Part- A

Chapter – 1: Computer :- A brief History

Chapter – 2: Essential Components of Computers

Chapter – 3: Information System

Chapter – 4: Database System

Chapter – 5: Networks LAN,WAN, MAN & WIRELESS NETWORKS

Chapter - 6 : Introduction to Internet

1
 Chapter – 1: Computer :- A brief History
________________________________________________________________________
1. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Objectives
1.2 The Concept of Computers
1.3 A brief history stage wise evolution
1.4 Stage wise Computer Generations
1.5 Characteristics of Computers
1.6 Advantages of Computers
1.7 Limitations of Computers
1.8 Types of Computers
1.8.1 According to Technology
1.8.2 According to Purpose
1.8.3 According to Size
1.9 Use of Computers
1.10 Data Representation
1.10.1 Binary Number System
1.10.2 Decimal to Binary
1.10.3 Binary to Decimal
1.10.4 Binary Coded Decimal number(BCD)
1.10.5 ASCII
1.11 Summary of the chapter
1.12 Exercise
________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
• Understand the definition of the computer.
• Explain the basic history and evolution.
• Understand the Generation of computers.
• Understand the advantages, limitation and characteristics.
• Understand Types of computers on the basis of
o Technology
o Purpose
o Size

2
_______________________________________________________________________
1.2 The Concept of Computer
_______________________________________________________________________
What is a Computer ?
It is an electronic device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular
form and of performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined but
variable set of procedural instructions (program) to produce a result in the form of
information or signals. The term computer has been borrowed from compute that means
to calculate. Whereas, initially computers were used to perform arithmetic calculations at
fast speed, and now they are used in nearly every field. We can use computers in word
processing, desk top publishing, weather forecasting, railway reservation and many more
areas. See fig 1.1 Components of Computer.

Fig 1.1 components of computers

Now computer can be defined as ‘A programmable machine capable of

responding specific set of instructions (in a well defined manner) called programs.
Present day computer are called digital computers and are capable of accepting
letters or numbers through various input devices, converts data into electronic
pulses, performs arithmetic/logical operations, doing other processing and give
results. See the block diagram of the computer in fig. 1.2

3
 Fig 1.2 Block diagram of a computer

Computers have the capacity:

1. To receive data. (Input Unit)
2. To communicate results. (Output Unit)
3. To store data. (storage / secondary memory)
4. To perform any logical operation.
5. To understand and execute instructions in the proper order. (control unit
/central processing unit)
______________________________________________________________________
1.3 A brief history stage wise evolution
______________________________________________________________________

There are many stages of computer evolution. From the manual system the changeover
was to machine assisted manual system. The modern computers with the power and
speed of today were not solitary inventions.

Fig 1.3 Showing innovation and generations of computers

4
 The ‘ABACUS’ used by the primary section students can be called a computing aid and
in turn a computer.
1 It was built out by woods and beads.
2 Abacus helps people to keep track of the numbers as they computing.
3 It is quick but limited storage capabilities.
4 The fig 1.4 shows the number here is 1352964708

Fig 1.4 ABACUS showing numbers

Likewise, the slide rules being used by engineers and others, not a very long ago,
definitely was a great aid in computing. In loose term all are computers. But when we
talk of automatic data processing (man assisted mechanical system) and electronic data
processing, the history begins with Charles Babbage’s attempt to build an automatic
mechanical calculator at Cambridge, England in 1830. By 1930’s punched cards were in
wide use in large businesses, and various type of punched card machines were available.
In 1937, Howard Aiken, at Harvard, proposed to IBM that a machine could be
constructed which would automatically sequence the operations and calculations
performed.
The first set of machines use to process data Electro-mechanically was called unit record
machines. This set consisted of six basic machines:
1. Card punch.
2. Card verifier.
3. Collator.
4. Card duplicator.
5. Card sorter.

5
 6. Accounting machine.
Accounting Machine and Duplicator had a wiring panel and when for a punched card
multiple copies were required in desired layout for specified fields, it was obtained by
duplicator, through setting Wiring penal. The same way format of the report was also
decided by the manipulation of wiring penal in the accounting machine. Its accuracy and
speed far exceeded the manual systems, but was suitable to small business firms. The
computers were the logical growth of the unit record system.
___________________________________________________________________________
1.4 Stage wise Computer generations
________________________________________________________________________

Present day computers are result of countless inventions during last several decades.
Such first machine was developed in 1946.
1. First Generation Computers: (1946-1959). These computers employed
vacuum tubes. See fig 1.5 ,Fig 1.6and Fig 1.7

Fig 1.5 Vaccum Tubes

Few Features and Limitations of these computers are:
1. That they were very large in size
2. One Big Room was required to Install these machines
3. Uses more power Supply
4. This machines are generally Overheated
5. Speed was very slow
6. Consumed large amount of power
7. Required air-conditioning.
8. Input was through punched cards.
9. Output was through punched cards.

6
 Fig 1.6 First Generation Computers using Punched Cards

Fig 1.7 Punched Cards

2. Second Generation (1959-1965): Computers employed transistors and other solid state
devices. See Fig 1.8 and Fig 1.9
Few Features and Limitations of these computers are :
1. Their circuits were smaller than the vacuum tubes, and IBM 1401 was
the most popular second generation computer.
2. Speed was faster than first generation computers
3. Size was bit smaller than first generation computers

Fig 1.8 Transistors

7
 Fig 1.9 Second Generation computers using Transistors

Fig 1.10 Vaccum Tubes Vs. Transistors

3. Third Generation Computer (1965-1970): employed integrated circuits (IC). See fig.
1.11 and 1.12
Few Features and Limitations of these computers are :

8
 1. These permitted multi-programming, time sharing and used high level
languages like FORTRAN and COBOL IBM 360 was most popular in this
generation.
2. Speed of these computers were faster than second generation computers
3. Size was smaller
4. Need less space for computer like table etc.

Fig 1.11 Third Generation of Computers using Integrated Circuit

Fig 1.12 Integrated Circuit

4.Fourth Generation (1970-1995): machines appeared during 1970’s with the invention of
LSIC (Large Scale Integrated Circuit). See fig 1.13
Few Features and Limitations of these computers are :
1. LSIC is small chip which containing large number of small electronic
components which functions as a complete system.
2. After 1995, with the introduction of VLSIC and innovative input, output
devices and peripherals it looks to be a change of generation. But in
true sense.
3. Speed was faster than third generation computers
4. Size was also very small

9
 Fig 1.13 Fourth Generation Computers using Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
5.Fifth Generation Computer: yet to come and will probably have Artificial Intelligence.
See fig 1.14
Few Features and Limitations of these computers are :
1. These machines appeared during 1995 with the invention of VSLI (Very Large
Scale Integrated Circuit). VSLI are small chips with containing large number of
small electronic components which functions as a complete system.
2. Many new means of computer access were also developed this time. There were
lot of improvement and introduction of innovation input and output devices.
3. Artificial Intelligence used.
4. A powerful computer is capable of performing several billion of arithmetic
operations per second.

Fig 1.14 Fifth Generation Computers using Artificial Intelligence

_______________________________________________________________________
1.5 Characteristics of a Computer
________________________________________________________________________
The increasing popularity of computes has proved that it is a very powerful and useful
tool. The power and usefulness of this popular tool are mainly due to its following
characteristics:
10
1. Better representation of Information: Computer is used for better representation
of Information.
2. Speed: A computer is a very fast device. While talking about the speed of a
computer, we do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds (.001),
microseconds (.000001), the nanoseconds and even the picoseconds. A powerful
computer is capable of performing several billion of arithmetic operations per
second. Probably a man will take about years to complete.
3. Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer is consistently high. If the input data
entering the computer are correct and if the program of instructions is reliable,
then, we can expect that the computer generally will produce accurate output.
4. Diligence: Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness,
lack of concentration, etc., and hence can work for hours together without creating
any error and without grumbling. Due to this properly computers obviously score
over human beings in doing routine type of jobs.
5. Versatility: Versatility is one of the most wonderful things about the computer.
One moment, it is preparing the results of particular examinations, the next
moment it is busy preparing electricity bills, and in between, it may be helping an
office secretary to race an important letter in seconds. All that is required to
change its talent is to slip in a new program (a sequence of instructions for the
computer) into it.
6. Power of Remembering and storing: A computer can store and recall any
amount of information because of its secondary storage (a type of detachable
memory) capability. Every piece of information can be retained as long as desired
by the user and can be recalled as and when required.
7. Automatic: Computers are automatic machines because once started on a job,
they carry on until the job is finished, normally without any human assistance.
However, computers being machines cannot start themselves. They have to be
instructed. The set of instructions is called a computer program.
8. No I.Q.: A computer is not a magical device. I can only perform tasks that a
human being can. The difference is that it performs these tasks with unthinkable
speed and accuracy. It possesses n intelligence of its own. Its I.Q. is zero, at least
till today.
9. No feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. They have no feelings and no
instincts because they are machines. Although men have succeeded in building a
memory for the computer, but no computer possesses the equivalent of a human
heart and soul.

11
 10. Storage: On secondary storage devices, a large amount of data can be store and
retrieved. Now a day, you find, almost everything being stored on a CD which
capable of storing entire textual matter of B.COM honors first year on one CD
only.
11. Access to Internet: With the innovation of computers / Mobiles, access to internet
is possible.
_____________________________________________________________________________
1.6 Advantages of a Computer
_____________________________________________________________________________
The advantages of the computers can be judged from the various characteristics given
below:
1. Better Representation of Information
2. High speed,
3. Accuracy,
4. Diligence,
5. Versatility,
6. Power of remembering,
7. Storage,
8. Quick Communication among students,
9. Use of Internet
10. Connection among computers
11. Sharing of Information
Mentioned above computers can be judged in the various applications to which it
is put as explained later in this unit.
_____________________________________________________________________________
1.7 Limitations of a Computer
_____________________________________________________________________________
In spite of possessing all the above capabilities, computers suffer from the following
limitations which are the strengths of human beings:
1. Health risk : Use of Computers at the large causing health risk.
2. Violation of Privacy : Use of computers are violation of privacy.
3. Impact on Labor force : Impact on labor is high due to use of computers.
4. Lack of common sense: Computer systems as on date do not possess any
common sense because no fool proof algorithm has been designed to program
common sense. Computers work according to a stored program(s).

12
 5. Zero I.Q.: Computers are dumb devices with zero Intelligence Quotient (IQ).
They cannot visualize and thin what exactly to do under a particular situation,
unless they have been programmed to tackle that situation.
6. Lack of Decision making: Computers cannot take decisions on their own unless
programmed for it. If a computer has not been programmed for a particular
decision situation, it will not take decision due to lack of wisdom and evaluating
faculties.
7. Impact on Environment: Impact on Environment is very high because of
computers.
______________________________________________________________________________
1.8 Types of Computers
_____________________________________________________________________________
1.8.1 Various types of computers based according to the Technology

Types of computers
(Technology wise)

Analog Computer Digital Computers Hybrid Computers

Fig 1.15 Types of computers technology wise

a Analog computers: Process input data in a continuous form, like action on
change in voltage, temperature etc. see fig 1.15a

Fig 1.15a Analog Computing

13
 b Digital computers: Accepts letters or numbers through various input
devices, converts data into electronic pulses, performs arithmetic/logical operations,
doing other processing and give results. See fig 1.16

Fig 1.16 Digital Computing

c Hybrid computers: These computers incorporate the technology of both,

Analog and Digital computers. See fig 1.17

Fig 1.17 Hybrid Computing

1.8.2 Second classification according to Purpose

Computers can be classified into four categories, based on the purpose for which they are
used. See fig 1.18

14
 Types of computers
(According to
Purpose)

Special Purpose Business Purpose

General Computers Scientific Computers
Computer Computers

Fig 1.18 Types of computers according to purpose

a A Special Purpose Computer: (dedicated computer) like for the purpose of

airlines booking or for banking operations.
b General Purpose Computer: can be used for many businesses, scientific,
educational, social and other applications.
c Scientific Computers: Designed to best suited for large mathematical
calculations.
d Business Computers: These will lack or take more time in scientific calculation,
but be fully equipped to produce well layout business reports.

1.8.3 Third classification based on their size.(See fig 1.19)

Types of computers
(According to Size )

Mainfraime
Super Computer Mini Computers Micro Computers
Computers

Fig 1.19 Types of computers according to Size

Computers can be classified into five categories based on their sizes as:

15
a. Super computer: Are the fastest computing devices ever invented. If a desktop
processes and instruction in micro second, compared with this a super computer
processes instruction in nanoseconds and even in picoseconds. It also has the capacity or
parallel processing. These computers consist of thousands of integrated microprocessors.
b. Main Frame Computer: Mainframe has the capability of processing several
millions of instructions per second and quite large in size. IBM S/390 is one of the
advanced main frame computer.
c. Mini Computer: The distinction between main frame and mini computers, also
between mini and micro computer (with the increasing power of micros0 is difficult.
These are middle sized special purpose main frame computers. Mini computers work
well with distributed data processing. One of the popular minicomputer is VAX made by
DEC.
d. Micro Computer: Micro Computer is the most familiar kind of computers with
the increasing power of micros it has become difficult to distinguish between mini and
micro. Presently these can be classified as:
• Personal Computers (PCs): Desktop portable machines.
• Work Stations: Are also desktop portable machines having a powerful processor
than a micro and a sophisticated screen display featuring a high resolution colour
graphics. These can be called as super micros.
• Portable Computers: Laptop/Note Books. These computers combine the power f
PC with mobility, powered with battery also.
• Personal Digital Assistants: PDA’s are much smaller than laptops. They also
combine pen input, writing recognition and communication capabilities. These are
also known as Palmtop.
Due to rapid advancement in technology the dividing lines between micros, minis and
mainframes overlap. A powerful micro computer may be equal to a low end mini in
memory capacity and processing speed. Similarly, a powerful mini may approach the
processing speed of a small mainframe. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is the most advanced
area of research in computer science. Scientists are trying to build computers that can
see, hear, talk and think like a human being. Such artificial human beings are called
Robots. So far no real robot has been built because of the technical problems involved in
it. However, there are machines in factories now that are commonly called robots. They
do not look like people. They are basically long mechanical arms that can put parts
together and weld and paint parts of cars, trucks etc. in factories.
e. Network Computer: Micros can work as Network computers. To save cost,
these can work on minimal memory, no disk storage. These get the powers from the
network servers.
16
Check your progress
Exercise 1

1. Work Stations
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Portable Computers
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Personal Digital Assistants (PDA’s)
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
____________________________________________________________________
1.9 Use of Computers
____________________________________________________________________

Computers are something familiar to everyone as they are sued increasingly in our
everyday life. Some uses to which computers are put which have made life easier are
as follows.
In Science new theories are developed based on measurements and calculations
that are generally very complicated and would take a lifetime to do. Computers can
analyse masses of scientific data and solve long and complex problems accurately and
far more quickly than people can.
This has greatly helped in research in science such as astronomy, physics,
chemistry, etc.
Computers assist engineers to solve complex design problems and help to ensure
that all proposed parts of a design are satisfactory. The application of computers to
design is called CAD (Computer Aided Design).

17
 Fig 1.3 Showing Computer aided Design
Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of computer systems to assist in the
creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of a design.CAD software is used to
increase the productivity of the designer, improve the quality of design, improve
communications through documentation, and to create a database for manufacturing.
CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for print, machining, or other
manufacturing operations.
In factories Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) help increase the efficiency
and quality of manufacturing operations. They are used to monitor and control the
manufacturing process with great accuracy.
Computers played a very important role at every stage of landing men on the
moon. They were used to design and test the Apollo spacecraft. The spacecraft itself
contained several small but powerful computers.
In fact it would not have been possible at all to send spacecrafts to explore the
moon and the planets without the help of computers.
Long range weather forecasting is done with the help of computers. Satellites
orbiting the earth send back photographs of cloud formations and other relevant data
like temperature etc. See fig 1.20

Fig 1.20 Showing Weather Forecasting

18
 The information from the satellites and the information collected at the weather
stations have to be analyzed quickly enough so that weather predictions can be made.
The computer analyses the data is a few seconds and based on these results long range
weather forecasts are made.
Computers are used in all areas of aviation. They are used for air traffic control
which helps to organize the safe movement of the aircrafts as flying speeds are very
high. Small computers installed in the aircraft help to collect data from the various
instruments, analyze it and provide information to the pilot in time for decision and
action. Besides in-flight uses computers are also used to train pilots at the start to ‘fly’
an aircraft using computerized aircraft simulators. See fig 1.21

Fig 1.21 Showing Simulator used in aircraft

Modern missiles depend totally on computers for reaching the target area whether
they are launched from ground o ship or air. For instance a missile targeted to it an
aircraft calculates with the help of an on-board computer the speed, direction and the
evasive action of the aircraft and guides the missile both in terms of speed and
direction to make a hit.
Computers are used in transport facilities like airlines and railways. They are used
for efficient handling of seat reservations, maintaining time-tables, crew schedules
etc.
They are also used to control the movement of vehicles in underground railways.
In hospitals special purpose computers built into different pieces of equipment
help to monitor the conditions of patients, record the information and warn doctors
and nurses of changes that call for attention. See Fig 1.22

19
 Fig 1.22 Showing uses of computers in hospitals (OT, ICU, CCU)
Computers analyze large volumes of data in business operations and help produce
relevant information to support the decision making needs of managers. Large and
medium sized companies depend on computers for administrative work like typing
out standard letters, invoices, making out salaries of employees etc.
Computers provide education and entertainment for children of all ages. In
schools and colleges, computers can help to teach almost any subject in a new and
more interesting way. More and more computers are being used at home for learning
and for playing games. They are also used for household record keeping such as
maintaining an inventory of all major items in a home, a list of recipes or menus,
address and phone numbers or for letter writing or any other work that involves typing
work.
Many household appliances like washing or cooking machines are all becoming
computer controlled.
Computers are being used in almost every field now and every day new areas of
activities are being discovered.
_______________________________________________________________________
1.10 DATA REPRESENTATION
________________________________________________________________________
The human beings feel comfortable working in the decimal number system.
However, when the scientists started designing digital computers, they opted for binary
number system. In binary number system, there are only two states- 0 and 1. These are
also called binary digits or bits It is very easy to design a two-stage system, e.g. a switch
is closed or open; a light bulb is on or off; current is flowing through a circuit or not, and
so on. Now, one of these two states may be called 0 and the other 1. The use of binary
number system in digital computers has made the design of digital computers very

20
simple. Since all digital computers use binary number system, let us understand this
numbering system.
1.10.1.Binary Number System
As mentioned above, in binary number system, there are only two states-0 and 1. All
information is represented using zeros and ones. Since we are familiar with the decimal
number system, let us learn how to convert a decimal number to a binary form and vice
versa. The same numbers in the binary number system represents the first two decimal
numbers (0 and 1). That is, we use 0 and 1 in binary number system to represent decimal
numbers 0 and 1, respectively. How do we represent decimal number 2 in binary form?
In binary number system, 2 are represented by ‘10’ and 3 by ‘11’. Table 1.1 displays
binary equivalent for a few decimal numbers shown in Table 1.1 below:
Decimal Binary
Number Number
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
10 1010
11 1011
12 1100
13 1101
14 1110
15 1111

1.10.2.Converting Binary to Decimal

Converting a binary number to a decimal number is simple and straight forward.
Consider a binary number 10111. In this number, the right most bit is called the least
significant bit (LSB). Since the LSB in a binary number can have only two values (0
or 1), its weight is 20, i.e. 4, and so on. Thus, the rightmost bit, which is also called
the most significant bit (MSB) in 10111, has a weight of 24 , i.e. 16. Now you easily
convert 101112 into a decimal number:
10111
21
 =1*24+0*23+1*22+1*21+1*20
=1*16+0*8+1*4+1*2+1*1
=16+0+4+2+1=23
Similarly, the binary number 10101011 is converted into a decimal number as given
here:
10101011
=1*27+0*26+1*25+0*24+1*23+0*22+1*21+1*20
=1*128+0*64+1*32+0*16+1*8+0*4+1*2+1*1
=128+0+32=0+8+0+2+1
=171

1.10.3.Converting Decimal to Binary

As you know, internally all digital computers work in binary system. However,
externally we work in decimal number system. Therefore, when we have to program
computers, we may have to feed them will binary numbers. So let us learn to convert
decimal numbers into binary form. The process involves dividing the decimal number by
2. Then the result (quotient) is divided again by 2. This process is continued until we
cannot divide any further. The binary number is obtained by writing the remainders of
these divisions backward. We will explain the process by converting decimal 88 into a
binary number.
Figure showing conversion of decimal 88 into binary number.

2 88
2 44 0
2 22 0
2 11 0
2 5 1
2 2 1
1 0

Writing the remainders from right to left it will be 1011000.

Let us confirm this conversion by converting binary 1011000 back to a decimal number:
1.10.4.Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
System Converting a large decimal number into a binary number is a time consuming.
To overcome this problem, binary coded decimal (BCD) number system was developed.
In BCD, each decimal digit is converted into its binary equivalent, rather than converting

22
the entire decimal number. Thus, to convert a decimal number into BCD, you just need
to remember binary numbers for decimal 0 through 9. In BCD, 4 bits represent each
decimal digit. BCD representation of decimal 0 through 9 is shown in Table 1.1.
Now, with the help of the above table, it is very easy to convert a decimal number into
BCD. For instance, decimal number 86 is 10000110 in BCD. This is achieved by
writing BCD bits for 8, i.e. 1000 followed by those for 6, i.e. 0110. In the same way, you
can convert a BCD number into Computer Appreciation decimal number by converting
each set of 4 bits into decimal digits. For instance, BCD 10010010 converts into decimal
92.

1.10.5.American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)

American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a standard for
interchanging information between computers or between a computer and peripherals,
such as printer or terminal. The ASCII codes use 7-bit or 8-bit binary number to
represent different characters. The standard ASCII codes use 7-bit code 128
combinations. These combinations include all upper case and lowercase letters, the
numbers 0 through 9, punctuation marks, and special characters used in English.
However, 128 combinations do not include several letters used in other languages and
graphic symbols. To include additional 128 combinations ASCII codes were expanded to
use 8-bit codes. These codes are called Extended ASCII. Most modern computers and
peripherals support Extended ASCII. Most programs, including Word, dBase & FoxPro
allow you t6o directly use ASCII codes to enter text. Therefore, your may find
knowledge of ASCII codes useful. If you want to use ASCII codes to enter text in a
Word document, turn on the Num Lock key on your keyboard. Then press and hold the
Alt key, enter the ASCII code using numeric keypad and release the Alt key. Word
enters the corresponding character when you release the Alt key. Table 1.2 showing
(DEC) means Decimal Value and (ASCII) means American Standard Code for
Information Interchange
DEC ASCI DEC ASCI DEC ASCI DEC ASCI DEC ASCI DEC ASCI DEC ASCI DEC ASCI
. I . I . I . I . I . I . I . I
1 17 33 ! 49 1 65 A 81 Q 97 A 113 Q

2 18 34 “ 50 2 66 B 82 R 98 B 114 R

3 19 35 # 51 3 67 C 83 S 99 C 115 S

4 20 36 $ 52 4 68 D 84 T 100 D 116 T

5 21 37 % 53 5 69 E 85 U 101 E 117 U

6 22 38 & 54 6 70 F 86 V 102 F 118 V

7 23 39 ‘ 55 7 71 G 87 W 103 G 119 W

23
8 24 40 ( 56 8 72 H 88 X 104 H 120 X

9 25 41 ) 57 9 73 I 89 Y 105 I 121 Y

10 26 42 * 58 : 74 J 90 Z 106 J 122 Z

11 27 43 + 59 ; 75 K 91 [ 107 K 123 {

12 28 44 , 60 < 76 L 92 \ 108 L 124 |

13 29 45 - 61 = 77 M 93 ] 109 M 125 }

14 30 46 . 62 > 78 N 94 ^ 110 N 126 ~

15 31 47 63 ? 79 O 95 _ 111 O 127

16 32 48 0 64 @ 80 P 96 ` 112 P 128

Table 1.2. showing 128 characters ASCII codes.

You can also enter extended ASCII codes by using codes 128 through 255. For instance,
Alt 156 enters in the above table, blank columns represent unprintable characters.
Likewise a table converting binary to ASCII be made. In the above table, writing
equivalent Binary number for Decimal number will do the job.

_____________________________________________________________________________
1.11 Summary of this chapter
_____________________________________________________________________________
Electronic device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular form
and of performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined but
variable set of procedural instructions (program) to produce a result in the form of
information or signals. The term computer has been borrowed from compute that means
to calculate. Computers have the capacity to receive data. (Input Unit),To communicate
results. (Output Unit), to store data. (storage / secondary memory), to perform any logical
operation. to understand and execute instructions in the proper order. (control unit
/central processing unit)
The ‘ABACUS’ used by the primary section students can be called a computing aid and
in turn a computer. It was built out by woods and beads. Abacus helps people to keep
track of the numbers as they computing. It is quick but limited storage capabilities.
The first set of machines use to process data Electro-mechanically was called unit record
machines. This set consisted of six basic machines: Card punch, Card verifier, Collator,
Card duplicator, Card sorter, Accounting machine.
Accounting Machine and Duplicator had a wiring panel and when for a punched card
multiple copies were required in desired layout for specified fields, it was obtained by
duplicator, through setting Wiring penal. The same way format of the report was also
decided by the manipulation of wiring penal in the accounting machine. Its accuracy and

24
speed far exceeded the manual systems, but was suitable to small business firms. The
computers were the logical growth of the unit record system.
The features of computers are Automatic: Computers are automatic machines because
once started on a job Speed: A computer is a very fast device. While talking about the
speed of a computer, we do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds (.001),
microseconds (.000001), the nanoseconds and even the picoseconds. Accuracy,
Diligence, Versatility, Power of Remembering and storing.
Computers provide education and entertainment for children of all ages. In schools and
colleges, computers can help to teach almost any subject in a new and more interesting
way. More and more computers are being used at home for learning and for playing
games. They are also used for household record keeping such as maintaining an
inventory of all major items in a home, a list of recipes or menus, address and phone
numbers or for letter writing or any other work that involves typing work.

Check your progress

_______________________________________________________________________
1.12 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
________________________________________________________________________

1. Electronic device which is capable of ………………………..in a particular form

and of performing a sequence of operations in accordance with a predetermined
but variable set of procedural instructions (program) to produce a result in the
form of information or signals.
2. The …………………………………..students can be called a computing aid and
in turn a computer.
3. The first set of machines use to process data …………………………………was
called unit record machines.
4. This set consisted of six basic machines: ………………………….Collator, Card
duplicator, Card sorter, Accounting machine.
5. Computers provide education and…………………………………………………
of all ages.
6. A …………………..is a very fast device. While talking about the speed of a
computer, we do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds (.001),
microseconds (.000001), the nanoseconds and even the picoseconds.

25
 Ans 1. Receiving information (data), 2. ‘ABACUS’ used by the primary section, 3.
Electro-mechanically, 4. Card punch, Card verifier, 5. entertainment for children, 6.
computer

Exercise 2: True and False

State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. It was built out by woods and beads.
2. Abacus helps people to keep track of the numbers as they computing.
3. It is quick but limited storage capabilities.
4. Computers are Manual machines because once started on a job
5. A computer is a very fast device. While talking about the speed of a computer,
we do not talk in terms of seconds or even milliseconds (.001), microseconds
(.000001), the nanoseconds and even the picoseconds.
Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( F ), 5( T )

Exercise 3: Mix and Match

Match statement A with Statement B

S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)

1. Are the fastest computing devices ever invented. Main Frame Computer
If a desktop processes and instruction in micro
second, compared with this a super computer
processes instruction in nanoseconds and even in
picoseconds. It also has the capacity or parallel
processing. These computers consist of thousands
of integrated microprocessors.
2. It has the capability of processing several millions Super computer
of instructions per second and quite large in size.
IBM S/390 is one of the advanced main frame
computer.
3. The distinction between main frame and mini
computers, also between mini and micro computer
(with the increasing power of micros0 is difficult.
These are middle sized special purpose main Computer-aided design
frame computers. Mini computers work well with (CAD)
distributed data processing. One of the popular
minicomputer is VAX made by DEC.

26
4.
is the most familiar kind of computers with the
increasing power of micros it has become difficult Mini Computer
to distinguish between mini and micro.
5. is the use of computer systems to assist in the Micro Computer
creation, modification, analysis, or optimization of
a design.

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (5), 4. (3), 5. (4)

Exercise 4: Very Short Questions

1. Define the term Computer?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Computers analyze large volumes of data in business operations. Comment?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Computers provide education and entertainment? Explain.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Define ‘ABACUS’?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Difference between LSIC and VLSIC

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

6. Features and Limitations of various generations of computers.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

27
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

1. Write minimum seven advantages of Computers ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Enumerate the various uses of Computers?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Define various generations of computers?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Explain the various types of Computers on the basis size, technology and uses?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Explain Binary, Decimal, BCD & ASCII Number system?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

28
 Chapter – 2: Essential Components of Computers
________________________________________________________________________
2. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Objectives
2.2 The Concept of Hardware, Software, Firmware, Live ware
2.3 Type of Software
2.3.1 System Software
2.3.1.1 Operating System
2.3.1.2 Programming Languages
2.3.1.3 Utility Programs
2.3.2 Application Software
2.4 Summary of the chapter
2.5 Exercise
________________________________________________________________________
2.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
• Understand the definition of the Hardware
• Explain the basics of Firmware and Live ware.
• Understand the Generation of computers.
• Understand the difference between Hardware and software.
• Understand Types of computer Software’s
o System Software
o Applications Software
o Size
______________________________________________________________________________
2.2 The Concept of Hardware, Firmware, Live ware and Software
______________________________________________________________________________

2.2.1 HARDWARE: Hardware is the term given to the machinery itself and to various
individual pieces of equipment. It refers to physical devices of a computer system.
Thus, the input, storage, processing, control and output devices and hardware.
(The detailed discussion on these various devices is outside the scope of this
paper).

29
2.2.2 FIRMWARE. Computer software in conventional system is supplied on storage
media like CD, floppies, tapes, disks etc. However, with the advancement in
technology and the reduction in the hard ware cost, today software is also being
made available by many computer manufacturers on read only memory chips.
These ROM chips can be easily plugged into the computer system and they form a
part of the hardware. Such programs (software) made available on hardware are
known as firmware. Firmware often refers to sequence of instructions (software)
that is substituted for hardware. Initially only system software was supplied in the
form of firmware. But today, even application programs are being supplied in
firmware form.

2.2.3 LIVEWARE. Liveware refers to the human beings. Human beings play the most
important role in a computer system since a computer cannot think and do
anything on its own. The computer has to be programmed and fed with input.
They human beings (Live ware) do this job.

2.2.4 SOFTWARE. A computer cannot do anything on its own. It must be instructed

to do the desired job. Hence it is necessary to specify a sequence of instructions
that computer must perform to solve a problem. Such a sequence of instructions
written in a language that can be understood by a computer is called computer
program. It is the program that controls the processing activity of the computer.
The term software refers to a set of computer programs, and associated documents
that describe the program and how they are to be used.

2.2.5 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE.

In order for a computer to produce useful output, the hardware and software must
work together. Nothing useful can be done with the computer hardware on its
own and the software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware. To take an
analogy, a cassette player and the blank cassettes purchased from the market are
hardware. The songs recorded on cassette are its software. To get a particular job
done by a computer, the relevant software should be loaded in the hardware before
processing starts. This brings out following points:
1. Both hardware and software are necessary for a computer to useful job. Both are
complementary to each other.
2. The same hardware can be used with different software to make a computer
system perform different type of jobs.

30
 3. Except for upgrades (like increasing the memory or hard disk capabilities, or
adding other peripherals) hardware is normally a onetime expenses, whereas
software is a continuous expense.
_______________________________________________________________________
2.3 Types of Software
_______________________________________________________________________
A wide variety of computer software is available today. Although the range of
software available is vast and varied, most software can be divided into two major
categories:

Types
of
Softwares

Application
System Software
Software

Fig 2.1 Types of Software

1. System Software.
2. Application Software.

2.3.1 System Software

System Software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation
and extend the processing capability of a computer. In general, computer’s system
software performs one or more of the following functions:
a. Supports the development of other application software.
b. Supports the execution of other application software.

31
 c. Monitor the effective use of various hardware resources such as CPU, memory,
peripherals etc.
d. Communicates with the controls the operation of peripherals devices such as
printer, disk, tape etc.
All the programs which can be part of system software can be classified into three
categories:

Types of
system
softwares

Operating Programming Utility

System Languages Programs

Fig 2.2 Types of System Software

1. Operating System.
2. Programming Languages including assembler, translators, interpreter, compiler
and linker.
3. Utility Programs.

2.3.1.1. Operating System

An operating system (often referred as OS) is an integrated set of programs that
control the resources (CPU, MEMORY, I/O devices etc) of a computer system and
provide its user with an interface or virtual machine that is more convenient to use than
the bare machine. An operating system consists of two parts. First part is called BIOS
(Basic Input Output System) which is stored in a non erasable ROM. The other part
which provides most of the services is stored on a media generally a hard disk. A user
interacts with the computer using OS.

32
 Operating system manages and coordinates the functions performed by the computer
hardware, including the CPU, input/output devices, secondary storage devices, and
communication and network equipment. Operating systems are the most important
program that runs on a computer. Every general-purpose computer must have an
operating system to run other programs. Operating Systems perform basic tasks, such as
recognizing input from the keyboard, sending output to the display screen, keeping track
of files and directions on the disk, and controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives
and printers.
The operating system software must keep track of each hardware resources determine
who gets what determine when the user will have access to the resources allocate how
much of the resource the user will be given, and terminate access at end of the use period.
Operating Systems vary in complexity from those that support single user
microcomputers to those that handle multi-user mainframes. Their complexity depends
on the computer system’s size and scope, together with the type of performance provided
to its users. A single stand-alone microcomputer will have a relatively simple operating
system, whereas a mainframe that supports hundred of users accessing system
simultaneously will have one that is far more complex. The primary purpose of an
operating system is to maximize the productivity of computer system by operating it in
the most efficient manner and minimizing the amount of human intervention required.
An operating system also simplifies the job of computer programmers, since it includes
programs that perform common input/output and storage operations and other standard
processing functions. If you have any hands on experience on a computer, you know that
the operating system must be loaded and activated before you can accomplish other tasks.
This emphasizes that operating systems are the most indispensable component of the
software interface between users and the hardware of their computer systems.
Many operating systems are designed as a collection of program modules, which can
be organized in combination with various capabilities around a central module or kernel.
Such operating systems can be tailored to fit the processing power and memory capability
of a computer system and the type of processing jobs that need to be done on it. For
example, some operating system packages include a selected number of utility programs,
language translator programs (compilers and interpreters), and even some application
programs. Examples of popular microcomputer operating systems are windows, DOS,
OS/2 for PCs and Mac OS for Apple computers, etc. An example of operating systems
for a mainframe is MVS. Given below is the list of programs that are included in some
of the major operating systems: UNIX, OS/2 and MVS. Given below are major
components of MVS:
1. Job Entry Subsystem

33
 2. Storage Management
3. System Resource Manager
4. Data Management
5. Supervisor Services
6. Recovery Management

2.3.1.1.1. FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM:

Even the simplest operating system in a mini computer or main frame performs a
number of resource management tasks or functions. These functions include job
management, batch processing, on-line processing, data management, virtual storage, and
input/output management.
1. Job Management. Job management software manages the jobs waiting to be
processed. It recognizes jobs, identifies their priorities, determines whether the
appropriate main memory and secondary storage capability they require is
available, and schedules and finally runs each job at the appropriate moment.
2. Batch Processing. System software is available to support the different methods
of processing a job. With batch processing, the most basic method, data are
accumulated and processed in groups. Payroll applications, for example, are often
processed this way. Once in every week, hourly records are grouped and the
payroll software is run.
3. On-line Processing. In on-line processing, data are processed instantaneously,
For example, a sales person may need to find out whether a particular item
requested by a customer is in stock for immediate shipment. Using an on line
system the request for information will be instantly acknowledged by the on-line
system the request for information will be instantly acknowledged by the on-line
software, and the appropriate steps will be taken to access the central database and
return the requested information to the terminal from which the request was made.
All of these steps take less than a few second, at the most. Most on-line operating
systems have multi-user and multitasking capabilities.
4. Data Management. In the process of managing the resources of the computer
system, operating system software also manages the storage and retrieval of data.
As the system software handles many of the details associated with the process,
such details are not a primary concern for users or programmers writing
application programs.
5. Virtual Storage. Operating systems also manages the allocation of main memory
to specific jobs. Some operating systems have a feature called virtual storage.
With this software it is possible to increase the capacity of main memory without

34
 actually increasing its size. This is accomplished by breaking a job into sequences
of instructions, called page or segments, and keeping only a few of these. In main
memory at a time; the reminders are kept on secondary storage devices. As a
result, relatively large jobs can be processed by a CPU that in fact contains a
relatively small memory.
6. Input/output Management. Operating systems also manage the input to and
output from a computer system. This applies to the flow of data among
computers, terminals, and other devices such as printers. Application programs
use the operating system extensively to handle input and output devices as needed.
For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and
powers. It is like a traffic policeman it makes sure that different programs and
users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating
system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not
access the system. The following additional jobs are performed:
1. Process management: A process is a program in execution. During
execution, a process needs certain resources such as CPU time, memory space,
files and I/O devices. At a particular instance of time, a computer system
normally consists of a collection of processes. The process management
module of an operating system takes care of the creating and deletion of
processes, scheduling of various system resources to the different processes
requesting them, and providing mechanisms for synchronization and
communication among processes.
2. Memory Management: To execute a program, it must be loaded, together
with the data it accesses, in the main memory (at least partially). To improve
CPU utilization and to provide better response time to users, a computer
system normally keeps several programs in main memory. The memory
management module of an operating system takes care of the allocation and
de-allocation of memory space to the various programs in need of this
resource.
3. File Management: All computer systems are used for storage, retrieval and
sharing of information. A computer stores such information in units called
files. Process can read information from file and can create new files for
storing newly generated information. A file created by one application and
then shared with different application at a later time. The file management
module of an operating system takes care of file related activities such as
organisation, storing, retrieval, naming, sharing and protection of file. It
allows programs to use a set of operations that characterize the file abstraction

35
 and free the programmers from concerns about the details of space allocation
and layout of the secondary storage device.
4. Device Management: A computer normally consists of several I/O devices
such as terminal, printer, disk and tape. The device management module of an
operating system takes care of controlling all the computer’s I/O devices. It
keep track of input output request from processes, issues commands to the I/O
devices, and ensures correct data transmission to/form I/O device. It also
provides an interface between the devices and the rest of the system that is
simple and easy to use. Often this interface is device independent, i.e. the
interface is same for all types of I/O devices.
5. Command Interpretation: User communicates with the computer system via
a set of commands provided by the operating system. Operating system
provides a command language or job control language. The command
interpretation module of an operating system takes care of interpreting user
commands, supplied individually or in the form of command language, and
directing the system resources to handle the request.
6. Keeping account of usages : Usage account being updated according.
7. Maintenance of log of system : Maintenance of log book and maintenance
record being updated.
8. Security: computer system often store large amount of information, some of
which is highly sensitive and valuable to their users. Security module of an
operating system ensures the protection against destruction and unauthorized
access. This module also ensures that when several disjoint processes are
being executed simultaneously. One process does not interfere with the other,
or with the operating system itself.
9. Maintenance of Internal time clock : Maintenance of internal time clock
being updated.

2.3.1.1.2. CLASSIFICATION OF OPERATING SYSTEMS Operating systems

can be classified as follows:
1. Multi-user: operating systems allow two or more users to run programs at the
same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of
concurrent users. The operating systems of mainframes and minicomputer are
multiuser systems. Examples are MVS, UNIX, etc. Another term for multi-user
is time-sharing.
2. Multiprocessing: Multiprocessing refers to a computer system’s ability to support
more than one process-program) at the same time. Multiprocessing operating

36
 systems enable several programs to run concurrently. MVS and UNIX are two of
the most widely used multiprocessing systems, but there are many others,
including OS/2 for high end PCs. Multiprocessing systems are much more
complicated than single-process systems, because the operating system must
allocate resources to competing processes in a reasonable manner.
Multiprocessing also refers to the utilization of multiple CPUs in a single
computer system. This is also called parallel processing.
3. Multitasking: Multitasking allows more than one program to run concurrently.
Multitasking is the ability to execute more than one task at the same time, a task
being a program. The terms multitasking and multiprocessing are often used
interchangeably, although multiprocessing sometimes implies that more than one
CPU is involved. In multitasking, only one CPU is involved, but it switches from
one program to another so quickly that it gives the appearance of executing all of
the programs at the same time.
There are two basic types of multitasking:
1. Preemptive.
2. Cooperative
In preemptive multitasking, the Operating system parcels out CPU time slices
to each program. In cooperative multitasking, each program can control the
CPU for as long as it needs it. If a program is not using the CPU, however, it
can allow another program to use it temporarily, OS/2, Windows 95, Windows
NT, the Amiga operating system and UNIX use preemptive multitasking,
whereas Microsoft Windows 3.x and the MultiFinder (for Macintosh
Computers) use cooperative multitasking.
4. Multithreading: allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
Multithreading is the ability of an operating system to execute different parts of a
program, called threads, simultaneously. The programmer must carefully design
the program in such a way that all the threads can run at the same time without
interfere with each other.
5. Real-time: Real-time operating systems are systems that respond to input
immediately. This category includes operating systems designed substantially for
the purpose of controlling and monitoring external activities with timing
constraints. They are used for such tasks as navigation, in which the computer
must react to a steady flow of information without interruption. Most general-
purpose operating systems like DOS and UNIX are not real-time because they can
take a few seconds, or even minutes to react.

37
2.3.1.1.3 Window Environment, Files and Folders: Operating systems provide a
software platform on top of which other programs called applications programs
can run. The applications programs must be written to run on top of a particular
operating system. Your choice of operating system, therefore, determines to a
great extent the applications you can run.
As a user, you normally interact with the operating system through a set of
commands. For example, the DOS operating system contains commands such as
COPY and RENAME for copying files and changing the names of files,
respectively. The commands are accepted and executed by a part of the operating
system called the command processor or command line interpreter.
Microsoft windows system was developed to overcome the limitations of its own
DOS operating system. Window version 3.0 was released in 1990, which was
running under DOS. Subsequently Windows 95, Windows98, Windows2000,
Windows XP were released with a new concept of Graphical User Interface
(GUI). The main features of windows are as follows:
1. Graphical User Interface (GUI), which allows you to enter commands by
pointing and clicking at objects that appears on the screen.
2. It was not only operating system, but a complete operating environment.
3. It is single user multitasking operating system.
4. DOS allowed file name of maximum 8 characters. It allowed file name up
to 255 characters and also allowed punctuation marks could be used.
All computer systems are used for storage, retrieval and sharing of information. A
computer stores such information in units called files. Most of the processing
operations centers round the Files and Folders.
File: File is a collection of related data. Every files has a name. Under windows
the name can be as long as 255 characters and can include punctuation marks.
The different types of files are used in computer. The file that stores letters,
memos, documents etc. is called a document or text file. File containing
instruction written in programming language is called a program file. Now a days
file may contain audio or video matter.
Folder (Directory): Hard-Disk works as a Secondary Storage device. The
program executions are done in computer primary memory which stores data till
the power is on. When the computer is shut off, if the information is not
transferred to a permanent storage like floppy and/or Hard Disk, will be lost.
Hard Disk Drive : User may be using computer for various purposes, though not
at the same time. The storage capacity of Hard Disk Drive is quite large. A
substantial number of files can be stored on a hard disk. If all the them put in a
38
area you are working, it will be quite difficult for the user to take the stock of
situation. If some error occurs. Also computer will take a large time to find the
file out of the many stored. Therefore, to outcome this problem, files are divided
into groups based on some logic. If for one operation you require say twenty files,
then these 20 files are separated from the lot and kept at one place commonly
known as directory. This way on the HD user can have large number of
directories having small number of files in each.
Thus HD can be divided into small sections either by creating PARTITIONS, or
creating DIRECTORIES. When a Hard Disk is divided into partitions, each
partition is treated a separate HD represented by C: D: E: so on depending upon
the capability of OS to support them. User has also to specify the area to be
occupied by each partition (called size of partition). If user is working under one
partition, it will use only they are ASSIGNED to it. If no area under the partition
is available, it will give a message ‘DISK FULL’, in spite of the fact that it has a
large free area under other partitions, this is because of the fact, that each partition
is treated a separate HD of the size of partitions.
User can create small sections on the HD without creating partitions. Each section
is given a name called a DIRECTORY under DOS and FOLDER under window
environment. NO specific area(size) is assigned to directory. The total area on the
disk(partition) is shared by all directories on the FIRST COME & FIRST
SERVED basis, till the free area is available on the DISK, HD can be divided into
directory, sub-directory, sub-sub-directory and so on. The top most section is
called ‘ROOT DIRECTORY’ and is denoted by ‘\’. All other directories are
supposed to be sub directories either of ROOT DIRECTORY or of another
directory itself and the entire setup can be like a TREE having root and main stem,
from which there are branches and sub-branches and so on. Map of a typical
directory may look like as:
C:\
This represents that in the root directory of drive ‘C’ there are three main
directories named COMMERCE, SCIENCE, POLSC in which commerce has
three SUB-DIRECTOREIS, and the sub-directory THIRD YEAR has further three
sub-directories. Creating of these directories, sub-directories is done through DOS
commands MD CD RD. In window to create a folder, right click the mouse a
menu will appear, click on option NEW, another menu will appear in which you
select FOLDER. You will find a folder by the name NEW FOLDER on the desk
top. Again right click on this created folder. Select rename. Now give the desired
name to the folder.

39
2.3.1.2. Programming Language. The second important component of system software,
after operating system is languages. Computer language is a means of communication
used to communicate between people and computer.

Fig 2.3 Programming Languages

The main difference between a natural language and a computer language is that
natural language has a large vocabulary, but most computer languages use a very
limited or restricted vocabulary. Computer understands only one language i.e.
Machine Language, Interpreters, Compilers and Assembler act as translators for
converting the instructions into machine language from any mode other than
machine language. Linker is to link different modules either from the library or
supplied concurrently and OS calls.
The languages can be classified into three categories:

40
 Classification
of Languages

Machine Low Level High Level

Language Languages Language

Fig 2.3a Classification of Language

1. Machine Language:
2. Low Level Language :
3. High Level Languages:
1. Machine Language: There is only one language understood by the computer
without using a translation program. This language is called Machine Language
of the computer. The machine language of a computer is normally written as
string of binary 1’s and 0’s. The circuitry of a computer is wired in such a way
that it immediately recognizes the machine language instructions and converts
them into electrical signals needed to execute them.
This is obviously not a very easy to use language, partly because it is difficult to read
and understood and partly because it is written in a number system with which we are not
familiar. But, it will be surprising to note that some of the firs programmers, who worked
with the first few computers, actually wrote their programs in binary form.
Programs written in machine language can be executed very fast by the computer.
This is mainly because machine instructions are directly understood by the computer and
no translation of the program is required. However, the writing in machine language has
several disadvantages given below:
1. Machine dependent
2. Difficult to program
3. Error prone
4. Difficult to modify
In short, writing a program in machine language is so difficult and time consuming
that it is rarely used today.

41
2. Assembly Language: The first step in the evolution of programming languages
was the development of which it known as an assembly language. In an assembly
language, mnemonics are used to represent operations to be performed by the
computer and string of characters to represent addresses of locations in the
computer memory where the operands will be stored. Thus the language is
matched to a particular computer’s processor structure and is thus machine
dependent.
Assembler translates the program written in assembly language to a set of
machine instructions which can be executed by a computer.
Assembly language has the following advantages over the machine language:
1. Easier to understand and use.
2. Easier to locate and correct errors.
3. Easier to modify.
4. No worry about addresses.
5. Easily re-locatable.
Still it has following limitations:
1. Machine dependent.
2. Knowledge of hardware required.
3. Machine level coding.
3. High Level Languages: Writing programs in Machine Language and also
in Assembly was difficult and also these languages were machine dependent and it
was time consuming to modify them. High level languages were developed to
overcome these problems. For writing programs in high level language, the
programmer needs not to know the internal structure of the computer. He needs
not to know the instructions the CPU can execute or how to address memory or
I/O device. Thus, instead of concentrating on internal structure of the computer,
the programmer concentrates on the logic of the program. High level language
syntax uses simple English words and common mathematical symbols.
We use computer for different type of applications, such as business, scientific,
engineering etc. On the same lines, different high level languages have been
developed to effectively handle different applications. Some of the common high
level languages are BASIC, FORTRAN, COBOL, PL/1, PASCAL, ADA, RPG,
LISP, ALGOL, C, C++ etc. Each high level language is suitable for a particular
type of application. For instance, COBOL is normally used in business
applications and may not be suitable for engineering and scientific applications.
2.2.1.2.1. Translators (Interpreter, Compiler, and Assembler): As you know that
computer understands only machine language, therefore to run the program written in

42
a high level language, we need to convert it to a machine language. Translation
programs do this job. There are three types of translation programs:
1. Translators (Interpreter, Compiler, and Assembler): As you know that
computer understands only machine language, therefore to run the program
written in a high level language, we need to convert it to a machine language.
Translation programs do this job. There are three types of translation programs.
See figure 2.3 for the classification of the translators.

Translators

Interpreters Compilers Assemblers

Fig 2.3 Classification of Translators

1. Interpreters.
2. Compilers.
3. Assemblers.
a. Interpreters: An interpreter is a type of translator used for translating
programs written in high level languages. It takes one statement of a high-
level language program, translates it into machine language instruction.
Thus in case of interpreter, the translation and execution processes alternate
for each statement encountered in the high level language program. If there
is a syntax error in any instruction, it may at your request leave that
instruction and may proceed further.
b. Compiler: the computer can directly execute only machine language
program. Therefore to run the program written in a high level language, we
need to convert it to a machine language. Compiler is one of the translation
programs. Compiler is a translator program (much more sophisticated than
an assembler) that translates a high level language program into machine

43
 language before executing it. Since high-level language instructions are
macro instructions, the compiler translate each high level language
instruction into a set of machine language instructions. Hence there is one-
to-many correspondence between the high level language instructions of a
source program and the machine instructions of its equivalent program.
Even the syntax error in the last line will not allow the compilation of
whole of the program. The source must be free of errors before compiled.
c. Assembler: An assembly language program must be converted (translated)
into its equivalent machine language program before it can be executed on the
computer. The translation is done with the help of a translator program known
as assembler. The assembler of a computer system is system software
supplied by the computer manufacturer that translates an assembly language
program into an equivalent machine language program of the computer. It is
so called because in addition to translating an assembly language program into
its equivalent machine language program, it also assembles the machine
language program in the main memory of the computer and makes it ready for
execution.
Linkers: Software often consists of several thousands, even several millions
of program codes. For various reasons it may not be possible to include all in
one source code. Also one part of the program may be useful to many other
programs to be developed. Therefore, a module approach is generally adopted
software. Often there is no need to even write some program modules because
there might be programs available in program library, which offers the same
functionality. These library programs are maintained in their object code
form. A program called a linker is used to properly combine all the object
program files (modules) of the software, and to convert them into the final
executable program which is sometimes called a load module. That is, a linker
takes object program files (modules) and fits them together to assemble them
into the program’s final executable form. Even if there is module is to be
linked still linker is required to link OS calls.
2.3.1.3.Utility Programs: Utility is a program that performs a very specific task,
usually related to managing system resources. Operating systems contain a number of
utilities for managing disk drive, printer and other devices.
Utilities differ from applications mostly in term of size and complexity. For example
word processor, spreadsheet and database applications are considered as applications
because they are large programs that perform a variety of functions not directly

44
 related to managing computer resources. Some of the tasks commonly performed by
utility programs include the following:
1. Formatting hard disk or floppy. (Formatting)
2. Reorganizing files on hard disk to conserve storage space. (Defragging).
3. Taking backup files stored on the hard disk to tape of floppy.
4. Searching a particular file from a directory.
5. Checking the amount of memory available.
6. Checking the amount of space available on hard disk.
7. Scanning the computer for virus and errors.
___________________________________________________________________
2.3.2. Application Software
___________________________________________________________________
Application software is a set of one or more programs designed to solve a specific
problem or do a specific task. For example, application software for payroll processing
produces pay slip as the major output, and application software for processing
examination results produces mark sheets as the major output along with some other
statistical reports.
There is literally millions of application software available for a wide range of
applications such as inventory management, preparation of tax return, banking, hospital
administration, insurance. With so many applications available, it is not possible to
categorize them all and to cover them here. Some most common one is listed below:

2.3.2.1. General Purpose Packaged Software: Here just to have a feel of what
application software does, some of the most commonly known application software area
briefly described below.

1. Word-Processing Software: Word-Processing is a term that describes the

use of computers to create, edit, view, format, store, retrieve and print
documents (written material such as letters, reports, books, etc.). Word-
processing software is application software that enables the user to do all
these on a computer system. The need to create documents is so common
in every walk of life, whether it is at work, at school, or at home, that word-
processing software is the most commonly used application software.
2. Spreadsheet Software: Spreadsheet software is a numeric data analysis
tool that allows you to create a kind of computerized ledger. The entire
sheet is divided into columns and rows. The intersection of column and
row is called cell. These cells have three powerful attributes.
45
 1. It can hold large information.
2. It can have a power of calculation like calculator.
3. It has access/relation with every cell in the sheet, and if instructed, can
change its contents depending upon the content of another cell.
Spreadsheet software offers considerable ease of performing such tasks by
automating all arithmetic calculations and making it much easier to change
certain numeric values and immediately seeing the effect of these changes
across the worksheet.
3. Database Software: This application software is designed to take
advantage of the tremendous capability of computer systems in storing,
organizing and selectively retrieving large volumes of data efficiently. A
database is a collection of related data stored and treated as a unit for
information retrieval purposes. A database concept can be best illustrated
with an example. For example, a school’s student database might contain
the name, sex, data of birth, current address, permanent address, parent’s
occupation, marks scored in various subjects in each class already passed,
and current occupation for all the students who are either currently enrolled
or have already graduated from the school. The data of one student in the
student database is known as a record. A database software is a set of one
or more programs that enables users to create a database maintain it (add,
delete and update its records), organize its data in desired fashion (for
example, sort its records alphabetically name-wise), and to selectively
retrieve useful information from it. To get the names of all currently
enrolled students from the student database whose birthdays fall today)?
4. Graphics Software: Graphics software enables us to use a computer
system for creating, editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and printing
designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything else that can be drawn in
the traditional manner.
5. Personal Assistance Software: Personal assistance software allows us to
use personal computers for storing and retrieving our personal information,
and planning and managing our schedules, contacts, financial and inventory
of important items.
6. Education Software: Education software allows computer systems to be
used as a teaching and learning tool. A few examples or such applications
are:
a. Applications that teach young children to do mathematics, how to
recognize the alphabet, or how to read whole words and sentences. The use

46
of a computer allows the learning process to be made interesting by
incorporating audio-visual effects in the application.
b. Applications that allow students to prepare for tests and entrance
examinations. These applications simulate a test or an examination by
asking similar question to the student and guide the student when he/she
answers wrongly to a question. The beauty of these applications is that
they are designed to prepare each student at his/her own knowledge level
and pace of learning.
c. Applications that allow an individual to take on-line examinations in
which an examiner has to use a computer during the examination. The
computer presents questions one at a time on its screen and the examinee
has to click the right answer from multiple choices presented to him/her. In
some online examinations each question has a difficulty level attached to it.
It means that the examination automatically adapts itself according to how
the student answers the previous question. If he/she answers a question
correctly, he/she gets a more difficult question and vice-versa. The beauty
of these applications is that the result of the examination (pass/fail and
percentage of marks obtained) is declared to the examinee immediately
after the examination is over (before the examinee leaves the computer that
he/she was using for the examination).
This is because the computer dynamically keeps updating the score as the
examinee progresses through the examination questions.
d. Applications that allow individuals to learn foreign languages. Use
of such applications has been found to be very useful as compared to the
use of books because these applications incorporate both text and sound to
allow the learner to see words and phrases on the screen as they are
pronounced by the computer.
e. Applications that allow hard-copy books and other reading material
to be made available in soft-copy form on computers. In these applications,
the power of computer is effectively utilized for quickly searching for
specific facts of interest to a particular reader. Due to this feature several
reference books such as encyclopedias and dictionaries are now being
published and made available on CD-ROMs. Many journals, magazines
and product manuals are also being published in electronic form so that
users can access and print only those articles/portions in which they are
interested.

47
 7. Entertainment Software: Allow computer systems to be used as an
entertainment tool. Applications are:
a. Video Games. Today thousands of video game applications are
available on computer systems. Special audio and visual effects are used in
these applications to make the game thrilling and exciting for the users.
b. Interactive Television. These applications allow users to either use
their computer systems as an interactive television or to convert their
conventional televisions into an interactive television. An interaction TV
allows users to select TV programs from a massive video archive, view at
the time they wish.
c. Game Partner. These applications allow computers to become a
game partner of an individual for playing conventional games that require
two players. A good example of such an application is the use of
computers for playing chess.
2.3.2.2. ACQUIRING SOFTWARE: At one time, application and
system software were included in the purchase price of the computer. Today,
however, only minimum system software is usually included in the purchase price
of the computer, that too not by all computer manufacturers. Desired software
may be obtained today in one or more of the ways discussed below. The relative
advantages and limitations of each way of obtaining software are also discussed
below.
2.3.2.2.1. Buying Pre-written Software: Thousands of pre-written
software packages are available today. If you can find a software package
that meets your requirements, purchasing it is probably the best option.
The following steps are typically followed in selecting and buying a pre-
written software package by a user:
a. The user must first prepare a list of all available software packages that
are meant for performing the task(s) for which the user is looking for
software.
b. Further narrow down the selection list examining the input data format
accepted, the format and contents of the output produced, the range of I.O
devices supported, the file formats supported for storage, the average
response time, and the quality of the documents supported by the software
package.
c. The third step is to choose the best one from the list of selected software.
The factors commonly used for this purpose are actual demonstration of the
package on user’s system with his/her data, the duration and level of

48
 warranty support provided by the software vendor, and the cost of the
package as compared to other selected.
d. The final step is to find out the source from where the finally chosen
software can be purchased at the cheapest price and after-sale support is
very important.
The following are the advantages and limitations of buying a pre-written
software package:
(i) A pre-written software package usually costs less because its
development and maintenance costs are shared by many customers.
(ii) With a pre-written software package, a user can start the planned
activity almost immediately. The user need not wait for the software
to be developed and tested before the planned activity can be started.
(iii) Pre-written software packages are usually designed to be general
purpose so that they can meet the requirements of as many potential
users as possible. Due to this feature, many times the operating
efficiency and the capability to meet the specific needs of a user
more effectively is not as good for pre-written software packages as
for in-house developed software packages.

2.3.2.2.2. Tailor made and Customized Software: Often there are situations
where none of the available pre-written software packages can meet the specific
requirements of a user (an organization or an individual) either partially or fully.
In such a situation, it becomes necessary to create software package to satisfy the
specific requirements. The software package can be tailor made or may be
customized.
Tailor made: Even after making the detailed analysis, if it is found that no
software is suitable and the software is to be developed from the scratch, it will be
called, developing a tailor made software.
Customized Software: If one or more available pre-written software packages
partially meet the specific requirements, then organization can choose to get them
customized, either by getting additional module written or by getting it modified
suiting to its own need. This will be called getting software customized.
A tailor made software package can be developed in Two ways:
1. In house development.
2. Getting out sourced from another organization by placing an order.

49
Both have got relative advantages and disadvantages. The following are the
advantages and limitations of ordering a customized software package rather than
developing it in-house:
a. In case of ordering, the user need not maintain its own software development
team. Maintaining and managing such a team is an expensive affair and may not
be justified for an organization that does not need to develop software on a regular
basis.
b. It is easier to carry out changes in the software if it is developed by an in-house
team. For ordered customized software, the user has to depend on the vendor for
carrying out the changes the vendor may separately charge for every request.
Out sourcing: the following steps typically followed for getting the software
package developed from the outside organization:
a. The user has to first of all list out all its requirements very carefully.
b. The user then floats a tender for inviting quotations for the creation of
the requisite software. Sometimes the user may directly contact few software
houses instead of floating a tender for quotations.
c. After the quotations are received, the user shortlists a few of them for further
interaction based on the cost quoted by them, their reputation in the market, their
submitted proposal, etc.
d. The user then personally interacts with the representative(s) of each of the short
listed vendors. Based, on this interaction, the user makes a final choice of vendor
to whom it wants to offer the contract of, creation of the requisite software.
e. The selected vendor then creates the software package and delivers it to the
user. Often the vendor has to very closely interact with the user during the
software development process.
Often the user has to order for both the hardware and the software. In this case,
the user may choose to place the order for both to a single vendor. The vendor
develops the software on the chosen hardware and delivers the software along with
the hardware to the user. This is normally referred to as an end-to-end solution or
a turnkey solution.
Developing Customized Software: If available pre-written software packages can
meet the partial requirements then organization can choose to get it customized.
The following steps typically follow:
a. A project team is first constituted to carry out the development activity.
b. The team studies the requirements and plans the functional modules.

50
 c. It then analyzes which of the functional modules need to be developed
and which of the functional modules are available with existing pre-written
software.
d. For the functional modules that need to be developed, the team next plans their
programs and does the coding, testing, debugging and documentation for the
planned programs.
e. All the modules are then tested in an integrated manner.
f. The software is then implemented, used and maintained.
2.3.2.3. Downloading Public-domain Software: Public-domain software is
software that is available for free or for a very nominal charge from the bulletin boards or
user-group libraries on the internet. Creators of this software obtain distribution for their
products by supplying free copies to bulletin boards and user-group libraries. The
following are the advantages and limitations of downloading and using public-domain
software packages:
a. They are available for free.
b. They can be downloaded and used immediately. The user need not wait for the
software to be developed and tested before the planned activity can be started.
c. They may not be properly tested before release and their support is normally
poor as compared to commercial software. Hence they may fail during execution.
_______________________________________________________________________
2.4 Summary of this chapter
________________________________________________________________________
Hardware is the term given to the machinery itself and to various individual pieces of
equipment. It refers to physical devices of a computer system. Thus input, storage,
processing control and output devices and hardware.
Firmware often refers to sequence of instructions (software) that is substituted for
hardware. Initially only system software was supplied in the form of firmware.
Live ware refers to the human beings. Human beings play the most important role in a
computer system since a computer cannot think and do anything on its own.
It is the program that controls the processing activity of the computer. The term software
refers to a set of computer programs, and associated documents that describe the program
and how they are to be used.
Both hardware and software are necessary for a computer to useful job. Both are
complementary to each other.
The same hardware can be used with different software to make a computer system
perform different type of jobs.

51
Except for upgrades (like increasing the memory or hard disk capabilities, or adding other
peripherals) hardware is normally a onetime expenses, whereas software is a continuous
expense.
System Software is a set of one or more programs designed to control the operation and
extend the processing capability of a computer.

Check your progress

______________________________________________________________________
2.5 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
________________________________________________________________________
1. Supports the …………………….of other application software.
2. Supports the ………………………of other application software.
3. Monitor the effective use of various hardware ………………………..such as
CPU, memory, peripherals etc.
4. Communicates with the ………………………….of peripherals devices such
as printer, disk, tape etc.
5. Hardware is the term given to the ………………………….and to various
individual pieces of equipment.

Ans 1. development , 2. execution, 3. resources, 4. controls the operation 5.

machinery itself

Exercise 2: True and False

State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. Such programs (software) made available on hardware are known as firmware.
2. Live ware refers to the human beings. Human beings play the most important role
in a computer system since a computer cannot think and do anything on its own.
3. Such a sequence of instructions written in a language that can be understood by a
computer is called computer program.
4. Hardware can be used with different software to make a computer system perform
different type of jobs.
5. Public-domain software is software that is available for free or for a very nominal
charge from the bulletin boards or user-group libraries on the internet.
Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( T ), 5( T )

52
Exercise 3: Mix and Match
Match statement A with Statement B
S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)
1. enables us to use a computer system for creating, Personal assistance
editing, viewing, storing, retrieving and printing software
designs, drawings, pictures, graphs and anything
else that can be drawn in the traditional manner.
2. allows us to use personal computers for storing Graphics software
and retrieving our personal information, and
planning and managing our schedules, contacts,
financial and inventory of important items.

3. allows computer systems to be used as a teaching

and learning tool. A few examples or such
applications are Goods which are used by final
consumer for consumption are called consumer Customized Software
goods e.g. Rice, Biscuit, Mobile, Fridge etc.

4. Even after making the detailed analysis, if it is

found that no software is suitable and the software
is to be developed from the scratch, it will be
called, developing a tailor made software. Education software

5. If one or more available pre-written software Tailor made

packages partially meet the specific requirements,
then organization can choose to get them
customized,
Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (5), 4. (3), 5. (4)

Exercise 4: Very Short Questions

1. Difference between software and hardware?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Difference between Firmware and Live ware?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

53
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. What is Operating System?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. What is System Software? How it is different from Application Software.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------- -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. What is Tailor Made Software?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

1. Explain the functions of Operating system?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. What is acquiring Software?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Explain the term Outsourcing?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

54
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. What is Public Domain Software?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. What are utility programs? Explain with the help of suitable example.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

55
 Chapter – 3: Information System
_______________________________________________________________________
3. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
3.1 Objectives
3.2 The Concept and meaning of Information
3.3 Need of efficient Information System
3.4 Efficient Information
3.5 Types of Information
3.6 Types of Information System
3.7 Information requirement, Planning, Organizing, Coordination, Directing and Control
3.8 Basic Data arrangements and access
3.9 Summary
3.10 Exercise
_______________________________________________________________________
3.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
• Understand the need of information.
• Explain the basics of efficient information.
• Understand the various types of information.
• Understand the information requirement.
______________________________________________________________________
3.2 The Concept and meaning of Information
______________________________________________________________________
3.2.1. Information: In today’s world everybody requires taking decision at one point of
time or other. The decisions based on some relevant facts will definitely be better that a
decision taken arbitrarily. These relevant facts in raw form are called data and in the
processed form are called information. For example, when you buy milk every day, you
note it down the quantity supplies each day. At the end of the month you use this record
to pay the milk man by multiplying the quantity received with the rate per kilo. The daily
recording of supply of milk will be called data and the processing of this data, producing
meaningful results after processing will be called information. In the above example, the
monthly consumption of milk, average consumption of milk per family member,
percentage of family income spent on milk, all are information. This can help in
preparing family budget more efficiently.

56
______________________________________________________________________
3.3. Need for an efficient information system
______________________________________________________________________
A manager performs varied functions. He requires information to facilitate informed
decision making in respect of each area of his responsibility. Even at an elementary
level, if you are organizing a picnic, you require various information, to organize it
efficiently, like that number of persons participating, their eating habits, destination,
collecting point etc.
Information needs are different at different levels of management. The top level
concerned mainly with planning for business and the middle and lower levels of
managements are entrusted with the responsibility of execution of these plans. Top level
managers are expected to make policies and need strategic information. Middle level
managers direct and control the functioning of organization to achieve optimal
performance and need tactical information. Line managers supervise day-to-day
operations and steer operations to meet the targets set by middle level managers, they
need operational information.
_____________________________________________________________________________
3.4. Efficient Information
_____________________________________________________________________________
1. The information must be accurate. Incorrect information is worse than no
information.
2. Information should be complete.
3. Information must be timely. It should be available to manager when he needs it.
Delayed information sometimes is of no value.
4. Information should be up to date. It should include all data available till that time.
5. Information should be relevant. Irrelevant information will not of manager’s time.
6. As far as possible information be brief, to the point and summarized.
The information given to managers must be accurate, complete and trustworthy. It
must also be up to date and timely. It must be relevant and brief. It should be
attractively presented and its significance understandable.
______________________________________________________________________
3.5. Types of Information
______________________________________________________________________
Various types of information: The information required may be classified into four
categories on the basis of type of decisions.
1. Strategic Information.
2. Tactical Information.

57
 3. Operational Information.
4. Statutory Information.
1. Strategic Information: This is the information needed for the long range
planning and directing the course of the business. A decision to expand the business,
opening a new branch will be based on strategic information. The top management has to
obtain information on trend, impact or advertisement etc. Information support for such
decisions would call for mainly external information. This type of information is less
structured. Further, the volume of important in strategic planning is small and is difficult
to obtain.
2. Tactical Information: This type of information is needed to take short range
decisions to run the business efficiently. For instance, the information on fast and slow
moving items may be used to take the tactical decision to stock more of the former and
get discount on the later. Information on payments of bills by customer may be used to
decide appropriate credit limit to be given to customers. Tactical information requires
specifically designed processing of data. Most of it is obtaining easily from day-to-day
collection of routine data unlike strategic information. Further, the volume of tactical
data is more than strategic data.
3. Operational Information: This type of information is needed for day-to-day
operations of a business organization. For instance, the list of item out of stock on a
particular day would be used to trigger the action of ordering them. List of customers’
unpaid easy to obtain by straight forward clerical processing of data. Further, the volume
of such information is much more than tactical information.
4. Statutory Information: Information and reports which are required by law to be
sent to government authorities are normally clearly specified and require straight forward
processing to data.
The strategic and unstructured information is used by chief executive, while
tactical information is used by middle level managers and operational information is used
by line managers.
______________________________________________________________________
3.6. Types of Information Systems
______________________________________________________________________
3.6.1. Office Automation/Information System: Office automatic systems are meant
for improving the communication and productivity of people in the enterprise. See fig 3.1

58
 Fig3.1 Office automatic system

They attempt to automate office procedures and remove bottlenecks in the office
secretarial work. These systems are used by people at all level of management. The
important elements of these systems include e-mail, desk top publishing systems, text
processors, graphics and electronic teleconferencing.
3.6.2. Transaction processing system: TPS are built on the types of transactions in an
enterprise. They handle most of the internal information. Their aim is to generate
operational information for the operating staff and lower level managers. In addition,
these systems form the core for providing the necessary input to management information
system (MIS).

Fig3.2 Transaction processing system

3.6.3. Management Information System: MIS uses the information contained in the
TPS and processes them by generating summary reports of information for managers to
plan and control operations. These are mainly information reporting systems.

59
 Fig3.1 Management Information System

These systems focus primarily on the information needs of lower to middle level
managers.
3.6.4. Decision Support System: DSS are used by managers at middle level for
generating tactical information. DSS not only take input from TPS but from external
sources. They also offer tools for analyzing the information more rigorously and help in
generating tactical information and performing ‘what-if analysis’ for managers.

Fig3.4 Decision Support System

3.6.5. Executive Support/Information System: ESS/EIS are user friendly information

systems that lay more emphasis on presentation of summary information, integration of

60
internal and external information, exception reporting techniques and establish link with
basic operations of the enterprise. These information systems generate strategic
information and are used by the top level managers. They help in identifying options,
evaluation of alternative scenarios and making informed choices regarding the business
Options.

Fig3.5 Executive Support System

3.6.6. Expert Systems: The expert systems aim at formalizing expertise and make it
available for repetitive type of business decisions. They use artificial intelligence tools to
generate knowledge out of the information, exiting theories, belief and experiences of
managers in various business activities. They are not replacements for human domain
experts; rather they help human experts perform their job more effectively and replicate
the expertise at various locations in the business enterprise.
It may be observed that different type of business information systems have
application at different level of management as can be shown by the diagram fig 3. given
below:
TOP FIS/ESS

MIDDLE DSS AND MIS

LOWER TPS, EXPERT SYSTEMS

Fig3.6 Expert system

61
______________________________________________________________________
3.7. Information requirement for planning, organization, coordination, directing
and Control
______________________________________________________________________

According to decision oriented view, management mainly comprises Planning,

Organizing, Coordination, Directing and Control. Each of these functions may be at the
strategic, tactical and operational level. Every area of managerial decisions making, need
information support for decision making. There are some decisions that are unlikely to
benefit substantially by the availability of information. According to Noble Laureate,
Simon in his book 'The new science of Management Decisions' has advocated that all
decisions, cutting across disciplines and level of management can be PROGRAMMED
DECISIONS or NON- PROGRAMMED DECISIONS. Below we will describe
information needs in each of these functional area.

3.7.1. Planning

Fig3.7 Planning Process

Strategic level planning requires considerable amount of environmental information like

shifting market, changing technology as well as internal information like core
competitive strength of organisation.

Tactical planning such as vendor development, make-or-buy decisions would call for
cost and availability information pertaining to materials and production capacities which
are internal as well as external to the organisation.

62
Operational planning like staff scheduling requires large amount of internal information,
e.g. schedules, attendance, uptime of equipment,
3.7.2. Organizing

Fig3.7 Organising Process

Strategic Organizing needs external and internal data to decide on restructuring as well as
to forge strategic partnerships.

Tactical Organizing requires changing wage-level data of the organisation as well as that
of competitors.

Operational Organizing needs data relating to skills and training requirements of the
operational staff.

3.7.3 Coordination

Fig3.7 Coordination Process

63
Strategic Coordination calls for industry-wide data corresponding to technology
availability.
Tactical Coordination calls for plant-wide and supplier-wise bottleneck data that reflect
deficiencies both inside and outside the organisation.
Operational Coordination requires itemized breakup of plant and machinery,
performance, failure, etc.

Fig3.7a Coordination Process

3.7.4. Directing

Fig3.7 Directing Process

Strategic directing functions such as introduction of office automation requires detailed

cost benefit analysis of new technologies.
Tactical directing e.g. innovative marketing strategy needs detailed market and
production data.
Operational directing function requires detailed data pertaining to the individual
managers skills.
3.7.5. Control

64
 Fig3.9 Controlling Process

Strategic Control decisions like total quality management needs detailed performance
data and bench marking data from outside the organisation.
Tactical Control decision like maintaining steady market share in the medium run would
necessitate continuous monitoring of plant data.
Operational Control may call for techniques of statistical process control which involve
the collection of substantial sampling information that must be collected and processes
continuously during the entire production period.
______________________________________________________________________
3.8. Basic Data Arrangements and Access
______________________________________________________________________

At the heart of the information system of an organization is the central repository

of corporate data that must be accessed and used by every section of the organization.
This data resource is traditionally called the database of the organization. The modern
information system primarily aims at organizing this data resource in an effective manner
for flexible yet controlled access, keeping the security and privacy issues in a cost
effective, yet very fast, corporate, wide access. This is precisely the technology of the
database. A typical analogy is the management of corporate finance. The financial
management structure of the organization provides for an operating procedure, authority,
control in the form of budget and security measures; yet with a flexibility so that day-to-
day operations run smoothly. Databases have evolved from traditional paper files to
computer files to modem, sophisticated software, widely known as the Database
Management Systems (DBMS).

65
 The computers are used to process data. Data can be defined as any fact,
observation, or assumptions. Data can be represented by a digit (numeric character) or
character or characters (alphabetic and special characters). When a set of character (alpha
or numeric) represent a specific element like name of a person, marks in examination in a
paper, is called field. Number of fields put together for one object is celled record, and
number of records put together is called a file. Restructuring or reordering the records or
fields for some specified purposes is called data processing.
Regardless of the system (manual, mechanical, or electronic) used to process data
certain fundamental operation must be performed. These are Recording, Classifying, and
Sorting, Calculating, and Report generation. These activities jointly called data
processing, which starts with data capturing and ends with data mining or data access.
Data is typically manipulated by activities such as calculating, comparing, sorting,
classifying and summarizing. These activities organize, analyze and manipulate data, thus
converting it into information for users. Computer data is processed in two fundamental
ways:
a. File Processing
b. Data base processing.
While in file processing data is stored and processed in separate files. This has
certain disadvantages. Database processing is a self describing collection of integrated
records. It is self describing because it contains, as part of itself, a directory of its
contents. The records are integrated because a database can contain multiple files (usually
called tables) and records within those tables are processed by their relationship to one
another.
In database processing the database management system (DBMS) acts as an
intermediary between the user, or application program, and the database. The DBMS
stores and processes the data so that records can be accessed via their relationship to
other records.
_______________________________________________________________________
3.9 Summary of this chapter
________________________________________________________________________
The decisions based on some relevant facts will definitely be better that a decision taken
arbitrarily. These relevant facts in raw form are called data and in the processed form are
called information. Information needs are different at different levels of management.
The top level concerned mainly with planning for business and the middle and lower
levels of managements are entrusted with the responsibility of execution of these plans.
Top level managers are expected to make policies and need strategic information.
Middle level managers direct and control the functioning of organization to achieve

66
optimal performance and need tactical information. Line managers supervise day-to-day
operations and steer operations to meet the targets set by middle level managers, they
need operational information.
The information given to managers must be accurate, complete and trustworthy. It must
also be up to date and timely. It must be relevant and brief. It should be attractively
presented and its significance understandable.
Office automatic systems are meant for improving the communication and productivity
of people in the enterprise.

Check your progress

_____________________________________________________________________________
3.10 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
_____________________________________________________________________________

1. The information must be…………………………..

2. Incorrect information is worse than……………………………..
3. Information should be…………………….
4. Information must be………………………. It should be available to manager
when he needs it.
5. Information should be …………………….It should include all data available till
that time.
6. Information should be……………... Irrelevant information will not of manager’s
time.
7. As far as possible information be…………….., to the point and summarized.

Ans 1. Accurate, 2. No information, 3. Complete, 4. Timely, 5. Up to date. 6.

Relevant, 7. Brief
Exercise 2: True and False
State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. Delayed information sometimes is of no value.
2. It should include all data available till that time.
3. Irrelevant information will not of manager’s time.
4. It should be available to manager when he needs it.
5. Office automatic systems are meant for improving the communication and
productivity of people in the enterprise.

67
 6. The information given to managers must not be accurate, incomplete and
untrustworthy.
Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( T ), 5( T ), 6( F )

Exercise 3: Mix and Match

Match statement A with Statement B

S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)

1. meant for improving the communication and Transaction processing
productivity of people in the enterprise. They system
attempt to automate office procedures and
remove bottlenecks in the office secretarial
work. These systems are used by people at all
level of management. The important elements
of these systems include e-mail, desk top
publishing systems, text processors, graphics
and electronic teleconferencing.
2. are built on the types of transactions in an Office
enterprise. They handle most of the internal Automation/Information
information. Their aim is to generate System
operational information for the operating staff
and lower level managers. In addition, these
systems form the core for providing the
necessary input to management information
system (MIS).
3. uses the information contained in the TPS and
processes them by generating summary reports
of information for managers to plan and control
operations. These are mainly information Decision Support System
reporting systems. These systems focus
primarily on the information needs of lower to
middle level managers.
4. are used by managers at middle level for
generating tactical information. DSS not only
take input from TPS but from external sources.
They also offer tools for analyzing the Management Information
information more rigorously and help in System
generating tactical information and performing
‘what-if analysis’ for managers.
5. are user friendly information systems that lay Expert Systems
more emphasis on presentation of summary
68
 information, integration of internal and external
information, exception reporting techniques and
establish link with basic operations of the
enterprise. These information systems generate
strategic information and are used by the top
level managers. They help in identifying
options, evaluation of alternative scenarios and
making informed choices regarding the business
options.
6. aim at formalizing expertise and make it Executive
available for repetitive type of business Support/Information
decisions. They use artificial intelligence tools System
to generate knowledge out of the information,
exiting theories, belief and experiences of
managers in various business activities. They
are not replacements for human domain experts;
rather they help human experts perform their job
more effectively and replicate the expertise at
various locations in the business enterprise.

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (4), 4. (3), 5. (6), 6(5)

Exercise 4: Very Short Questions
1. Explain Strategic Information ?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Explain Tactical Information ?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

69
 3. Explain Operational Information?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4. Explain Statutory Information?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Name the industry which provides various services to the primary and secondary
industries? (Tertiary Industries)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

6. Information requirement for planning. Write a short notes?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

7. Information requirement for organization. Write a short notes?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

70
8. Information requirement for coordination. Write a short notes?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

9. Information requirement for directing. Write a short notes?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

10. Information requirement for Control. Write a short notes?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

71
 Chapter – 4: Database System
________________________________________________________________________
4. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Meaning of Database System
4.3 Traditional File Environment
4.4 Identification of Relevant data
4.5 Evolution of Database Technology
4.6 Database : The Modern Approach
4.7 Properties of Relational Model
4.8 Twelve Rules of CODD
4.8.1 Information Representation
4.8.2 Guaranteed Access
4.8.3 Systematic Treatment of Null Values
4.8.4 Database Description Rule
4.8.5 Comprehensive Data Sub-Language
4.8.6 View Updating
4.8.7 High-Level Update, Insert, Delete
4.8.8 Physical Data Independence
4.8.9 Logical Data Independence
4.8.10 The Distribution Rule
4.8.11 Non-Subversion
4.8.12 Integrity Rule
4.9 Concept of Keys
4.10 Summary of the chapter
4.11 Exercise
________________________________________________________________________
4.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
• Understand the definition of Database System.
• Understand various of database software’s
o DBASE
o FOXPRO
o MS ACCESS
• Explain the identification of Relevant data
72
 • Understand the Evolution of Database Technology.
• Understand the databases modern Approach.
_______________________________________________________________________
4.2 Meaning of Database System
________________________________________________________________________
A database is basically a collection of information organized in such a way that a
computer program can quickly select desired pieces of data. You can think of a database
as an electronic filing system.

In early generation of file processing system, every functional unit maintained its own set
of application programs, such as data finance sub-system, purchase sub-system, etc. Such
an organization was simple to operate and had local control. Historically, the functional
units took to computerization based on individual initiative, and this model was viable.
The constantly changing corporate information must be instantly available to every
corner of the organization, thereby increasing the need for centralized database systems.
Databases have evolved from traditional paper files to computer files to modern
databases that are managed by sophisticated software, widely known as the Database
Management Systems (DBMS). A database is a collection of data. By data, we mean
known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit meaning. For example, consider
the names, telephone numbers, and addresses of the people you know. You may have
recorded this data in an indexed address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette,
using a personal computer and software such as
• DBASE IV,
• Foxpro
• MS ACCESS

73
 • EXCEL.
MS ACCESS : This software is a part and parcel of Microsoft office and used worldwide
for Storing database, getting views, reports from the database. Following steps to be
performed to open database:
1. Open Microsoft office access Fig 4.1 shows getting started with Microsoft Office
Access.

Fig 4.1 getting started with Microsoft Office Access

2. Open Blank Database see fig 4.2 option to open new blank database and also see
fig 4.3 to create a database file If you already created your database then select
open recent database(see right corner of the fig 4.1)

Fig 4.2 getting Blank database

74
 Fig 4.3 Create Bland Database in Microsoft Office Access
3. To adding new fields in the table1 see fig 4.4 and fig 4.5

Fig 4.4 Adding new field in Microsoft Office Access

Fig 4.5 Insert a new field into a table so that you can store specific type of information.

75
 Fig 4.5a Insert a field into this view based on an existing field.
Databases are sometimes classified according to their organizational approach. The most
prevalent approach is the relational database, a tabular database in which data is defined
so that it can be reorganized and accessed in a number of different ways. A distributed
database is one that can be dispersed or replicated among different points in a network.
An object-oriented programming database is one that is congruent with the data defined
in object classes and subclasses.
Computer databases typically contain aggregations of data records or files, such as sales
transactions, product catalogs and inventories, and customer profiles. Typically, a
database manager provides users the capabilities of controlling read/write access,
specifying report generation, and analyzing usage. Databases and database managers are
prevalent in large mainframe systems, but are also present in smaller
distributed workstation and mid-range systems such as the AS/400 and on personal
computers. SQL (Structured Query Language) is a standard language for making
interactive queries from and updating a database such as IBM's DB2, Microsoft's SQL
Server, and database products from Oracle, Sybase, and Computer Associates. See fig 4.6
storage of database

Fig 4.6 storage of dabase

A database may be maintained manually or it may be computerized. The library
card catalog is an example of a database that may be created and maintained manually. A
computerized database may be created and maintained either by a group of application

76
programs written specifically for that task or by a database management system. The list
of names and addresses referred to above may consist of only a few hundred records,
each with a simple structure. On the other hand, the card catalog of a large library may
contain half a million cards stored under different categories - by primary author’s last
name, by subject, by book title-with each category organized in alphabetic order. This
huge amount of data must be organized and managed so that users can search for,
retrieve, and update the data as needed
In the course of a day, most of us encounter several activities that involve some
interaction with a database. For example, if we go to the bank to deposit or withdraw
funds, this activity will involve someone accessing a database. Even purchasing items
from a supermarket nowadays in many cases involves an automatic update of the
database that keeps the inventory of supermarket items.
In the past, most of the information that was stored and accessed was either textual
or numeric. In the past few years, advances in technology have bean leading to exciting
new applications of database systems. Multimedia databases can now store pictures,
video dips, and sound messages. Data warehouses and On Line Analytical Processing
(OLAP) systems are used in many companies to extract and analyze useful information
on very large databases for decision-making. Real-time and active database technology is
used in controlling industrial and manufacturing processes. Besides database search
techniques are being applied to the World Wide Web to improve mechanism for
searching for information that is needed by users browsing through the Internet. To
understand the fundamentals of database technology, however, we must start from the
basics of traditional database applications. See Fig 4.7. Database warehousing

Fig 4.7. Database warehousing

________________________________________________________________________
4.3 Traditional File Environment
________________________________________________________________________
Traditional file system is a collection of ASCII files. The early days of commercial data
processing involved considerable amount of work comprising file processing systems.
77
The programming languages like COBOL had great influence on the earlier generation of
file processing systems.
In traditional file processing, data definition is typically part of the application
programs. Data Division statements or format statement were used to define its files
structure. DBMS software cars access diverse databases by extracting the database
definitions from the catalog maintained as a part of the file and then using these
definitions.
An intuitive structure of such databases (referred as flat file database) is the notion
of a file, generally borrowed from it paper counterpart in an office environment.
Traditionally, commercial data processing systems imposed a simple structure on file, as
a collection of records with each record having an identical structure. The record is
further decomposed into a set of fields; each field carrying a specific type of data - be
they numeric (integer, floating point number), character (single or a string of character),
and special data types like Boolean (yes/no, true/false) etc. A typical example is a
personnel file with a record for every employee of an organization, the employee record
containing his identification, name, sex, address, date of birth, date of joining,
designation, pay, etc.
Typically, an application program had a set of files which were exclusive to the
specific application. File management system was The-tuned to give satisfactory
performance for the specific application in mind. Whenever other application systems
needed the contents of the files, say payroll application requiring the address of an
employee from a personnel system, generous copies of the files were made available for
other applications.
Such ‘islands’ of file management systems became woefully inadequate when
organizations started developing companywide integrated applications. What was needed
was a mainland with the different islands fully integrated. Database technology is the
glue that made the required integration applications possible.
4.3.1. Database Approach. The superiority of Database Management Systems
over conventional file processing systems can be explained with the help of the
following example: Consider the student record administration in a college and
University. Assume that name of our university is UOD (University of Delhi)
maintains all personal records of students such as permanent address, scholarship
status, medical records, hostel dues, etc, and the college HG (Hindu College)
maintains all the academic information like courses, grades, ranks, awards,
summer projects, these projects, etc. In a traditional approach the UOD office and
the HG office will have independent files and independent programs. By the very
nature of the operation, some information such as student name, address,

78
department, etc., will have to be duplicated in both the files. The students are
likely to point out any minor errors- in their names like misspellings and last name
and first name interchange which are rather common among Indian names to
college HG. The same student may not take the same care to correct the name
errors in the UOD office, because of its inconsequential nature. Since the final
certificates are printed by the UOD office, he may find his name misspelled on the
final ‘certificate causing lot of inconvenience to him. Hence within the same
college/university, the same information is maintained to varying degrees of
accuracy. This obviously is serious. Such deficiencies arise due to inconsistency of
data among different units of the organization.
Duplicating the same information in many departments also leads to substantial
data redundancy, leading to large scale storage inefficiency. Often such a
redundancy is uncontrolled, and the extent of redundancy may not be known at all.
For performance consideration, some amount of redundancy may be introduced
but that is controlled redundancy by design, and not by default.
Another drawback of multiplication of data may be representation inconsistency;
for example, one of the files may contain the address fields neatly decomposed
into street address, city and postal address; but a not so imaginative department
may have kept the entire address field as single field making a query about all the
addresses in a specific city nearly impossible. The data is there and yet not there.
A related but more common side effect of duplication is unit inconsistency; for
example, UOD office may maintain the student’s annual scholarship value, while
HC maintain the monthly scholarship amount. Unfortunately, the files may not
contain information about the units, i.e., annual/monthly scholarship etc. so that a
not-so careful application program involving both the files may generate a lot of
garbage output.
The more serious drawbacks of traditional file processing systems are the lack of
privacy/security/controlled access mechanism that modern DBMS provides. With
the increasing importance attached to data and its view as corporate resource, such
issues are of paramount importance. The modern DBMS provides for-precisely
such features.
At a conceptual level, all these deficiencies can be attributed to just one
shortcoming of the file processing system. They have a close dependency among
programs that use the data and the data themselves. To overcome these
deficiencies database technologies were introduced.

79
________________________________________________________________________
4.4 Identification of Relevant Data
________________________________________________________________________
Information of a particular corporate entity, an institute, a university, a corporation, a
utility .company.-or a government department. The data so identified is accessed many
times in a day or is accessed only occasionally. A data requited many times in a day is
called operational data and the one required only occasionally is called archival data. This
data can be for any application like accounting, purchase and personnel, required by
different users of the information system.
For identifying, the relevant (logically coherent collection of data with some
inherent meaning) data, we have to ensure that it must represent some aspects of real
world, used for during specific information required by a user or a group of users. The
information so collected will be called a database which has some source from which
data are derived, some degree of interaction with events in the real world, and an
audience that is actively interested in the contents of the database. Such databases are
stored as files/tables/relations. Commercial data processing systems imposed a simple
structure on file, as a collection of records/tuple with each record having an identical
structure. The record consists of a set of fields/attribute; each field carrying a specific
type of data - be they numeric (integer, floating point number), character (single or a
string of character), and special data types like Boolean (yes/no, true/false) etc. A typical
example is a personnel file with a record for every employee of an organization, the
employee record containing his identification, name, sex, address, date of birth, date of
joining, designation. Pay, etc.
The identification of relevant data is dependant to the information required. Then
we need to decide about its structure. A data model - a collection of concepts that can be
used to describe the structure of a database-provides the necessary means to achieve this
abstraction. By structure of a database we mean the data types, relationships, and
constraints that should hold on the data. Most data models also include a set of basic
operations for specifying retrievals and updates on the database. High level or conceptual
data models provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data, whereas
low level or physical data models provide concepts that describe the details of how data
is stored in the computer (generally meant for computer specialists). The third is a
representational (or implementation) data models, (understood by end users). In the
present context the detailed discussion of Data Models is outside the scope of this paper.

Let us understand the identification of relevant data with an example of student

record in the college. When a student admitted, the relevant information which college

80
may require in future are: His name, his father’s name, date of birth, his permanent
address, his local address, phone number, his previous educational achievement records,
family income and many more information can be identified.. Also, during his stay in the
college, his attendance, examination record, and regularity are some of the data required.
Many more can be added depending the purpose for which the database is being created.
The data will be stored according the technology being followed.
________________________________________________________________________
4.5 Evolution of Database Technology
________________________________________________________________________
File management systems leave islands of information systems while data management
systems integrate them into a corporate wide single logical entity. Such an integration
leads to the following significant benefits over traditional file approach, that justify the
use of database approach:
DBMS software can access diverse database by extracting the database definitions from
the catalog maintained as a part of the file and then using these definitions.
1. Sharing of resources (Data sharing). What need to be appreciated are the costs
involved in collection, storage and presentation of data pertaining to a bewildering
variety of entities in which corporate decision makers are involved, and the necessity of
guaranteeing the availability of right data at the right time in the right form yet within the
right cost limits. Under DBMS integrating tables created by several users in a central
database makes it possible for sharing data throughout organisation.
2. Data-program Independence. Under DBMS, the catalog maintained as a part of the
file which provides database definitions, provides data-program independence. Under
Traditional file approach data definition is typically part of application programs, which
makes data and program dependant to each other. The centralization of database alone
does not lead to the benefits mentioned. In fact, the emerging distributed database
approach leads to a non - centralization of physical data; what is maintained is
centralization of control.
However, databases go beyond mere centralization of data and/or control. At the
very core of database approach is data independence. Programming languages gave a
certain level of hardware independence to the application developers. Operating systems
provided another level of hardware independence for system software personnel; the
emerging computing networks, give location independence, while programming
languages gave a general hardware independence. Viewed in this context, database
approach gives independence between the file structure and program structure. As
compared to the file processing systems that had exclusive programs to operate on
exclusive files, the current day data management systems provide, independence between

81
the actual data files and the programs that operate on them.
The modern DBMS provides a program-data independence that basically separates
a physical structure of the data (file) from the logical structure of the data used inside
programs. By giving such independence, DBMS provides a superior system of file
handling, leading to a very high level of flexibility, consistency and simplicity.
Essentially, they allow applications to write programs that are general enough to operate
on files whose structures can be made available to the program. In other words, database
Management Systems are generalized file processing systems.
4. Redundancy control. The file management system entails generous copying of files
across the systems. Such an approach leads to multiple redundancies of data. The
immediate fallout is the lack of efficiency arising from duplication/multiplication of data-
storage cost, archival cost, accession cost, etc. A more fundamental problem is the
possible inconsistency of data across multiple copies, particularly in a dynamic, multi-
user environment. Redundancy control .that can be achieved by the use of the database
approach leads to effectiveness of data administration.
5. Multiple view. It is possible to create multiple mirror images of the data as per the
requirement of individual user through use SQL...
6. Security. In addition to the availability of data in a flexible manner, it is mandatory on
the part of data administrators to ensure that enough checks and balances are built into
the system to ensure that the data does not reach the wrong hands. With computers
making inroads into every application area and the applications becoming mission-
critical, such security restrictions assume great importance. Database approach offers a
far easier security control mechanism than any of the file processing systems. Also, .a
central administration of data can ensure that integrity of data can be maintained. In
database parlance, ‘integrity’ refers to the correctness of data contents of a database at
any point of time.
________________________________________________________________________
4.6 Database Modern Approach
________________________________________________________________________
A way to represent data to a user is with a two dimensional table. A table must he set up
in a way that no information about the relations among date elements is lost. A table
should contain following properties:
(a) Each and every entry in a table only represents one data item and no two fields with
the same name.
(b) In each column, the data items are of the same type i.e. the column should be
homogeneous.
(c) Each and every column is assigned with a distinct heading.
82
(d) All rows are distinct and duplicate rows are not allowed.
(e) Both the rows and the columns can be viewed in any sequence at any time without
affecting the information.
Definition of Relation : data and relationships are represented in a two dimensional table
called a relation. For example, the figure below is referred to as a relation. A database
constructed using relations is referred to as a relational database. Relational database is
constructed from flat arrangement of data items. In Figure, there is an Employee Service
relation (table) that describes the entity Employee by Emp-code, Name and Year of
Service by Name and Year respectively. See Fig 4.8 for fields/ Attributes and Tuples.

FIELDS/ATTRIBUTE--> E-CODE NAME EXPERIENCE

B002 AMIT SODHI 15
R025 RAVI 23
TUPLES ----> G008 NEETA 35 <---ENTITY
R009 MOHAK 17
A006 PARTH 19
|
DOMAIN
Figure 4.8 Employee Service Relation (table).

Each attribute of a relation has a distinct name, Each tuple or row has a set of
permitted values for the .attribute called the Domain. For example, the domain of
attribute Name is the set of all alphabetic strings of finite length. The domain of attribute
Year is the set of all whole numbers.
A relation (table) consists of number of records or row-wise information (tuple)
and column wise information (attributes).
A domain is a collection of all possible values from which values for a given
column or attribute is drawn. There are domains defined for every attribute in each of the
tables.
1. Attribute of an Entity: Two dimensional tables in a relational database are
much like the traditional file system with its records, fields and files. Rows of
the relation are referred to as Tuples of the relation and columns are referred to
as Attributes.
An entity usually has an attribute whose values are distinct, for each
individual entity in the collection. Such an attribute is called a key attribute and
its values can be used to identify each entity uniquely. In above example, Emp-
code attribute is a key of the Employee entity, because no two employees will

83
have the same Emp-code.
All relations have three components:
(a) Name (b) Degree (c) Cardinality
(a) Name. Name is represented by the title or the entity-identifier Employee
Service relation as in Figure above.

(b) Degree. The number of columns associated with .the table or relations
is called as the Degree. In the table Employee Service relation, degree is 3,
i.e. there are 3 attributes or fields associated with the table.
(c) Cardinality. The number of rows in the table is called as Cardinality. In
the table (Employee Service relation), cardinality is5, i.e. there are 5 rows
or records (tuples).
Entities, Entity Sets and Instance: An entity is an object that exists and is
distinguishable from other objects. In other words, an entity is a real-world
person, place or thing, or a conceptual (logical) person, place or thing, of
significant interest to the organization and about which the organization
must collect and maintain data. Each entity has particular properties called
attributes that describe it. For example, an Employee Entity may be
described by employee’s Name, and Experience.
The Employee entity has three attributes Code, Name, and Experience with
their values “G008”, "Geeta", "5" respectively. An entity set is a set of
entities of the same type i.e. which share common properties or attributes.
The set of all employees of an organization cart be defined as the entity set
(See Figure above). Similarly, the set of all persons who are customers at a
given bank, can be defined as the entity set customer. An entity set is
represented by a set of attributes.
“Collection of Information stored in a database at a particular moment is
called Instance or occurrence”
RDBMS TERMINOLOGY
Formal Relation Term Informal Equivalent
Relation Table
Tuple Row, record
Cardinality Number of rows
Attribute Column, field
Degree Number of columns
Primary Key Unique Identifier
Domain Set of Legal values

84
 Fig 4.9 RDBMS Terminology
Types of Relations. There are two types of relations. These are:
(a) Base Relation (b) Derived Relation
(a) Base Relation The base relations are those relations which are created
prior to use. They are also called as ‘tables’ and they exist as physical file.
(b) Derived Relation. The derived relations are those relations which are
derived from a base relation. They do not exist as physical files. The
derived relations are also called as views.
2 Creating Relationship between Tables: RDBMS is a database
management system where data are organized in the form of tables and all
database manipulation are carried out on these tables. A new relation can be
created by RDBMS from two or more existing tables thus permitting them
to manipulate data in creative ways. For example, suppose a relational
DBMS maintains two relations: One having the employee bio data
including educational qualification and the second having his job profile. A
query about employees with more than two years in the firm and an MCA
can be obtained by using the following procedures:
(a) A relationship is implied between the Employee Service relation and
Employee Education relation.
(b) A temporary table of employees who have been in the firm for more
than two years is obtained from the Employee Service relation and placed
in a temporary table.
(c) The information in the temporary table is taken along with the
Employee Education relation to determine which employee has been in the
firm for more than two years and also qualified as MCA. This results in a
second temporary relation. From this second temporary relation it is
inferred that Kuldeep and Rita Bajaj are the only employees who qualify
for the two conditions put together. Thus RDBMS is very useful to
manipulate several tables together to bring out information.
________________________________________________________________________
4.7 Properties of Relational Model
________________________________________________________________________

A relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships
among those data. Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a unique name.
A relational database management system (RDBMS) has the following properties:

85
 (a) Represents data in the form of tables.
(b) Does not require the user to understand its physical implementation.
(c) Provides information about its content and structure in system table.
(d) Supports the concepts of NULL values.
________________________________________________________________________
4.8 Twelve rules of CODD
________________________________________________________________________

There are twelve rules formulated by E.F. Codd for RDBMS in 1970. If an RDBMS
satisfies all these twelve rules, then only full benefits of the relational database can bring
out results. The twelve rules are having the following main aspects:
(a) Information Representation
(b) Guaranteed Access
(c) Systematic Treatment of Null Values
(d) Database Description Rule
(e) Comprehensive Data Sub-Language
(f) View Updating
(g) High-Level Update, Insert, Delete
(h) Physical Data Independence
(I) Logical Data Independence
(j) The Distribution Rule
(k) Non-Subversion
(l) Integrity Rule
4.8.1 Information Representation. In the relational model, all information should be
explicitly and logically represented by entering the data values in the form of tables. The
information such as table, view and column names should all be in table form. Data
stored in data dictionary should also be in tabular form.
4.8.2. Guaranteed Access. This rule refers to the fact that the table can be taken as a
storage structure and at the inter section of each column and row, there will necessarily
be only one specific value of data item (or null). Every value of data item must be
logically addressable by using a combination of table-name, primary-key- value and
column-name.
4.8.3 Systematic Treatment of Null Values. In relational database management system
null values should be supported for the representation of missing and inapplicable
information. The database management system must have a consistent method for

86
representing null values. For example, null values for numeric data must be distinct from
zero or any other numeric value and for character data, it must be different from a string
of blanks.
4.8.4 Database Description Rule. The description of a database is stored and maintained
in the form of tables. This allows the users with appropriate authority to query
information using similar ways and using the same languages. This implies that a data
dictionary should be present within the RDBMS that is constructed of tables and/or views
that can be examined using the structured query language (SQL). 3.5.5 Comprehensive
Data Sub-Language.
4.8.5. Comprehensive Data Sub-Language: The RDBMS must be completely
manageable through its own extension of SQL. The SQL should support Data Definition,
Views, Data Manipulation, Integrity Constraints and Transaction Boundary.
4.8.6 View Updating Any view that can be defined using combination of base tables, and
theoretically updatable, must also be capable of being updated by the RDBMS.
4.8.7 High-Level Updates Insert, Delete. An RDBMS must do more than just be able to
retrieve relational data sets. It must also be possible to insert, update and delete data as a
relational set.
4.8.8 Physical Data Independence: Changes made to physical storage, representation or
access methods do not require changes to be made to the application programs used to
manipulate data in tables.
4.8.9 Logical Data Independence. Application programs should not be affected by the
changes made to the base tables. Changes made to tables should not require changes to be
made to application programs.
4.8.10 The Distribution Rule: An RDBMS package must have distribution
independence. Thus, RDBMS package must make it possible for the database to be
distributed across multiple computers even though they are having heterogeneous
platforms both for hardware and operating system. This is one of the most attractive
aspects of the RDBMS. Database systems built on the relational framework are well-
suited for today’s Client/Server database design.
4.8.11 Non-Subversion. If the RDBMS supports facilities allowing application programs
to operate on tables a row at a time, then an application program using this type of
database access is prevented from bypassing entity-integrity or referential- integrity
constraints that may be defined for database.
4.8.12 Integrity Rule. Integrity constraints specific to a particular relational database
must be definable in SQL or some other data sub-language. These integrity constraints
must be storable in the catalogue and not in the application programs.
An RDBMS product has to satisfy at least six of the 12 rules of Codd to be accepted as a
87
full fledged RDBMS. There is no RDBMS package commercially available that satisfies
all of the 12 rules.
_________________________________________________________________
4.9. Concept of Keys
__________________________________________________________________
A key is the data item that exclusively identifies a record. For example, Account number,
Product code, Employee number and Customer number are used as key fields because
they identify a record stored in a database.
4.8.6.1 Super Key. A Super Key for an entity is a set of one or more attributes whose
combined value uniquely identifies the entities in the entity set. For example, for an entity
set Employees, the set of attributes (emp-name, address) can be considered to be a super
key, if we assume that there are no two employees with the same name emp-name and
same address.

Fig 4.10 Super key

4.8.6.2 Primary Key. The field or group of fields which forms the unique identifier for a
table is called the table’s primary key. See fig below

Fig 4.11 Primary key (It is a Unique Key does not contain null values)
The primary key uniquely identifies each record in the table and must never be the same
for two records. For example, emp-code can be primary key for the entity set Employees.
88
The primary key should be chosen such that its attributes are never or very rarely
changed. For instance, the address field of a person should not be part of the primary key,
since it is likely to change. Emp-code, on the other hand, is guaranteed to never change,
till he is in the organization.
The primary key of a relation can be said to be a minimal super key.
4.8.6.3 Candidate Key. A Candidate Key is an attribute or set of attributes that uniquely
identifies a record. These attributes or combinations of attributes are called candidate
keys. In such a case, one of the candidate key is chosen to be a primary key. The
remaining candidate keys are called Alternate keys. See fig 4. below

Fig 4.12 Candidate key is eligible / candidate to become a primary key

— There is only one primary key In a table. But there can be multiple candidate keys.

4.8.6.4 Composite Key. In many cases, as we design a database, we will have tables that
will use more than one column as part of the primary key. These are called Composite
Keys or (concatenated keys). In other words, when a record cannot be uniquely identified
by a single field, in such cases a composite key is used. A composite key is a group of
fields that uniquely identify a record. See Fig 4. below

Fig 4.13 Names are common. Hence you need name as well address to uniquely identify a record
4.8.6.5 Secondary Key. A Secondary Key is an attribute or combination of attributes
that may not be a candidate key but classifies the entity set on a particular characteristic.

89
For example, the entity set EMPLOYEE having the attribute Department, which
identifies by its value which means all instances of EMPLOYEE who belong to a given
department.

Fig 4.14 Secondary key

More than one employee may belong to a department, so the Department attribute is not a
candidate key for the entity set EMPLOYEE, since it cannot uniquely identify an
individual employee.
However, the Department attribute does identify all employees belonging to a given
department.

4.8.6.7 Foreign Key. In a relation, column whose data values correspond to the values of
a key column in another relation is called a Foreign Key.

90
 Fig 4.15 Foreign key

In a relational database, the foreign key of a relation would be the primary key of another
relation.

4.8.7 FUNDAMENTAL INTEGRITY RULE. Integrity checks relate to the consistency

of data. From an application point of view, the content of databases at any time must be
Internally consistent. Such consistency may be trivial controls such as:
• field value limits (within specified maximum and minimum values).
• field value type (character/numeric of specified length, combination, values). or
complex controls, e.g.,
• average of managers salary should be greater than average of workers salary
• total books issued out of the library should be less than 10% of the total library
collection.
Integrity check over the years has developed into an extremely sophisticated fine
art with extensive demands on the intellectual prowess of the researchers as well as the
ever increasing power of the microprocessors. When many users enter data items into
database it becomes very important that the data items and association among data Items
are not destroyed. Hence, adding insertions, its updation, etc. have to be carried in such a
way that the database integrity is not affected. Integrity checks can be performed at the
data level itself, by checking that data ‘values’ conform to certain specified rules, e.g.
value lying within specified range e.g. the age of the employee will be in the range of 18
years to 70 years. The relational model includes two general integrity rules. These
integrity rules define the set of consistent database states or changes of state or both.

91
Integrity Rule 1 (Entity Integrity). “If an attribute of a table is prime attribute (unique
Identifier), it cannot accept null values, or in other words no component of a primary key
values may be null”.

Integrity rule 1 (Entity Integrity) specifies that instances of the entities are
distinguishable and thus no prime attribute (component of a primary key) value may be
null. By definition, all entities must be distinguishable i.e. they must have a unique
identification of some kind. Primary keys perform that unique identification function in a
relational database. Hence, an identifier (Primary key value) that was completely null
would be a contradiction.

Fig 4.16 Entity Integrity

92
If two entities are not distinguishable from each other, then by definition these are not
two entities but one.

Integrity Rule 2 (Referential Integrity). “To ensure that a value that appears in one
relation for a given set of attributes also appears for a certain set of attributes in another
relation. This condition is called as referential integrity.”

Fig 4.17 Integrity rule two

Integrity Rule 2 is concerned with the concept of foreign key i.e. with the
attributes of a - relation having domains. The domain of foreign keys are those of the
primary key of another relation. For example, if a base relation includes a foreign key,
then it must have a primary key to match in some other relation, or wholly be a null value

The value of a primary key which appears in the base table ( entity set) whenever there Is
a cardinality (entity relation) then the value of a primary key, which becomes a foreign
key In the entity relation the value of foreign key and primary key should be the same.
The designation code ‘XO1’ in master file is not allowed, as it does not have a primary
key match in other table, namely the control file.

93
 Fig 4.18 cardinality, entity relation

“Referential Integrity constraints are created In order to ensure that data entered into one
table is matchable or compatible with corresponding data in the other related tables.
Values from one column are dependent on the values of columns in other tables.
4.8.8. Current Developments in Databases. Following are the current developments the
detailed discussion is outside the scope of this paper.
4.8.8.1 Distributed Databases.

4.19 istributed Database

4.8.8.2 Client-Server Architecture.

94
 4.20 Client Server Architecture

4.8.8.3 Object-Oriented Databases.

4.19 istributed Database

4.8.8.4. Multi-media Databases

4.19 Distributed Database

95
 4.8.8.5 Database Machines.

4.19 Distributed Database

_____________________________________________________________________________
4.10 Summary of this chapter
_____________________________________________________________________________
A database is basically a collection of information organized in such a way that a
computer program can quickly select desired pieces of data. You can think of a database
as an electronic filing system.
A database is a collection of data. By data, we mean known facts that can be recorded
and that have implicit meaning. For example, consider the names, telephone numbers,
and addresses of the people you know. You may have recorded this data in an indexed
address book, or you may have stored it on a diskette, using a personal computer and
software such as DBASE IV, FoxPro, MS ACCESS,EXCEL.
File management systems leave islands of information systems while data management
systems integrate them into a corporate wide single logical entity. Such an integration
leads to the following significant benefits over traditional file approach, that justify the
use of database approach:
In traditional file processing, data definition is typically part of the application programs.
Data Division statements or format statement were used to define its files structure.
DBMS software cars access diverse databases by extracting the database definitions from
the catalog maintained as a part of the file and then using these definitions.
The identification of relevant data is dependant to the information required. Then we
need to decide about its structure. A data model - a collection of concepts that can be
used to describe the structure of a database-provides the necessary means to achieve this
abstraction. By structure of a database we mean the data types, relationships, and
constraints that should hold on the data. Most data models also include a set of basic

96
operations for specifying retrievals and updates on the database. High level or conceptual
data models provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data, whereas
low level or physical data models provide concepts that describe the details of how data
is stored in the computer (generally meant for computer specialists). The third is a
representational (or implementation) data models, (understood by end users). In the
present context the detailed discussion of Data Models is outside the scope of this paper.
DBMS software can access diverse database by extracting the database definitions from
the catalog maintained as a part of the file and then using these definitions. Sharing of
resources (Data sharing), Data-program Independence, Redundancy control, Multiple
view, Security.
“Referential Integrity constraints are created In order to ensure that data entered into one
table is match able or compatible with corresponding data in the other related tables.
Values from one column are dependent on the values of columns in other tables.
Check your progress
_______________________________________________________________________
4.11 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
________________________________________________________________________

1. A database is basically a collection of information organized in such a way that a

computer program can quickly select ……………………………………..
2. File management systems leave islands of information systems while data
management systems …………………..into a corporate wide single logical entity.
3. “Referential Integrity constraints are created In order to ensure that data entered
into one table is match able or compatible with corresponding data in the other
related tables.
4. In traditional file processing, …………………is typically part of the application
programs. Data Division statements or format statement were used to define its
files structure.
5. The value of a primary key which appears in the base table ( entity set) whenever
there Is a cardinality (entity relation) then the value of a primary key, which
becomes a foreign key In the …………………………………….should be the
same.
Ans 1. desired pieces of data , 2. integrate them, 3. buyer and a seller, 4. data
definition, 5. entity relation the value of foreign key and primary key
Exercise 2: True and False
State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.

97
 1. Foreign Key. In a relation, column whose data values correspond to the values of a
key column in another relation is called a Foreign Key.
2. A Secondary Key is an attribute or combination of attributes that may not be a
candidate key but classifies the entity set on a particular characteristic.
3. There is only one primary key in a table. But there can be multiple candidate keys.
4. The primary key of a relation can be said to be a minimal super key.
5. A Super Key for an entity is a set of one or more attributes whose combined value
uniquely identifies the entities in the entity set.
Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( T ), 5( T )

Exercise 3: Mix and Match

Match statement A with Statement B

S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)

1. Name is represented by the title or the entity- Degree
identifier Employee Service relation as in Figure
above.
2. The number of columns associated with .the table Name
or relations is called as the Degree. In the table
Employee Service relation, degree is 3, i.e. there
are 3 attributes or fields associated with the table.
3. The number of rows in the table is called as
Cardinality. In the table (Employee Service Entities, Entity Sets and
relation), cardinality is5, i.e. there are 5 rows or Instance
records (tuples).
4. An entity is an object that exists and is
distinguishable from other objects. In other words,
an entity is a real-world person, place or thing, or Cardinality
a conceptual (logical) person, place or thing.
5. The base relations are those relations which are Derived Relation.
created prior to use. They are also called as
‘tables’ and they exist as physical file.
6. The derived relations are those relations which are Base Relation
derived from a base relation. They do not exist as
physical files. The derived relations are also called
as views.

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (4), 4. (3), 5. (6) 6. (5)

98
Exercise 4: Very Short Questions
1. Explain any three software’s used for collections of data?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Explain Super Key with suitable example?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Explain Primary Key ?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. What is client Server architecture?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Explain Cardinality?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

1. Difference between Primary Key and Secondary key with suitable examples?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

99
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. What is Relational Model? Explain with the help of Suitable Examples?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Define Object Oriented Database with suitable example?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Difference between Foreign Key and Candidate Key with suitable examples?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Explain any five CODD’s rules?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

100
 Chapter – 5 NET WORKS LAN, WAN, MAN & WIRELESS NETWORKS
________________________________________________________________________
5. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
5.1 Objectives
5.2 The Concept of Networking
5.3 Types of Networking
5.4 Application / Importance of Networking
5.5 Client Server Computing
5.6 Wireless Networks
5.7 Features of Distributed Computing System
5.8 Summary of the chapter
5.9 Exercise
________________________________________________________________________
5.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
• Understand the definition of the Networking.
o Wired
o Wireless
• Explain the basics of Types of Networks.
o Local Area Network
o Metropolitan Area Network
o Wide Area Network
o Campus Area Network
• Understand the Applications / Importance of Networks.
• Understand the advantages, limitation and characteristics.
• Understand Client Server
• Peer to Peer computing
• Types of Topologies
o Star
o Ring
o Mess

101
_______________________________________________________________________
5.2 The Concept of Networking
_______________________________________________________________________
What is a Networking?
A computer network consists of two computers connected to each other by a cable /
wireless that allow them to share data among them. All computer networking, no matter
about the type of machine, Operating system, stems from that simple system.
While the idea of connecting two computers by a cable or without cable (wireless) may
not seem extraordinary, in retrospect it has proven to be a major achievement in
communications. The real transformation in computer technology occurred in 1982 with
the introduction of Personal Computers by IBM. By about 1988 it was possible for many
users to have a computer on their desktop for their exclusive use as their price went down
quite low. Big single mainframe computers were being replaced by smaller desktop
computers in each department. Accounts department, purchase department, sales
department, each had its own computers. With this, there was need to communicate with
one another within the organisation and Communication consisted of sending data files,
messages, etc.

Fig 1.1 Example of Networking

In order to coordinate the activities of all the departments it was essential to exchange
data on sales, payments, receipts, purchases, etc. In fact it was becoming increasingly

102
clear that database common to all the departments was to be shared. Thus it became
evident that the smaller desktop computers required communicating with one and
another.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.3 Types of Networking
_____________________________________________________________________________
There are many category viz.
1. Local Area Network (LAN),
2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN),
3. Wide Area Network (WAN),
4. Campus Area Network (CAN)
5. Wireless Network.
Local Area Network (LAN). A computer in one’s home is connected to the internet, a
worldwide computer network. Computers in organizations are connected together to form
a local area network.

Fig 5.1 Example of LAN

When computers which are connected together normally belong to one organization and
all computers are situated within a radius of about 1 km, the network is called a Local
Area Network (LAN). All computers are required have a unit called a Network Interface
unit (NIU). Whenever a computer wants to send data to another computer it places the
data in its NIU. It also specifies where the data is to be delivered. Thus if computer p
wants to send data to a computer q it puts the data in its NIU with address of computer q.
After placing the data in NIU, computer p is free to do any other work it wants to do. It is

103
the job of NIU to deliver the data safely to computer q. Thus NIU is like a post office
box. Its job is to deliver safely whatever data is placed in it to the intended receiver.
Similarly when data is received by computer p the data is placed in its NIU by the sender.
NIU intimates CPU of the arrival of data and CPU suspends its current task and takes the
data from the NIU into its memory. It then proceeds with the task it was doing earlier.
After completing the task it attends to the data received from its NIU. In a LAN there will
be many computers. The NIUs of these computers are connected to an electronic circuit-
called a HUB. Such an interconnection of computers which are in a small area such as a
laboratory (or one building) is called a Local Area Network (LAN). Arrangement of
sending data from one computer to other is like job post offices do. Any letter posted
within a city is sorted locally. If it is to be sent to another state it is sent to the appropriate
post of state by the sorting system using PIN code. It is the responsibility of the receiving
office to handle that letter and deliver it to the correct address.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.4 Applications / Importance of Networking
_____________________________________________________________________________
Importance of LAN
The major reasons for connecting computers in a LAN are that it allows:
1. Sharing expensive Peripherals such as laser printers, plotters, etc.
2. Sharing expensive software such as those for engineering design, drug design,
statistical and numerical computations.
3. Exchange of messages between users connected to it. It is also possible to
broadcast a message to all users connected to the LAN or selectively send message
to smaller group of users (this is called multicasting). In recent high speed LAN’s
it is even-possible to hold a video conference between selected persons who have
logged on to their multimedia PCs.
4. Sharing CPU power of computers. At a given time all CPU’s are riot being used
fully. For example, a user may be just editing a word file which requires very little
CPU power. Another user performing time consuming numerical computation can
utilize the CPU power of this underutilized computer. In fact, it is even possible to
use all the computers connected to the LAN to work on different aspects of a
single job. For example, if you want to find the average of 16,000,000 numbers
with 16 CPU LAN, you can assign the task of a 1,000,000 numbers to each CPU.
All of them can do the task assigned simultaneously, that is, in parallel. The
average found by each PC can then be used to final average. Observe that the time
taken is now a little more than (1/16)th the time if all the work is done by a single
computer.

104
 5. Sharing files between users. For example, if a user has some files of music,
another user may like to borrow this by downloading (i.e., copying) the file to I
his/her own disk file. In fact any data file can be shared as long as access is
permitted by the original owner.

Wide Area Network (WAN): If ABC company has branches dispersed all over the
country and they are connected through a network, this will be called a wide area
network.

Fig 1.3 Example of WAN

When the geographical area to be spanned by the network is a whole country then it is
called Wide Area Network (WAN). Worldwide connection of computers may also be
called a Wide Area Network.
There are two types of WAN

Types of
WAN

Private WAN
Public WAN
Fig 5.1 Types of Wide Area Network
a. Private WAN use dedicated private communication infrastructure provided by
telephone companies such as Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd., Reliance Communications,
etc., to interconnect computers. In fact in India many companies will soon provide
country wide telephone networks using optical fiber cables which will be used for data
transmission. Private WANs are expensive to create, and maintain but they provide high
data rates and are secure as no-one from outside network can gain access to the network.
Private WANs are maintained by some big banks such as State Bank of India as they are

105
secure. Railways also maintain their own wide area network for reservation system. Most
organizations, however, use the public telephone network.
b. Public WAN use number-of different technologies such as multicore copper
cables, fiber optic lines, coaxial cables, microwave networks and communication
satellites. When an organization’s network is connected to a public network, a filter
(which may be a dedicated computer with specially designed software or a server in the
organization with special software) is placed between the organization’s LAN and a
device called a router which connects it to the public switched network. This filter is
called a firewall. In fact a firewall is needed at each location of the organization which is
connected to the public network. Firewalls can be programmed to perform one or more of
the following actions depending on the management policies of the organization:

• Prevent unauthorized persons from accessing the data resource of the

company, such as sensitive databases. Authorized users have legal passwords
to login to the network which is used by the firewall to permit access.
• Block access to certain undesirable sites such as pornography, games, etc., by
employees. Filter e-mail which are suspected to be advertisements or from
suspect sources.
• Scan e-mail and e-mail attachments and delete files which have suspected
viruses.
• Prevent remote logging into a computer in the organization.

An organization may like to allow free access to their web site and allow access to
certain files. These may be stored in a server called a web server and this server is placed
between the router and the firewall. Special precautions should be taken to protect web
information from being altered by vandals.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) In between these two (LAN and WAN), if
Network is confined to a metropolitan limits is called MAN. When the geographical area
to be spanned by a computer network is a few 100 sq. km; (such as Mumbai, Bangalore,
Delhi, etc.) it is called a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). The connection between
computers in a MAN is usually through the local telephone network. Usually dedicated
lines are leased from the telephone company to connect organizations. In India the
telephone company in major metros is the Mahanagar Telephone Nigam Ltd. Leased
lines are not shared with other telephone users. An example of MAN is DELNET, a
network connecting the libraries in Delhi. This MAN enables users of libraries scattered

106
all over Delhi to find out by using a combined electronic Catalogue of holdings of all the
libraries what material is available in which library.

One of the most challenging and interesting recent trends in the computer and
communications industries is the integration of wireless communications and computing.
The resulting network is referred to as a wireless computing systems or a wireless
network. A wireless computing system enhances the functionality of computing
equipment by freeing communication from the location constraints of the wired
computing systems. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) are like traditional LANs
having a wireless interface to enable wireless communication among the equipment that
are part of the LAN. A wireless LAN may be further connected to a more extensive fixed
network such as LAN, WAN, the Internet, etc. The primary component of a wireless
LAN is the wireless Interface card that has an antenna. This interface card can be
connected to the mobile unit as well as t the fixed network. Wireless LANs have limited
range and are designed to be used only in local environments such as a building, hallway,
or office complex. The main advantage is the flexibility and mobility supported by a
wireless LAN; bandwidth considerations are secondary.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.5. Client Server Computing
_____________________________________________________________________________

A computer which may requires the resources provided by the server. It is normally a
smaller computer such as a low end PC or a thin client (a thin client is a small computer
with no disk. low power CPU and a graphical user interface similar to that provided by a
Windows OS, Linux, etc.). A sewer is a computer connected to a LAN which is capable
of providing some special service. The special service may be anyone of the following:
• Access to a high cost peripheral such as a line printer, a laser printer, a plotter, an
archival system such as a high capacity tape or a large capacity disk with terabytes of
storage.
• A very powerful CPU with good number crunching capability and associated software
libraries for numerical computation.
• A powerful CPU with good transaction processing capability hosting a large database
needed for transaction processing.
Given below are the examples of client server computing.
• A department may have invested in buying a high speed colour laser printer
costing a few lakhs of rupees. It should be available to all PC users in the department.
The colour laser printer is connected to the server. A PC user who wants to print a file

107
using the colour printer is called a client. A client can send the file to the server and give
a command to print. The server may have received many such requests. It queues up all
the requests and attends to them one by one and prints the files. Each file has a separate
front sheet giving the user’s identification to ease sorting of the print outs. The user then
walks over to the printer to collect his/her print out.
• Having an e-mail server for a department is now a standard procedure. All e-mails
received by the users of the department are stored in the e-mail server. One advantage of
a server is that it can be provided special software to scan all e-mails for viruses and
remove them, filter out unwanted circulars, sales advertisements, etc. A user can log on to
the server to pick up e-mails addressed to him/her. Similarly all e-mails to be sent are
dispatched to the server which keeps a copy and transmits it to the addressee.
• Banks use a server to store all data of its account holders such as their unique
account number, name(s) of holder(s), address, credits, debits, current balance, etc. This
is a large database which is kept secure and tamper proof. Client terminals are kept with
each clerk, teller, manager, etc. Each client PC is given access privileges depending on
their legitimate requirements. For example, a PC used to update a pass book and print
account statement in the passbook will have access only to read .the date stored in the
server and not to modify it. A teller who gives cash on presentation of a cheque will have
both read and write privilege as he/she will be required to change the balance in the
account after paying cash/accepting a cash deposit.
• Rail/bus booking is another example of client server computing. The large number
of terminals with reservation clerks at the counters are all connected to a server which
stores the database of available berths/seats on all the trains for which reservation can be
made. When a reservation request is made by a passenger to a clerk at the counter, the
clerk enters the train number and date of journey. This is transmitted to the server which
returns data on seats available in the train. Now the clerk can allot available seat(s) to the
passenger, print the ticket using his PC and collect the money. The central database of
reservation office is updated as soon as a ticket is issued.
• A digital library may store electronic or soft copies of journals, books, etc., in a
server. This server will normally have a very large disk capacity and the material would
be properly indexed. Typical examples of commonly accessed material are atlases,
encyclopedias etc. Clients can access the library server to download desired material and
read them. If a library has only text books and other reference books and no electronic
books or journals (a traditional college or University library), the printed card catalogue
is normally replaced by an electronic card catalogue, stored in a server. Clients are
available in the library which can be used to access the catalogue from the server to find
out whether a book is available in the library and if so, is it on the shelf or borrowed by a
user. Many libraries also allow readers to reserve the book to be issued to them when it is
returned. The server can be programmed to notify the reader by email as soon as a book
has been returned. In general all data to be accessed by a large number of users in an
organization are normally stored in a server and several clients connected to it by a LAN
can access the server.

108
 The advantage of client-server model of computing is the control which can be
exercised on the contents of the server. The data stored in the server can be authenticated,
access can be controlled and a log can be kept on who accessed a server and for what
purpose. If there are usage charges these charges can be computed by the server and
forwarded to users. The main disadvantage of the client- server model is the over-
dependence on the server. If the server fails or has errors all clients are affected. Thus in
critical applications such as railway reservation, bank accounts, etc., a duplicate server is
kept. It is known as hot-stand-by, that is, it will take over the task if the primary server
fails.
5.5.1. Peer-to-Peer Computing
In client-server computing although all computers are connected to a single LAN,
one or more of them with special features such as large disk space, high power CPU or
special peripherals are designated as servers. A LAN may have several servers each for a
different purpose. But where all computers in a LAN nave an equal status such a network
is called a peer-to-peer network. Dictionary meaning of peer is “a person who has equal
standing with another in rank, class, age or profession”. In peer-to-peer network there is
no distinction between computers connected to a LAN as a server or as a client. All
computers have equal standing. In two cases, given below, this type of networking is
useful.
File Sharing: If there are a group of researchers in a department all of them can
place technical reports of their research in their computer and create a directory
accessible to all users of LAN. Thus anyone can examine the directory and download
reports of interest to him/her. This method also permits a group of students to collaborate
in writing a report or performing a joint research project. Such a method was popularized
by a service called Napster.
Sharing CPU Resources: Users of a LAN can cooperate and allow a user to run
(with a low priority) a job requiring lot of CPU time as a background job in their
machines. Thus if they are not utilizing CPU the background job will use CPU and send
the results to the owner of the job. As all computers are peers anyone can initiate
compute intensive job and distribute it. Peer-to-peer computing as an idea is not limited
to use in a LAN. In fact this idea can be used in any network.
5.5.2. Technology Used in LAN. We have seen what are LANs and why they are
important in applications. You may, wonder how computers in a LAN are connected and
communicate with one another. There are three broad methods used. They are known as
Ethernet connection, Token ring and Star connection. Ethernet connection is the most
popular one.

109
5.5.3. Ethernet Connection. Computers are connected as a LAN using a HUB. Suppose
there are 8 computers numbered as C1 .......C8. Now, if C1 wants to send data to C4, it
will attach to data, the sender’s address and receiver’s address. We will call this a
message. This message will be placed in NIUI which will in turn send it via link LI to the
HUB. The HUB will examines the message, finds the; address of the receiver (which is in
the case C4) and forwards it to NIU4. If more than one messages are being sent
simultaneously HUB will detect that a collision has taken place. It will broadcast a
jamming signal to all NIUs connected to it informing that a collision has taken place and
the messages corrupted. On receiving this jamming signal, computers which were trying
to send messages will wait for different random intervals (a few microseconds) and re-
send their respective messages. The probability of a collision happening again is lower as
the two computers which were trying to send messages back off by different random
times. This procedure adopted by the network to share the communications system is
called CSMNCD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with collision Detection). Technically
this technology is known as 10 Base T Ethernet.
5.5.4. Token Ring Connection. In a token ring, computers are connected together to
form a ring. A small packet called a token (a small bit string with specified unique
format) is circulated in the ring. Whenever a computer, say, C3 wants to send a message
to another computer, say C12, the NIU of C3 (namely NIU 3) waits for the token. When
it gets the token it attaches the message to it with address C12 and puts it back on the
ring. Each NIU examines the token to see if it is a free token or has a message addressed
to it. If it is a message addressed to it, it detaches the message from the token and puts
back the token in the ring with an acknowledgement of safe receipt to the sender. The
sender when it gets the token back with positive acknowledgement clears the token and
puts it back in the ring as a free token. Note that if a sender does not get
acknowledgement in a specified time it will, resend the message. It is clear that only one
message can be circulating in the ring at a time. Token ring technology is simple but not
as popular as Ethernet as Ethernet technology is cheaper and it provides a higher
bandwidth.
5.5.6. Star Connection. In star connection clients are connected to a centralized server.
Such a network is also called a store and forward network. If C1 wants to send a
message to 04, the message addressed to C4 is received by the server. The server
examines the address of the message and forwards it to C4. Observe that the central
server can be powerful and provides services to all the clients. The primary advantage of
this connection is that each computer has an exclusive connection to the server and
bandwidth is not shared. The main disadvantages are:
(i) The server can create a “Traffic jam”,

110
 (ii) If the server fails the entire network is down.
________________________________________________________________________
5.6. Fixed and Wireless Networks
________________________________________________________________________
5.6.0. Wireless Computing Systems: Wireless computing systems can be broadly
classified into the following two categories:

5.6.1. Fixed wireless systems. These wireless computing systems support little or no
mob9ity of computing equipment associated with the wireless network. This type of LAN
is set up to get rid of the hassles of laying cables. The LAN will work as a convention
wired LAN except for the difference that it does not need any cabling to be carried out.
This you can compare with the cordless phone equipment.

5.6.2. Mobile wireless systems. These wireless computing systems support mobility of
the computing equipment, which the users use to access the-resources associated with the
wireless network. In turn these systems support mobility of users and -allow the mobile
users to access information from anywhere and at anytime. The resulting computing
environment, which is often called mobile computing or nomadic computing, no longer
requires a user to maintain a fixed position in the network and enables almost unrestricted
user mobility. Typical computing equipment used in mobile wireless systems include
smart phones, personal digital assistants (PDAs.).

5.6.3. Issues in Wireless Computing Systems.

Wireless computing systems communicate by modulating radio waves or pulsing
infrared light. Wireless communication is linked to the wired network infrastructure by
stationary transceivers. The area covered by an individual transceiver’s signal is known
as a cell. Cell sizes vary widely. For instance, an infrared transceiver can cover a small
meeting room. a cellular phone transceiver has a range of a few miles, and a set beam can
cover an area more than 400 miles in diameter.
The successful use of wireless computing systems faces several challenges. The
important ones among them are as follows:
1. Lower bandwidths; Wireless communication is characterized by lower
bandwidths. That is, the channel capacity typically available in wireless systems is much
lower than what is available in wired networks due to the limited spectrum available,
power restrictions, and noise levels.

111
2. Variable bandwidths. In case of mobile wireless systems, the limited bandwidth
that is available is also variable depending on location. Channel reuse must, therefore, be
an integral part of the system in order to provide service to as many potential subscribers
as possible.
3. Higher error rates. Noise and interference have more impact on wireless
computing systems than for wired computing systems.

4. Increased security concerns. Security is a greater concern in wireless systems

than in wired-systems since information may be traveling in free space (with the
exception of infrared LANs). Moreover, a stronger level of authentication is needed in a
mobile environment.

5. Dynamically changing network. In case of a mobile wireless system, the

topology of the network changes rapidly due to the movement and resulting connections
and disconnections of the mobile nodes. Moreover large concentrations of mobile users,
say, at conventions and public events, may overload network capacity.

6. Lost or degraded connections. In case of a mobile wireless system, mobility can

cause wireless connections to be lost or degraded.
7. Support for routing and location management functions. Mobile wireless
systems also need to provide support for routing functions (to maintain communication
with mobility) and location management functions (to keep track of the location of
mobile nodes).
8. Limited power. Mobile nodes are battery operated and hence have limited power
available.

5.6.4. Wireless Applications. Wireless computing systems have several interesting and
important applications such as:
1. Mobile e-commerce applications, popularly known as e-commerce
applications.
2. Web surfing using wireless devices.
3. Access to corporate data by sales people and other frequent travelers while
they are traveling.
4. Mobile video-on-demand applications.
5. Location-sensitive services, such as programs that help finding nearby
movie theaters or restaurants’ an unfamiliar location.

112
________________________________________________________________________
5.7. Features of Distributed Computing System
________________________________________________________________________

The merging of computer and networking technologies gave birth to distributed

computing systems. A distributed computing system is a collection of computers inter
connected by a communication network. Such an arrangement enables the sharing of
many hardware and software resources as well as information among several users who
may be sifting far away from each other. The individual computers of a distributed
computing system are often referred to as nodes.
It is obvious that distributed computing systems are much more complex and
difficult to build than tradition centralized systems. The increased complexity is mainly
due to the following reasons:
1. The system must be designed in such a way so as to effectively use and manage a very
large number of distributed resources.
2. The system must be designed to enable communication among the various nodes of the
system. Special software is usually needed to handle loss of messages during
transmission across the network or to prevent overloading of the network.
3. Special security measures are needed to protect the widely distributed shared resources
and services against intentional or accidental violation of access control and privacy
constraints.
Despite the increased complexity and the difficulty of building distributed
computing systems, the installation and use of distributed computing systems are rapidly
increasing. This is mainly because the advantages of distributed computing systems
outweigh their disadvantages. The major advantages that have led to the emergence and
popularity of distributed computing systems are as follows:
1. Inherently distributed applications. Several applications are inherently distributed in
nature and require a distributed computing system for their realization. An example of
inherently distributed applications is a computerized banking system in which a customer
can deposit/withdraw money from his or her account from any branch of the bank.
2. Information sharing among distributed users. In a distributed computing system,
information generated by one of the users can be easily and efficiently shared by the
users working at other nodes of the system. For example, a project can be performed by
two or more users who are geographically far off from each other but whose computers
are a part of the same distributed computing system, they can work in cooperation, by

113
transferring the files of the project, logging on to each other’s remote computers to run
programs, and exchanging messages by electronic mail to coordinate the work.
3. Resource sharing. Along with information, sharing of software resources such as
software libraries and databases, as well as hardware resources such as printers, hard
disks, and plotters can also be done, among the users of a single distributed computing
system.
4. Better price-performance ratio. Distributed computing systems potentially have a
much better price-performance ratio than a single large centralized system because they
facilitate resource sharing among multiple computers. For example, a single unit of
expensive peripheral devices such as color laser printers, high-speed storage devices, and
plotters can be shared among all the computers of the same distributed computing system.
If these computes are not linked together with a communication network, each computer
must have its own peripherals, resulting in higher cost.
5. Shorter response times and higher throughput. Multiple processors of a distributed
computing system can be utilized properly for providing shorter response times and
higher throughput than a single-processor centralized system. Distributed computing
systems with very fast communication networks are increasingly being used as parallel
computers to solve single complex problems rapidly. Another method often used in
distributed computing systems for achieving better overall performance is to distribute
the load more evenly among the multiple processors by moving jobs from currently
overloaded processors to lightly loaded ones.
6. Higher reliability. Reliability refers to the degree of tolerance against errors, and
prevents loss of information, if the component fail in a system. The multiplicity of
storage devices and processors in a distributed computing system allows the maintenance
of multiple copies of critical information within the system and the execution of
important computations redundantly to protect them against catastrophic failures. With
this approach, if one of the processors fails, the computation can be successfully
completed at the other processor and if one of the storage devices fails, the information
can still be used from the other storage device. Furthermore, the geographical distribution
of the processors and other resources in a distributed computing system limits the scope
of failures caused by natural disasters.
7. Extensibility and incremental growth. Another major advantage of distributed
computing system is that they are capable of incremental growth. That is, it is possible to
gradually extend the power and functionality of a distributed computing system by
simply adding additional resources (both, hardware and software) to the system as and
when the need arises. Extensibility is also easier in a distributed computing system

114
because addition of new resources to an existing system can be performed without
significant disruption of the normal functioning of the system.
8. Better flexibility in meeting users’ needs. Different types of computers are usually
more suitable for performing different types of computations. In a centralized system, the
users have to perform all types of computations on the only available computer.
However, in distributed computing system ma1 have a pool of different types of
computers, in which case the most appropriate one can be selected for processing.
_____________________________________________________________________________
5.8 Summary of this chapter
_____________________________________________________________________________
A computer network is a network of geographically distributed multiple computers
connected in such a way that sharing of information, processing load and resources
become possible among them.
Bandwidth is the range of frequencies that is available for the transmission of data. The
wider the bandwidth, the more data It can transmit In a given period of time.
The communication data transfer rate is measured in a unit called baud.
Based on characteristics such as geographic distribution of nodes, networks are broadly
classified as LAN and WAN. In between Networks referred to as MANs.
Network Interface card, often referred to as NIC or network card, is a hardware device
that allows a computer to be connected to a network.
A wireless computing system(fixed or mobile) enhances the functionality of computing
equipment by freeing communication from the location constraints of the wired
computing systems.
In distributed computing system many independent computer systems are connected by a
communication network, enabling the sharing of many hardware and software resources
as well as information among several users.

Check your progress

_____________________________________________________________________________
5.9 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
______________________________________________________________________________

1. Access to a high cost peripheral such as a line printer, a laser printer, a plotter,
an archival system such as a high capacity tape or a …………….with terabytes
of storage.

115
 2. A very ……………………….. number crunching capability and associated
software libraries for numerical computation.
3. A powerful CPU with ………………………………..capability hosting a large
database needed for transaction processing.
4. The system must be designed in such a way so as to effectively use and
manage a very large number of………………………..
5. The system must be designed to enable communication among the various
nodes of the system. Special software is usually needed to handle loss of
messages during transmission across the network or to
prevent…………………………………...
6. …………………………..are needed to protect the widely distributed shared
resources and services against intentional or accidental violation of access
control and privacy constraints.

Ans 1. large capacity disk, 2. powerful CPU with good, 3. good transaction
processing , 4. distributed resources , 5. overloading of the network, 6. Special
security measures

Exercise 2: True and False

State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. Mobile e-commerce applications, popularly known as rn-commerce applications.
2. Web surfing using wireless devices.
3. Access to corporate data by sales people and other frequent travelers while they are
traveling.
4. No Mobile video-on-demand applications.
5. Location-sensitive services, such as programs that help finding nearby movie theaters
or restaurants’ an unfamiliar location.
Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( F ), 5( T )

Exercise 3: Mix and Match

Match statement B with Statement A

S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)

1. Wireless communication is characterized by lower Variable bandwidths
bandwidths. That is, the channel capacity typically
available in wireless systems is much lower than

116
 what is available in wired networks due to the
limited spectrum available, power restrictions, and
noise levels.
2. In case of mobile wireless systems, the limited
bandwidth that is available is also variable
depending on location. Channel reuse must,
therefore, be an integral part of the system in Lower bandwidths
order to provide service to as many potential
subscribers as possible.
3. Noise and interference have more impact on
wireless computing systems than for wired Increased security
computing systems. concerns
4. Security is a greater concern in wireless systems Higher error rates
than in wired-systems since information may be
traveling in free space (with the exception of
infrared LANs). Moreover, a stronger level of
authentication is needed in a mobile environment.
5. In case of a mobile wireless system, the topology Lost or degraded
of the network changes rapidly due to the connections
movement and resulting connections and
disconnections of the mobile nodes. Moreover
large concentrations of mobile users, say, at
conventions and public events, may overload
network capacity.
6. In case of a mobile wireless system, mobility can Dynamically changing
cause wireless connections to be lost or degraded. network
7. Mobile wireless systems also need to provide Limited power
support for routing functions (to maintain
communication with mobility) and location
management functions (to keep track of the
location of mobile nodes).
8. Mobile nodes are battery operated and hence have Support for routing and
limited power available. location management
functions.

Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (4), 4. (3), 5. (6), 6(5), 7(8), 8(7)

Exercise 4: Very Short Questions

1. What is a computer network?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

117
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. What are three advantages of using a computer network?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Give two examples of a LAN

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Give two examples of a WAN

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Explain the term Bandwidth?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

1. Write a short note on CAN, LAN and WAN?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

118
 2. Enumerate the various objectives of business?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Define the term Topology? Explain any three Topologies.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Write short note on distributed Computing?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. What are major issues in Wireless Computing System?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

119
 Chapter 6 : Introduction to Internet
________________________________________________________________________
6. INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________
6.1 Objectives
6.2 Meaning of Internet
6.3 Growth of Internet
6.4 Owner of Internet
6.5 Anatomy of Internet/ How to connected to Internet
6.6 Net Etiquette
6.7 Browser
6.8 Worldwide Web
6.9 Internet Protocols
6.10 Usage of Internet society
6.11 Search Engines
6.12 Internet Search Tools (surfing tools)
6.13 Summary of the chapter
6.14 Exercise
________________________________________________________________________
6.1 Objectives
________________________________________________________________________
After studying this chapter, students are able to:
• Understand the definition of the Internet
• Growth of Internet
• Understand the basic Internet terminology
• Understand the internet protocols, Net Etiquette
• Understand various types of Search Engines
o HotBot
o Yahoo
o Lycos
o Infoseek
o Google
o Inference find
o Lxquick

120
______________________________________________________________________
6.2 Meaning of Internet
______________________________________________________________________
The term “Internet” means a huge network of computers that links many different types
of computers all over the world. It is a network of networks that share a common
mechanism for addressing (identifying) computers and a common set of communication
protocols for communications between two computers on the network. The discussion in
unit 5 we restricted the LANs as belonging to a single organization. It need not be so. If
there is an agreement to use a common set of rules (called protocols) to exchange
messages between computers of diverse organizations connected to a worldwide public
switched network then any computer can communicate with any other computer in the
world. Such an infrastructure is called INTERNET. All these individuate networks are
interconnected using routers and public switched telephone networks. TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is one of the main protocol used by the
internet. The individual computer networks may use any technology such as Ethernet,
token ring or any type of connection such as bus, star, etc., provided the rules of
communication among computers is standardized as TCPIP.
______________________________________________________________________
6.3 Growth of Internet
______________________________________________________________________
Internet is the product of a military undertaking. See fig 6.1 Internet

See Fig 6.1 Internet connecting people sharing information

The Pentagon’s Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) funded its creation in 1969,
as ARPANET.
ARPANET was the first WAN and had only four sites in 1969.

121
The initial intention was simple see fig 6.2 initial Arpanet -1969: to develop a
geographically dispersed, reliable communication network for military use that would not
be disrupted in case of partial destruction from a nuclear attack. That aim was
accomplished by splitting the data being transmitted into small packets, which can take
different routes to their destination. The “packet-switched” network can resist a nuclear
attack in that the packets can take a different route if on’ route is knocked off. This main
feature of Internet technology also makes it almost impossible to eavesdrop on the
messages.
The procedure developed for interconnecting ARPANET computers and
communicating the data was called TCP/IP, an acronym for Transmission Control
Protocol/ Internet Protocol. ARPANET allowed engineers and scientists working on
military contracts all over America to share computers and computer resources. As a
second thought, the computer scientists developed a way to exchange messages. This
feature, “E-mail”, turned the network into a new communication link. The ARPANET
was first confined to organizations and individuals having US government security
clearance and working on government contracts. It soon merged with a nongovernmental,
parallel academic network called Usenet News, launched in 1979, which grew and
eventually became known as the Internet. In the late 1980s, the American government,
through its agency the National Science Foundation (NSF), set up five supercomputer
centers, which became the main nodes of the Internet, to which the university and
research lab networks became connected: In 1989, the U.S. Government lifted restrictions
on the use of the Internet and allowed it to be used for commercial purposes as well.
Since then, the Internet has rapidly grown to become the world’s largest network.
The number of computers connected to Internet has been growing exponentially.
In 1983 there were less than 500 “host” computers mostly government laboratories and
academic computer science departments. The rest of the academic community got a whiff
of its information exchanging ability, and by 1987 there were about 30,000 host
computers at different universities and research labs. By 1995 this number had increased
to 5 million hosts.
Initially these private networks, both corporate as well as commercial, had
different hardware and software platforms and could not talk to each other, but very

122
quickly, TCP/ IP came to be used by them. Interconnection of these networks, BBS
communities, and individual PCs in homes and offices by adoption of the Internet
technology, TCP/IP, gave birth to the Internet as we know it today. All that is required to
connect any network or computer up with the Internet, is the capability to use TCP/IP for
exchanging information. This is how the Internet became the Network of Networks.
During its evolution, the Internet was supported and controlled to a greater or
lesser degree by American government agencies, first ARPA, and then the NSF, but now
it has become a diversified, in some sense uncontrollable, global entity. Its nodes are
supported by diverse sources.
______________________________________________________________________________
6.4 OWNER OF INTERNET
____________________________________________________________________________
There is a global organisation Internet Network Information Centre (lnterNlC), has
traditionally registered domain name and IP addresses. InterNIC maintains the database
of all registered domain name. The site name for interNlC is www.internic.net. See Fig
6.3 showing public information regarding Internet Domain Name Registration Services

Fig 6.3 showing public information regarding Internet Domain Name Registration
Services
b. Internet Architecture Board (IBA) is given the job of approving standards and
resource allocation.

Fig 6.4 Internet Architecture Board (IBA)

123
 c. Voluntary organisation called internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is
attending operational and technical problems.
6.4.1 ITS BASIC SERVICES
There are basically four types of services provided by the Internet to its users.
These are described below.
6.4.1.1 Electronic Mail
The electronic mail service (known as e-mail in short) allows an Internet user to
send a mail (message) to another Internet user in any part of the world in a near-real time
manner. The message may not reach its destination immediately, but may take anywhere
from few seconds to several minutes, because it must be passed from one, network to
another until it reaches its destination.

E-mail service has many similarities with the postal mail service that all of us are
familiar with. All Internet users have an e-mail address, just like all of us have a postal
address. Each Internet user has a logical mail box just like each one of us has a mail box
In our house. When sending a mail to another user, the sender specifies the e-mail
address of the receiver just as we write the postal address of the receiver in the postal
mail system. The e-mail service delivers an already sent mail into the receiver’s mail box.
The receiver extracts the mail from the mail box and reads. It at his/her own convenient
time just like in a postal mail system. Messages in e-mail service can contain not only
text documents but also image, audio and video data. The only restriction is that the data
to be sent must be converted to a computer-readable format (digitized). As compared to
paper mail, telephone, and fax, e-mail is preferred by many because of its following
advantages:
1. It is faster than paper mail.

124
2. Unlike the telephone, the persons communicating with each other need not be available
at the same time.
3. Unlike fax documents, e-mail documents can be stored in a computer and be easily
edited using editing programs.

6.4.1.2. Usenet News

The use net service allows a group of internet user to exchange their views/
ideas/information on some common topic that is of interest to all the members belonging
to the group. Several such groups exists on the internet and are called newsgroup or list
serve.

6.4.1.3. File Transfer Protocol Service. The File Transfer Protocol service (known as
FTP in short) allows an Internet user to move a file from one computer to another on the
Internet. A file may contain any type of digital information - text document, image,
artwork, movie, sound, software, etc. Moving a file from a remote computer to ones own
computer is known as downloading the file and , moving a file from ones own computer
to a remote computer is known as uploading the file.

125
6.4.1.4. Telnet. The telnet service allows an Internet user to log in to another computer
somewhere on the Internet. That is, a user can execute the telnet command on his/her
local computer to start a login session on a remote computer. This action is also called
“remote login.”

______________________________________________________________________________
6.5. ANATOMY OF INTERNET / how to connect to the Internet
____________________________________________________________________________
6.5.1. How to get connected to the internet. The next question which arises is how can
an individual or an organization be connected to the internet? As we saw connection to
internet is provided by Internet service providers (ISPs). In India there are a large number
of ISPs. Some major internet service providers in India are: VSNL, MTNL, Satyam, Tata
India Corn, mantra online, Dishnet etc. You connecting your computer to the telephone
line via a modern. The expansion of modem is modulator demodulator. Telephone lines
are designed to efficiently transmit as an analog signals. Data input and output to
computers are, however, digital. Thus the digital output of a computer has to be
converted to an analog audio signal before it is transmitted using a telephone line. This is
done by electronic circuit known as a modem. The modulator part of modem accepts a
string of 1 and 0s from the PC and converts each 1 to a continuous audio signal of a low
frequency and each 0 to another continuous audio signal of a higher frequency. The
telephone line is connected to the server at the ISP’s location via your telephone
exchange. Usually you dial a telephone number given by the ISP to access their server.
The analog signals received by the ISP’s modem is converted back to digital signals,
namely, a string of 0s and 1s, by the demodulator part of the modem. Similarly ISP’s
server will convert bit strings to continuous analog signals using its modem and send it to
your PC’s modem. This modem will convert these back to bit strings and store it in PC’s
memory.
Dial-up telephone lines connected between home PC and ISP’s server allow you to
transmit and receive data at varying speed rate measured in kilobits/sec. High speed
modems connected to a co-axial cable similar to the ones provided by cable TV operators

126
are now available in some cities and will be necessary if you want to receive video
signals via internet. If your organization has a LAN which is to be connected to an ISP a
single telephone line is insufficient as many users may be trying to get access to the
internet. In this case telephone companies provide multiple telephone lines configured as
a multi core cable to customers. Many of these copper cables are now being replaced by
fiber optic cables, enabling greater speed.
We saw that the Internet can be put to many different types of usage. However, before
one can even think of using the Internet, he/she has to be connected to this worldwide
communications network, There are four basic ways to get connected to the Internet:
1. Direct/Leased-line
2. Remote Dial-up
3. SLIP/PPP
4. Commercial Online Service
Each of these options varies in terms of hardware and software required for connection,
cost of connection, and flexibility of usage (what can and cannot be done). Let us
consider these options one by one to understand their connectivity differences.
6.5.2. Direct / Leased Line Connection. In this method, a dedicated (leased) phone line
is used to connect a computer system to the Internet. As the communication line is
dedicated, the entire bandwidth of the line is reserved for network traffic between the
Internet and the connected computer system. The connected computer system is
sometimes called a gateway because it can be used to provide Internet connectivity to
other computers via it. Here direct connection means that the connected computer system
forms a domain (a final destination) on the Internet. Depending on the type of setup
within an organization, individual computers of the organization may or may not have
their own internet address. In the former case, access to the Internet from an individual
computer is direct, in the latter case, the user of an individual computer has to use the
software tools for Internet access that are on the gateway computer and a file downloaded
from the Internet first goes to the gateway computer’s hard disk which has to be again
transferred to the hard disk of the user’s computer. Because of the significant expenses
involved, direct connection method is suitable mainly for large organizations and
software companies and is not suitable for individuals willing to connect their own
personal computer or workstation to the Internet.

127
 6.5.3 Remote Dial-up Connection. We saw that the gateway computer system of a
direct / leased-line connection can be used to provide Internet connectivity to other
computers via it. This idea has led to the concept of Internet Service Provider (ISP).
An ISP is an organization that maintains a gateway computer system having direct /
leased line connectivity to the Internet and provides Internet access facility to other
users (that are registered with it) by allowing them to connect their personal
computers to its own gateway computer by using a modem. This method of
connecting a user’s personal computer to the Internet is known as remote dial-up
connection. The ISP’s gateway computer is called a host or server, and the user’s
computer is called a client or remote machine. Using his/her personal computer, the
user has to first log in to the server computer in order to use its connection to the
Internet. For a remote dial-up connection, a user requires a computer with some basic
telecommunications software, a telephone line, and a modem. With this kind of
connection, user is assigned on account on the host computer. This includes
assignment of an e-mail name, or address, and allocation of some disk space on the
host computer. For using the Internet facility, the user dials up the host computer by
using his/her computer and the modem and then logs in to the host computer by using
his/her user’s name and password. The user then uses the host computer’s Internet
software to access the Internet. The actual level of user’s Internet access is dependent
on the Internet software running on the host.

6.5.4. SLIP/ IPPP Connection. SLIP/PPP connection is an extension to the

remote dial-up connection to allow client computers to have and run their own Internet

128
 software to access the Internet rather than depending on the host computer’s software.
With this type of connection, a user needs to know only about his/her own computer’s
operating system and Internet software and need not learn about the host computer’s
operating system and other software to take advantage of his/her connection to the
Internet. This is made possible by using SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) or PPP
(Point-to-Point Protocol), which are software that allow a client computer to be
connected via a modem to a host computer, and once connected, the client computer
becomes an actual domain on the Internet. Hence all the software tools that the user of a
client computer uses for interfacing with the Internet are the ones that are put on and run
on the client computer.

For a SLIP/PPP connection, a user requires a computer with TCP/IP (Transmission

Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) communication, software, a telephone line, a fast
modem (28.8 Kilobits/sec or faster), and SLIP or PPP software. When a user wants to set
up a SLIPIPPP connection, the Internet Service Provider (ISP) asks to specify which of
the two software the user wishes to use and, depending on the user’s choice, it provides
software free of charge to the user.

6.5.5. Commercial Online Services. At the time of writing this (year 2004), this method
of Internet connectivity is not available in India. It is used in some of the advanced
countries like the US. In this method, a service organization offers a complete online
environment and access to some or all of the Internet’s services by using phone service to
connect a client’s local call to the host computer of the service organization. The service
organization offers local phone access to most areas of the country. This means that if a
client is traveling with a laptop, he/she can usually access his/her online account from
different cities with only a local phone call. There are a handful of such service
organizations in the US that provide commercial online services. The popular ones are
CompuServe, America Online (AOL), GEnie, Delphi, eWorld, and Prodigy.

129
6.5.6. Modem. The process of modulation and demodulation, that is, the conversion of
digital data to analog form is carried out by a device called a modem (modulator
/demodulator). Hence, when an analog facility is used for data communication between
two digital devices (say a terminal and a computer), two modems are required, .one near
each digital device. The digital signal generated at one of the computers converted to
analog form by the modulator of the modem placed near it.

The analog signal is transmitted through the telephone line, which is converted to digital
form by the demodulator of the modem placed with the other machine. This digital data is
received by the computer.
The processed digital data is modulated to analog and returned via the telephone line to
the terminal where the analog signals are demodulated to digital When you want to use a
modem with your computer to allow it to communicate with any other computer via a
telephone line, the following factors should be considered:
1. Transmission speed. The higher is the transmission speed of a modem, the better it is
because it can communicate faster.

130
2. Internal versus external. Modems are of two kinds, internal and external. An internal
modem is an optional add-on circuit board that plugs into one of the computer’s
expansion slots. It gets its power from the computer’s expansion bus. An external
modem, on the other hand, is a separate box that contains the circuitry and logic to
modulate data signals. It has its own power supply. An external modem is, connected to
the computer via a serial port. Both the internal as well as external modems connect to
the telephone system with a standard telephone jack.
3. Facsimile facility. Some modems, known as FAX modems, are capable of emulating a
FAX machine in addition to performing the functions of a regular modem. A computer
equipped with a FAX modem can send/receive text and images as a FAX to/from a
remote FAX machine or another computer equipped with a FAX modem.
4. Error correction. Data transmission errors may occur while data moves on telephone
lines from one modem to another. To take care of this problem, many of the more
sophisticated modems use methods of recovering from data transmission errors. The two
standard methods (protocols) used in the design of modems for error correction feature
are MNP4 (Microcom Network Protocol Version 4) developed by Microcom, Inc. and
V.42 standard developed by CCITT. MNP4 error-correction protocol is suitable for low-
speed modems whereas V.42 standard is suitable for higher-speed modems
5. Data compression: Data compression techniques help in reducing the volume of the
data. The reduction in data volume depends mostly on the kind of data that is being
compressed and the compression algorithm used, but can be as high as 10:1 ratio. By
reducing the volume of the data to be transmitted, modems with built-in data-
compression techniques can achieve higher throughput (can transfer more data in the
same amount of time).
6. Intelligence: Some of the more expensive modems contain microprocessors, storage
chips, and specialized communication chips that allow them to operate and function
under a large number of different circumstances. These modems can be programmed to
automatically perform dialing, answering, and disconnecting functions.

6.5.7. IP address. Each NIU connected to the internet has a unique IP address expressed
in a dotted decimal format. As an example 144.16.79.48 is an IP address. It is difficult for
people to remember such a long sequence of digits. Thus it is common practice to assign
easy to remember names to computers connected to internet. For example you may name
your computer MCDONLINE which may also be a name chosen by someone else. Thus
the name is normally qualified by the department, the organization, ISP and the country
code to make it unique. There is a global organisation Internet Network Information
Centre (InterNIC), has registered domain name and IP addresses.

131
132
 The Network Interface Unit (NIU) of every computer/device which wants to send
or receive messages must have an address. This is similar to a need for you to have a
unique address to receive mail. Such an address is called IP address. It should be noted
that routers which interconnect local networks are special-purpose computers and they
may have several NlUs and each of them will require an IP address. The IP address is 4
bytes long. It is difficult for people to remember a string of 32 bits. Thus IP address is
expressed in the so called dotted decimal format. For example an IP address is:
144.16.79.48 where each number is the decimal equivalent of a byte (Remember that
with 8 bits we can represent 0 to 255). Fortunately in day-to-day use it is not necessary to
remember the IP address of your machine in numerical form. A character string which is
easy to remember is usually assigned as your address. The actual assignment of IP
addresses follows a systematic process to make it easy to route messages between
networks. Each internet service provider (called ISP) who manages a group of users is
assigned a set of lP addresses by an international agency. The ISP in-turn assigns a subset
of addresses to each organization from this set.
____________________________________________________________________
9.6 Net Etiquette
____________________________________________________________________
Net Etiquette are the rules that have developed as people have begun to communicate
and interact on the Internet. The following are some good net etiquette rules to follow:
Before you join in a newsgroup or discussion board, always check that your questions are
relevant to the group.

133
____________________________________________________________________
6.7. Brower
____________________________________________________________________
There are browsers used for internet surfing:
6.7.1 WWW Browsers : To be used as a web client, a computer needs to be loaded with
a special software tool that is known as WWW browser (or browser in short). Browsers
normally provide the following navigation facilities to help users save time when they are
jumping from server to server while Internet surfing:

1. Unlike FTP and Telnet, browsers do not require a user to remotely log in to a server
computer and then to log out again when the user has finished accessing information
stored on the server computer.
2. Browsers allow a user to specify an URL (Uniform Resource Locator) address of a
server computer to facilitate the user to directly visit the server computers site and to
access information stored on it. URL is an addressing scheme used by WWW browsers to
locate sites on the Internet.
3. Browsers allow a user to create and maintain a personal hot list of favorite URL
addresses of server computers that the user is likely to frequently visit in future. A user’s
hot list is stored on his/her local web client computer. Browsers provide hot list
commands to allow the user to add, delete, update URL addresses in the hot list and to
select an URL address of a server computer from the hot list when the user wants to visit
that server computer.
4. Many browsers have a “history” feature. These browsers maintain a history of the
server computers visited in a surfing session. That is, they save in the local computer’s
memory; the URL addresses oi the server computers visited during a surfing session, so
that if the user wants to go back to an already visited server later on the link is still
available in the local computer’s memory.
5. Browsers allow a user to download (copy from a server computer to the local
computer’s hard disk) information in various formats (i.e., as a text file, as an HTML file,

134
or as a PostScript file): The downloaded information can be later (not necessarily in the
same surfing session) used by the user.
Browsers come in various forms and capabilities. The currently available browsers
can be broadly classified into the following three types:
1. Line browsers, 2. Graphical browsers, and 3. Java-enabled browsers.

6.7.2. Line Browsers. A line browser is a text-based browser that provides command-
line interface to its users. That is, line browsers are capable of displaying only plain text.
They denote a hypertext link either by using numbers in brackets like this [1], or by using
boldface type like this. Line browsers that use the latter approach to denote a hypertext
‘ink are known as Lynx browser, and are the most common line browsers in use today.
Line browsers are used on those web-client computers that only have text displaying
capability. Although line browsers offer full hypertext capability for Internet surfing, they
have the following limitations:
1. They cannot handle multimedia data such as graphics, image, video, and sound.
2. They rely heavily on the keyboard for navigating and selecting information
because a user has to enter a selection number or skip from link to link by using the arrow
keys of the keyboard.

135
6.7.3. Graphical Browsers: Graphical browsers are designed to overcome limitations of
line browsers. They are designed to take full advantage of the WWW’s ability to handle
all kinds of digital media such as graphics, image, video and sound. Moreover, they rely
heavily on the mouse for navigating and selecting information. A user can literally point
and click his/her way around the world on the Internet by using only the mouse.
However, graphical browsers require the web client computer to have graphics
capabilities of handling and displaying multimedia data.

These are many graphical browsers available today with names like Mosaic,
NetScape, Cello, Viola, Mac Web, Internet Explorer, etc. Out of these, Mosaic is the best
known and probably the most popular one. It is distributed free of charge by the NCSA
(National Center for Supercomputing Applications). There is also a commercial version
of Mosaic available now called NetScape, which is becoming the de-facto standard for
browsers. Internet Explorer is also a very popular graphical browser.

A conventional graphical browser works as follows:

1. The user of the web-client calls on hypertext link.
2. The browser of the web-client computer decodes the URL address of the link
3. The browser contacts the server corresponding to the URL address and requests
for the object referenced by the link.
4. The server then fetches an object from the local computer and returns to the
browser a bag of bytes that contains the object.

136
 5. The browser then inspects the bytes to determine the type of the data such as
HTML document or JPEG image, etc.

6. Finally, the browser uses the data type information to invoke the appropriate
code to manipulate and display the object on the web-client computer’s screen.

Conventional graphical browsers are called “first-generation” browsers. The main

problem with these browsers is that they are with every possible type of data, protocol
and behavior that a browser can deal with is frozen into its design when the browser is
built. This means that every time a new data type, protocol, or behavior is invented, this
browser must be upgraded to make it capable of dealing with the new situation. From the
viewpoint of end users this is a difficult job because users must continually be aware of
what data types and protocols exist, which browsers deal with which of these data types
and protocols, and which versions of which browsers are compatible with each other.
Given the rapid growth of the Internet, this situation is clearly out of control.

6.7.4. Java-enabled Browsers known as “second-generation” browsers, are designed to

overcome the limitations of the conventional graphical browsers. They are based on the
Java programming language and have the ability to dynamically download Java applets
(mini-applications) from web-server computers to web-dent computers and execute them
on the client's computer. Java-enabled browsers is capable of handling contents, data
type, and protocols dynamically.

137
1. Dynamic content. Browser can download data from a server computer to its own
client computer. In addition to data, Java-enabled browsers can also download Java-
based applets (segments of programs that act as mini-applications) on the client computer
that are executed right there on the client machine. Java-based applets may be written to
provide full animation, play sound, and interact with the user in real time when executed.
They enable creation and display of animation-oriented applications that was not possible
with first-generation browsers,

2. Dynamic data types. The first-generation browsers can deal with only a fixed set of
data objects. For example, a browser might be -designed to understand only the following
image formats - GIF, Xli, pixmap, and Xii bitmap. If this browser tees a new image
format, it cannot display it because it does not know how to deal with it. A Java- enabled
browser overcomes this problem of dealing with an unknown/new data type object
because it can dynamically download the Java-based applet for dealing with the unknown
data type object from the server computer from which the data object is downloaded. The
applet can then be executed to deal with the unknown data type object and to display it on
the client’s computer screen. A Java-enabled browser actually upgrades itself
dynamically when it encounters a new type of object.

3. Dynamic protocols. HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol) is the most commonly
used protocol for interaction between the computers on the Internet. Hence, most of the
first-generation browsers have the knowledge of HTTP built in them. However, with the
increase in commercial use of the Internet, many software vendors are providing new
browsers and servers with added capabilities; such as billing and security .These new
capabilities most often take the form of new protocols. So each vendor comes up with
their unique style of security and sells a server and browser that ‘understand this new
protocol. An increasing trend of such new protocols have become a problem for Internet
users because if a user wants to-access data on multiple servers with each one having its
own proprietary new protocols, the user needs multiple browsers or needs to upgrade its
browser every time a new protocol is introduced. This is certainly not possible. A Java-
enabled browser overcomes this problem of dealing with new protocols because it can
dynamically download the Java-based applet for dealing with the new protocol from the
server computer with which it is interacting. The software vendor of a server with a new
protocol just has to make sure that a copy of the Java- based applet for dealing ‘with the
new protocol is installed on the server.

138
6.7.5. Micro browser
With the growing success of mobile communication technology and proliferation of
mobile devices, such as mobile phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) and two way
pagers, there is a growing demand for Internet- enabled hand-held devices. To meet this
demand, vendors are now producing Internet-enabled hand-held devices. These devices
allow users to access e-mail and web pages on ‘their mobile devices. Micro browsers are
browsers meant for use with Internet enabled mobile devices. Micro browsers take one of
the following two general approaches to accessing web data:

1. Direct Access Approach. The micro browsers based on this approach use an
HTML based language, such as compact HTML and XHTML. Compact HTML an
HTML subset, works with small devices, resource limitations by not supporting JPEG
images, tables, multiple fonts, or more than two colors. XHTML is basically HTML
reformulated as an XML application. XHTML lets a small device access just a subset of a
web page for easier downloading and display. Clients get data directly from a web server
without any intervention. A few micro browsers that use this approach are Microsoft’s
Mobile Explorer, the Opera browser, and Pumatech’s Browse-it.

2. WAP Gateway Approach. The microbrewers based on this approach use

WAP’s Wireless Markup Language (WML). In this approach a content-adaptation server,
known as WAP gateway is used. The data downloaded from a web server first goes to the
WAP gateway. The WAP gateway translates the web content written in HTML or other
languages into Warp’s WML. Thus the WAP gateway, which acts as a proxy, translates
and formats the web content in WML for the target hand-held device. A few micro
browsers that use this approach are Neomar Micro browser and the Openwave Mobile
Browser.
6.7.6. Intranet : An Intranet is a network that connects the computers and networks
within an organization by using the hardware and software that is used on the Internet.
Typically, it uses the TCP/IP protocols and server and browser software used for the
Internet. With an Intranet, the basic service of the Internet (electronic mail, file transfer

139
protocol, telnet and Usenet news) becomes available to the employees and business
partners of the organization. This allows the employees and business partners of the
organization to communicate effectively and quickly. The various departments of the
organization can put the information on their web pages on to the Intranet, and all
interested parties can access the information, read it, and download it. Similarly,
employees of the various offices of the organization located across the world can form a
news group to brainstorm or exchange Ideas collectively on topics of common interest.
An intranet being confined to the computers and networks of an organization. This is a
great security advantage of Intranets.

6.7.7. Proxy Server: An organization’s network interconnects all the computers of the
organization. If all these computers are directly connected to the Internet, maintaining
security becomes difficult for the organization because the Internet is an open
environment. There may be virus attacks on the organization’s computing resources and
other security problems through the Internet. To handle this problem, organizations often
use a proxy server, which is a computer system that is specially configured to allow other
computers of an organization to interact with the Internet through it. When only a single
proxy server interacts with the Internet, security can be easily maintained because the
single server can be kept more secure than hundreds of individual computers on a
network.

140
 With proxy server, when someone from the organization specifies the URL of a
server on the Internet using the browser on his/her computer, the user’s request is first
sent to the proxy server. The proxy server then contacts the server on the Internet and
then the proxy server sends the requested information from the Internet server to the
user’s computer. The user gets a feeling that he/she is directly accessing the Internet
server specified in the URL. By acting as an in-between system, the proxy server can
maintain security as well as log all traffic between the Internet and the organization’s
network of computers. A proxy server is typically used in an organization to provide one
or more of the following services:

1. To serve as a firewall. A firewall controls the flow of incoming and outgoing

messages from within an organization for providing better security to the organization.
For example, the firewall software running on the proxy server can be configured for
packet filtering to ensure that only certain packets are permitted to flow from the inside to
the outside world. Similarly, the firewall software can be configured to allow only from
those computers of the outside world whose IP addresses have been pre-registered in the
proxy server.
2. To log the Internet traffic. Proxy servers can be configured to log every IP address,
date and time of access URL, number of bytes downloaded, and so on. This information
can be used to analyze any attacks against the organization’s systems. It can also be used
to analyze what types of information does he/she accesses.
3. To scan viruses entering through the Internet. Proxy servers can be configured to
scan all incoming information for potential virus attacks through the Internet. This
protects the organization’s computers from virus attacks because many computer viruses
penetrate an organization’s systems via the Internet.

141
4. To cache recently accessed web pages. Proxy servers can also be used to speed up
performance of some internet services by caching recently accessed web pages on its
local hard disk. If someone within the organization makes a request for a web page which
already exists in the cache, then the proxy server sends the web page to the requesting
user’s computer directly from its cache rather than obtaining the web page from the
specified Internet server. This leads to high speed of Internet access.

6.7.8 Internet Telephony: Internet telephony refers to the use of the public Internet for
voice transmission. It enables the subscriber of an Internet service to use his/her computer
to make long-distance calls to the subscriber having a full duplex sound card and high-
quality microphone and Internet telephony software. Both computer to computer and
computer to telephone calls over the Internet are made possible with this facility. Some of
the commonly known internet telephony software packages are Net2phone, Dial pad,
Hotel phone and Phone Free. Internet telephony makes use of the Internet Protocol (IP)
that computers on the Internet use to communicate with each other. The parties involved
in a typical set-up for a computer to voice call include:

142
 1. The subscriber (the users),
2. The Voice over IP (VOIP) service provider, and
3. The user’s Internet Service Provider (ISP)

That is the user need to first get registered with both the ISP and VOIP provider.
Now a call using internet telephony takes place in the following manner:
1. The user makes a call using his/her computer.
2. He/she first gets connected and authenticated by the ISP, which provides the
gateway to access the Internet.
3. The user is then connected to the VOIP service provider’s gateway. This
gateway has the Internet telephony software, which converts the packets into voice form
and connects to the telephone network of the destination partly. The called party’s
telephone will then ring.
4. Once the call is established, the two gateways will constantly communicate and
ensure that the packets are forwarded with the least loss.

6.7.9. Routers. Routers are commonly used to interconnect those network segments of
large internet works that use the same communication protocol. They are particularly
useful in controlling traffic flow by making intelligent routing decisions. An internet
work often uses both bridges and routers to handle both routing and multi protocol issues.
This requirement has resulted in the design of devices called brouters, which are a kind of
hybrid of bridges and routers.

143
6.7.10. Gateway. Gateways operate at the top three layers of the OSI model (session,
presentation, and application). They are the most sophisticated internetworking tools and
are used hr interconnecting dissimilar networks that use different communication
protocols. For instance, a gateway may be used to interconnect two networks, one of
which uses the IP suite and the other uses the SNA protocol suite. Since networks
interconnected by a gateway use dissimilar protocols, protocol conversion is the major
job performed by gateways. Additionally, gateways sometimes also perform routing
functions.

___________________________________________________________________
6.8 World Wide Web
___________________________________________________________________
6.8.1. World Wide Web: The World Wide Web (called WWW or W3 in short) is the
most popular and promising method of accessing the Internet. The main reason for its
popularity is the use of a concept called hypertext. Hypertext is a new way of information
storage and retrieval that enables authors to structure information in novel ways. An
effectively designed hypertext document can help users rapidly locate the desired type of
information from the vast amount of information on the Internet. Hypertext documents
enable this by using a series of links. A link can be shown on the screen in multiple ways
such as a labeled button, highlighted text, or different color text than normal text if your

144
computer has a color display, or author-defined graphic symbols. A link is a special type
of item in a hypertext document that connects the document to another document that
provides more information about the linked item. The latter document can be anywhere
on the Internet (in the same document in which the linked item is, in the same computer
in which the former document is, or in another computer that is at the other end of the
world). By "connect" we mean that a user simply selects the linked item (using a mouse
or key command) and the user almost immediately sees the other document on his/her
computer terminal.
Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as Web Pages. Web Pages
are created by using a special language called Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML in
short): HTML is a subset of the more generalized language called Standard Generalized
Markup Language (SGML in short) which is a powerful language for linking documents
for easier electronic access and manipulation of documents. HTML is becoming a de-
facto industrial standard for creating Web Pages.
The WWW uses the client-server model and an Internet Protocol called
Hyper Text Transport Protocol (HTTP in short) for interaction between the computers on
the Internet. Any computer on the Internet that uses the HTTP protocol is called a Web
Server and any computer that can access that server is called a Web Client. The use of the
client-serer model and the HTTP allows different kinds of computers on the Internet to
interact with each other. For example, a Unix workstation may be the web server and a
Windows PC may be the web client if both of them use the HTTP protocol for
transmitting and receiving information.
___________________________________________________________________
6.9 Internet Protocols.
___________________________________________________________________
6.9.0. Internet Protocols. The common set of rules is called a protocol. To have a
trouble free data transfer from computer networks using different technology such as
Ethernet, token ring or any type of connection such as bus, star common set of rules are
made to them we call protocol. The protocols given below are most common:
6.9.1. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCPIIP). TCP/IP is the
collection of protocols. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the
protocol used by the internet. An important point to note !s that the individual computer
networks may use technology such as Ethernet, taken ring or any type of connection such
as bus, star, etc., provided the rules of communication among computers is standardized
as TCP/IP.
6.9.2. File Transfer Protocol. The File Transfer Protocol service (known as FTP in
short) allows an Internet user to move a file from one computer to another on the Internet.

145
A file may contain any type of digital information - text document, image, artwork,
movie, sound, software, etc. Hence, anything that can be stored on a computer can be
moved with FTP service. Moving a file from a remote computer to ones own computer is
known as downloading the file and , moving a file from ones own computer to a remote
computer is known as uploading the file. By using the FTP service, a file transfer takes
place in the following manner
i.) A user executes the FTP command on his/her local computer, specifying the address of
the remote computer as a parameter.
ii.) A FTP process running on the users computer (called FTP client process) establishes
a connection with an FTP process running on the remote computer (called FTP server
process).
iii.) The user is then prompted for login name and password to ensure that the user is
allowed to access the remote computer.
iv.) After successful login, the desired files are downloaded or uploaded by using get (for
downloading) and put (for uploading) commands. The user can also list directories or
move between directories of the remote computer before the file(s) to be transferred. It
may be noted that a user could transfer files to/from a remote computer, if he/she has
access rights for the remote computer. It is almost impossible to provide access rights to
the vast number of the users of internet to a computer that contains sharable information.
To overcome this problem, the concept of anonymous FTP site is used. An anonymous
FTP site is a computer that allows a user to log in with a username of anonymous and
then a password that is the user’s e-mail address. The user can then download files from
the computer that have been stored on it for the purpose of sharing. Such sites are called
publicly accessible sites because they can be accessed by any user on the Internet.
6.9.3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTPP). HTTP (Hyper Text Transport Protocol) is
the most commonly used protocol for interaction between the computers on the Internet.
Hypertext is a new way of information storage and retrieval that enables authors to
structure information in novel ways. An effectively designed hypertext document can
helpers rapidly locate the desired type of information from the vast amount of
information on the Internet. Hypertext documents enable this by using a series of links. A
link can be shown on the screen in multiple ways such as labeled button, highlighted text,
or different color text than normal text if your computer has a color display, or author-
defined graphic symbols. A link is a special type of item in a hypertext document that
connects the document to another document that provides more information about the
linked item. The latter document can be anywhere on the Internet (in the same document
in which the linked item is, in the same computer in which the former document is, or in
another computer that is at the other end of the world). By “connect” we mean that a user

146
simply selects the linked item (using a mouse or key command) and the user almost
immediately sees the other document on his/her computer terminal.
Hypertext documents on the Internet are known as Web Pages. Web Pages are
created by using a special language called Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML in
short): HTML is a subset of the more generalized language called Standard Generalized
Markup Language (SGML in short) which is a powerful language for linking documents
for easier electronic access and manipulation of documents. HTML is becoming a de-
facto industrial standard for creating Web Pages.
The WWW uses the client-server model and an Internet Protocol called Hyper
Text Transport Protocol (HTTP in short) for interaction between the computers on the
Internet. Any computer on the Internet that uses the HTTP protocol is called a Web
Server and any computer that can access that server is-called a Web Client. The use of
the client-server model and the HTTP allows different kinds of computers on the Internet
to interact with each other. For example, a Unix workstation may be the web server and a
Windows PC may be the web client if both of them use the HTTP protocol for
transmitting and receiving information.

147
___________________________________________________________________
6.10 USES OF THE INTERNET FOR SOCIETY.
___________________________________________________________________
The world-wide scope of the Internet makes it perhaps the single most valuable tool for
use in many significant ways by both non-profit and commercial organizations. Some of
the important current strategic uses of the Internet are listed below:
1. On-line communication. The electronic mail service on the Internet is extensively
used today by computer users around the world to communicate with each other. With
this facility, the internet has proved to be a rapid and productive communication tool for
millions of users.
2. Software sharing. The Internet provides access to a large number of shareware
software development tools and utilities. A few examples of such available shareware
tools are compilers, code libraries, mail servers, and operating systems: For example the
Free Software Foundation provides a wealth of GNU software tools on the Internet that
can be downloaded free of charge
3. Exchange of views on topics of common interest. The Internet has a number of news
groups. Each news group allows a group of users to exchange their views on some topic
of common interest.
4. Posting of information of general Interest. The Internet Is also being extensively
used as a large electronic bulletin board on which information of general interest can be
posted to bring it to the attention of interested users around the world. Most commonly
posted information is examination result.
5. Product promotion. Several commercial organizations are effectively using the
internet services for promoting their products. These organizations make use of corporate
ftp, Gopher, or WWW server sites focused on disseminating timely information about
corporate happenings, product announcements, recent strategic alliances, press releases,
and other information of potential interest to existing and prospective customers.
6. Feedback about products. In addition to product promotion, commercial
organizations re also using the Internet to gather information about user satisfaction of
existing products, market opportunities of new products, and ideas for potential new
products.
This is usually accomplished by putting up an interactive survey application by the
organization on a WWW or Gopher site on the Internet.
7. Customer support service. Many software organizations are also using the Internet to
provide unprecedented levels of timely customer support. The combined electronic mail,
FTP, and other services oh the Internet provide all of the enabling tools necessary to
provide such first-rate customer support. For example, bugs in fielded software products
148
can be reported to an organization via electronic mail, and bug fixes, minor releases,
workarounds, known problems and limitations, and general advice about a product can be
made available by an organization to its customers via an ftp server.
8. On-line journals and magazines. The Internet now has literally thousands of
electronic subscriptions that can be found both for free and low cost. There are many
Gopher and WWW sites on the Internet that deal with electronic versions of journals and
magazines. For example, the Internet edition of the Times of India newspaper is available
at the Internet site http:llwww.timesofindia.com,
9. On-line shopping. The Internet has also facilitated the introduction of a new market
concept that consists of virtual shops. These shops remain open 24 hours all the year
round and are accessible to purchasers all around the work. They provide information
about products or services for sale. Using the Internet services, customers submit specific
product queries and request specific sales quotes.
Through a well-defined authorization and authentication scheme, the Internet services are
then used to accept orders placed by the customers, to handle order payments, and to
track orders to fulfillment.
The Internet site amazon.com is a WWW-based book shop on the Internet providing
information on all types of international books and books can also be ordered on-line.
10. World-wide video conferencing. World-wide video conferencing is an emerging
service on the Internet that allows a group of users located around the globe to talk and
interact with each other.
If they were sitting and discussing in a single room, The parties Interacting can see
each other talking on their computer screens and can hear each other's voice through a
special audio-device fixed in their computers.
_____________________________________________________________________
6.11 Search Engines
____________________________________________________________________
An Internet search engine is an application available on the WWW that hips users
locate the web sites containing useful information and references to such information.
For using a search engine, the user has to type the description of the desired
information using the user interface provided by the search engine.

149
 The search engine in turn searches for the requested information and returns the
results of this search to the user. The returned results enable the user to quickly locate the
requested information from the vast ocean of information available on the Internet.

Major Elements of Internet Search Engines

The three major elements of an Internet search engine are as follows:
1. Search request interface, which allows the users to provide description of the
desired information to the search engine.
2. Information discoverer, which discovers information from the WWW and
creates a database for the search engine, which is used to locate useful information during
the search procedure. The information discoverer accrues this information in two ways:
(a) In the manual method, authors provide information about their websites to the
search engine;
(b) In the automatic method, the information discoverer collects the information
using programs, such as web crawler, spiders, robots. These programs periodically roam
on the Internet storing links of information about each page they visit as well as their
associated hyperlinks. The information discoverer creates an index from the results of the
automated search. If the web page is changed or updated, the spider finds these changes
and the index is updated.

150
 (c) Presenter of search results, which returns the results of the search, ranking
them in the order it believes, is most relevant to the search. Search engines often list the
results of the search in accordance to a relevance score. Relevance scores reflect the
number of times a search term appears in a web page. Some search engines also allow the
user to control the relevance score by giving different weights to each search word.
Categories of Internet Search Engines,
Internet search engines are normally categorized into the following four
categories:
1. Natural Language Search Engines. These search engines allow the users to submit
search phrases in natural languages such as English, Hindi, Japanese, etc. lnstead of using
Boolean operators to link keywords.
2. Subject Directories Search Engines. These search engines present the results of
searches in hierarchical subject categories, Instead of listing them.
In an order by how relevant the search engine thinks the site is to the search.
3. Subject Guide Search Engines. These search engines contain links of many important
resources on a topic.
They differ from subject directories search engines In the sense that their search request
interface has forms that contain databases of sites on many subjects, organized into a
subject classification scheme.
4. Meta Search Engines. These search engines do not create their own databases but
make use of the databases of other search engines.
They quickly proc the user's search request by invoking several individual search
engines at once and return the results compiled into a convenient format.
Some Popular Internet Search Engines
Today, there are more than two dozen major search engines available on the www.
Some of the popular ones are as follows:
1. HotBot (www.hotbot.com) provides extensive search options through the use of query
operators and forms. It allows the use of query operators in combination with forms,
which many other search engines do not allow.
In addition to the options found on the basic search form it has an advanced search form
that provides more precise filters, additional specifications1 and limiters.

151
2.Yahoo (www.yahoo.com) supports a query syntax that allows inclusion/exclusion,
phrase matching, wildcard matching, and title and URL limiters.
Like other search engines, Yahoo provides following :
1. Form based searching on its search options page,
2. Which also allows customization of the results display, and date ranges.

3. Lycos (www.lycos.com) provides a good option of both basic and advanced search
features. Its basic search form has a drop-down menu that allows Boolean and phrase
searching; natural language queries, and basic adjacency and proximity searches, On the
other hand, it has advanced search options, which allows the user to limit results to sound
or picture files, or pages offered as a part of, the Lycos services. These limiters may also
include HTML title, URL, and specific domains.

152
4. lnfoseek (www.infoseek.com) uses a form-based approach that requires a Java script
enabled browser. It assumes some knowledge of HTML to provide the description of the
desired Information.

5. Google (www.google.com) is an interesting search engine having many unique

features. It excels in producing extremely relevant results, and instead of web page

153
summaries shows an excerpt of the text that matches the search query .For determining
relevance scores of search results. It goes far beyond the number of times a keyword
appears on a page and examines all aspects of the page’s contents. It prioritizes the results
according to how closely the individual search terms appear, and favors results that have
the search terms near each other, It only produces results that match to all the search
terms, either in the text of the page or in the text, of the links pointing to the page.

Google Browser
6. Inference Find (www.infind.com) it is a meta search engine that searches six search
engines simultaneously. The search engine merges the results, removes duplicate files,
and organizes the results into sections by concepts and/or by top level domain
(educational institution, government organization, company, etc.) It retrieves the
maximum number of results each search engine will allow by searching target search
engines in parallel. Due to the parallel search feature, it returns the results very quickly.

8. Ixquick (www.ixquick.com) is another meta search engine that uses multiple search
engines to perform the search and returns only the top-10 of the search results. It utilizes
a “star” system, whereby the number of stars indicates the number of sites ranking each
result in the top-ten. It offers a variety of search options including Booloan, Implied
Boolean, natural language search, truncation, case sensitivity and field search by sending
a query to the search engines that support these options. It also has features-for searching
news, mp3 music files and pictures.

154
________________________________________________________________________
6.12. Internet Search Tools (surfing tools)
________________________________________________________________________
6.12.1. Gopher. Gopher is a text-based tool that provides hierarchical collections of
information of all sorts across the Internet. It displays the information hierarchy as a
series of menu items. That is, when using gopher, each menu item connects to another
menu that branches off to yet another series of menus until you reach he actual
document1 image1 sound, file, etc. Gopher is useful for an Internet user who is faced
with the question “Is there anything on the Internet that is useful for me?” It allows the
user to see information on the Internet as if they were all on his/her own computer. That
is, from the menus displayed by gopher, the user can select and display the desired
information without having to type the address of the computer on which the information
is located.

155
WAIS. Wide Area Information Service. It is an internet tool based on the Z30.50
standard. Z30.50 standard prescribes a protocol, or set of rules, for computer to computer
information retrieval. It works on client / server principle. A WAIS client program
enables user’s computer to contact a WAIS server, submit a search query, and retrieve a
response to the query.

6.12.2. Archie. Archie is a keyword-based search tool that allows files stored at
anonymous site of the Internet, to be searched by their names or by their contents. You
tell archie to search for something by typing a “keyword”. In case of a “name search”; the
keyword is a filename or part of a filename you are looking for. As a result of this search,
Archie will display a listing of FTP site addresses that have filenames that contain the
indicated keyword. The filenames containing the indicated keyword are also displayed
for each such FTP site. On the other hand, in case of a “content search”, the keyword is a
word or phrase that you are looking for as data in files. As a result of this search, Archie
will display a listing of FTP site addresses and the filenames of the files that contain the
indicated keyword as file data.

THE FUTURE OF INTERNET TECHNOLOGY.

From beginning in the late 60’s, today internet spans the whole world with
hundreds of millions of computers connected to it (250 million in 2002 estimated). The
remarkable achievement of the Internet technology is that it has been able to
accommodate exponential growth (i.e., doubling each year) of the number of computers
connected to it. The physical connection between computers may range from fast gigabit
fiber optics to slower wireless. In spite of this variety of technologies and speeds Internet
still works effectively. The reason for this is the universal adoption of TCP/IP as the
standard protocol. This protocol has proved very robust in spite of rapid changes in
technology. TCP/IP protocol emerged as a result of cooperative effort in which a large
number of persons participated and experimented before accepting any version. The
internet protocol accommodates a variety of hardware and a variety of network speeds as
it makes no assumptions regarding the underlying network hardware. It continuously

156
monitors traffic conditions on the Internet and automatically adapts when there is
congestion in the network. The only two major problems currently faced by the Internet
are:
1. IP addresses are limited to 32 bits and the number of requests for addresses will
exceed this limit soon.
2. Originally the major traffic on the Internet was e-mail and character files. Now
multimedia use has increased and one expects to send audio and video files in real time
for which internet was not designed.

It is thus clear that Internet has come to stay and will continue to grow in the
coming years. With increasing use of wireless and mobile systems one may see even
ordinary household systems such as refrigerators, ovens, etc., being connected to the
internet and controlled remotely.
_______________________________________________________________________
6.13 Summary of this chapter
________________________________________________________________________
The term “Internet” means a huge network of computers that links many different types
of computers all over the world. It is a network of networks that share a common
mechanism for addressing (identifying) computers and a common set of communication
protocols for communications between two computers on the network. The discussion in
unit 5 we restricted the LANs as belonging to a single organization. It need not be so. If
there is an agreement to use a common set of rules (called protocols) to exchange
messages between computers of diverse organizations connected to a worldwide public
switched network then any computer can communicate with any other computer in the
world. Such an infrastructure is called INTERNET.
The Pentagon’s Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) funded its creation in
1969, as ARPANET.
The procedure developed for interconnecting ARPANET computers and
communicating the data was called TCP/IP, an acronym for Transmission Control
Protocol/ Internet Protocol. ARPANET allowed engineers and scientists working on
military contracts all over America to share computers and computer resources. As a
second thought, the computer scientists developed a way to exchange messages. This
feature, “E-mail”, turned the network into a new communication link.
Controller of Internet :There is a global organisation Internet Network Information
Centre (lnterNlC), has traditionally registered domain name and IP addresses. InterNIC
maintains the database of all registered domain name. The site name for interNlC is
www.internic.net.
157
 The electronic mail service (known as e-mail in short) allows an Internet user to
send a mail (message) to another Internet user in any part of the world in a near-realtime
manner. The message may not reach its destination immediately, but may take anywhere
from few seconds.
Internet telephony refers to the use of the public Internet for voice transmission. It
enables the subscriber of an Internet service to use his/her computer to make long-
distance calls to the subscriber having a full duplex sound card and high-quality
microphone and Internet telephony software.
Check your progress
_______________________________________________________________________
6.14 Exercise 1: Fill in the blanks
________________________________________________________________________
1. As compared to paper mail, telephone, and fax, e-mail is preferred by many
because It is faster than ……………...
2. Unlike the telephone, the persons ……………………… with each other need
not be available at the same time.
3. Unlike fax documents, ………………….. stored in a computer and be easily
edited using editing programs.
4. …………………………………………………. help in reducing the volume of
the data. The reduction in data volume depends mostly on the kind of data that
is being compressed and the compression algorithm used.
5. Some of the more expensive……………………………………., storage chips,
and specialized communication chips that allow them to operate and function
under a large number of different circumstances.

Ans 1. paper mail , 2. Communicating, 3. e-mail documents can be , 4. Data

compression techniques, 5. modems contain microprocessors.
Exercise 2: True and False
State the following statements. Please mark ( T ) on the correct statement and (F) on false
Statement.
1. The process of modulation and demodulation, that is, the conversion of digital
data to analog form is carried out by a device called a modem (modulator
/demodulator).
2. The analog signal is transmitted through the telephone line, which is converted
to digital form by the demodulator of the modem placed with the other
machine. This digital data is received by the computer.

158
 3. The processed digital data is modulated to analog and returned via the
telephone line to the terminal where the analog signals are demodulated to
digital
4. The lower is the transmission speed of a modem, the better it is because it can
communicate faster.
5. Both the internal as well as external modems connect to the telephone system
with a standard telephone jack.
Ans 1 ( T ), 2( T ), 3( T ), 4( F ), 5( T )
Exercise 3: Mix and Match
Match statement A with Statement B
S.No Statement (A) Statement (B)
1. In this method, a dedicated (leased) phone line is Remote Dial-up
used to connect a computer system to the Internet. Connection.
As the communication line is dedicated, the entire
bandwidth of the line is reserved for network
traffic between the Internet and the connected
computer system.
2. We saw that the gateway computer system of a Direct / Leased Line
direct / leased-line connection can be used to Connection.
provide Internet connectivity to other computers
via it.
3. SLIP/PPP connection is an extension to the
remote dial-up connection to allow client
computers to have and run their own Internet Commercial Online
software to access the Internet rather than Services
depending on the host computer’s software.
4. At the time of writing this (year 2004), this
method of Internet connectivity is not available in
India. It is used in some of the advanced countries
like the US. In this method, a service organization
offers a complete online environment and access Data compression
to some or all of the Internet’s services by using
phone service to connect a client’s local call to the
host computer of the service organization.
5. A techniques help in reducing the volume of the SLIP/ IPPP Connection
data. The reduction in data volume depends
mostly on the kind of data that is being
compressed and the compression algorithm used

159
Ans. 1. (2), 2. (1), 3. (5), 4. (3), 5. (4)
Exercise 4: Very Short Questions
1. Explain Data compression techniques
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Explain Data transmission errors

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. What is protocol ?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Explain Browser? Explain various forms and capabilities.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. What is Search Engine?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Exercise 5 : Descriptive Questions

1. Explain TCP/IP, IP address, WWW, URL (Uniform Resource Locator), HTML,
Network Interface Unit (NIU), FTP and Telnet
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

160
 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Explain Intranet, Proxy Server, Internet Telephony, Routers, Gateway.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3. Explain the uses of the Internet for Society, On-line communication, Software
sharing, Exchange of views on topics of common interest, Posting of information
of general Interest, Product promotion, Feedback about products, Customer
support service, On-line journals and magazines, On-line shopping, World-wide
video conferencing.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

4. Explain various Categories of Internet Search Engines,

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

5. Explain Some Internet Search Tools (surfing tools)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

161