¶IRUFDUGERDUG5.
Japan has a particularly rich tradition in the use of paper.

Well known Japanese paper varieties are Washi (hand
scooped paper, which distinguishes itself through its strength,
gloss, natural colouring, long duration, and low weight)
and Nagashizuki (very thin paper, multi-layered, crossed,
VWURQJ¿EUHEXLGXS3DSHUZDVXVHGDVFORWKLQJIRUPRQNV
(Zen-masters of paper-clothing) and bags (treated against
insects).6
Sliding doors (fusuma and shoji) are playing an important

role in creating that special Japanese sense of space. In all
varieties of transparency, the paper softens the rays of light
HQWHULQJ WKH URRP $W ¿UVW ZLWK WKLFN SDSHU ODWHU RQ ZLWK
thinner paper the Japanese discovered “the beauty of shade
and shading. And then they discovered how to use shade and
VKDGLQJWRFUHDWHEHDXW\´7
In the tradition of the Japanese the house is not a castle built

for eternity and protection of domestic happiness, but an
article of use, which can be discarded of after its lifespan has
expired8. There are a few motives at the basis of this mind-
VHW5HOLJLRQVD\VWKDWWKHµKLJKHVWVWDWHRIEHLQJ¶LQVRFLHW\LV
the disconnection of earthly goods. The Japanese culture has
a strong respect for nature; people live in and with nature. The
Western control of nature and the denial of the temporality of
live are alien to the Eastern traditions. In combination of an
ever increasing demand for building materials, this leads to
reusable materials and products.
The choice of material also coincides with the ability to build
ELISE VAN DOOREN AND TACO VAN IERSEL 71

fast, so that the fast changing demands can be met. Moreover;
a country like Japan will increasingly have to watch out for
earthquakes; this means less rigid constructions in vulnerable
places. Rice-paper walls are appropriate to this tradition.
Shigeru Ban5 continued this tradition in is own way, when

using cardboard tubes for construction purposes. Partly
because of environmental considerations, he continuously
VHDUFKHV IRU PDWHULDOV ZKLFK KDYH SURSHUWLHV ¿WWLQJ WKH
assignment and situation (recyclability, little transport). He
VHDUFKHVIRUVLPSOLFLW\DQGHI¿FLHQF\
Basing his initial ideas on cardboard tubes used for transporting

tapestry, he continued the Japanese paper tradition in modern
architecture. In a dwelling (Paper house, 1995) and a church
3DSHU &KXUFK .REH KH SODFHG FDUGERDUG WXEHV LQ
a circular pattern behind a (semi-)transparent façade, thus
creating beautiful areas, in a dance with light.
So, he uses, in the Western perspective, an unusual material

LQ DQ XQH[SHFWHG ZD\ IRU VKDSLQJ VSDFH LQ D µPRGHUQ
DUFKLWHFWXUDO¶ PDQQHU +LV HPSDWK\ ZLWK WKH YLFWLPV RI WKH
.REH HDUWKTXDNH PRWLYDWHG KLP WR GHVLJQ FDUGERDUG WXEH
HPHUJHQF\KRXVLQJ3DSHU/RJ+RXVHV.REH
Looking around us, we nowadays see a lot more interest in

new or existing materials. There are a number of reasons
for that. The ecological one is an important reason. There
are the aspects of rapidly changing society, which uses more
and more short-term products, materials and buildings. The
environmentally friendly aspects of paper/cardboard can
respond to this demand. Using paper and board instead of
traditional materials, could lower the ecological pressure on
global material extraction.
Another reason is the texture of materials, and therefore the

VSKHUH WKH\ FUHDWH ZKHQ XVHG LQ DUFKLWHFWXUH $G YDQ .LO
DQG5R.RVWHUXVHGWKHEHDXWLIXOWH[WXUHRIFXWKRQH\FRPE
FDUGERDUGLQWKHLULQWHULRUGHVLJQIRUDQRI¿FHLQ(LQGKRYHQ9.
So, probably we have four main reasons for making a

cardboard house or using cardboard in buildings in general.
First, paper and cardboard are an interesting alternate

material, that could provide new spheres and textures in
designing space. New techniques in digital image printing,
printable electronic circuits and 3D-cutting computer programs
(Papercura) could lead to interesting options beyond the
possitbilities of traditional wallpaper.
Second, the low weight, recyclability and endless source of

wood, provides, an ecological material. The low-ecological
impact outstands all traditional materials.
Third, by experimenting with cardboard for houses, we can

learn about new possibilities for existing materials and the
way that we perceive them. For example, new techniques
are developed in aluminium by looking to commonly used
techniques in corrugated cardboard.
And fourth, we hope, we can develop new interesting products

and techniques, using the unique material aspects, as folding,
printing and lightweight.
For playing a role in building tradition, a new material will have

WRKDYHVXI¿FLHQWO\HTXDOSURSHUWLHVDVWKHFXUUHQWH[LVWLQJ
building materials; it will have to meet some functional
demands. And it should have one or more special qualities,
validating the material and distinguishing itself.
Like transparency being the unique property of glass. Thanks

to recent developments the material can be used for load
bearing properties as well. The synergy between transparency
and construction creates intrigue and unknown possibilities for
architecture and the building industry.
There is another possibility. The new material should have

special qualities. So that it can provide these qualities in
combinations with other materials.
For cardboard the speciality could be valuable in an ecological

ZD\ WKH OLJKW ZHLJKW RU WKH ÀH[LELOLW\ LQ XVH $OVR WKH ORZ
production price and the possibilities of machine production
seem to be an advantage.
At the moment, also at the faculty of architecture at the

TU Delft, cardboard is undergoing enthusiastic design and
research.
The purpose of the research-group, is researching, designing

and development of new applications of cardboard/cardboard
FRPSRVLWHVLQWKHEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\7KHQHZGHYHORSPHQWV¶
ability to stand out, when compared to traditional (building)
materials will manifest itself mainly in maintaining a low
ecological impact.
Through an analysis of building parts/function we will describe

what the customary materials are at the moment, which
demands should be met by that building part and especially
what was experienced when using cardboard. This will bring
to light unknown knowledge and give us the possibility to
estimate whether cardboard could be successful for this
building part or function.
2. Mechanics and structure

A paper sheet is weak; cardboard – actually thick paper
– is a lot stronger. The tensile and compression strength
YDU\ DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI WKH ¿EUH SDUDOOHO WR WKH
machine the strength is much greater than perpendicular to
it (anisotropic properties, comparable to that of wood). A well
distributed load can be transferred well, yet, with a point-load
cardboard is much more vulnerable. A considerable part of
building means connecting materials. Concerning cardboard,
forces concentrated on one point (peak-stresses) have proven
to be the weak link. Glued connections are much stronger.
The creep – elongation of a material under a constant pressure

during a long time – depends on the type of cardboard, the
pressure exerted, the relative humidity and other factors. It
might prove to be a factor we will have to watch closely.
The mechanical behaviour of a material must be known in order

to use it as a building material in constructions. At the moment
only incidentally, materials and projects can be subjected to
thorough calculations, but common material properties usable
YDOXHVIRUWHQVLOHDQGFRPSUHVVLRQVWUHQJWK\RXQJ¶VPRGXOXV
values for creep, etc. are still unknown. The long-term behaviour
DQGSUHGLFWDEOHEHKDYLRXUDUHWZRYHU\GLI¿FXOWUHVHDUFKDUHDV
to grasp, both being at the beginning of their development.
6RPHYHU\¿UVWDQGSURYLVLRQDOGDWDLVDYDLODEOHLQSXEOLFDWLRQV
about the research of Julia Schönwälder (TU Delft)10 and in
the publications of Buro Happold, Cotrell & Vermeulen and
Andrew Cripps about the Cardboard School.11,12 The book
about Shigeru Ban also mentions some (test) data.5
Fig. 3. Structural test of a From a building perspective there are two important divisions:
honeycomb cardboard construction and separation. From a construction perspective,
panel GLIIHUHQWSDUWVZLOOEHGLVFXVVHGIRXQGDWLRQÀRRUVDQGURRIV
columns and plate constructions. Special shapes are those
where vertical and horizontal constructions meet. Connections
will also be discussed.
2.1. Foundation
Depending on the type of ground we build on and the degree
of temporality of the building, we will have to choose a type
of foundation. Principally there are two possibilities: a heavy
IRXQGDWLRQRUDIRXQGDWLRQZKLFKOHDYHVQRWUDFHDWDOOµOLNH
DWUDYHOOHU¶:KHUHFDUDYDQVOHDYHYLUWXDOO\QRWUDFHZHRIWHQ
do need a sturdy foundation. The most common material
for foundations is concrete. Even when using a wooden
skeleton as a construction, the foundation is often made from
concrete.
Cardboard perishes in the humid ground and thus is principally

unsuitable as a foundation material. Only the similarity in
temporality of cardboard and mould materials might offer
some possibilities. Cardboard tubes used for casting concrete

columns have already been accepted on the market. One of
WKH¿UVWWHVWVZLWKDFDUGERDUGORVWPRXOGDVDUHSODFHPHQW
for traditional wooden moulds went less successfully than
hoped. A second round has not yet been undertaken.
)RUPZRUNFDQEHXVHGDVDQHQYHORSHEXWDOVRDVDQµLQVHUW¶
The formwork thereby keeps the material from reaching
that point. In a case-study in Amsterdam13 (not executed)
cardboard was the answer to a very tricky formwork problem.
7KHIDFWWKDWQRFHUWL¿FDWHVDQGJXDUDQWHHVIRUFDUGERDUGDVD
formwork material were available stopped it from being used.
In the past formwork tubes have been used as inserts in cast
ÀRRUVPRQRWXEH9DQ$QWZHUSHQ7KHURXQGWXELQJUHGXFHG
the amount of concrete used and thereby the weight of the
ÀRRU$WWKHPRPHQWWKHGHPDQGIRUWKHVHW\SHVRIIRUPZRUN
is low, most probably because the reduction in weight is also
DFKLHYHGE\SUHIDEKROORZFRUHÀRRUV
2.2. Floors and roofs

Floors span spaces. They must have enough load bearing
capability and be able to sustain concentrated loads. The
building industry basically knows a few (traditional) materials
suitable to meet these demands: steel, concrete and wood.
In the Netherlands (only very recently) concrete became the
most commonly used material. Historically seen, until the
¶VZRRGZDVWKHIDYRXULWHPDWHULDO,QWKH6FDQGLQDYLDQ
countries, Canada and North-America, where wooden frames
DUHDFRPPRQZD\RIEXLOGLQJZRRGHQÀRRUVDUHDIUHTXHQW
and accepted phenomenon.
Next to being very usable, the actual large scale use of a

material is also determined by cultural aspects and habits: the
building traditions.
A new material in the building industry will have to prove itself;

in a technical way, meeting the different functional demands
and beyond that, in order to acquire a place between the
existing materials (e.g. light weight for building legislation)
and be competitive.
7RJHWD¿UVWLPSUHVVLRQRIWKHGLPHQVLRQVRIDÀRRUSDFNDJH
and beams we use rules of thumb. For traditional building
PDWHULDOVWKHUDWLRKHLJKWVSDQRIDÀRRUHOHPHQWRUEHDP
vary from 1/10 to 1/30, depending on the material used and
WKHSUR¿OHXVHGVHFWLRQ0RVWFRPPRQLVWKHUDWLR7KH
rule of thumb of 1/10 is only used for relatively transparent
steel trusses.
5RRIVGLVWLQJXLVKWKHPVHOYHVVWUXFWXUDO\IURPÀRRUVEHFDXVH
their dimensions are much more favourable following the
lighter load. Shigeru Ban used a cardboard roof construction
LQ KLV FKLOGUHQ¶V PXVHXP LQ -DSDQ5 Beams of honeycell
cardboard (60 cm x 1 m and 60 cm x 3 m) from a triangular
VWUXFWXUH(YHU\WKUHHPHWHUVZH¿QGDFROXPQ7KHMRLQWVDUH
made of aluminium.
8QWLOOUHFHQWO\FDUGERDUGKDVEHHQXVHGYHU\OLWWOHLQÀRRUV,Q
the pavilion built in January 2006 at the faculty of Architecture,
TU Delft, honeycell panels were glued together making a
ODUJHGLPHQVLRQHGÀRRU7REHDEOHWRVXVWDLQFRQFHQWUDWHG
ORDGVWKHÀRRUZDVVXSSOLHGZLWKDIHZOD\HUVOLQHUVRIVROLG
cardboard. Creep (elongation progressing with time) and
the type of glue as well as the manual production process
presented a reasonable problem.
Experiments with cardboard beams have also been undertaken

at the TU Delft, Faculty of Architecture (mechanical research,
Julia Schönwälder)10. The tested materials were mainly
SUR¿OHV ZLWK KRQH\FRPE FDUGERDUG VRPH FRPELQHG ZLWK
cardboard tubing.
Experiences with the ratio height / span for now point in the
direction of 1/10. A relatively large amount of material for the
span.
/DUJH PDWHULDO VL]HV SURYLGH XV ZLWK D VSHFL¿F LPDJH LQ

architecture. Architects usually strive for a minimal use of
materials: slender columns, thin window frames and slender
cantilevers. Besides that, excess use of material is ecologically
unsound. This can however be compensated by the cheap
price and the ability to recycle cardboard.
In conclusion we can ask whether it is possible to go from

a 1/10 ratio to a 1/20 ratio, or to take a different approach.
([SHULHQFHKDVWDXJKWXVWKDWEHDPV¿WZHOOZLWKPDWHULDOV
capable of withstanding large spans. When using cardboard
LWPLJKWEHPRUHSUDFWLFDOWRFKRRVHDÀRRUSDFNDJHZKLFKLV
load bearing by itself, whereby it is easier to spread the loads
QRFRQFHQWUDWHGORDGV6WXGLHVLQWRIROGLQJÀRRUV\VWHPV
are still in an early stage of development.

2.3. Columns and load bearing plates
For load bearing structures there are different options, varying
from columns to parallel plates to a spacious (plate) structure,
ZKHUHE\WKHÀH[LELOLW\RIWKHVWUXFWXUHGHFUHDVHVUHVSHFWLYHO\
The existing building materials which are most commonly

used for construction are: concrete steel and wood. Plates
can be divided as: (1) stacking systems, like masonry walls,
(2) hollow partition systems, like a wooden skeleton, and (3)
panel systems, whereby the panels are being placed as a unit.
Besides the structural function, the different systems often
KDYHWRIXO¿OGLIIHUHQWSDUWLWLRQLQJIXQFWLRQV
Cardboard columns are promising when using cardboard

tubes. The tubes are often being used to transport tapestry.
However, in buildings the tubes are being stressed in a
different way, namely in axial stresses (following the length
of the tube). There is not a lot of knowledge about cardboard
tubes in technical building situations. We do know that the
production method of the tubes (wrapping) reduces the
tensile strength of the tubes.
As the houses designed by Shigeru Ban prove, they are

however usable only in one story buildings.
Also the Multished by Taco van Iersel14 uses tubes in its

FRQVWUXFWLRQ7KHSUR¿OHVKHUHKDYHEHHQXVHGDVDFROXPQ
and as a roof beam.
5RXQGFROXPQVGRQRWDOZD\V¿WWKHEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\ZLWK
its predominantly orthogonal shapes. The joints are especially
GLI¿FXOWWRGHVLJQ,Q-DSDQVTXDUHFROXPQVDUHDYDLODEOHEXW
the disadvantage is they are vulnerable to buckling.
With cardboard, plates in different typologies have been

tested. In the category of stacking systems, a load bearing
wall was designed. This wall15, developed by Taco van Iersel
during his graduation research, consists of a kind of masonry
of stacked boxes. The boxes have been equipped with
LQJHQLRXVO\SODFHGÀDSVZKLFKVOLGHLQWRHDFKRWKHULQRUGHUWR
get a stable wall. With the same purpose, the surface of the
wall is being covered with solid cardboard plates. The result
is a cardboard sandwich wall. Starting from the conceptual
idea a load bearing wall was designed and tested; serious
continuation of the product seems hardly feasible, looking
at aspects like dimensional stability, building order and load
GHÀHFWLRQ
2.4. Special shapes

Although we hardly immediately think of special structures
like domes and arches when thinking about houses, these
FRQVWUXFWLRQV DUH KDQGOLQJ ORDGV HYHU VR HI¿FLHQWO\ 7KH
thickness in these constructions can therefore be minimal.
When we compare the application of steel and cardboard

tubes for a dome, the latter are still larger in diameter. Shigeru
Ban used tubes in different kinds of dome and arch-shaped
structures. Examples are the Expo Pavilion (Hannover 2000)5
and the temporary theatre of a Dutch theatre company
(Mimegroup Jeanette van Steen, IJburg, now a municipal
multi-purpose pavilion in Utrecht).16
A disadvantage of the cardboard tubes is the low tensile

strength; this is being dealt with in most structures of this
type by using steel cables. Optimising the tensile strength of
tubes would expand its application possibilities.
The experiences with these structures also leads to the

preliminary conclusion that a relatively thick use of cardboard
is appropriate to the application of the material. However, high
safety factors due to the unknown structural behaviour over
time and the lack of available data are partly to blame.
Fig. 4. Detail of the roof of the

Multished
Fig. 5. The Multished

Roof frames are another example of a structure where Fig. 6. The Cardboard Dome
horizontal and vertical constructions meet. Jop van Buchem during build-up in IJburg
experimented with more or less arch-shaped trusses in
his graduation project.17 In a temporary house in Sydney,
Australia18 roof frames were used as well.
One more example of a special construction method, are the

dwellings developed by Renee Snel.19 On a machine designed
E\ KLPVHOI KH ZUDSV HOHPHQWV ÀRRU ZDOOV DQG URRI IRUP
a continuous section. The connection of several elements
produces a small dwelling. If supplied with a coating, they
could be used as emergency housing and built on site
relatively fast.
The provisional conclusion is that constructions in cardboard

until now are mainly applications such as tubular columns
and a few special structures. With load bearing walls very
little experiments have been undertaken. From a structural
point of view it would be logical to make load bearing walls;
WKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHZDOOVDQGWKHÀRRUVZRXOGWKHQ
be possible as a line bearing joint, whereby the transfer of
loads is better than with concentrated loads such as columns.
Too little is known to make a good comparison with these
materials and building systems, but for now the conclusion
that structure in cardboard is only applicable in special
situations, like emergency housing, or because it is cheap,
EHDXWLIXORUHFRORJLFDOVHHPVMXVWL¿HG
2.5. Connections
A distinctive characteristic for the building industry is the
manner of connecting. Connections are mainly constructive
DQGRUIRUZDWHUSURR¿QJLQWKHLUXVH
Structural connections are often point or line shaped.

Examples are: Steel girders, connected with bolts (point) and
SUHIDEFRQFUHWHÀRRUVVXSSRUWHGE\VWRQHOLNHZDOOVOLQH
The most important aspect of, especially point connections,

are the relatively large tensions it has to transfer. Historically,
Fig. 7-8. Cardboard house many wooden connections and joints were used, nowadays
designed by Stutchbury the emphasis lies on steel joints and glue.
& Pape
Most of the cardboard building projects at this stage still use
non cardboard connections. Often these connections are
made from steel or wood and are very characteristic from a
architectural point of view. For example, Shigeru Ban used
wooden square blocks combined with steel rods5, and the
nodes of the Paperdome in IJburg are made from steel16.
The Multished by Taco van Iersel14 uses a round wooden block

as a connection between the tubes. These are standard blocks
used as a intermediary between the driveshaft of the machine
and the cardboard tube in the cardboard industry. The tubes
have been bolted on the blocks.
Another type of connections consists of literally tying together

tubes with rubber or rope, like in some of the Shigeru Ban
projects.5
The most common connection techniques in the cardboard

packaging world (e.g. cardboard boxes) are folding and sliding
into each other.
,Q D FDUGERDUG KRXVH LQ 6\GQH\ H[KLELWLRQ µ+RXVHV

RIWKH)XWXUH¶17 the structural elements can be slid together
like the partitions in a wine-box. The cardboard house could
be delivered to the building site as a relatively lightweight
package with cardboard frames and panels. It takes only two

people to assemble one house in approximately 6 hours.
An important focal point for future research is the concentration

of tensions around point shaped joints. As mentioned above,
cardboard seems to be more adaptable for line shaped
connections, because this means the internal stresses can be
divided better than with point shaped joints.
3. Physics and construction

The shell of a building can have a load bearing function as part
of the construction. But above all, the façade and roof have to
separate the inside and the outside. The demands taken into
consideration are: water-resistance and warmth regulation,
but also aspects like dampness and sound regulation. A few of
these aspects are very much intertwined.
3.1. Water resistance

Water resistance is one of the most important functions of
the shell of a building in general. There are a few principles
that bring about the success of this function. With roofs the
DQJOH RI VORSH LV RI JUHDW LPSRUWDQFH (YHQ D ÀDW URRI KDV
a slope. With roofs as with facades, the water resistance of
the materials used is essential. Wood is painted or varnished,
the leaf of a cavity wall disconnected; these are examples
of layers of material which are more or less water resistant
(together).
Furthermore there are a few principles to achieve water

resistance in the seams: (1) overlapping of roof tiles and
foil strips, (2) added waterproof connection materials and
elements, like the mortar and glue with which bricks get
connected and (3) the interlocking of building parts through a
labyrinth of seams or click systems, like with window frames
and panel systems.
The variety of materials and products which can be applied in

DIDoDGHDUHHQGOHVVHDFKKDYLQJLWVRZQVSHFL¿FFKHPLFDO
and physical, strong and weak properties.
Water is both a friend and an enemy of cardboard. During the

production process a large amount of water is added to the
¿EUHZDWHUDQG¿EUH:LWKVLHYHVDQGSUHVVHVWKH
water is then extracted so the paper and cardboard can be
formed. When paper and cardboard subsequently come into
contact with water, it loses its strength and disintegrates to
pulp. Therefore it is not a very logical choice to use cardboard
as a water repelling layer. And if we do decide to do so, we will
have to pay a lot of attention to this aspect.
Cardboard can be made more water resistant in two ways: on

top of and/or inside of the cardboard. On top of the cardboard
it is easy to attach a plastic layer (e.g. PE), thus creating a
moisture repelling laminate, whereby the cross cut end will
remain unprotected. In the Multished by Taco van Iersel14
these sides were covered by tape for protection.
In Australia research has been done into composites with

paper. Vulnerable materials such as paper and straw are being
protected by a cover of recycled Polyethylene Terephthalate
(PET) A thin layer of polyethylene is vacuum drawn around a
material like paper20.
It is also possible to use all kinds of additives during the

manufacturing of cardboard. For example, kitchen paper
towels which are much stronger when wet compared to toilet
paper.
0HDVXUHVWRPDNHFDUGERDUGZDWHUUHVLVWDQWDUHLQFRQÀLFW
with the potential of paper recyclabililty. The paper and
cardboard industry points out that a small percentage of these
types of cardboard in the pulp-phase are not a limitation for
the recycling process.
3.2. Damp regulation

Next to repelling water from the exterior, the transport of
moisture through the facade, in the form of vapour, is an
important item. With a surplus of condensation the moisture
can, given time, produce funguses and decrease the insulating
properties.
For a short amount of time, cardboard can absorb a small

amount of moist. The relative dampness of an internal space
is of no immediate problem in a normal situation, but when
the cardboard construction gets exposed to large amounts
of water during a long period of time, it becomes a large
problem.
3.3. Warmth regulation

Insulation of warmth is an important function of the shell.

Heat can be transported in different ways, mainly by air and
radiation. Most of the time stand-alone insulation materials
are being used in a partition. Commonly used materials are
glass wool and mineral wool panels. The panels have different
properties, from, weak and bendable to stiff and very hard
and can therefore be used in various situations and types of
façades. Heat transfer through radiation can be limited by
DGGLQJDOD\HURIUHÀHFWLQJDOXPLQLXPIRLO
In principle, paper is suitable as an insulation material. Using

cellulose, different kinds of insulation panels have been made,
HFRORJLFDOO\VSHDNLQJ¿WWLQJLQWKHFDWHJRU\µEHVWPDWHULDO¶7KH
panels are continuously being developed, making them just
as usable as their less ecological competition. For example,
Homatherm3,4 has developed a panel with an insulation
FDOFXODWLRQYDOXHRIP.:ZKLFKLVEHQGDEOHDQGFDQ
be processed, dust free, using standard equipment. Moreover,
the panels breaths, thereby temporarily buffering moisture.
Isovloc3 DUH ORRVH FHOOXORVH ÀDNHV ZKLFK FDQ EH VSUD\HG

blown or manually dispersed in sealed constructions like walls,
ÀRRUVDQGFHLOLQJVLQVXODWLQJZDUPWK
For air insulation, cardboard is principally well suited. A project

by Paul Rohlfs21 came up with positive results. Honeycomb
cardboard as well as corrugated cardboard have insulating
properties, based on the idea of still air between layers of
paper.
Concerning the reduction of heat transport through radiation,

experience was gained from a project in The Hague. Cardboard
here is one of the elements of a partition system. Using wooden
posts and cross beams and adding misprints of orange-juice
cartons (a laminate of plastic, paper and aluminium foil) as a
WRSOD\HUZKLFKUHÀHFWVKHDWZDVFUHDWHG
Cellulose isolation panels insulate just as well as other

insulation materials. This might point out the ability of
cardboard to insulate. Further research will have to determine
what the insulation values of the different types of cardboard
might be. For now we can only conclude that cardboard is
similar to wood and will not form a heat leak.
In a building heat can be stored temporarily. In principal

a lightweight construction will heat up quickly and lose
its warmth just as fast, whereas a building with a heavy
construction will temporarily store the warmth (accumulation).
Wooden constructions are an example of a lightweight
construction and stone-like materials are often used for
ZDUPWKDFFXPXODWLQJµKHDY\FRQVWUXFWLRQV¶
A cellulose insulation panel (Homatherm3,4) has a higher

warmth accumulating value than comparable insulation
panels. The question remains where in the spectrum of
warmth accumulation, do the different types of cardboard,
like honeycell, corrugated cardboard and solid cardboard are
found.
3.4. Sound insulation

Sound transfer exists in different ways as well: through air
and contact sound. Important issues for the reduction of this
transfer are respectively mass and separation of materials
(mass-spring system) For partitions each area of application
forms different demands. For housing these are rather high,
IRURI¿FHEXLOGLQJVDORWORZHU
A partition of honeycell plates covered with solid cardboard

can be categorised as a panel system. This partition was
designed as a non-load-bearing partition and stands out
because of its light weight. The sounds insulation is low
EXWVXI¿FLHQWIRUOLJKWEXLOGLQJXQLWV7KHH[SHFWDWLRQLVWKDW
through disconnection the values will increase.
One of the advantages of cardboard is its light weight. This

however counters the principle of sound insulations by mass
and therefore asks for some attention. The effect of cardboard
on sound insulation varies and because of that we will have
to determine the value for each kind of cardboard. Weather
cardboard partitions will become a successful building product
ZLOOGHSHQGODUJHO\RQLWVVRXQGDQG¿UHLQVXODWLQJSURSHUWLHV
Besides air and contact sound there is sound absorption.

This form of sound reduction is important with regard to
the acoustic properties of a room. Cardboard has a few
DSSOLFDWLRQV LQ WKLV DUHD 7KHUH LV D FHOOXORVH VSUD\ ¿QLVK
on the market (Sprayplan+)3 which reduces the amount
of resonance in rooms. This can be used without seams on
almost every kind of straight or curved surface.
As well as the honeycell partition in the pavilion of the faculty

RI$UFKLWHFWXUH-DQDVLQWKHRI¿FHLQWHULRURI$G.LO
DQG .R 5RVWHU LQ (LQGKRYHQ9, the stacking of honeycomb
cardboard has proven to have a reasonable damping effect
on the amount of sound in the area. In an open area where
many people have simultaneous conversations, this is a
valuable aspect.
3.5. Fire resistance

7KH¿UHUHVLVWDQFHRIPDWHULDOVLVLPSRUWDQWIRUEXLOGLQJV7KH
main factor is time. To be more precise, the amount of time
OHIWWRÀHHWKHEXLOGLQJZKHQD¿UHVWDUWV$IHZDVSHFWVDUHRI
LPSRUWDQFHKHUHYDU\LQJIURPWKHGHJUHHRI¿UHUHVLVWDQFHRI
a material to possible exit routes
)LUHUHVLVWDQFHDW¿UVWVHHPVWREHDQXQDFKLHYDEOHDVSHFW
of paper and cardboard. Paper is an excellent fuel. But some
FDVHVKDYHVKRZQWKH¿UHUHVLVWDQFHRIFDUGERDUGWREHEHWWHU
WKDQ ¿UVW DVVXPHG $ OD\HU RI VROLG FDUGERDUG UHDFWV LQ D
VLPLODUZD\WR¿UHDVZRRGPLJKW7KHPDWHULDOIRUPVDOD\HU
of coal and thereby protects itself.
Moreover, cardboard contains a certain amount of chalk-like

material as a result from the ink traces left in the recycling
SURFHVV&KDONLVDQH[FHOOHQW¿UHUHWDUGDQW7HVWVKDYHVKRZQ
that a simple piece of solid cardboard already meets NEN
standards22.
Besides that, cardboard can be made with extra protection. A

wide variety of products are on the market, all of them based
on (boric) salts. Adding these materials does not affect the
ability to recycle the material. The disadvantage is that the
gasses which escape when the material burns, are toxic.
Fire retardants have the tendency to increase the development

RIVPRNHGXULQJD¿UH7KLVLVDQLPSRUWDQWDVSHFWLQUHODWLRQWR
safety. The industry / suppliers have a lot of information about
¿UHUHVLVWDQWFDUGERDUGEXWDFOHDURYHUYLHZLVPLVVLQJ
3.6. Burglar protection

Burglars seek the weakest place to enter the building.
Cardboard sounds like something you can simply walk
through, or at most requires a Stanley knife. Is this true or
is cardboard being underrated when looking at the scale of a
EXLOGLQJ"$FKDLQVDZZLOOSUREDEO\JUDQW\RXDFFHVVWKURXJKD
cardboard panel, but this is no different from a wooden house.
A possible solution might be found in using (some light form
of) reinforcement inside the cardboard walls.
3.7. Moving and transparent parts

When we think of a cardboard house, we eventually come
to moving parts and transparent parts. Doors and windows,
traditionally placed in a wooden frame, with steel hinges in
a window frame. Also other materials like steel and plastics
can be considered as framework. Recent developments in
technology have been able to create glass walls without a
frame. Transparency and glass are inextricably bound up with
each other. The transparency and sun protection properties of
JODVVDUHEHLQJLQÀXHQFHGE\WKHXVHRIPLONJODVVIRUPLQJVXQ
protection, or by adding another material inside the cavity of
GRXEOHJODVVSDQHOVLQÀXHQFLQJWKHWUDQVSDUHQF\RIWKHJODVV
Fig. 9-11. Cardboard Pavilion

at the Faculty of
Architecture, Delft

Doors nowadays are usually made from a solid wooden frame
with a plate covering (hardboard, mdf or chipboard) and a
¿OOLQJRIURFNZRRORUKRQH\FHOOFDUGERDUG
The Austrian company Gap-solar23¿OOVWKHFDYLW\LQGRXEOH

glass panels with the core of honeycell cardboard. The
warmth resistance of the glass thereby increases and an
interesting effect occurs with the transparency of the panel.
:KHQPRYLQJDORQJVLGHWKHVHZLQGRZVWKHWUDQVSDUHQF\¿UVW
increases than decreases, vice-versa.
Japan has a rich building tradition, as said before. Well known

in (historical) architecture are the semi transparent sliding
doors (Shoji and Fusuma)6,8. The question is whether there is
relevant knowledge to be found here for cardboard research
4. Designing a cardboard house

The mechanics and physics in relation to the structure and
construction play an essential role in the building industry. But
WKHUHLVPRUHWRLW$EXLOGLQJ¿QGVLWVHOIDOVRLQDFKDQJLQJ
cultural social context, with for example, ecological demands.
Clearly, space, composition and aesthetics are essential in

architecture. Materials are not only chosen for technically
meeting technological demands. Other factors, like the
atmosphere a material creates, play an important role. Some
architects let themselves get inspired by materials, with its
VSHFL¿FFKDUDFWHULVWLFSURSHUWLHV
4.1. Architectural inspiration

Many of the realised projects in the last decade show that
cardboard might have been used in spite of, instead of
because of these properties. When architects are inspired by
a material, they experiment and play with it.
The advantages of a material are being used, the

disadvantages dealt with as well as possible. The texture of
KRQH\ FHOO FDUGERDUG LV EHLQJ XVHG LQ WKH RI¿FH LQWHULRU LQ
Eindhoven9, the unexpected strength of a cardboard tube is
being used for constructive purposes5,14 and the ability to fold
solid cardboard led to the design of a smart cable duct24.
,WKDVSUREDEO\DOZD\VEHHQWKLVZD\ORRNLQJDW0DUF/DPSH¶V
FRQFOXVLRQLQ³7KHJUHDWHVWSRZHULVWKHSRZHURIDWWUDFWLRQ´
“Structure was and still is, that much may be assumed proven
E\WKLVSXEOLFDWLRQIRUDUFKLWHFWV¿UVWO\DVRXUFHRISRVVLELOLWLHV
a way of escaping from everyday reality, and only secondly a
given which has to be solved while working out demands such
DVVWUHQJWKVWLIIQHVVVWDELOLW\DQGGXUDELOLW\´25.
4.2. Characteristics
Cardboard has advantages with regard to traditional building
materials:
1. Low weight, lightweight materials have advantages
in many aspects of the building industry (transport,
reducing the need for human or mechanical energy)
2. Foldable/printable, in the world of packaging
folding and printing is essential when applying
cardboard. Considering as a building element, these
advantages are less obvious
3. Recycling, the ecological advantage is large. The
UDZPDWHULDOLVLQ¿QLWHFHOOXORVH¿EUHDQGWKHF\FOH
RIROGSDSHUKDVDQHI¿FLHQF\RI+RZHYHUWKH
energy intensive recycling process does increase its
impact on the environment
4. Mass production, the bulk production has all the
(dis-)advantages of the production process. The
OLTXLGDQGµUROOLQJ¶SKDVHSXOSDQGUROOSUHVVLQJ
give us excellent opportunities to guide the
properties of the material.
5. Low price, the raw material is very cheap. This
means that we have a margin, by working the
SURGXFWWRDFKLHYHDFRVWHI¿FLHQWSURGXFWRU
building part.
Cardboard is a material with many appearances (tubes,

FRUUXJDWHGKRQH\FHOODQG'µVKDSHG¶FDUGERDUGDQGZLWK
different material properties. It inspires artists, furniture
designers and architects into making designs which are (most
RIWKHWLPHEDVHGRQWKHVSHFL¿FFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRISDSHU
foldability, printability, or the ability to shape (papier-mâché)
and texture. The cardboard which is currently being produced
can be used directly without any problems for interior
applications. Applications in the building industry require a
much higher complexity. Therefore, direct application with
the current types of cardboard are being blocked by its
limitations.

4.3. Contemplating
A house is a complex form with the addition of many
architectural, technical, functional and social demands,
wherein these different demands can lead to opposing
solutions. In order to meet (a part of) these different aspects,
PDQ\GLIIHUHQWPDWHULDOVDUHEHLQJDSSOLHGZLWKWKHLUVSHFL¿F
characteristics. The connection of materials and building parts
heighten the complexity.
A cardboard house is just as logical as a concrete house

or a glass house. They are all extremes, only useful in
contemplating the material. Once they are built, at most they
deliver a ephemeral statement.
Thinking about a cardboard house, we can set a direction, or

many, and we can draw conclusions where to apply cardboard
in a house. And questions can be formulated, addressing the
paper- and cardboard industry and researchers in the area of
material, product development, social context, etc.
4.4. Building cardboard

The mechanical data, required to use this material in
constructions, are hardly known, especially considering long-
term behaviour. The lack of material found for calculating rules/
values, forces us into a project based approach. Therefore
acquiring knowledge is fragmentised and discontinuous.
Connecting a database to fundamental research could slowly
¿OOLQWKHNQRZOHGJHJDS)RUQRZKRZHYHUEHFDXVHRIWKLV
JDSFDUGERDUGORDGEHDULQJEXLOGLQJSDUWVÀRRUVURRIVDQG
walls) seem to have a limited future.
Fig. 12. Paper waste ready for

recycling
Also the physical properties are largely unknown. Regarding
sound and warmth the different kinds of cardboard seem to
behave neutrally, with one or two exceptions like cellulose
board, which has excellent warmth-isolating properties and
honeycomb plates and work well as sound-deadening devices.
We all know the moisture sensitivity of cardboard and it can
therefore often only be used with a protective layer.
5HVHDUFKLQWRWKHPDWHULDOSURSHUWLHVLVQHFHVVDU\WR¿QGWKH
connection with the building industry. Not only do we need
to research the characteristics, but we also need to establish
classes and properties within a set spectrum, in order to set
QRUPVDQGEHJLQFHUWL¿FDWLRQ7KHH[LVWLQJSDSHUDQGFDUGERDUG
assortment has originated from a long tradition of developing
packages. In the development and production of cardboard this
market has been the basis. Improvements in the product and
the production process are pointed at the functional demands
of the package relative to its price. To apply cardboard in the
building industry means we must improve it, and yet learn
from the knowledge gained in the packaging industry. Precisely
that is why it is so important to search globally for different
NLQGVRISDSHUDQGFDUGERDUGZH¿QGWKDWFDUGERDUGWXEHV
from Germany and Japan are better suited for constructive
applications, because these tubes are made from cardboard
ZLWKDKLJKSHUFHQWDJHRIYLUJLQ¿EUH
7KH UHVHDUFK EHLQJ VNHWFKHG KHUH ZLOO UHVXOW LQ µEXLOGLQJ

FDUGERDUG¶ 7KLV LV D PDWHULDO VSHFL¿FDOO\ GHYHORSHG IRU WKH
EXLOGLQJ LQGXVWU\ ZLWK LQGLVSXWDEOH WHFKQLFDO VSHFL¿FDWLRQV
divided in classes. It will be specially produced as a material
with specific constructive and/or partitioning properties.
Moreover, the material has one or more unique qualities with
which it stands out from traditional building materials. The data
which is interesting for architects, data aimed at application,
is known: price per square metre, obtainable and maximum
measurements, possibilities in colour and structure, product
JXDUDQWHHV \HDU FHUWL¿FDWHV GHVLJQ UXOHV DQG UXOHV
of thumb. Next to this, we need a (basic) broad knowledge
considering the material properties, so that during each building
phase, application can be reasoned or proven. For example, we
know up to which thickness we can fold cardboard, how well
we can process it (among others impact sensitivity, wear and
tear, and the way it works), what the isolating values are, how
much moisture can be absorbed without damage and the way
the materials holds itself when assembled (damage)

4.5. Combinations
For now, it seems evidently that paper and cardboard by
themselves cannot satisfy the entire list of demands and
wishes in the building industry. So we have to explore
other possibilities as well. Material properties necessary for
EXLOGLQJDSSOLFDWLRQVFDQEHLPSURYHGE\¿QGLQJFRPELQDWLRQV
with other materials or by developing products with new
characteristics. Cardboard could for example be reinforced
with steel. A paper phone26 might be the predecessor of a
ZDOO¿QLVKZLWKLQWHJUDWHGHOHFWULFDOFLUFXLWV&RPELQDWLRQV
with textile or rubber might also produce surprising results.
An important shortcoming of cardboard is its behaviour when
confronted with moisture. Precisely in this area a combination
with another material might provide an appropriate solution.
An important reason to use cardboard could be the ecology,
as said before. Most plastic products are made of oil. When
we can use paper and cardboard (in combination with other
materials) in stead of these plastic products, probably we can
make biodegradable and recycleble products.
In practice, there is a very well known cardboard composite:

(WHUQLW7KH¿EUHFHPHQWSODWH(WHUQLWLVEHLQJSURGXFHGLQ
D VLPLODU ZD\ DV SDSHU EXW LQVWHDG RI WKH µQRUPDO¶ ZDWHU
EDVHG FRQQHFWLRQ WKH FHOOXORVH ¿EUHV DUH EHLQJ ERXQG
through cement. The end-product is a moist retardant and
strong product, but it is not foldable or lightweight. Also the
reuse/recycling properties of cardboard have been lost in
the composite. The properties of cardboard have therefore
become inferior to the properties of the end-product. Can we
VWLOOUHJDUGLWDVFDUGERDUG"
Two other products based on paper are cardboard in a vacuum

PET cover (Armacel)20 and honeycomb cardboard inserted in
laminated glass (Gap-Solar)23. In these products cardboard
is recognizable as cardboard.Research and developments of
cardboard combinations must be catalogued clearly, so that
ZHDYRLGGHYHORSLQJDQH[LVWLQJSURGXFW$¿UVWGULYHLQWKH
GLUHFWLRQ RI D FOHDU GH¿QLWLRQ RI FDUGERDUG LQ FRPELQDWLRQV
(composites):
FDUGERDUGLVDPDWHULDOEDVHGRQFHOOXORVH¿EUHV
brought about through the addition of water during
the production phase. This secures the cycle of
paper and is to be the basis for new developments.
2. next to recycling, the presence of one or more of
the afore mentioned characteristics in the new
product is essential: lightweight, foldable and
printable, machine produced and low price.
4.6. Context
Not just technical properties play a role in the development
of new applications for cardboard, also the social and cultural
context is of importance. Two examples will illustrate this.
Cardboard seems to be a suitable material for application in
temporary housing, because of its relatively short technical
lifespan27,28 and its advantages (lightweight, cheap, foldable
and thereby easy to transport).
The last few decades we have seen several initiatives. Shigeru

Ban is the best known architect, who has designed cardboard
emergency housing on a large scale. Still, these projects seem
to remain incidents. This can have different causes, technical
as well as economical or political. The research into these
aspects is of importance as well in order to progress with the
GHYHORSPHQWRIFHOOXORVH¿EUHVLQWKHEXLOGLQJLQGXVWU\
Next to the suitability of the material, the application is

also derived from cultural aspects and habits: the (building)
tradition. Traditions come to existence because something
proved to be useful or practical, thereby assuring a kind of
guarantee. What worked in the past, will work in the future.
In the building industry, the parties involved, like the architect
and contractor, take a risk, in order to minimize this risk as
PXFKDVSRVVLEOHSURGXFWVQRZDGD\VXQGHUJRFHUWL¿FDWLRQ
so people know what they are using. A new product (for
the building industry) will therefore have to prove itself
with guarantee, before it will be accepted as an adequate
material.
References
.ORPSHQ3RVWOHYHQVGXXUJHEUXLNVGXXU;;HHQJHERXZ
als prototype van een nieuw milieuconcept, Stuurgroep
Experimenten Volkshuisvesting, Rotterdam, 1999, ISBN 90 5239
153 X
&KULVWRSK0DULD5DYHVORRW,QGXVWULHHOÀH[LEHOHQGHPRQWDEHO
vloerverwarmen, Gezond Bouwen & wonen, 2001-2
3 http://www.warmteplan.nl
4 Christoph Maria Ravesloot, Elastische isolatieplaat van gebruikt
papier, Gezond Bouwen & wonen, 2001-2
5 Mathilda Mc Quaid, Shigeru Ban, Phaidon, 2003, ISBN 0-7148-

4194-3
6 Therese Weber, die Sprache des Papiers, eine 2000-jahrige
Geschichte, Verlag Haupt, ISBN 3-258-06793-7
.DVKLZDJL+LURVKL/LYLQJZLWKSDSHUKWWSZHEMDSDQRUJ
nipponia
7RPGH9ULHV.DUWRQSDSLHU%DQZDVKLHU$UFKLWHFWXXU
Detail, december 2000
9 BN/DeStem van 9 juli 2005, gepubliceerd op www.besin.nl
10 Schönwälder J., Rots J.G., Veer F.A., Determination and
Modelling of Cardboard as a Building Material, Proceedings, 5th
International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering, Delft, The
Netherlands, 2004.
11 Buro Happold en Cotrell & Vermeulen, Constructing a prototype
cardboard building, op http://www.cardboardschool.co.uk/
12 Andrew Cripps, Cardboard as a construction material: a case
study, Building Research & Information (may-june 2004)
7DFRYDQ,HUVHO.DUWRQRPEHWRQLQ5XPRHUDSULO
jaargang 10, Periodiek voor de bouwtechnoloog, uitgave van
Bout, praktijkvereniging Bouwtechnologie faculteit Bouwkunde,
TU Delft, ISSN 1567-7699
14 Taco van Iersel, Feesten in kartondoos, detail in architectuur,
maart 2003
15 Taco van Iersel, design drawings graduation project
16 Prof.dr.ir.Mick Eekhout, Het ontwikkelen van de kartonnen
IJburgkoepel, in: kartonnage, Rumoer 30, sept 2003, jaargang
9, Periodiek voor de bouwtechnoloog, uitgave van Bout,
praktijkvereniging Bouwtechnologie faculteit Bouwkunde, TU
Delft. ISSN 1567-7699
17 Jop van Buchem, graduation report
18 http://www.houses of the future.com.au
19 http://www.rsdevelpoments.nl
20 Adriano Pupilli, The paperhouse report, http://
www.thepaperhouse.net
21 Taco van Iersel, report interview Paul Rohlfs
22 Testresultaat Multished TNO 17 okt. 2002
23 www.gap-solar.at
24 Henk Wind, Leidinggoot eerste bouwproduct van karton,
Bouwwereld nr.9, 10 mei 2004
25 Marc Lampe, De grootste kracht is aantrekkingskracht,
publicatieburo Bouwkunde, Faculteit der Bouwkunde, Technische
Universiteit Delft, 1992.
YDQ,HUVHO7.DUWRQOLFKWJHZLFKWLQGHERXZZHUHOGGHWDLOLQ
architectuur, maart 2003,
27 Life Cycle Coordination of materials and their functions at
connections, Design for total service life of buildings and
its materials, E. Durmisevic and T.M.van Iersel, Conference
Deconstruction and Material Reuse, USA 2004
28 Innovative Construction and design in Cardboard, T.M.van Iersel,
2003
94
Structural Engineering and Design in Paper and

Cardboard - Approaches and Projects
Helen Gribbon, Florian Foerster
Abstract
The following paper outlines approaches to the use of cardboard

in structural design and construction and illustrates its successful
use on a number of example projects. The paper summarises and
illustrates the experience gained in cardboard design by the multi
disciplinary engineering company Buro Happold Ltd.
Cardboard and paper products have been used for decades in the
¿HOGVRILQWHULRUDQGSURGXFWGHVLJQDQGWKHSDFNDJLQJLQGXVWU\
But cardboard has not been used widely in architectural design,
building technology and structural engineering and construction,
GHVSLWHLWVSRWHQWLDODGYDQWDJHVRIÀH[LELOLW\ORZPDWHULDOFRVW
ready availability and good environmental credentials.
So far only a few cardboard structures have been built, each

GHVLJQHG DV D RQHRII E\ GHVLJQHUV VSHFL¿FDOO\ LQWHUHVWHG LQ
cardboard as a structural and building material.
As the structural design with cardboard and paper products is not

\HWFRGL¿HGDQGRQO\OLPLWHGPDWHULDOGDWDLVDYDLODEOHWKHGHVLJQHU
UHOLHVQRWRQO\RQHPSLULFDONQRZOHGJHSURMHFWVSHFL¿FWHVWVDQG
WKHXQGHUVWDQGLQJRI¿UVWSULQFLSOHVRIHQJLQHHULQJEXWDOVRRQ
a willingness and curiosity to take extra design responsibilities.
As a result, cardboard allows the designer to pursue structures
not primarily based on precedent and go beyond conventional
structural ideas. The designer can thus gain new knowledge
from the individual one off structures which might feed back into
standard construction practice and lead to a wider acceptance of
cardboard as a valid and economic structural material.
In addition cardboard responds well to current issues of

sustainability: it is primarily manufactured from waste paper
products and can easily be repeatedly recycled; it has excellent
acoustic and thermal properties; and it is very easy safe to work
with on site.
95
1. Cardboard product range
No cardboard products specifically manufactured and
designed for the construction industry are currently available.
Structural projects using cardboard products generally use
standard cardboard or paper products from the packaging
LQGXVWU\KHQFHLWLVXVHIXOWREULHÀ\VXPPDULVHWKHVWUXFWXUDO
and construction qualities of these products.
1.1. Tubes
Tubes are manufactured by rolling multiple layers of spirally
wound paper plies over a spindle. The layers are glued
together by starch or PVA. The tube wall thickness depends
on the number of plies but can range up to 16mm. Tube
diameters up to 600mm are commonly available. The inner
and outer layer of the tube walls can be made from different
paper than the interior build up, to give a treated, coloured or
stronger paper on the surface. The tube length is not limited
by the manufacture process, but by transportation.
The winding of the paper plies effectively means that the

ORQJLWXGLQDO ¿EUHV RI WKH WXEH DUH QRW FRQWLQXRXV 7KLV
reduces the structural capacity of tube members in bending
and increases the risk of delamination.
1.2. Panels
Cardboard panels are manufactured by laminating sheets of
paper or cardboard onto an interior honeycomb structure. The
honeycomb boards are made by sandwiching a honeycomb
structure between sheets of paper. The honeycomb structure
itself is manufactured by gluing multiple sheets of paper
together and pulling them apart or by gluing two halves of
moulded honeycomb panels together, made by pressing paper
pulp into a honeycomb mould.
Panels are generally between 1.2m and 1.5m wide and 2.4m
to 3.6m long. The size of the sheets is determined by the size
of the lamination press used in the manufacturing process.
The thickness and build up varies from single layer sheets of
1mm thick to 65mm thick sheets of honeycomb board. Sheets
can be laminated or mechanically bonded together to achieve
thicker sections. Sheets can be curved and easily cut into
any shape, either by hand or by state of the art CNC cutting
processes. It is possible to laminate different types of paper
onto both sides of the sheets to achieve differing interior and
exterior surfaces. It is also possible to laminate non paper
96 STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING AND DESIGN IN PAPER AND CARDBOARD

based sheets into the surface of the boards, ie metal or
plastic foils to achieve an enhanced moisture resistance. In
construction, honeycomb panels are the most commonly used
structural cardboard products.
1.3. Sections
A number of L and T shaped and rectangular hollow sections
are available in cardboard. They are generally single layer
elements with wall thicknesses up to 4mm. cardboard sections
are manufactured as connection and stiffening elements for
furniture products or packaging. While they are not commonly
used in any of the example projects described it is possible to
use them similarly to small size steel sections to build up larger
sections or connect tubes or panels.
2. Structural form and elements

Like all other structural materials, cardboard is best and most
HI¿FLHQWO\ XVHG LQ IRUPV WKDW XVH LWV LQKHUHQW VWUHQJWK DQG
characteristics. Due to the manufacturing process cardboard
is an anisotropic material, hence the material strength varies
greatly depending on the direction of the stresses. Cardboard
LV PRVW HI¿FLHQWO\ XVHG WR WUDQVIHU RQO\ D[LDO DQG LQ SODQH
stresses, which should be kept in mind when deciding
the structural form and load path. And due to the critical
importance of the connection detail it is generally simpler
to transfer compressive forces than tensile ones. Hence the
majority of the large scale projects using cardboard uses
arches or shells as the primary form.
2.1. Columns
Axial loaded columns can be designed using tubes or build
up hollow sections. Load bearing columns are generally of a
large diameter and the ratio between the tube wall thickness
and the diameter is high, hence tubes tend to fail in local
buckling. Overall buckling of the tubes is less likely due to
the low slenderness ratio of the sections. The critical areas
when designing column are the load transfer points. The loads
should be spread over the entire tube circumference to avoid
stress concentrations and local creep.
2.2. Beams
Beams can be designed in using sheets of honeycomb
cardboard or sections. Due to the low ultimate strength of
cardboard elements the beam sections will appear deep and
HELEN GRIBBON, FLORIAN FOERSTER 97

slender compared with all other structural materials. This high
slenderness especially of the beam webs or sides increases
the risk of local buckling. Hence it is important to stiffen the
beams to achieve a resistance against lateral buckling.
In addition the system and duration of load application onto

WKHEHDPHOHPHQWVLVLPSRUWDQWDQGZLOOJUHDWO\LQÀXHQFHLWV
¿QDOVKDSHDQGGHWDLO7KHVXSSRUWFRQGLWLRQVRIEHDPVQHHG
to be considered carefully to avoid stress concentrations and
PLQLPLVHVKHDUGHÀHFWLRQDQGVKHDUFUHHS
2.3. Walls
Flat panels or rows of tubes sandwiched between panels
can be used for the design of walls. The walls can either be
load bearing or self supporting stability elements. walls can
either be designed entirely in cardboard or more commonly
as cardboard elements mounted onto a primary timber frame.
In both cases the stiffness of the wall and its performance
under lateral loads are critical. The stiffness can be enhanced
by utilising stiffeners, cross walls or the design of the wall as
a folded plate. If the panels are mounted onto timber frames
the cardboard becomes primarily a cladding material and the
board a stability element.
3. Design parameters
As a result of the projects described within this paper a number
of tentative design parameters for cardboard have been
HVWDEOLVKHG7KHVHSDUDPHWHUVDUHEDVHGRQSURMHFWVSHFL¿F
tests and particular products and can be divided into material
properties and connection parameters. However as there are
no generally agreed structural requirements and standards for
the use of cardboard in construction, it is essential that these
parameters are reassessed and re-evaluated prior to each
project.
It should also be noted that the design parameters depend

VWURQJO\RQWKHVSHFL¿FFDUGERDUGSURGXFWXVHGLQDSURMHFW
as the quality and range of manufacturing processes varies
greatly: the use of differing glues or source materials being
two major variants. Hence two similar looking products will
not necessarily exhibit the same structural properties.
Based on data gathered during these projects the following

design parameters can be used as a guidance during the

scheme design. The following parameters are based on
cardboard tubes:
Tensile/Compressive strength 8.1 N/mm2
Lomg term design tensile/

compressive strength taking 0.8-2.2 N/mm2
account of creep effects
E value (stiffness) 1000-1500 N/mm2
The following values might be used for the design with 20mm
thick honeycomb sheets:
Bending strength 6.9 N/mm2
Design tensile/compressive
strength taking account of 0.6 N/mm2
creep effects
E value (stiffness) 1000 N/mm2
4. Connection design
The design and detailing of the connections is the Achilles

heel of most cardboard structures. It is the area most
GLI¿FXOW WR FRQWURO GXULQJ IDEULFDWLRQ DQG FRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG
at the same time the point where by necessity stresses are
concentrated and changed in direction. It is also often a
point where cardboard is connected to different generally
stiffer and stronger materials, ( mainly steel or timber )
and the interaction of these materials needs to be carefully
investigated.
Technically the connections can either be glued or bolted.

A well bonded glued connection, using high strength
glues is stronger than the surrounding cardboard. Hence
the intersection between the standard cardboard and the
connection element will be the weakest point in the design.
Glues can either be PVA or epoxy based. Any glued connection
should aim to transfer the loads either in direct compression or
shear along the sides of the connected elements.
Bolted connections behave differently and again form a critical

point in the design. Failure occurs due to the different strength

of the bolts and washers and the cardboard elements. This
can lead to stress concentration and in the case of failure
tearing of the cardboard. It is advisable to use large diameter
or sleeved bolts or large diameter washers. If possible loads
should be transferred in shear between the washers and the
cardboard elements. The detailing of the connections should
take into account the edge distance, number of bolts, bolt
spacing and especially the direction of the load application.
In addition it should be checked if the loads are static or
dynamic. Dynamic loads on cardboard connections will soon
lead to plastic deformation of the connection and hence
potential weakening.
The third type of connections can be achieved by folding

or sleeving cardboard elements into each other, completely
avoiding glue or bolts for the transfer of load. Very little
experience for this type of connection has been gained on
structural projects, but it is a technique commonly used for
interior and furniture design. It would have the advantage to
connect elements of similar low strength thus reduce the risk
of stress concentration.
5. Analysis and structural model

The choice of the structural models used for the analysis of the
design depends on the complexity and function of the project.
Cardboard can, in principle, be analysed in the same way as
DQ\RWKHUVWUXFWXUHDVORQJDVVWUHVVHVDQGGHÀHFWLRQVVWD\
ORZ+RZHYHUWKHGLI¿FXOW\RIDQ\XVHIXODQGUHSUHVHQWDWLYH
analysis is twofold.
Firstly due to the lack of design parameters and material

properties. The empirical data varies greatly depending on
WKHSURGXFWXVHGDQGWRREWDLQLWIRUDVSHFL¿FSURMHFWRQH
might have to test a full scale mock up of structural elements.
hence the detailed analysis is carried out relatively late in the
design process and mainly as a back up check of the initial
assumptions and design concept.
Secondly the design parameters vary greatly with time and the
environmental conditions. Hence, any permanent cardboard
project requires a far more wide reaching analysis than a
temporary one and might rely on assumptions which can not
be tested prior to the construction. This partially explains why
the majority of the cardboard project carried out so far have

been for temporary building structures.
Any analysis should concentrate on the detailing of the

FRQQHFWLRQV DV WKHVH WHQG WR EH GLI¿FXOW WR UHSUHVHQW LQ D
model and are the areas where failure is more than likely to
RFFXU$QDO\VLVVKRXOGEHEDVHGRQVLPSOL¿HGPRGHOVWKDWFDQ
EHFKHFNHGE\KDQGDQGFOHDUO\VKRZWKHIRUFHÀRZ$VDQ
H[DPSOHWKHPRVWHI¿FLHQWZD\WRFKHFNWKHIRUFHVIRUWKH
complex shapes and volumes of the Hiroshima peace prize
project was a simple strut and tie model.
7KH DVVHVVPHQW RI ORQJWHUP GHÀHFWLRQ LV KLJKO\ FRPSOH[

as cardboard is an anisotropic material and the stiffness is
governed by factors such as moisture content, magnitude of
stress and duration of loading. It is hence advisable to “design
RXW´WKHQHHGIRUORQJWHUPGHÀHFWLRQFKHFNV7KLVFDQEH
achieved by the use of stiffeners and by avoiding the use of
cardboard in bending.
7KHLQLWLDOGHÀHFWLRQLVVWURQJO\LQÀXHQFHGE\WKHPRLVWXUH
content of the cardboard at the start of construction.
&RPPRQO\FDUGERDUGGHOLYHUHGWRVLWHLVVWLOO³JUHHQ´DQGLW
VWLOOVKULQNVVLJQL¿FDQWO\GXULQJWKH¿UVWPRQWKRIFRQVWUXFWLRQ
and building usage, especially if the building is relatively dry
and heated.
6. Empirical knowledge and test

6.1. Durability
Durability issues are important factors in the design and
specification of cardboard structures. The strength and
VWLIIQHVV RI FDUGERDUG LV VWURQJO\ LQÀXHQFHG E\ WKH HDVH
with which moisture can penetrate. Cardboard itself is a
hygroscopic material. This means that it will absorb moisture
IURPWKHDWPRVSKHUHZKLFKFDQVLJQL¿FDQWO\LPSDFWRQLWV
strength. If it is allowed to become wet, cardboard deforms
and ultimately degrades to pulp. If used outside water
protection can be applied in a number of ways:
6.2. Chemical Treatment

Water resistant cardboard is manufactured with additives
in the paper pulp. While this achieves water resistance the
use of additives means that the boards can not be as easily
recycled.

6.3. Surface Applications
The faces of cardboard can be coated with polymeric paint
or laminated with building paper or metallic foil. Painting
cardboard surfaces tends to deform the sheets if not carried
out on both sides. Therefore the cardboard should be painted
off site and during manufacture.
6.4. Overcladding and Internal Use:

The use of cardboard can be limited to areas where it has
no direct contact with the external atmosphere. this can also
be achieved by overcladding with water resistant material. In
both cases though atmospheric moisture variations can be
VLJQL¿FDQWDQGFDQQRWEHLJQRUHG
6.5. Fire
It is a known fact that card and paper burn. They can be a key
¿UHORDGLQVRPHEXLOGLQJVLI¿UHPDQDJHPHQWLVQRWWKRURXJKO\
considered and applied. What has been established through
ad-hoc tests carried out during the design and material
development of the Locla Zone and Westborough School is:-
• Thick card chars like timber: the end os a 12mm
walled cardboard tube was exposed to a 1000oC
ÀDPH7KHEHKDYLRXURIWKHWXEHZDVVLPLODUWRWKDW
of timber in that the material charred, protecting
LWVHOIIURPIXUWKHUGHWHULRUDWLRQE\WKHÀDPH
• Untreated 5mm card nearly achieves a rating of
&ODVV2VXUIDFHRIÀDPH
• With treatment using a clear product typically used
on timber this rating is achieved. Alternatively over-
cladding with a protective board is a solution.
6.6. Cost
Cardboard as a raw material is relatively inexpensive. However,
recycling can only be achieved by a manufacturing process that
is highly repetitive and standardised, hence recycled cardboard
is only economically available in a number of basic shapes. As
long as standard elements are used cardboard presents an
economic material, especially for complex structures. The
additional cost of cardboard structures lies primarily in the
H[WHQGHGGHVLJQWLPHFRVWVIRUVSHFL¿FPDWHULDOUHVHDUFKDQG
testing and the use of specialist labour.
As the use of cardboard in building develops and the

knowledge base increases, the effects of these parameters
may be reduced.

6.7. Recycling
Cardboard is a recycled material that itself can be recycled.
Consequently it is a material with very low embodied
energy and almost no material take. The critical issue is not
cardboard itself but other material used for connections,
weather protection or additional structural elements.
In addition there is a surplus of cardboard material in economic

terms hence the transportation of a demolished cardboard
structure to a recycling yard might be more expensive that
the production of new cardboard from different source
material. In developing early stage concepts, it is important
to consider these life-cycle cost issues to ensure the loop is
closed for the design, construct, use and deconstruct cycle.
7. Case Studies
The next pages describe 7 projects in which Buro Happold
was involved:
7.1. Westborough School
7.2. Japanese Pavilion, Hanover Expo
7.3. Exhibition Models for the Hiroshima Peace Prize
7.4. Trial and Error Exhibition, Building Centre Trust, London
7.5. Cardboard Arch, MOMA, New York
7.6. Nomad exhibition, New York
7.7. Local zone, Millennium dome

location Westcliffe on Sea
client Westborough School
architect Cottrell and Vermeulen
contractor CG Franklin Ltd
engineer Buro Happold
cost n/a

7.1. Westborough School
In a project partly funded by the Department of A prototype bay was erected to test the
the Environment Transport and Regions (DETR) ease of manufacture and erection of the
Buro Happold engineers headed a team to panels. The prototype erection proved
construct a building for Westborough Primary important in the development of the
School, Westcliffe on Sea, Essex, which uses scheme. In particular, panel junctions
cardboard components wherever possible. FRXOG EH UH¿QHG DQG VLPSOL¿HG DLGLQJ
the manufacturing time and the ease
The projects main objective was to produce a of erection. This prototype construction
building which was 90% recyclable at the end of provided us with a building which could be
its life and which is almost entirely constructed created from a number of panels simply
from recycled materials. In addition we had screwed together on site along their
the aspiration of producing a product which edges.
could be made available to the construction
industry fo ruse in other buildings. The new
building, intended for use as an after school
club, is actually used by the school pre, post
and during school hours. In order to realise the
project, we teamed up with an architectural
practice, Cottrell and Vermeulen, paper and
board manufacturers; Paper Marc Ltd, Essex
7XEH :LQGLQJV /WG 4XLQWRQ DQG .DLQHV /WG
and, at the time of construction, a building
contractor, CG Franklin Ltd.
At Westborough School we have used a

combination of board, tubes and panels, all
made from the same basic board material.
The concept of the form of the building
ZDV WR OLWHUDOO\ UHSUHVHQW WKH XVH RI ³SDSHU´
through the folded/origami aesthetic of the
building, which, whilst proving challenging
when detailing the panels and the junctions
of the panels, did provide for a distinctive eye-
catching form.
With the input of manufacturers, the process

of design and development for the building
was informed by the products and processes
currently available in the industry. The team
were keen to ensure that the development of
any product was realised through the use of
current available materials and processes.

location Hanover
client Expo 2000
architect Shigeru Ban
contractor n/a
cost n/a

7.2. Japanese Pavilion, Hanover Expo
The Japanese Pavilion was built for the Hanover it is both low energy and easily reusable.
:RUOG¶V)DLULQDQGUHPDLQHGLQSODFHIRU
seven month. The theme of the exhibition The design and modelling of the of this
³GHVLJQ IRU SODQHWDU\ FRQWLQXDQFH´ UHTXLUHG structure was part of an intense design
pavilions to be designed to demonstrate HIIRUWZKLFKLQFOXGHGIRUP¿QGLQJH[HUFLVH
reduced use of resources and CO2 emissions. and the construction of physical models, in
The architect Shigeru Ban, working with Buro order to determine the project geometry
Happold, designed a pavilion hall formed as well as the possible buckling failure
from cardboard tubes and clad in a paper modes. Rigidity is aided by wood arches
membrane. at regular intervals. Steel struts at the
ends were incorporated into the grid at
7KHEXLOGLQJZDVFRQFHLYHGDVDÀH[LEOHJULG the insistence of the German checking
shell structure that would be assembled and authorities, although analysis indicated
laid lat on the ground, and then lifted and that these were not needed.
formed into place by a protruding scaffolding
V\VWHPWKDWZRXOGJLYHLWWKHD¿QDOJHRPHWU\ Detailing the structure involved the
7KLV¿QDOVKDSHZDV¿[DWHGE\DVWLIIERUGHU resolution of some key connections.
element at its perimeter edge. The overall These are the cross points between the
dimension of the hall is 75m by 35m with a rise two tubes, the connection of the tubes to
of up to 15.5m. the ground plane and the connection of
the tubes to the cladding as well as to the
The main tubes consisted of 120mm diameter, wood ladders. The connection solutions
22mm thick paper tubes. The tubes were are similar to the ones designed for the
formed of three glued spiral card tapes of MoMA Arch, described later in this article.
an exact moisture content and structural
strength. Their design was based on material The hall was stabilised laterally by rigid
properties established in tests by the University end walls and longitudinally by the shells
of Dortmund with a partial factor of safety tubular shape structural supported by
approach similar to the European codes for metal cable cross bracing.
timber structures. The tubes were lashed
WRJHWKHUDWWKHLUFURVVLQJSRLQWVE\¿UHUHVLVWDQW The hall was totally recycled by the end of
plastic straps. its seven month life.
The connections had to be rigid enough

to transfer the design loads once the shell
KDG UHDFKHG LWV ¿QDO JHRPHWU\ DW WKH VDPH
time the connections needed to remain
ÀH[LEOH WR DFFRPPRGDWH WKH FKDQJH LQ VKHOO
geometry during the construction process.
The foundations were constructed with sand
retained by timber boards to avoid as far as
possible the use of concrete. Sand was used as

location Hiroshima & Tokio
client Hiroshima Museum of Modern Art
architect Studio Libeskind
contractor n/a
cost n/a

7.3. Exhibition Models for the Hiroshima Peace Prize
Architect Daniel Libeskind was awarded the of cardboard panels needed to form the
Hiroshima peace prize in 2001. Following modules. The fabrication of these panels
this, four large scale (1:5) building models was achieved by CNC cutting all panels
of recent projects by studio Libeskind formed from templates supplied by the architects.
the centrepiece of an exhibition that started in
the Hiroshima Museum of Contemporary Arts The models where analysed using by
in July 2002and moved to the ICC Museum in LPSRVLQJVLPSOL¿HGVWUXWDQGWLHV\VWHPV
Tokyo at the end o 2002. The models where onto the units and hand calculations. This
approximately 30m in plan and up to 10m in approach gave a clear understanding of
height. The second exhibition in Tokyo was D GH¿QHG ORDG SDWK ZLWKLQ WKH FRPSOH[
not part of the original design brief, but it was layering of units formed from plane
decided to design the exhibition as a travelling panels. The models where analysed for
show, such that any interest arising from strength and stability only. Creep and
WKH ¿UVW VKRZ FRXOG EH UHVSRQGHG WR ZLWK ORQJWHUPGHÀHFWLRQZKHUHQRWDQDO\VHG
remounting the exhibition. because of the temporary nature of the
project, but creep issues where addressed
The design time was extremely tight, with by detailing each model as a highly
one month for the entire design from the redundant system.
concept to the detailing stage and one
month for manufacture and a week for on The project showed how cardboard
site construction. In addition the scale of the could be used effectively to respond
proposed models required a light construction to a number specific site issues, ie
material to avoid excessive loads onto the access and manhandling restrictions,
museum floors. Hence it was decided to speed of construction and design,
design all models entirely using cardboard and ease of maintenance and local repairs,
paper fabricated into a modular box system of demountability, minimum weight of the
20mm honeycomb cardboard sheets, glued overall structure. In addition the project
and jointed together. The joint – a cardboard responded well to the Japanese tradition
angle glued and screwed to the inside of the and knowledge of using paper products
cardboard facing boards- carries the forces and in construction. Hence the construction of
the screws are for positioning only. The glued the complex shapes was easily understood
connection form a structurally rigid unit which by the fabricators, once the design had
could be transported into the exhibition areas been demonstrated with a full scale
and bolted to the adjacent units. mock up module. This mock up module
was constructed by the design team to
The maximum size of the units was determined test the connection detail and stiffening
by the largest access door into the exhibition requirements.
hall. Small access doors in one face of the
allowed them to be bolted together and give
access into the inside of the large models. The
modules itself where all of different shape and
size and hence there was an enourmous variety

location London
client Building Centre Trust
architect Magma Architecture
contractor n/a
cost £ 15.000

7.4. Trial and Error Exhibition, Building Centre Trust, London
The exhibition investigated the use of working The design and construction period for
models in the design process. The models the entire exhibition consisted of only 7
DUH KRXVHG LQ D VWUXFWXUH FRPSRVHG RI ¿YH weeks, and again cardboard was chosen
layers of cardboard panels, stacked to form to rapidly and easily respond to a complex
walls which loosely follow the outline of the geometric layout. All cardboard sheets
exhibition space. the panels change height and were pre-cut and delivered to site and
fold in different directions to the ones above the entire exhibition constructed in two
DQGEHORZWKH\DUHDOOÀDWEXWQRWJHQHUDOO\ days. The use of cardboard also allowed
vertical. The folded arrangement creates steps HDV\PRGL¿FDWLRQVRQVLWHWRUHVSRQGWKH
and shelves on which the designers models are existing structure, which had, due to time
positioned. and cost constraints, only been surveyed
very basically during the design phase.
The overall stability of the structure is achieved The budget for the exhibition design and
by the folding geometry of the walls and by construction was just above £ 10.000
overlapping the panels, so that, for example, and due to the cheapness of cardboard
folded portion of an upper panel is triangulated base material, the majority of the budget
with the straight portion of the panel below could be spent on the labour, design and
it and vice versa. Using this stacking system ¿QLVKHV
the shelves can easily cantilever into the room
or draw back into the space behind. The
cardboard used was 30mm thick honeycomb
panels, faced both sides with an aluminium foil
WRJLYHUHVLVWDQFHDJDLQVWWKHVSUHDGRIÀDPHV
WKH\KDYHDWKLQZKLWHSDSHU¿QLVK
The panels support themselves and the

exhibition models, some of which weigh up to
50 kg. the vertical load transfer is achieved by
the cross over points, where one panel rests
on the panel below. These points have been
locally strengthened with small timber inserts
into the honeycomb structure to spread the
point loads onto the facing boards. The folds
of the panel junctions are made with 50mm
EUDVV KLQJHV VFUHZ ¿[HG WR ZRRGHQ EDWWHQV
inserted into the panel edges. Hence each
OD\HUEHKDYHGVWUXFXUDOO\XQWLOLWZDV¿[HGLQWR
position, as a chain formed from panels. The
joint is reinforced with white card angles which
ZKHUHJOXH¿[HGRQVLWHJLYLQJULJLGLW\WRHDFK
layer of panels.

location Courtyard Museum of Modern Art New York City
client Museum of Modern Art
architect of record Dean Maltz
contractor Atlantic-Heydt
cost $400.000

7.5. Cardboard Arch, MOMA, New York
This temporary structure was erected as part vertical elements were inserted and the
of a retrospective of art and architecture of grid shell elements added. The diagonal
the 20th century at the Museum of Modern truss cables were inserted into the truss
Art in New York City. It is made up by 200mm and then the top chord was attached
diameter cardboard tube sections with a wall in order to complete the truss. Once
WKLFNQHVVRIPP7KHWXEHVGH¿QHWKHWRS assembled and painted with waterproof
and bottom chord of 600mm deep paper tube coating the structure was cut into eight
arches. These arches span approx. 24m and are half arch slices in order to be able to
linked transversally by a paper tube gridshell transport it to the museum. Adjacent to
of 150mm diameter tubes with a 25mm wall the museum site the pieces were partially
thickness. Cable stiffening ties are located connected together, lifted into place and
under the arch and attached to the bottom then attached to the receiving support
chord. The overall size of the structure is 24 points.
x 24 m and it was installed over the summer
season for a period of 90 days.
The structural analysis of this structure was

relatively straightforward. The gridshell
behaviour was conservatively ignored in
the arch span direction with the grid shell
contributing only lateral support to the primary
arches. Detailing the structure was complex
because of the mixture of materials, which
created different connection conditions. The
top and bottom chords of the trusses are paper
tubes but the vertical and diagonal members
are steel rods and cables. The attachment of
the trusses to the building and base are by
means of steel connection plates, supporting
the tube ends in direct bearing.
Initial construction took place offsite where

the roof was laid over a series o scaffolding
HOHPHQWV PXFK WKH ZD\ RI D VKLS¶V KXOO LQ D
shape forming cradle. The grid shell paper
tubes the grid shell paper tubes were modelled
three dimensionally in order to determine the
precise location and angles of the pre drilled
holes for the connections, which would follow
the project geometry. After the tubes arrived
on site, holes where drilled into them, then the
bottom chord laid down on the scaffolding, the

location New York
client n/a
contractor n/a
cost n/a

7.6. Nomad exhibition, New York
This 4000m2 temporary exhibition hall is the museum departs for other countries
intended for a travelling venue that will (expected to include France, China and the
highlight the work of a contemporary artist. Vatican State), the tubes will be recycled,
The hall is approximately 20m wide by 200m DVLW¶VOHVVH[SHQVLYHWREX\QHZRQHVWKDQ
long. It is constructed of materials typical LW LV WR VKLS WKHP ³,W¶V D WUDQVSRUWDEOH
used in temporary structures including fabric, PXVHXPZKHUHZHGRQ¶WKDYHWRWUDQVSRUW
scaffolding, cribbing and the containers used WKHEXLOGLQJPDWHULDO´
to ship them.
The museum uses 148 shipping containers

as external walls and two internal rows of
columns, using coated paper tube, topped with
roof trusses.
It has a central roof support that is made up

of two large diameter paper tube triangle that
connects to the roof ridge. The structural loads
on the paper tubes can be determined from
a straightforward analysis. The difference to
some of the previously described projects is
that although the structure is temporary it is
meant to be assembled and disassembled a
multitude of times, with the added condition
WKDW DOO SLHFHV PXVW EH DEOH WR ¿W ZLWKLQ D
standard 6.1m container. For this reason the
paper tube detailing has been designed in
such a way as to minimise the wear and tear
on the paper tubes. This has been achieved by
SHUPDQHQWO\DI¿[LQJVWHHOSODWHVDQGHOHPHQWV
to the paper tubes. In this way the connection
points could be restricted to more durable
connections which are steel on steel.
7KH FRQ¿JXUDWLRQ RI WKH VWUXFWXUH ZLOO DOVR

change from time to time, as Ban adapts the
GHVLJQ WR ¿W WKH VL]H DQG VKDSH RI GLIIHUHQW
sites.
As long as the museum remains in the US, the

paper tubes will be shipped along with the rest
of the building components. However, when

location London
client Building Centre Trust
architect Magma Architecture
contractor n/a
cost £ 15.000

7.7. Local zone, Millennium dome
This building was one of the exhibition buildings

in the Millennium Dome. The architects Spence
Associates Limited with Philip Gumuchdjian
and Shigeru Ban as consultants developed the
concept for the project. In addressing issues of
sustainability and environmental concerns the
building along with the exhibition are intended
to highlight how the individual can make a
difference to the world around them. Children
nation-wide sent cardboard to be recycled and
form part of the structure.
The zone was a two-storey elliptical spiral

of 100 vertical cardboard tubes (10.5m to
24m high) with smaller tubes for mullions
and louvers. The primary column elements
consisted of 500mm and 200mm diameter
tubes, the former in the location of the braced
IUDPHV7KHLQ¿OOSDQHOVEHWZHHQWKHPP
diameter tubes are formed using a cardboard
honeycomb sandwiched between two flat
boards.
100mm diameter cardboard tubes positioned

horizontally clad the building. All of the members
are coated with an intumescent varnish
providing a class 0 equivalent surface spread
of flame. The 500mm diameter cardboard
tubes have an internal and external membrane
to prevent moisture ingress ad protecting the
inner structural core. The membrane is an
aluminium foil which is sandwiched between
layers of paper and when wound around
the tubes have lap joints to further minimise
moisture ingress.
At roof level a deep steel truss provided a

diaphragm, transferring lateral loads to the
braced columns. The "splayed wing" at the
entrance to the building was tied back to the
lift towers via the roof truss and ties.

Application of Cardboard in Partitioning
Taco van Iersel, Elise van Dooren
1. Introduction
Cardboard in the building industry means the enlargement of
the share of renewable raw materials in the building industry.
Considering that this industry is one of the most polluting
sectors, the use of ecologically sound materials is desirable.
With the current technical knowledge, application of cardboard

inside a building is technically achievable. Cardboard and
paper are already being used as furniture and inside panel
doors. Still, there is no broad application in the Dutch building
market. Different causes can underlie the limited use of the
FHOOXORVH¿EUHPDWHULDOFRPSOH[LW\RILQQRYDWLRQDQGPDUNHW
VFHSWLFLVPZLWKUHJDUGWRWKHPDWHULDODQGRULJQRUDQFH"
Using three case-studies of cardboard partitions based on

existing forms of traditional partitions, surrounding factors
and possibilities for the application of cardboard systems will
be charted.
2. Surrounding
The proper functioning of a partition system depends on
the materials properties and how far the design meets the
markets demands. The demands are a multitude of conditions
asked from a building product: the surrounding factors. An
analysis of these factors gives an insight in the conditions,
traps and success factors, a partition must meet.
7KHWHFKQLFDOVSHFL¿FDWLRQVDUHLQÀXHQFHGE\WKUHHFDWHJRULHV
RIVXUURXQGLQJIDFWRUV¿JXUHD
1. legislation and rules
2. user demands
3. economical factors (market)
119
semi-
permanent
architect
new
development
use
transport
professional
do housing
hallmark it
yourself
user commercial renovation
building
event
project
(de)montage technical market building
specifications retail
legislation
&
factories safety
rules
act hallmark
environment building
regulations national
environment
plan
health
safety
utility
energy
2.1. Legislation and rules Fig. 1. Chain of surrounding

The Dutch legislation and rules for the building industry have factors around the
largely been set in the Building decree (Bouwbesluit). This has WHFKQLFDOVSHFL¿FDWLRQV
EHHQGLYLGHGLQ¿YHGLUHFWLRQVKHDOWKVDIHW\XVDELOLW\HQHUJ\ of a product/system
HI¿FLHQF\DQGHQYLURQPHQW
:LWKLQ WKHVH GLUHFWLRQV IRU H[DPSOH WKH ¿UH DQG VPRNH

development, insulation of warmth and sound are being
directed. From these directions, technical specifications
and achievement levels are being laid upon (new) building
products and materials.
2.2. User demands

The user demands come into existence in different stages
of the actual use. Four user-stages can be determined:
transport, assembly, use, and disassembly. Each stage states
LWVVSHFL¿FGHPDQGVIURPWKHPDWHULDODQGWKH¿QDOSURGXFW
120 APPLICATION OF CARDBOARD IN PARTITIONING

(E.g. the ability to manoeuvre the product during transport,
the placement and adjustment possibilities during assembly
and the adaptability during the user stage).
3. Economical factors
Each segment of the market (housing, utility building, amd
project building) have their own user characteristics, size and
tradition. Different existing building systems have taken their
place in a segment of the market.
Each of the three surrounding factors is the highest common

IDFWRUIRXQGLQDORQJFKDLQRIXQGHUO\LQJIDFWRUVRILQÀXHQFH
¿JXUHE7KHVHXQGHUO\LQJIDFWRUVDUHVRPHWLPHVFORVHO\
connected or intertwined with another large actor. For
example, the labour legislation (use) is a direct input for new
building legislation and rules.
4. Current building systems

Drawing up the inventory of existing product supply results
in many suppliers of partitions in the current market. Each
system is characterized by it own price-quality level, technical
possibilities and building manner. A division of products based
on geometry reduces the multitude of products to three
archetype partitions (table 1a).
geometry product/brand
1 hollow wall system Metalstud
2 stacking systems Xella, Gibo
3 panelsystems Faay, Verwol
Table 1a. Division of partition systems by geometry
4.1. Hollow wall system

Hollow wall systems consist of posts and cross-beams with
plating. The posts are the load-carriers of the system. The
WKLFNQHVV RI WKH ¿QLVKLQJ OD\HU LV DOVR GHWHUPLQHG E\ WKH
demanded strength during transport and assembly.
The system is hollow, allowing for the integration of ducts and

PDNLQJ WKH DPRXQW RI VRXQG LQVXODWLRQ DQG ¿UH UHVLVWDQFH
TACO VAN IERSEL, ELISE VAN DOOREN 121

easily adaptable. Characteristic for the system is the multitude
RIGLIIHUHQWSDUWVDQG¿QLVKLQJSRVVLELOLWLHV
4.2. Stacking system

Stacking systems can be divided in structural and non-
structural end products. Light stacking blocks, like cellular
concrete, are especially suitable as non-load bearing partitions.
Sand-lime stone can be used for load bearing walls.
product/ case study

geometry
brand with cardboard
Stucloper
1 hollow wall system Metalstud
case study 1
Tako-dozen
2 stacking systems Xella, Gibo
case study 2
Bee-wand
3 panel systems Faay, Verwol
case study 3
Table 1b. Division of partition systems by geometry and

brand with cardboard case-studies
Fig. 2. Assembly of the hollow

wall system
panel system stacking system hollow wall system
Fig. 3. Assembly of the stucco

ÀRRU

The solid character of the wall offers few possibilities for
integration of electrical and mechanical installations. Milling is
a good but laborious way of integrating ducts in the wall.
4.3. Panel system

Panel systems can be characteristized by a high building speed
DQGDPLQLPDODPRXQWRIEXLOGLQJDQG¿QLVKLQJDFWLRQVRQVLWH
As many demands and wishes as possible are being integrated
LQWKHV\VWHPDGDSWDELOLW\DQGÀH[LELOLW\PXWXDOFRQQHFWLRQ
emanation (top layer), integration (skirts for electric cables),
etc. Starting January 2007, all partition systems faced an
important weight limitation. For then legislation will come into
force limiting the maximum weight to be lifted by man at 25
NJ(VSHFLDOO\SDQHOV\VWHPVFRXOG¿QGWKHPVHOYHVLQWURXEOH
by this law.
Untill now no partial or complete cardboard partition system

has been available on the market. The use of cardboard in wall
systems is considered an innovation on material level. The
design will have to incorporate the properties of cardboard in
a positive way, in order to distinguish itself from the existing
assortment.
5. Cardboard in partition systems

Research has been done into 3 partition systems, based on
the earlier mentioned geometry. Each system uses cardboard
DQG XWLOL]HV WKH VSHFL¿F WHFKQLFDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV LQ LWV RZQ
way. Three case-studies can be distinguished.
5.1. Case-study 1
Type of wall hollow wall system
Material - core whitewood
- liner laminate of PE, aluminium foil and paper
OLTXLGSDFNDJLQJFDUGERDUGRUVWXFFRÀRRU
Connections glue and stitches
The system in case-study 1 makes use of traditional wooden

posts and beams. The liners are made from cardboard. These
are being stapled on the beams, creating a 20 mm air cavity.
The purpose of the system is to realize an insulting partition

with a stock cardboard product. The misprints from the liquid
FDUWRQV LQGXVWU\ ZHUH FKRVHQ 7KLV µZDVWH¶ LV DOVR EHLQJ
XVHGDVÀRRUSURWHFWLRQGXULQJEXLOGLQJVWXFFRÀRRU,WLV

a laminate of synthetic, paper and aluminium foil. The result
of the construction of the wall and the choice of material
has two effects; the stationary air inside the cavity insulates
DQGWKHDOXPLQLXPOD\HULQVLGHWKHFDUGERDUGUHÀHFWVKHDW
from radiation, contributing to the heat balance. Concerning
UDGLDWLRQUHÀHFWLRQWKHFDUGERDUGODPLQDWHGRHVQRWUHDFK
the level of eminent synthetic foils. To reach the same level
many layers were applied.
5.1.1. Sub-conclusion
7KHORZFRVWSULFHRIFDUGERDUGZLWKLWVUHÀHFWLQJSURSHUWLHV
shows that it technically might be a replacement for mineral
wool. Cardboard can also compete with glass wool concerning
cost-price per square metre. The work-intensive assembly
of the many cardboard layers makes the system as a whole
economically unviable to replace traditional systems (metal
stud).
Fig. 4. Curve of compression
5.2. Case study 2 strength according to
Type of wall stacking wall 0F.HH
Type of cardboard FRUUXJDWHGFDUGERDUGFÀXWHPP
Connections timber glue or starch glue
The stacking system originates from a stackable box shape.

However, there are a few essential differences between
stacking boxes (hollow) and a stone stacking block (solid).
The mechanical properties of the box wall follow a different
pattern. Boxes in their current packaging application are
stacked on top of each other, without a mutual connection.
The mechanics of the box actually lead to this; the corners
of the box are the strongest. The compression strength curve
RIDER[LVVKRZQLQ¿JXUH7KHV\VWHPRIER[HVLQFDVH
study 2 is built as a half bat brick system. The upper box is
being carried by the lower box in the centre of the box, at Fig. 5. Assembly of stacking wall
single box connection in detail completed wall

the point with the lowest compression strength. The design
of the box overcomes this problem. The boxes are provided
ZLWKDIHZÀDSVZKLFKVWUHWFKRXWDQGVOLGHLQWRHDFKRWKHU
and get glued at precisely this point. This way the boxes form
a stabile wall construction. They in fact create vertical baulks,
capable of carrying loads (Figure 5). Extra solidity is created
by gluing one or more solid cardboard layers to the wall of
stacked boxes.
The staking system of glued cardboard boxes shows a direct
translation of masonry. However, technically the system is
not capable of replacing solid blocks directly. The hollowness
of the wall gives it a weight advantage, but the mechanical
properties are not parallel to solid blocks. The building speed
might be high, but the use of glue requires many handlings
and long drying time. A critical remark is the fact that it mimics
traditional masonry in detail. A stacking system without
adding a third element (glue), would produce a smarter and
faster building system.
5.3. Case-study 3
Type of wall panel system
Type of cardboard
- liner solid cardboard
- core honeycell cardboard
Connections tongue and groove system with a
strip of honeycell cardboard
This case-study concerns a panel laminated from different

types of cardboard. The core consists of plates of honeycell
cardboard with a liner of solid cardboard. In the hollow
VSDFHVGXFWVFDQEHLQWHJUDWHG7KHSUR¿OHGHGJHVIROORZDQ
H-shape. Connections are being made with a few strips of
cardboard; dry assembly. The liners can be provided with a
print. The main advantage of the use of honeycell cardboard
is the light weight. Next to that, by recycling the panels after
use the material cycle can be closed.
The panel system has a high building speed and remains
under 25 kg through the use of honeycell cardboard. The dry
assembly offers possibilities for reuse and recycling. When
WKHF\FOHLVUHVWRUHGE\WDNLQJEDFNWKHSURGXFWD¿QDQFLDO
advantage is created for the user in the demolition phase. This

FRXOGSRVVLEO\EHUHÀHFWHGLQWKHSXUFKDVHSULFH
Fig. 6. Assembly and options of

panel system
GHWDLORISDQHO FRQQHFWLRQWRÀRRU FRPSOHWHGZDOO
6. Sound
Sound insulation takes place in the shape of absorption,
UHÀHFWLRQDQGWKURXJKPDVV7KHODWWHULVWKHPRVWLPSRUWDQW
but also the missing factor when using cardboard. Corrugated
cardboard and honeycell cardboard are lightweight paper
constructions. One possibility of overcoming the lack of mass
is disconnection. In hollow partition systems this can easily
be realised by assembling the posts disconnected. With panel
V\VWHPVWKLVLVDPRUHGLI¿FXOWWDVNLWLVDRQHHOHPHQWSDQHO
Adding mass is being restricted by government rules. A panel
can weigh a maximum of 25 kg.
For temporary buildings there are no demands on sound

concerning partitions. For utility buildings there are some
demands, but the perception of the customer is the standard
IRUWKHOHYHORIDFKLHYHPHQW,QDQRI¿FHVXUURXQGLQJVRXQG
of conversation should be insulated, no matter what kind of
material the walls are constructed from. For the (professional)
housing market demands on sound insulation are very strict.
The demands can vary per different segment, making one
single solution unnecessary or unwanted. It is, however,
very easy for the user to determine whether the insulation is
VXI¿FLHQWFDQ,KHDUWKHQHLJKERXUVRUQRW"
As we write this, the sound aspects of cardboard are being

researched broadly.

7. Environment
Each mentioned partition system has an environmental
advantage because of the use of cardboard. Cardboard can
XVH DQ LQ¿QLWH DPRXQW RI UDZ PDWHULDO FHOOXORVH ¿EUH )RU
IUHVK ¿EUHV YLUJLQ ¿EUH ZDVWH SURGXFWV IURP WKH ZRRG
industry are being used: bark, branches and sawdust. In The
Netherlands for the production of new paper 90% of recycled
SDSHULVEHLQJXVHG,QIDFWFDUGERDUGIURPROGRUQHZ¿EUHV
is always a re-used product.
Table 2 shows the environmental load next to the traditional

materials wood and sand-lime stone. The last two materials
are known for their low environmental load.
The use of renewable raw materials (cardboard) provides a

substantial contribution in relieving the environment. When
during the further development of cardboard partitions the
re-usability of the cardboard is not being lessened by the use
of additives or laminated materials, cardboard has a strong
ecological position. Within the landscape of surrounding
IDFWRUVWKLVIDFWRUZLOOKDYHWRSURYHLWVHOIRIGHFLVLYHLQÀXHQFH
concerning the effect of cardboard on the world market.
8. Conclusion
To appoint decisive factors in the landscape of surrounding
factors which will guarantee a successful product is very hard
WRGHWHUPLQH2QVRPHOHYHOVLWLVSRVVLEOHWRGH¿QHVXFFHVV
factors and factors that act as a brake.
$FWLQJDVDEUDNH¿UVWRIDOOLVWKHIDFWRURILQGXVWULDOSURGXFWLRQ
The paper and cardboard industry consists of a long chain of
different paper and cardboard producing companies. The
basis of this industry is built on large volumes (quantity) The
development of a cardboard suitable for the building industry
µEXLOGLQJFDUGERDUG¶ZLOOEHDKDUGWUDMHFWRU\$QDSSOLFDWLRQ
with a large sale volume connects to the current nature of
the industry. The introduction of a new building material is
characterised by a project-basis and small-scale.
Secondly, cardboard being well-known by the public acts as a

brake. The image as a packaging material and the homeless in
KLVFDUGERDUGER[LVGLI¿FXOWWREUHDN7KHJHQHUDOFRQYLFWLRQ
RIFDUGERDUGLPPHGLDWHO\FROODSVLQJXQGHUZDWHUDQG¿UHZLOO
often have to be proven wrong by many solutions.

subject material positive ĺ negative
weight cardboard
weight wood
weight sand-lime stone
exhaustion cardboard
exhaustion wood
exhaustion sand-lime stone
energy content cardboard
energy content wood
energy content sand-lime stone
emissions cardboard
emissions wood
emissions sand-lime stone
use of water cardboard
use of water wood
use of water sand-lime stone
recycling cardboard
recycling wood
recycling sand-lime stone
disassembly cardboard
disassembly wood
disassembly sand-lime stone
waste cardboard
waste wood
waste sand-lime stone
Table 2. Positive and negative effect of the partition materials per m2 wall

When a cardboard building system reaches the same level of
existing systems, is there still no reason for the customer to
choose cardboard. Case-studies have shown that cardboard
systems have can distinguish themselves on a few aspects.
Especially the ecological factor, the relative low price, the
SULQWDELOLW\ DQG WKH OLJKW ZHLJKW DUH GH¿QLWH TXDOLWLHV DQG
thereby success factors.
As shown above, cardboard can provide a substantial

contribution considering the environment.
Moreover, paper and cardboard are a bulk material with a

subsequent low cost-price.
Thirdly, the production process of paper and cardboard

has one unique possibility: the printing technique. A visual
radiation can be given to cardboard. The existing pressing
and printing techniques have reached a level as with no other
material than cardboard and paper.
Finally, already mentioned, all partition systems will have an

important weight limitation starting January 2007. Cardboard
will remain under the maximum lifting weight of 25 kg thanks
to its relatively light weight.
Literature
1 Rapportage IFD Haalbaarheidsstudie, project nummer 04019,
.HQQLVFHQWUXP3DSLHUHQ.DUWRQ$UQKHP
2 Compression Strenght Formula for Corrugated Boxes,
5&0F.HH-:*DQGHU-5:DFKXWD
3 Wijziging Beleidsregels arbeidsomstandighedenwetgeving, nr.02
48717. Convenant Sociale Zaken en Werkgelegenheid. M.Rutte,
5,-0.XLSHUV
4 Indicatieve LCA berekening kartonnen binnenwand, H. van Ewijk
,9$0.HQQLVFHQWUXPSDSLHUHQ.DUWRQ$UQKHP
6WXFORSHUDOVZDUPWHUHÀHFWLHIROLH,ULVGH.LHYLHW,Q6LWX
Architecten, Den Haag. http://216.154.208.139:8080/recyclicity/
designers/index.jsp
6 Isover Benelux, www.isover.nl, januari 2006
((7.LHPUDSSRUW6HQWHU1RYHPSURMQU
(LQGUDSSRUWDJH%RXZHQPHW.DUWRQMXQL

Mechanical Behaviour of Cardboard in Construction
Julia Schönwälder, Jan Rots
Abstract
Recently the interest of architects grows in using cardboard

for constructions. For the realization of any structure adequate
knowledge of the mechanical properties of the building material
is essential. For structural application the mechanical behaviour
and the load bearing capacity have to be predictable as well.
However, there is not enough information about the mechanical
properties of cardboard in terms of a building material. Common
numbers and codes are not established yet. In the presented PhD
project the mechanical behaviour of cardboard and cardboard
structures are investigated concerning structural application. Also
DFRPSXWDWLRQDOPRGHOEDVHGRQWKH¿QLWHHOHPHQWPHWKRGZLOO
be developed as a prediction tool. The project combines material
testing, structural design and computational modelling. In this
regard preliminary beams completely made of cardboard were
designed and tested. In this paper the outline of the PhD thesis
DQGWKH¿UVWRXWFRPHRIWKHSUHOLPLQDU\GHVLJQRIWKHEHDPVDUH
presented.
1. Scope of the Research Project
Paper and cardboard is indispensable for our daily use,

but considering it as a construction material is not a com-
mon practice yet. Cardboard is cheap, based on renew-
able resources, environmentally friendly and recyclable. It
is a remarkably strong material considering its light weight.
Hence, cardboard has high potential for structural application
in temporary constructions. Also from the architectonic point
of view cardboard is a very appealing material. Cardboard
is variable in form and structure and by bending, folding
and gluing many types of structural components can be
SURGXFHG+RZHYHULQRUGHUWREHQH¿WIURPWKHDGYDQWDJHV
paper and cardboard have and to make this material a real
building material, further research in several areas is required.
Especially insight pertaining to the mechanical properties of
paper and cardboard is essential to make constructions with
cardboard possible. A considerable database of knowledge
of paper properties is available from the paper industry,
but rather concerning production processing, visual quality,
131
packaging and personal hygiene. Most of the mechanical
properties required for structural usage are generally not
determined for paper or board. Particular little research on
long-term behaviour is documented, given that creep is a big
issue for cardboard constructions.
The topic of this PhD research project is the investigation of

the mechanical and structural behaviour of cardboard. The
aim is to enable the use of cardboard as a structural building
material, that means for load barring components. The focus
hereby is on the mechanical behaviour considering structural
safety and long-term stability as well as on predictability of
cardboard structures. In order to analyse the mechanical and
structural behaviour, experiments have to be performed on
material level (sheets of paper or board) and component level
(e.g. beams, wall-element, tubes). Therefore a cardboard
beam will be designed as a structural component. As
SUHGLFWLRQWRRODFRPSXWDWLRQDOPRGHOEDVHGRQ¿QLWHHOHPHQW
method will be developed for cardboard. Hence, this research
combines experimental material testing, structural design and
computational modelling.
2. Cardboard in Architecture: Design and

Fundamental Research
$WWKH78'HOIWUHVHDUFKRQµ&DUGERDUGLQ$UFKLWHFWXUH¶KDV
been started in 2000. Since then several examples and case
studies have been performed at the Department of Building
Technology of the Faculty of Architecture.1,2,3 In 2005, it was
decided to build for practical experience a cardboard pavilion
in one-to-one scale. Some students got the assignment to
come up with a design for the pavilion. Even though the
students had interesting ideas, none of the designs was
realizable in cardboard. For instance, one of the designs had
DELJURRISHUIRUPHGLQDFDQWLOHYHUZLWKD¿[HGVXSSRUW$
cantilever, however, brings big bending stresses at the restrain
and requires a very rigid construction material otherwise the
deformations would be too large. Generally, cardboard is
not very rigid. Hence, as long as there is not a stiffer board
developed the stiffness and the deformability of the cardboard
always has to be taken into account for the structural design.
This example showed again that it is important to know about

the construction material and that design and fundamental
research have to cooperate. Mick Eekhout illustrates in his
132 MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR OF CARDBOARD IN CONSTRUCTION

Fig. 1. The relationship between paper4 the relationship between research and design (Fig.
research and design (by 1), with the areas of fundamental research, technology
Eekhout4) development and application design and their relationships. All
¿HOGVDUHLQÀXHQFHGE\HDFKRWKHULQIXQGDPHQWDOO\GLUHFWLRQ
(right to left) and application direction (left to right). That
means that the fundamentals give indication for technology
development and that gives further indication to the design. On
the other hand the design also gives application indications to
the technology development and the fundamental research.
The presented research project deals with the fundamental

research in terms of mechanical properties of cardboard.
Cardboard is still a very new and unknown building material
and many areas have to be explored. The fundamental
research on mechanical behaviour is one of them. This
research is essential for the possible application of cardboard in
construction. It gives indications to the technical development
and design of components and connections. The research on
the mechanical properties also aims to prove and insure the
safety of cardboard constructions. Hereby a computational
model facilitates the predictability of the material behaviour.
The research project is seen as a start-up project and will give

insight in material behaviour of various cardboard structures
and components and will provide a basis for further research
WRZDUGV µ&DUGERDUG LQ $UFKLWHFWXUH¶ IRU ERWK DUFKLWHFWXUDO
design and structural engineering.
JULIA SCHÖNWÄLDER, JAN ROTS 133

3. Approach
The aim of the research project is to enable the use of
cardboard as a building material by analysing its mechanical
and structural behaviour and developing a prediction tool.
In cardboard a structural element is always a composition
of many layers of paper or board sheets performed by
gluing, bending, folding and cutting. The sheet, the glue
and the geometry determine the structural behaviour of the
component. In order to understand and eventually predict the
mechanical response of a cardboard component it is important
to know about the mechanical behaviour of the single sheet
of paper or board. For this purpose the material behaviour
will be studied by elementary tests on solid board. Based
on these results a material model can be developed using a
¿QLWHHOHPHQWSURJUDPVXFKDV',$1$7KHPDWHULDOPRGHO
ZLOO EH YHUL¿HG E\ UHSURGXFLQJ WKH PHFKDQLFDO UHVSRQVH RI
a structural element. In this case, a beam was chosen to be
studied as structural component. Therefore a cardboard beam
has to be designed and tested. Hence, this research combines
three domains:
• experimental material testing
• structural design
• computational modelling
Material Structural
Testing Design
Mechanical
Behaviour
of
Cardboard
Computational
Modelling
Fig. 2. Domains of PhD research
3.1. Material testing

The material behaviour of paper and board is well documented
in the literature, but rather concerning production process,
converting and packaging. Many of the mechanical properties
required for structural application are usually not determined
for paper or board. Hence experiments on single boards
are necessary to get the required parameters. Tests are

performed on three different boards and deliver the in-
plane material properties such as E-modulus, elastic and
plastic strain, Poisson ratio, shear modulus, failure stress
and strain, post-peak behaviour, failure energy etc. Also the
long-term behaviour of cardboard is studied. All tests are in
meso-scale, that means the sheet properties are investigated
ZLWKRXWWDNLQJLQWRDFFRXQWWKH¿EUHDQG¿EUHWR¿EUHERQG
characteristics.
The material testing also comprehends the investigation

RI PXOWLOD\HUHG HOHPHQWV WR XQGHUVWDQG WKH LQÀXHQFH RI
numbers of sheets and glue on the mechanical properties.
Therefore tests on specimen of multiple layers bonded with
different adhesives are performed.
3.2. Structural design

In architecture, structural elements are columns, bars, beams,
slabs or panels. The structural behaviour of these elements
depends on their geometry and the type of loading. For this
research project a beam was chosen as a structural element to
study on. A beam is preferred as it is a well known component
in structural engineering. Also all sorts of cardboard (i.e. solid
board, honeycomb board, corrugated board or tubes) can be
applied in the design of the beam, whereas columns or bars
are mostly performed in tubes.
Usually beams are made of steel, reinforced concrete or

ZRRG )RU WKHVH PDWHULDOV FRPPRQ W\SHV RI EHDP SUR¿OHV
H[LVW)RUFDUGERDUGWKHVHSUR¿OHV¿UVWKDYHWREHGHYHORSHG
An appropriate cross-section has to be found which can be
build in cardboard and meet the structural demands of a
beam. However, it has to be mentioned that the design of
the beam is not main issue of this research project. In the
¿UVW LQVWDQFH LW VKRXOG DQVZHU WKH SXUSRVH WR GHOLYHU DQ
appropriate structural component that can be simulated by
the computational model.
3.3. Computational modelling

Computational modelling facilitates the structural design as it
helps to simulate the structural response of a construction or
single component. Therefore a suitable constitutive material
model must be developed which describes the mechanical
behaviour of cardboard. Cardboard is a quite complex
material to model, as it is anisotropic, non-linear, viscoelastic
and hygroscopic. The resulting material model will be based
RQVKHHWSURSHUWLHVDQGQRWJRLQWRWKHPLFURVFDOHWKXV¿EUH

properties and bond characteristics are not considered in the
model. Concerning structural behaviour of the components,
DOVRJHRPHWULFQRQOLQHDULW\PXVWEHLQWHJUDWHGLQWKH¿QLWH
element model. As most of the cardboard structures consist
of paper or board layers, buckling and delamination is are
the main failure criterion. The computational model can be
YHUL¿HG LQ FRPSDULQJ WKH SUHGLFWHG UHVSRQVH DQG IDLOXUH
mechanism with the actual response of the beams.
4. Mechanical Properties of Paper and Board

3DSHURUERDUGLVDGLVRUGHUHGQHWZRUNRIFHOOXORVH¿EUHV7KH
SURSHUWLHVRIWKH¿EUHVDQGWKHERQGLQJEHWZHHQWKH¿EUHV
determine the mechanical behaviour of the sheet. These
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVDUHLQÀXHQFHGE\WKHFKRLFHRIWKHUDZPDWHULDO
and the papermaking operations. The mechanical behaviour
RISDSHUWKXVGHSHQGVRQYDULRXVIDFWRUVDQGLVLQÀXHQFHGE\
ERWKQHWZRUNDQG¿EUHVFDOH$OOSDSHUVDQGFDUGERDUGVGLIIHU
from each other unless they consist of the same raw material
and were produced in the same way. This makes paper and
ERDUG GLI¿FXOW WR VWDQGDUGL]H LQ PHFKDQLFDO SRLQW RI YLHZ
However, there are general tendencies and relations of the
properties of paper and board, without taking into account
¿EUHRUERQGSDUDPHWHUV
In general paper and cardboard is an inhomogeneous,

anisotropic, non-linear, viscoelastic and hygroscopic material.
The anisotropy is due to the manufacturing process. During
WKHIRUPLQJDQGGU\LQJSURFHVVWKH¿EUHVDOLJQPRUHLQWKH
production direction (the machine direction [MD]), than in the
perpendicular direction (the cross-machine direction [CD]).
This has the consequence that in MD the paper or board
is stronger than in CD. The MD/CD-ratio, or the anisotropy,
GHSHQGVRQWKH¿EUHSURSHUWLHVDQGSURGXFWLRQSURFHVVHVDQG
has thus no constant value.
Figure 3 shows typical stress-strain curves of paper in

tension and compression for MD and CD. The four different
curves indicate the anisotropy of paper. In MD the material is
stronger than in CD. In CD the board is less stiff, the strength
is lower and the deformation higher. Also a sheet of paper has
higher tensile strength than compression strength. The curves
show, except for tension in CD, a relatively brittle failure,
WKDWPHDQVWKHUHLVQRVLJQL¿FDQWSODVWLFGHIRUPDWLRQEHIRUH
breaking. In compression the nonlinear region is very short.

Furthermore in the paper industry the measured stress-strain
curves end at the maximum load. There has been hardly any
interest in measuring the post-peak and softening properties.
Post-peak behaviour, however, is important for an adequate
computational modelling as the model provides more precise
results when the residual load carrying capacity is included.
Fig. 3. Typical stress-strain

curves of a solid board for
tension and compression
in MD and CD
For the mechanical properties such as tensile and compressive

VWUHQJWKıHODVWLFPRGXOXV(PD[LPXPVWUDLQİ3RLVVRQ
UDWLRǌDQGVKHDUPRGXOXV*JHQHUDOSURSRUWLRQVH[LVWDQG
are collected in Table 1.
From the table it can be seen that most of the properties can
be derived from one single tensile test, if no more experimental
data is available. However, as the relations are still rather
vague and depend on the single paper it is always advisable
WRGRDFRPSOHWHWHVWVHULHVIRUPRUHVSHFL¿FLQIRUPDWLRQ
Time and rate-dependent properties characterize cardboard

as a viscoelastic material. Creep is an increase of strain at a
FRQVWDQWVWUHVVOHYHOLQWLPH7KHFUHHSUDWHĳFUGHSHQGVRQ
the type of cardboard, stress level, relative humidity and other
factors. Different papers exhibit different creep curves. Stress-
relaxation is the decrease of stress at a constant strain level.
Most of the stress decay is log linear with time. For both creep
and relaxation no reference values are provided.
7KHFHOOXORVH¿EUHVPDNHFDUGERDUGK\JURVFRSLF7KDWPHDQV
the moisture content of cardboard is related to the ambient

relative humidity, RH, and temperature. The moisture content
is highest in humid and cold conditions. When the moisture
OHYHOLQSDSHULQFUHDVHVWKH¿EUHVVRIWHQDQGWKH¿EUHERQGV
loosen. As a consequence the stress-strain behaviour of
paper changes with moisture content. Increasing moisture
contents reduce the elastic modulus and the failure stress. At
Û&DQGD5+RIWKHPRLVWXUHFRQWHQWLQFDUGERDUGLV
approximately 5%. At a relative humidity of 90% the moisture
content is around 14% and the stiffness and strength
properties decrease by 50%.
Table 1. General relations of paper and board mechanical properties
In component level the responses can be different than in

sheet level. The behaviour of the component is depending
on the paper properties, the adhesive and the geometry. In
general, however, for the design of a structural component
in cardboard it is important to consider the anisotropy while
placing the sheet, so that the MD veers towards the principle
stress direction of the component. Also load concentrations
VKRXOGEHDYRLGHGLQWKHVWUXFWXUDOFRPSRQHQWDVWKH¿EUH
network of paper and board is very sensitive to point loads.
7KH YLVFRXV QDWXUH RI SDSHU DQG ERDUG KDYH DQ LQÀXHQFH
on the long-term behaviour of the structure and should be
considered in the construction and in the safety factor of
the material. Also it is very important that the cardboard
components are sufficiently impregnated and have no
unsealed areas, to avoid that humidity can penetrate in the
cardboard structures and decrease the mechanical behaviour.
In Table 2 the mechanical properties of common building

materials and cardboard are listed for com-parison. The list
shows that cardboard is of course not comparable to steel or
concrete, regarding the stiffness and the maximum strength,
but that it has similarities to wood. Wood is also anisotropic
material whereas wood is stronger in the grain direction but

has almost negligible properties in perpendicular direction.
The comparison shows that cardboard is a reasonable building
material in terms of mechanical properties.
The table also includes the outcome of the own tests

performed on a solid board with the grammage of 1050 g/
m2. The results are not further discussed in this paper but
can be found in publications5,6,7. This board was also used for
the construction of the preliminary cardboard beams in the
following section.
5. Design and Testing of Cardboard Beams

A beam is a structural element that carries load primarily in
bending due to vertical forces. Internally, a beam experience
compressive, tensile and shear stresses as a result of the loads
applied to it. Under vertical loads, in the middle of the span
the top of the beam is under compression while the bottom
of the beam is under tension. Shear stresses become more
crucial above the supports.
In order to develop an elaborate beam as a structural element

LQFDUGERDUG¿UVWSUHOLPLQDU\EHDPVKDYHEHHQEXLOWWRVWXG\
WKHPHFKDQLFDOUHVSRQVHRIHDFKSUR¿OH7KHUHVXOWVRIWKH
Table 2. Mechanical properties of common building materials

preliminary beams give indications for the later design of the
actual beam. Here the design and test results of four of the
preliminary cardboard beams are be presented.
All beams had a span of 2.75 m and were tested in a four-

point bending test (Picture 1). The requirement for the design
was to construct a beam only made of cardboard (solid board,
honeycomb, etc) and glue. The aim was to use the qualities of
WKHEDVLFPDWHULDOVDQGWR¿QGDSUHIHUDEOHGHVLJQIRUDEHDP
with a good strength to weight relation.
5.1. Beam 1
For the construction of beam 1 only solid board was used. The
VWUXFWXUHZDVDGRXEOH,SUR¿OHZKLFKZDV¿OOHGZLWKD]LJ]DJ
slat to prevent buckling of the web. The solid board was glued
WRJHWKHU ZLWK ZRRG JOXH 7KH FRQQHFWLRQ EHWZHHQ ÀDQJH
and web was performed by toothing and glue. The overall
dimension of the section was 25x30 cm.
This beam could bear a maximum force of 6000 N. The top Fig. 4. Test setup for the four
ÀDQJHVKRZHGODUJHORFDOGHIRUPDWLRQDWWKHORDGWUDQVPLVVLRQ point bending test of the
SRLQWV 7KLV ZDV EHFDXVH WKH OD\HUV LQ WKH ÀDQJHV ZHUH cardboard beams

not continuous all over the length of the beam. Hence the
stiffening effect of glued layers was missing and the layers in
WKHÀDQJHEHKDYHGOLNHVLQJOHVKHHWVFDXVLQJKLJKGHIRUPDWLRQ
and local buckling. The load-deformation response (Fig. 4) of
the beam was linear until the maximum load and showed a
unsteady, but non-brittle post-peak behaviour.
5.2. Beam 2
This construction was also built of solid board. The main
VWUXFWXUHZDVDGRXEOH,EHDPZHUHWKHÀDQJHVDQGWKHZHEV
consisted of several sheets glued together with wood glue.
7KHWRSÀDQJHFRXQWHGOD\HUVRIERDUGDQGWKHERWWRP
one 8 layers. The web was designed with 5 layers. The two
webs were stiffened by a triangle construction to prevent
HDUO\EXFNOLQJ7KHÀDQJHVDQGWKHZHEZHUHFRQQHFWHGE\
toothing without any additional glue. The overall dimension of
this beam was 30x15 cm.
Fig. 5-8. Cross section, local

buckling and total
buckling of beam

The maximum load of this beam was 10,000 N. The load-
deformation response was linear up to the maximum strength.
7KHIDLOXUHRFFXUUHGLQWKHWRSÀDQJHDQGZDVGXHWRSXUH
FRPSUHVVLRQDVWKHWRSÀDQJHEXFNOHGLQWKHPLGGOHRIWKH
beam length. With further loading also the web started to
buckle in this zone. The load-deformation curve (Fig 5) also
VKRZVFOHDUO\WKHVHWZRIDLOXUHV7KH¿UVWSHDNEHORQJVWRWKH
EXFNOLQJRIWKHWRSÀDQJHDQGVKRZVDVLJQL¿FDQWGHFUHDVH
of load capacity which increased again until the failure of the
web (second peak). This beam showed very good results,
and the design was clever and easy for manufacturing. Only
the overall dimension could be reduced to make the load/
slenderness relation more effective.
5.3. Beam 3
The main material of this beam was honeycomb board. The
beam had different cross-sections in side (Picture 11) and
middle part (Picture 12). In the compression zone of the beam
KRQH\FRPE ERDUGV ZHUH SODFHG YHUWLFDO LQ RUGHU WR EHQH¿W
from the high compression strength of honeycomb structures.
Around the honeycomb structure solid board was glued in a
box shape. The bottom, the tensile zone, of the beam was
strengthened by extra layers of solid board. This beam was
designed to be smaller than the previous beam and had an
overall dimension of 25x15 cm.
Fig. 9-13. Cross-section, top and

side view and failure
of beam 2.

The maximum load of the beam was nearly 400 kg. The
load-deformation response (Fig 6) was linear until reaching
the maximum strength and showed a non-brittle and almost
ideal plastic post-peak behaviour. The beam showed buckling
on both sides of the beam underneath the load transmission.
Later examination of the beam showed that at these areas the
solid board delaminated from the honeycomb structure, but
also a crashing of the top horizontal placed honeycomb layer
in the compression zone (Picture 16).
5.4. Beam 4
As all the previous beams failed in the compression zone, a
beam was design with a tube in the upper part of the beam
as a compressive reinforcement. The rest of the construction
resembled beam 3 to have a clear comparison for the effect of
compressive reinforcement.
The maximum load of this beam was 600 kg. As expected the
beam could bear more compressive stress and started to crack
Fig. 14-19. Cross-section (side in the tension zone. After reaching the maximum strength the
PLGGOH¿HOGDQG crack mouth opened very fast and the beam immediately lost
failure of beam 3. strength. The load deformation response of this beam was

hence very brittle (Fig 7). After the crack opening the tube in
WKHWRSÀDQJHZDVH[SRVHGWREHQGLQJDQGFRQWULEXWHGWRWKH
residual strength of the beam (Picture 19).
5.5. Conclusion of preliminary beams Fig. 20-22. Cross-section and

The results of the preliminary beams showed that the glued failure of beam 4.
connections are the weak parts of the structure. Especially
WKHFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQÀDQJHDQGZHERIWKHEHDPVWXUQHG
RXW WR EH GLI¿FXOW $OO EHDPV VKRZHG ORFDO EXFNOLQJ GXH WR
elementary slenderness. The structural design should take the
buckling into account and minimize the free element length in
the compression zones.
Beam 4, with compression reinforcement, was 50% stronger

compared to the similar beam 3. Hence the compressive
reinforcement improved the load barring capacity of the beam
enormously. However, the reinforced beam showed brittle
failure, which should be avoided in construction as it gives
no warning in terms of cracks before failure. A good balance
between strengthening the compression zone and non-brittle
failure has to be found.
5HJDUGLQJWKHGHÀHFWLRQRIWKHEHDPVDOOEHDPVZHUHQRW
very stiff and showed high deformations. These were due to
local buckling and deformation, but also because the basic
PDWHULDOGLGQRWKDYHDVLJQL¿FDQWVWLIIQHVVVHHWHVWUHVXOWV
own test, Table 2). A stiffer beam can be obtained with a
higher modulus of elasticity of the basic material and higher
moment of inertia of the cross-section.
Nevertheless the prototypes showed, that cardboard is strong

enough to be used as a construction material and through
smart design and maybe in combination with other materials
it can be a preferable material to use.
6. Conclusion and Outlook

This research project deals with the fundamental research of
the material properties of cardboard. The mechanical and the
structural behaviour of cardboard sheets and components are
investigated and a computational model will be developed
as prediction tool. This research is essential for the further
GHYHORSPHQWRIµ&DUGERDUGLQ$UFKLWHFWXUH¶,WZLOOJLYHLQVLJKW
in the material response and hence deliver indications for
design and technology development.
Concerning the progress of the project, the 3 solid boards are

WHVWHG DW WKH PRPHQW :KHQ WKH WHVWLQJ LV ¿QDOL]HG WKUHH
Fig. 23. Load-deformation curve of beam 1. Fig. 24. Load-deformation curve of beam 2.
Fig. 25. Load-deformation curve of beam 3. Fig. 26. Load-deformation curve of beam 4.

design of the actual beam will be build and tested in small
scale of 1 meter and the best performing will be rebuilt in
large scale. Based on the results of the elementary testing
of the solid board the material model can be modulated and
YHUL¿HG
The outline of the project is presented to give interested

people from the building or the paper industry an idea what
the research is about and open possibilities to cooperate.
As cardboard is still a new and undeveloped construction
material, the research area is still very wide. It is obvious
that the presented research project can not cover all essential
DUHDV (VSHFLDOO\ WKH DUHDV IRU ZDWHU DQG ¿UHUHVLVWDQFH
material improvement and development of connections have
to be investigated to make cardboard constructions common.
This research, thus, should be seen as a start-up project that
give indications for the design in mechanical point of view, and
PRWLYDWLRQIRUIXUWKHUIXQGDPHQWDOUHVHDUFKRQµ&DUGERDUGLQ
$UFKLWHFWXUH¶
References
1 Verhoef, M. Paper Buildings – Onderzoek naar de mogelijkheden
van karton als bouwmateriaal. Graduate project, Building
Technology, Faculty of Architecture, TU Delft, The Netherlands,
2002
9DQ,HUVHO7.DUWRQQHQ:RRQKXLV*UDGXDWHSURMHFW%XLOGLQJ
Technology, Faculty of Architecture, TU Delft, The Netherlands,
2002.
3 Den Boon, M., Studie naar honingraat panelen van karton.
Graduate project, Building Technology, Faculty of Architecture,
TU Delft, The Netherlands, 2003.
4 Eekhout M., Cardboard: Technical Research and Developments
DW78'HOIW"""
5 Schönwälder J., Rots J.G., Veer F.A., Determination and
Modelling of Cardboard as a Building Material, Proceedings, 5th
International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering, Delft, The
Netherlands, 2004.
6 Schönwälder J., Veer F.A., Rapid determination of creep
properties of paperboard using staircase loading tests,
Proceedings, Progress in Paper Physics Seminar, Trondheim,
2004.
9HHU)$6FK|QZlOGHU-+HLGZHLOHU$.XLSHUV17KHFUHHS
fatigue interaction in solid paper, Proceedings, 15th European
Confernce of Fracture (ECF15), Stockholm, 2004.
146
The Cardboard Dome

as an Example of an Engineers Approach
Mick Eekhout
Abstract
Designing is an incredible experience. Looking for new solutions

for posed problems challenges you to keep on improving yourself
and others. It is a continuous course of action: you will always
UHJDUGLVVXHVDQGVLWXDWLRQVZLWKµGHVLJQHUH\HV¶RIWHQUHVXOWLQJ
in passion and enthusiasm.
The most energy for the development of the cardboard dome

was taken up by technical fundamental research. After 4 months
from scratch, a trustworthy cardboard technology with circular
tubes was established. This lead to a conventional engineered
dome using the state of the art dome technology. Humidity is still
one of the major problems of cardboard produced in the current
industrial manner. The tubes were partially prestressed to avoid
complicated bolted connections in this 3-way single layered dome
structure.
1. Designing is composing and inventing

Naturally, at Delft University of Technology technical ingenuity
scores high. The previous Chairman of the Board dr. Nico de
9RRJG LQWHQGHG WR WUDQVIRUP WKH 78 'HOIW LQWR D µUHVHDUFK
GULYHQ XQLYHUVLW\¶ +RZHYHU LQ WKH PHDQWLPH WKH 78 'HOIW
DFNQRZOHGJHVGHVLJQDVDUHVSHFWDEOHDFWLYLW\7KHGH¿QLWLRQ
of design as a result of designing at the TU Delft is: “The
(technical) design is a record of principal and/or eventual
working method and/or shape of a technical and realistic
VROXWLRQIRUDGHVFULEHGSUREOHP´7KH)DFXOW\RI$UFKLWHFWXUHLV
proud of its focus on design. A couple of dozen years ago, the
Faculty of Architecture in Delft and the Faculty of Architecture
in Eindhoven agreed that Delft would focus on the design
process, whereas Eindhoven would focus on the realisation
process. Well-known Dutch architects like Jo Coenen, Sjoerd
Soeters, Rudy Uytenhaak and Frank Wintermans were all
educated as architects in Eindhoven and therefore seem to be
lost and an exception to this rule.
:KDWVLJQL¿HVGHVLJQDWWKH)DFXOW\RI$UFKLWHFWXUHDQGPRUH
147
VSHFL¿FLQWKH0DVWHUV%XLOGLQJ7HFKQRORJ\":KDWH[DFWO\LV
GHVLJQ"$SUHFLVHDQGFRPSUHKHQVLYHGH¿QLWLRQLVQRZKHUH
to be found. So let us considers design from different points
of view:
x Functional: The goal of design at the faculty of
Architecture is a material solution by inventing an
Fig. 1. The position of the
architectural composition for a posed architectural
problem. designer is located
x Composition: Design is composing parts into between the composer
a larger whole (artefact). Architectural design and the inventor
is composing elements and components into a
material artefact. Depending on the three levels this
could be: city planning, a building or components of
the building.
x Artistic: Design is creating an original spatial
composition. The material and immaterial means
are usually familiar; the position of matter in space
transforms a building into a piece of applied art.
x Technical: Design is inventing and ingeniously
developing new material elements, components,
systems and products for city planning/architecture/
building technology and the integration of those
parts into an artefact.
x Process: Design is the process of analysis,
synthesis and development starting with a problem
statement and ending in a material solution.
x Philosophical: Design is seeking an optimal
compromise between ambiguous demands and
desires.
x Economical: Design is seeking a balance
between demand, formulated in many wishes and
requirements and supply of a possible technical
H[HFXWLRQZLWKWKHUHTXLUHG¿QDQFLDOPHDQV
Every designer will describe design in a different manner.

, ZLOO WU\ LW IURP P\ SRLQW RI YLHZ WKH FKDLU RI µ3URGXFW
'HYHORSPHQW¶ ,Q D FRQYHQWLRQ DERXW GHVLJQ PHWKRGRORJ\
in 19981 I have described design as: “The applied technical
design is an original, ingenious and material solution for a
WHFKQLFDOSUREOHPDFTXLUHGE\PHDQVRIDQHI¿FLHQWSURFHVV
RIPDNLQJGHFLVLRQVIURPLQLWLDWLYHXQWLOH[HFXWLRQ´
(YHUVLQFHP\¿UVWGD\DWWKH)DFXOW\RI$UFKLWHFWXUH,KDYH
been interested in design as a collection of activities with a
path-breaking result. Novelty is at top of the list. Not only
IRU\RXUVHOIZKLFKLVTXLWHFRPPRQZKHQ\RX¶UHDVWXGHQW
148 THE CARDBOARD DOME AS AN EXAMPLE OF AN ENGINEERS APPROACH

and still learning) or for the national group of architects
and technical designers towards a patented world-novelty.
Novelty for yourself, your friends, the Dutch scene and the
world are entirely different concepts. These environments
could be compared to arenas with different rules of the game
and different rewards. Confusing these arenas can cause
disillusion. If you, for example, admire your heroes and even
identify yourself with them, you skip several arenas and an
XQQHFHVVDU\FRQIXVLQJLGHQWL¿FDWLRQDULVHVZLWKXQDYRLGDEO\D
big disappointment and a qualitative goal and recognition that
will never be attained.
Design with a path-breaking result is in many cases just a

µIDWDPRUJDQD¶LIWKHGHVLJQHUJHWVWUDSSHGLQGLFKRWRPRXV
demands and desires, as a result of which only a meagre
compromise can be achieved. Design is often seeking the
best compromise. Young and ambitious architects, who
primarily strive to attain the maximum amount of novelty in
their design and at the same time enhance their own fame
(as an archetype: Erick van Egeraat), have their own idea
of the concept of compromise. They have to win design
competitions. You cannot win those competitions if you blindly
obey all dichotomous demands and desires. The design should
have something bold, exceptional, and reckless in order to be
noticed by the jury of the competition. So a certain balance
between character and compromise is necessary. Character to
EHQRWLFHGDQGFRPSURPLVHWRIXO¿OPRVWRIWKHGHPDQGVRI
the client.
I take pleasure in composing as an interpretation of design

(which is essential and unavoidable for architects) but from
P\ ¿UVW GHVLJQ VNHWFKHV DV D VWXGHQW DW WKH )DFXOW\ RI
Architecture I feel more like an inventor. My previous senior
OHFWXUHU-DQYDQGHU:RRUGRQHRIP\PHQWRUVLQP\¿UVW\HDU
VWLOOUHPHPEHUVWKDW,QP\¿UVW\HDURIVWXG\
,DOUHDG\GHVLJQHGJODVV¿EUHUHLQIRUFHGSRO\HVWHUVKHOOOLNH
walls and roofs for a gatekeepers building at the Calvé factory,
which was an exciting technical adventure. Recently I have
designed GRP shells again with a huge span (30 meters) on a
core of foam for architect Moshe Safdie from Boston, which is
described in another article.
I alternate between composing and inventing. But I get the

most pleasure from inventing, maybe because so few people
can do it. I consider myself more as an inventor-architect than
0,&.((.+287 149
Fig. 2.7KH¿YH*53URRIVRIWKH
Yitzhak Rabin Center, Tel
Aviv, Israel
Fig. 3. Hoisting of one of the

roofs for the Yitzhak
Rabin Center, Tel Aviv,
Israel
as a composer-architect. In that respect I would be called an

architect-engineer in Belgium.
In the city-hall of the Frisian town of Bolsward (build between

1614-1619) a text on the entrance portal of the council room
VD\V³JHLMQYHQWHHUW´ZKLFKLVDth century reference to the
entanglement of the notion of invention and design. Nothing
new under the sun. Perhaps the Ecole de Beaux Arts stressed
composing too much two centuries ago, as a result of which
WKHZRUG³LMQYHQWHUHQ´PRYHGWRWKHEDFNJURXQG,QDQ\FDVH
the technological designers we educate in the department of
Building Technology should be able to become designer-
inventors.
Many inventions can only come to existence by prompt but

most of all in-depth and methodical work without the fear
RIIDLOXUH7KDWNLQGRIGHVLJQLVPRUHVFLHQWL¿FFRPSDUHGWR
the more artistic component that composing possesses. This
SURFHVVRIGHVLJQVKRXOGEHWUDQVSDUHQWVRLWFDQEHYHUL¿HG
for yourself or your team, so you can discuss it and make the
right decisions at crucial moments. Design as a science is hard
to achieve, whereas composing primarily requires intuitive
GHFLVLRQV 6FLHQWL¿F GHVLJQ FDQ EH DFKLHYHG LQ VRPH FDVHV
and in other cases a part of the entire design and engineering
SURFHVVFDQEHUHFRJQL]HG,QWKHµ.RQLQNOLMNH1HGHUODQGVH

Fig. 4. Plate explaining the word
„
“geijventeert inside the
City Hall of Bolsward
$NDGHPLHYDQ:HWHQVFKDSSHQ¶5R\DO1HWKHUODQGV$FDGHP\
RI$UWV 6FLHQFHV,ZLOO¿UVWVXEVWDQWLDWHVFLHQWL¿FGHVLJQWR
subsequently gain understanding for design as a process of
composing.
Many Dutch architects argue that a composer should be

FUHDWLYHEXWGRHVQ¶WQHFHVVDULO\KDVWREHDQLQYHQWRUVLQFH
DQG LQYHQWRU LV D WHFKQLFLDQ -XVW OLNH D FRPSRVHU GRHVQ¶W
have to invent music-notes in order to make a composition,
DQDUFKLWHFWGRHVQ¶WKDYHWRLQYHQWPDWHULDOVµPXVLFQRWHV¶
RUFRQVWUXFWLRQVµPXVLFEDU¶LQRUGHUWRPDNHDJRRGGHVLJQ
Composing alone is already enough. The attitude of Dutch
Fig. 5. City Hall of Bolsward, The architect Jan Benthem is derived of this position: take smart
Netherlands materials and systems that have already proven their quality
and reliability and subsequently use them to compose with.
That attitude resulted in a respectable portfolio.
But there are also architects who see it as their job to design,
research and develop the means (elements, components,
systems, products) with which they shape their buildings
according to their design. The interest of these architects is
both focusing on innovation in architecture and in technology.
They are focused on both the development of material means
to build, as composing a surprising artefact into a building.
These designers position themselves both at the producers-
side as the consumer-side of technology. Think of British
high-tech architects, Renzo Piano and Santiago Calatrava for
example. In the past decade Piano and Calatrava received
Fig. 6.µ7ULSSHQKXLV¶LQ an honorary doctorate at the TU Delft and were therefore
Amsterdam, where acknowledged for their professional quality in Delft.
the Royal Netherlands
Academy of Arts &
Sciences is housed.
0,&.((.+287 151
2. Inventing and composing in cardboard
This lengthy introduction was necessary in order to
comprehend the backgrounds of the designers of the
cardboard IJburg dome: Shigeru Ban and Mick Eekhout. Both
of them are used to invent and compose: to research and
design, research by design and design by research.
When I was a student (1968-1973), prof. Dick Dicke proposed

WRGHVLJQDVWUXFWXUDOV\VWHPZLWKD¿FWLYHPDWHULDOSRVVHVVLQJ
the most diverse properties you could possibly think of. This
FRXOGKDYHEHHQµJLQJHUEUHDG¶IRUDOO,FDUHEXW\RXKDGWR
¿JXUHRXWWRPDNHVRPHVRUWRIFRQVWUXFWLRQZLWKLW7KHDLP
of the exercise was of course to appreciate the properties
of materials without thinking in rigid patters. When Walter
6SDQJHQEHUJ $%7 FDOOHG PH IRU WKH ¿UVW WLPH DERXW WKLV Fig. 7-8. Schiphol Airport,
project, I immediately thought of considering cardboard as a designed by Benthem
sort of gingerbread. I was eager to start working on a material & Crouwel Architects
I never would have considered myself. I had absolutely no
experience with cardboard construction nor did I posses any
prejudice. Shigeru Ban had already realized several projects
in cardboard.
For the Dutch cardboard industry – thinking primarily of

increasing their own market – it was evident that several
VWHSVKDGWREHWDNHQLQWKH¿HOGRIIXQGDPHQWDOUHVHDUFK
and development in order to establish new applications. The
DGYHQWXUHVWDUWHGLQWKH¿HOGRIDUFKLWHFWXUH:H¿UVWKDGWR
think of new systems. Therefore it was necessary to expand
the cardboard industry. This expansion and foundation Fig. 9. Centre Pompidou, Paris.
occurred by more fundamental research concerning the Designed by Richard
relation between strength/moisture, elasticity modulus, Rogers and Renzo Piano
buckling and bending strength. Only after this process of
investigation and research was completed, we could think of
new structural systems and experimentally developed them,
so new applications could be designed.
3. The cardboard dome design

Japanese architect Shigeru Ban was responsible for the design
of the Japanese pavilion at the World Exhibition in Hannover
2000. The structure consisted out of long cardboard tubes that
were bend over each other. Jeanette van der Steen attended Fig. 10. Centre Culturel Tjibaou,
a lecture of Ban at the NAi (Dutch Architecture Institute) and New Caledonia.
got fascinated by his designs. She asked him to design a Designed by Renzo
temporary dome for her theatre group on the island of IJburg, Piano
near Amsterdam. In the fall of 2002 Ban made a design

consisting out of a 16-frequent icosahedron in the tradition
of Richard Buckminster Fuller. An icosahedron consists out 20
regular equilateral trianhulated surfaces: a complete sphere
is built up out of 20 regular triangles, which were applied 5
times in this spherical roof. Later on I will further address this.
Dr. Peter Huybers of Civil Engineering TU Delft has published
many studies on this subject. The shape of the dome (span
versus height with folded edges) is identical to the 60 meters
span Aviodome on Schiphol Airport and the Toyotadome in
5DDPVGRQNYHHU&RPSDUHGWRUHFHQWH[SHULHQFHVZLWKµÀXLG
GHVLJQ¶RI2FWDWXEHWKLVGRPHZDVDUHDVRQDEO\HDV\QHDUO\
KLVWRULFGHVLJQ7LPHÀLHVE\%OREGHVLJQDQGHQJLQHHULQJDOVR
contaminates ordinary structures.
Fig. 11. Aquadrom in Bremen
(50m span), Germany %DQ¶V GHVLJQ ZHQW WKURXJK D YLROHQW SURFHVV WR JDWKHU
VXI¿FLHQWVSRQVRULQJIURPWKHVLGHRI*URHS9DQ6WHHQ$W
the same time a thorough material research project and
material development on part of Octatube, the chair of
Product Development TU Delft and also the research & design
JURXS µ&DUGERDUG¶ RI SURI )RQV 9HUKHLMHQ ZDV LQYROYHG
%DQZDVUHSUHVHQWHGE\:RXWHU.OLQNHQELMO'HVSLWHHDUOLHU
experiences of Ban in construction with cardboard, this type
of cardboard use seemed to surpass the available amount of
knowledge when issues are involved like tensions and weight
load. The sporadic available technical data form Japan were
GH¿QLWHO\ LQVXI¿FLHQW WR PDNH DQ LQGHSHQGHQW HQJLQHHU¶V
judgement about the behaviour of cardboard as a structural
material. Despite repeated requests it seemed impossible to
acquire structural data from design teams and contractors
who participated in the construction of the Japanese pavilion
in Hannover (the municipality of Hannover, Buro Happold,
cardboard supplier Sonoco and architect Ban). In Stuttgart
1998 I heard my colleague prof.dr. Jörgen Schlaich proclaim:
Fig. 12. Dome of Nationale

Nederlanden building
(30m span) in
The Hague, The
Netherlands
0,&.((.+287 153
³(VLVWQLFKWV1HXHVGDV:LVVHQYHUJHKW´EXWRQO\DIWHUWZR
years this seemed rather fast.
Therefore for this design in cardboard all material data had

to be determined from our own research. In November 2002
the development was initiated. This included the process of
material research based on tests in the Laboratory of Product Fig. 13. Japanese Pavillion
Development (PO-lab) and Octatube on the Rotterdamseweg during the World
200, Delft and a process of material design: determining the Exhibition in Hannover.
exact geometry, tube lengths, node detailing and so on. In Designed by Shigeru
this case research and design could be described as a split: far Ban Architects
DSDUW\HWLQÀXHQFLQJHDFKRWKHU
In November and December 2002 numerous cardboard tubes,

supplied by Dutch companies, were tested in the PO-lab. The
results of this research were compared with the required load
from the construction analysis, which was executed several
times and sent in by computer in the mean time. Again
and again the results of practical tests proved to be utterly
disappointing. The tubes already cracked at the diagonal
seams at a minor load. But the horizontally wrapped tubes
ZHUHQ¶WWKDWPXFKVWURQJHUHLWKHU7KHXWLOLVHGJOXHSURYHG
Fig. 14. Japanese Pavillion

during the World
Exhibition in Hannover.
Interior.

to be the decisive factor in construction use of cardboard. On
a Boosting meeting in December 2002, colleague designer
)ULVR.UDPHUVXJJHVWHGPHWRXWLOL]HDPHODPLQHFRPSRVLWH
to reinforce the cardboard, instead of using the inferior glue.
A clever idea, yet this would make recycling of the cardboard
impossible. After two months of research and a long period
of waiting for new tubes from the Dutch cardboard industry,
Fig. 15.&ORVHXSVRID¿UVW we were still not convinced of the feasibility of the cardboard
detail using bolted tubes for this dome design. In the end the German company
connections before Sonoco was able to supply us with cardboard tubes that
tensile testing were 40% stronger than all other tubes previously tested.
This extra strength was primarily achieved by the use of
new instead of recycled paper; a learning stage for the entire
cardboard industry. Of course the tested tubes are developed
for packaging and not for construction.
7KH¿QDOGHVLJQSURFHVVWKDWIROORZHGWKHGHVLJQRI6KLJHUX
Ban, was executed at Octatube under my strict supervision.
7KH LQLWLDO GLYLVLRQV RI %DQ¶V GRPH ZHUH EDVHG RQ D
Fig. 16.&ORVHXSVRID¿UVW frequecy subdivision. Because I have designed over 30
detail using bolted domes worldwide – all in steel and aluminium – I know what
connections before repetition factors mean. Consequently I proposed to reduce
tensile testing the frequency from 16 to 8, or even 6. The number of tubes
could be reduced to a quarter or even less. Ban, however,
seemed to be in love with cardboard: the more the better. This
was opposed to my minimalist principles including the cost
HI¿FLHQF\%XW-HDQHWWHYDQGHU6WHHQKRQRXUHGWKHRULJLQDO
design despite the fact that costs would increase if the dome
would be realized in its original design.
A different issue concerned the edges at the bottom of the

dome. The circumference of the dome would have 5 arches
with a height of 1.5 meters; too little to walk underneath and
use as an entrance. In that phase I proposed to deform the
geometry and assign a height of 2,5 meters to the edge arch.
7KLVZD\WKHµIHHW¶FRXOGUHVWRQWKHIRXQGDWLRQSODWHVDQG
assure a good accessibility. Subsequently a deformation came
to existence with a regular geometry derived of an icosahedron.
:HFRXOGPDNHDµUXEEHUEDQGLQJ¶LQWHUYHQWLRQDQGGHVLJQDQ
alternative geometry with the help of computers. A slight
BLOB edge to it one could say. Nowadays it is quite easy with
contemporary computers, but in the days of Buckminster
Fuller a similar deformation would be impossible. Ban was
relentless; this proposition was no good for him. It was
decided to stick to the original geometry and to build 5 corner
0,&.((.+287 155
nodes on 5 elevated tetrahedron-shaped supports.
4. Cardboard Engineering
By e-mail several discussions arose between cardboard lover
Ban and metal-tiger Eekhout about several aspects of the
design, including the design of the node. Twenty years ago
I developed a useful node for an aluminium dome in Jeddah
that was covered with a double membrane and transparent
insulation. With the help of this node it was possible to
FRQQHFWWKHEDUVDQGWKHWHQWPHPEUDQHWKDWFRXOGEH¿[HG
DQGVWUHVVHG%DQNHSWVWUHVVLQJDZRRG¿OOHGQRGHSUREDEO\
due to a Japanese tradition. The next design of the dome Fig. 17. Cardboard pressure test
was based on a compromise: Ban determined the geometry ZLWKWKHµ6RQRFRWXEHV¶
with a relatively short tube-length (a 10-frequent dome) and
Eekhout determined the detailing.
The detail existed out of a steel head on both ends of the tube
ZLWKDÀDWSURWXEHUDQWWDEWR¿[LWWRWKHQRGHV&RQQHFWLRQ
tests proved the weakness of cardboard at the transverse
screws and bolts. In Hannover Ban did not use screws because
the tubes crossed each other. Because the IJburgdome is
composed out of different shorter tubes and not continuous
WXEHVWKHJHRPHWU\LVGH¿QHGE\WKHQRGHV
Just like metal space structures the devilish idea arose: “Why
would you shorten a factory-produced tube of 6 meters to
OHW¶V VD\ PHWHUV WR HYHQWXDOO\ FRPH EDFN WR DJDLQ"´
Of course the answer is: utilising continuous tubes eventually
results in tubes that have to cross each other. The structural Fig. 18. Result of pressure test
engineers prefer an axial connection. Nonetheless, the design ZLWKWKHµ6RQRFRWXEHV¶
ZRXOGKDYHJDLQHGDEHWWHUFRVWHI¿FLHQF\<HW%DQYHWRHGWKLV (Fmax: 154kN)
SURSRVDODJDLQ,QWKH¿QDOEXGJHWWKHFRVWVIRUVWHHOZHUH
WLPHVKLJKHUWKDQIRUFDUGERDUG%DQ¶V+DQQRYHUSDYLOLRQKDG
continuous tubes, but the tubes were only loaded to a tension
of 25% compared to the IJburgdome. The limitations of the
current state of technology concerning the use of cardboard in
construction are notably increased because of this.
Fig. 19. Original design of the

dome by the architect,
Shigeru Ban. A 16-
frequency icosahedron.

5. Production and Installation of the
cardboard dome
On the 1st of April 2003, after 5 months of researching
cardboard as a structural material, only 5 weeks were left
before the opening. The client had built a house of cards
of numerous sponsors. That particular day the biggest
Fig. 20. Dome with Octatube sponsor (the VSB fund for culture) cancelled. Other sponsors
nodes in Jeddah, Saudi- threatened to leave the project since they only wished to
Arabia participate on a co-sponsor basis: the house of cards was
about to collapse.
7KHGH¿FLWZDV¼,QDWHOHSKRQHFRQYHUVDWLRQZKLOH
driving to Belgium, I proposed to split the shortage in three
(Group van der Steen, Municipality of Utrecht and Octatube).
This created three risk-bearing parties that all had a clear
arranged risk. The following Monday it was decided to start
production immediately.
Fig. 21. Close-up of the
Octatube nodes used in 6. Final Detailing
Jeddah
The last test concerning the type of connection between the
tube ends and the heads of the node showed that bolted
connections, screws and steel pins – all based on the principle
RI VKHDU IRUFH ± ZRUN KLJKO\ LQHI¿FLHQW ZKHQ DSSOLHG WR
cardboard. Using glue is also out of the issue since it will only
connect the inner layer of paper and will therefore easily lead
to collapse. This is exactly the same for threaded connections.
Dot-shaped connections should be avoided in these kind of
cardboard constructions with high loads.
2QHRI2FWDWXEH¶VVWUXFWXUDOHQJLQHHUV/XLV:HEHULQWURGXFHG
the idea to apply a steel tensile rod within the cardboard tubes.
Pressure is locked up in between two steel head-plates. The
tensile rod deals with tension. In the factory the two galvanized
steel heads were twisted in two right-threaded props with a
10mm stainless steel thread and manually pre-stressed. True
and high pre-tension cannot be applied: it would not work
considering the sensitivity for creep of cardboard.
The cardboard tubes (180mm diameter and wall thickness

PPZHUH¿[HGZLWKVWHHOKHDGHQGVPPZLWKLQWKH
tubes and connected to a star-shaped node with the help
of two vertically aligned bolts in order to acquire a moment-
stiff node. The star-shaped node consists of six steel plates
welded on a round steel tube. The threads of the membrane-
0,&.((.+287 157
connection in the star-shaped node can be adjusted in height
in this arrangement. The edges of the dome consist of steel
,3(SUR¿OHVWKDWDUHIROGHGVLGHZD\VEXWWKHKHDUWRIWKH
body is placed in the axial plane of the dome bars. The IPE-
SUR¿OHKDVVWHHOWDEVRQWKHRXWHUVKHOOWRWHQVHWKHPHPEUDQH
that is placed over the tubes; protecting the cardboard form
WKHZDWHU7KH¿YHIROGHGHGJHSUR¿OHVDUHWREHSODFHGRQ
tetrahedrons: stabile corner columns with outward and side-
way supports. All steel tubes are bolted down with steel plates
on the concrete foundation slabs.
7. Shop Drawings and Production

After the 1st of April 2003 a majority of the total engineering
department of Octatube had been occupied for two weeks,
making the final design, production drawings, element
drawings, cutting lengths for the cardboard, the erection
drawings and the anchor drawings for the foundation slabs. Fig. 22. Drawings of the 10-
7KHVWHHOSDUWVZHUHVXEVHTXHQWO\VDZQGULOOHGWZLVWHG¿[HG frequency dome as it
and welded in small lots and sent to the galvanisation plant. was executed, made by
The cardboard tubes were perfectly sawn by Sonoco. The Octatube.

cardboard was treated with varnish on its outer shell, the cut
ends and 100mm inwards in order to cope with small amounts
of moisture.
The galvanized tube ends had to be slightly smoothened by

KDQGVLQFHWKH\FRXOGQ¶W¿WWKHFKXIIV$OOSDUWVRIWKHGRPH
were coded to simplify the erection process. There were 18
different types of nodes and tubes in 18 different lengths. The
Fig. 23. Final detail of the membrane was engineered by Rogier Houtman of Tentech
connection nodes. Delft (a small engineering company in the Silicon Valley of the
Top view. TU Delft) and produced by Buitink in Duiven. The membrane
was a sand-coloured PVC coated polyester fabric. The
assembly of the membrane took place with the help of small
dishes on threaded rods directly trough the centre of the nods.
7KHZKROH¿WWHGH[DFWO\DVSODQQHGDQGWKHPHPEUDQHZDV
spanned by twisting the threaded ends underneath the dome,
so the dishes were pushed outwards (and subsequently
Fig. 24. Final detail of the stressing the membrane).
connection nodes.
6HFWLRQ$$¶)LJ 8. Assembly
Initially we intended to repeat a successful assembly method
that was used 20 years ago by Octatube for an onion-shaped
dome in Singapore right next to a mosque. A temporary mast
ZDVXVHGWRKRLVWWKH¿UVWULQJWKHQWKHVHFRQGWKLUGHWF
This made it possible to assemble the whole dome from the
ground.
We chose for a different kind of montage because of the

relatively high dead weight of this dome (20kg/m2 opposed
to 10kg/m2 for steel and aluminium domes). On top of it,
because of the rain, we required sails to cover (the assembled
dome parts) and 5 supports with wind bracing. The build-up
started from an elevated location of 5 supports on a container,
tightened with leashes and gradually building outwards and
downwards.
This build-up took place directly next to the definitive

construction site. At the same time the concrete foundation
slabs were placed, the anchor-holes measured, drilled and 5
tetrahedrons were built up with bent IPE beams. Days before
KRLVWLQJWKHGRPHWRLWV¿QDOSRVLWLRQWKHth of May, the lower
ring was assembled with bars on a steel circular beam. As a
precaution the dome was hoisted with 15 cables to prevent
peak-tensions in the structure.
0,&.((.+287 159
9. Humidity
Already during the research it was clear that next to creep,
UHODWLYHKXPLGLW\DOVRLQÀXHQFHGWKHVWUHQJWKRIWKHFDUGERDUG
tubes. Therefore we decided to seal off the tube ends with a
OD\HURIYDUQLVK%XWZKDWLVWKHLQÀXHQFHRIUDLQ",ILWUDLQV
during the assembly, water could drip towards the tube ends
and eventually get sucked inwards. A capillary effect between
the steel shaft and the cardboard is not very unlikely either. Fig. 25. Assembly of the dome:
a covering sail to keep
7KH¿UVWZHHNRIWKHDVVHPEO\LWZDVEHDXWLIXOGU\ZHDWKHU the bars as dry as
but the second week was very uncertain: rain and hard wind possible.
gusts. There was virtually no other choice than wrapping every
LQGLYLGXDOWXEHZLWKSDFNDJHIRLORUFRYHULQJWKH¿QLVKHGSDUW
of the dome with a covering sail. We chose for the last option,
EXWLWVHHPHGOLNHFRYHULQJWKH¿QLVKHGSDUWVWRRNDVORQJDV
assembling the nodes and the bars. However, the result was
D GRPH ZLWK GU\ EDUV $QG WKH ¿QLVK LV FHUWDLQO\ WKDW RI D
cardboard dome.
Fig. 26. Assembly of the dome:
10. Future Transportation connection nodes are

bolted to the tube ends.
In the Summer of 2003 the dome was disassembled and in
Spring 2004 it was transported to Leidscherijn (near Utrecht)
as an exhibition space. Disassembly, assembly and eventual
protection against moisture are depending on the weather
conditions again.
A fast solution could have been to double the number of 5

central ribs. This way the dome could have been disassembled
in 5 triangular parts and transported on three trailers to the
shore of the nearby Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal, then on a ship
to Utrecht, 2 kilometres over land, to be assembled in
Leidscherijn again. But to double the number of ribs was
out of issue for the architect, who preferred a more even
character for the surface of the dome. This way the dome has
to be taken down in smaller parts or bars and nodes in order
to be build-up again.
The transportation of the dome when assembled (20 tons of

ZHLJKWH[FOXGLQJWKHVWHHO,3(¶VPHWHUVZLGHPHWHUV
high) is virtually impossible, but still an appealing option that
was discussed during the design stage. The construction
within the steel edges is rigid enough to be transported.

11. Conclusion
Constructing and assembling the cardboard dome turned out
to be a relatively easy task compared to the experiences in the
current turbulent Blob-era. All parts of the architectural and
structural design, choice of materials, component drawings,
material research, production, assembly, disassembly and
UHEXLOGLQJZHUHDOUHDG\¿JXUHGRXWLQWKHVWDJHRIGHVLJQ
A professionally executed design process is the secret of this
type of structural task. Design, development and research
were integrated to enhance the current affairs of technology.
Fig. 27-30. Build-up of the By publishing the results of our knowledge, ability and insight,
cardboard dome on it is possible to generate a far larger dispersal area. A mission
IJburg, Amsterdam of the Chair of Product Development.
0,&.((.+287 161
Fig. 31-33. Build-up of the
cardboard dome on
IJburg, Amsterdam.
Fig. 34. The cardboard dome in

Leidscherijn, Utrecht

Acknowledgements
Octatube Space Structures BV (www.octatube.nl)
References
1 Mick Eekhout, Inleiding tot de ontwerpmethodologie,
Symposium Ontwerpmethodologie TU Delft 28 mei 1998, TU
Delft, 1998, ISBN 90-5269-255-6
2 Octatube Space Structures, Research Report for the Cardboard
Dome in IJburg, internal publication, Delft, 2003
3 Matilda McQuaid, Shigeru Ban, Phaidon, London, 2003, ISBN 0-
7148-4194-3
%XFNPLQVWHU)XOOHU&ULWLFDO3DWK*ULI¿Q/RQGRQRULJLQDOO\
published in 1981), ISBN 0-3121-7491-8
0,&.((.+287 163
Epilogue
Cardboard research at TU Delft started to take form at the

initiative of prof.Fons Verheijen of the Chair of Architectural
Engineering He aimed with his usual enthousiasm at a real
cardboard pavilion which was opened at the occasion of the
symposium of january 2006. In the meantime researcher Julia
Schönwälder had done research for some years already. But
fundamental statical research is not very suited for publication
on a popular scale. The accelaration brought into this research
around the 2006 pavilion sometimes was doubted by the
VFLHQWL¿FVWDIIDVLWVHHPHGWREHWRRPXFKGLUHFWHGWRWKH
public. However, both approaches: fundamental technical
research and application design illustrated the both extremes
of a balanced total research project. Teh central domain
of Technology has to be elaborated on as well. The future
cardboard research offers an overall covering of Fundamental
Research, Technology Development and Application Design.
At the moment of writing this epilogue (september 2006) the

application direction of Cardboard research is under discussion,
but very likely to be focussed on housing. In emergency housing
DQGGHWDFKHGKRXVLQJERWKVRXQGLQVXODWLRQDQG¿UHSURR¿QJ
are not bitter adversaries. It will no doubt end in Cardboard
Concept Houses. Industry and society look favorably into this
direction as there are many potential applications all over the
world due to the unfortunate conseqenses of men-made wars
and natural disasters. The follow-up of the technical outcome
RIWKHHQWLUHUHVHDUFKZRXOGEHµRQO\¶DPDWWHURISROLWLFVDQG
ORJLVWLFV EXW XQGHUVWRRG WR EH D ¿HOG RI VWXG\ RI LWV RZQ
where may be the help of the Rotterdam Erasmus University
should be pursued. TU Delft is happy to contribute at the
OHYHORIVFLHQWL¿FGHVLJQGHYHORSPHQWDQGUHVHDUFKWRVROYH
important society problems.
Prof.dr. Mick Eekhout

Nestor Research Building Technology
165
Author Details
Mick Eekhout
Chair of Product Development / Nestor Research Building Technology
Delft University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands
Director Octatube Space Structures BV, Delft, The Netherlands
a.c.j.m.eekhout@tudelft.nl/m.eekhout@octatube.nl
Elise van Dooren

Chair of Architectural Engineering, Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands
e.j.g.c.vandooren@tudelft.nl
Fons Verheijen
Chair of Architectural Engineering, Delft University of Technology,
Faculty of Architecture, The Netherlands
'LUHFWRU99.+$UFKLWHFWHQ/HLGHQ7KH1HWKHUODQGV
a.p.j.m.verheijen@tudelft.nl
Peter Gentenaar
Graphic designer, sculptor, paper artist
gentor@hetnet.nl
Cees van Kranenburg

c.vankranenburg@tudelft.nl
Fred Veer
f.a.veer@tudelft.nl
Taco van Iersel

99.+$UFKLWHFWHQ/HLGHQ
t.m.vaniersel@tudelft.nl
Helen Gribbon
$VVRFLDWH'LUHFWRULQ%XUR+DSSROG¶V0DQFKHVWHURI¿FH8QLWHG.LQJGRP
helen.gribbon@burrohappold.com
Florian Foerster
)UHHODQFH6HQLRU6WUXFWXUDO(QJLQHHULQ%XUR+DSSROGV%HUOLQRI¿FH*HUPDQ\
ÀRULDQIRHUVWHU#EXURKDSSROGFRP
167

Cardboard in Architecture Research in Architectural Engineering 2008

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cardboard in Architecture Research in Architectural Engineering 2008

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CARDBOARD IN ARCHITECTURE

Previously published in this series:

edited by Mick Eekhout, Fons Verheijen, Ronald Visser

PRINTED IN THE NETHERLANDS

Publisher & Distributor

Layout & Bookcover Design

What is characteristic of these attempts is that experience

Despite the poor image of cardboard, projects by such

Cardboard consists of ~ 90% endlessly recycled material and,

“How can cardboard be used in both architectural and

An exploratory phase from 2003 to 2005 – including an outdoor

In making this publication possible, special thanks goes out to

Prof. Fons Verheijen

Cardboard Technical Research and Developments

Cardboard in Architecture; an Overview 21

The Design and Building Process of a Cardboard Pavilion 59

Structural Engineering and Design in Paper and Cardboard 95

Application of Cardboard in Partitioning 119

Mechanical Behaviour of Cardboard in Construction 131

The Cardboard Dome as an Example of an Engineers Approach 147

Author Details 167

Cardboard Technical Research and Developments

Cardboard research at the TU Delft is performed by 4 researchers,

1. Cardboard research on the TU Delft

This congress on Cardboard has the character of a spontaneous

2. Research, Development & Design

In the world of technical sciences, Research & Development

Fig. 1. The relationship between

2 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

The distinction between the fundamental research and

3. Research embedded in the department of

The Cardboard research is one of the subprograms of Zappi

In the section of building technology design, consisting of

4 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

Cardboard, traditionally used for packaging, has potential for

Research overview BTO

biodegradable and made from renewable resources. It is an Fig. 4. Relationships of research

Several examples and case studies (e.g. by Shigeru Ban)

7KHFHQWUDOVFKHPHRI:LP3RHOPDQ¶VGLVVHUWDWLRQ1 shows that

6 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

supply side have to be developed simultaneously.

It should be understood that, while the Dutch cardboard

Fig. 6. Project 4.6. Cardboard

Fig. 7. Project 4.6.1. The

Fig. 8. Project 4.6.2. Product

Fig. 9. Project 4.6.3. Product

8 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

In the world of architects and designers another approach is

The cardboard pavilion that was on exposition at the Faculty

14 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

6. Ambitions on the short run in cardboard

It is imperative that the industry, waiting for the TU Delft to

I would like to give you a number of around 40 interesting

A further strategic brainstorm and analysis seems inevitable,

6.1. Research topics

16 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

6.3. Design topics

7. Conclusion for Cardboard Research

18 CARDBOARD TECHNICAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENTS AT TU DELFT

The proposal given in this article is the result of short notice

Cardboard in Architecture; an Overview

Elise van Dooren, Fons Verheijen

The image of cardboard still remains that of a packaging material,

Cardboard tubes are being used by Shigeru Ban as a means

,Q 6\GQH\ WKH H[KLELWLRQ µ+RXVHV RI WKH )XWXUH¶10

7KHVKHOOVDUHNHSWWRJHWKHUE\µEDFNERQHV¶ULEVIRUPLQJWKH

,Q WKH FRFRRQ VKDSHG IRUP D KRQH\FHOO ÀRRU KDV EHHQ