Chapter 3
Structural Geology in CE
Part 1
Importance of structural geology in Civil engineering
practices
• To recognize potential difficult ground
conditions prior to detailed design and
construction
• It helps to identify areas susceptible to failure
due to geological hazards
• To establish design specifications
• To have best selection of site for engineering
purposes
• To have best selection of engineering materials
for construction
• Geologic structures determine ground
stability, and where to build cities.
Geologic Structures
• Geologic structures are dynamically-produced
patterns or arrangements of rock or sediment
that result from, and give information about,
forces within the Earth
– Produced as rocks change shape and
orientation in response to applied
stress
– Structural geology is the study of the
shapes, arrangement, and
interrelationships of rock units and the
forces that cause them.
– The branch of geology that studies
crustal deformation
• These are the modified structures formed from
primary structures due to the influence of
tectonic forces on it.
• It gives details about how inherent properties
of rocks get modified, making them either
suitable or unsuitable for civil engineering
works.
• Examples of geologic structures are: Folds,
Faults, Joints and unconformities
• Not all rocks are suitable for the studies
• The suitable rocks are:
 Sand stones and shales – Sedimentary rock
 Gneissses and schist ( to some extent) -
Metamorphic rock
Geologic Structures
Folds, Faults and Mountains
Convergent Plate Boundaries and Folding
• Ocean-Ocean collision forms Island Arc: Japan,
Aleutians, and Cent. Am.
• Continent-Continent collision forms Folded
Mountain Belt:Alps, Himalayans, Appalachians
Evidence of Lateral Compression
• Formerly horizontal layers are twisted, bent, \
or broken.
• Some folded rocks are pushed over on their
sides, or even upside down.
• Folded Sandstone
• Rock Distortion
Stress and Strain
• Stress is force per unit area
– The three basic types of stress are
compressive, tensional and shear
• Strain is a change in size or shape in response
to stress
– Geologic structures are indicative of
the type of stress and its rate of
application, as well the physical
properties of the rocks or sediments
How Rocks Respond to Stress
• Rocks behave as elastic, ductile or brittle
materials depending on:
– amount and rate of stress application
– type of rock
– temperature and pressure
• If deformed materials return to original shape
after stress removal, they are behaving
elastically
• However, once the stress exceeds the elastic
limit of a rock, it deforms permanently
– ductile deformation involves bending
plastically
– brittle deformation involves fracturing
Stress
Units are Pressure: Force/Area
Three types of stress
a) Compression causes bending
b) Tension causes thinning
c) Shearing causes one type of faults
Compression, Tension, and Shearing Stress
[1] Convergent
[2] Divergent
[3] Transform
Types of deformation (yield point)
• Elastic deformation up to elastic limit
(rebounds)
– Springs back to original shape Demo:
Pencil
• Brittle failure (it breaks) Demo Pencil
– Causes: 1. subjected to great stress
that exceeds the yield point AKA
elastic limit, OR
– Subjected to sudden stress AKA
“impact”
• Plastic deformation (folds) Factors affecting rock deformation
– Does not spring back … keeps • Intensity of applied stress
deformed shape • Heat –Temperature of the Rock
– Demo Chewing gum • Amount of Time the Stress is applied
– Cause can be high temperature – near • Rock Composition
melting or high pressure … squeezed
like a ball of clay Interpreting Deformed Rocks
• Most apparent in sedimentary rocks
• Importance of deformation
– Indicates past plate motions
– Indicates other past geological events
– Locates specific natural resources
• Rock orientation: strike and dip

FOLDS
• Folds are wavelike bends in layered rock
– Represent rock strained in a ductile
manner, usually under compression
• The axial plane divides a fold into its two limbs
– The surface trace of an axial plane is
called the hinge line (or axis) of the
fold
• Monocline – drop on the flat surface of the
earth. (simplest)
• Anticlines are upward-arching folds (Tilted
Anticline – axial plane dips 60°E) DOME, and
synclines are downward-arching folds (Tilted
Syncline – axial plane dips 60°E) BASIN

Types of Folds
• Plunging folds are folds in which hinge line is
not horizontal (Plunging Anticline)
– Where surfaces have been leveled by
erosion, plunging folds form V- or
horseshoe-shaped patterns of
exposed rock layers (beds)
• Open folds have limbs that dip gently, whereas
isoclinal folds have parallel limbs
 • Overturned folds have limbs that dip in the Syncline Before/After Erosion
same directions, and recumbent folds are
overturned to the point of being horizontal

Folded Rock after Erosion

Notice center rock youngest

Folded Rocks
Adjacent Anticline and Syncline

Folded Rocks (Dorset, England) Center has overturned

area

Eroded Anticline, older rocks in center. Syncline is

opposite.

Topography may be opposite of Structure Anticline

Before/After Erosion Fold symmetry
(a) Symmetrical or open folds
(b) Asymmetrical folds
(c) Overturned folds
(d) Recumbent folds
(e) Plunging folds

Notice center rock oldest

Various Folds Plunging Folds

Interpreting Folds
• Determine if center rocks are older or younger
than flanks: fossils, right side up clues (graded
bedding and mudcracks)
• Are limbs parallel or “Nosed”?
• Determine limb dips from measurements,
stream V’s. Strike and Dip
• Use nose rules for anticlines and synclines

Effects of Folds and their Engineering Importance

• Location of dams
• Location of reservoirs
Not a good drawing, axial plane should be closer to • Location of tunnels
horizontal • Quarrying
• Ground water occurrence
• Roads and railways

Domes and Basins

1. Domes
2. Basins
3. Occur within plates
4. Result from vertical forces
5. Geographic examples (later)
DOME
– up-arched strata with limbs dipping outwards
from center through 360 degrees
– age of rocks become progressively younger
away from center on an eroded surface
If circular, no single fold axis—if elongated in shape
there can be a fold axis assigned
Causes of Joints
Dome and Basin
Types of Faults
3-D: Dome and Basin
Fractures in Rock
• Joints - fractures bedrock along which no
movement has occurred
– Multiple parallel joints are called joint
sets
• Faults - fractures in bedrock along which
movement has occurred
– Considered “active” if movement has
occurred along them within the last
11,000 years
– Categorized by type of movement as
dip-slip, strike-slip, or oblique-slip
• unloading or sheeting effects (see weathering)
• compression forces----example of 90 degree
jointing
• Dip-slip faults have movement parallel to the
dip of the fault plane
– In normal faults, the hanging-wall
block has moved down relative to the
footwall block
– In reverse faults, the hanging-wall
block has moved up relative to the
footwall block
• Dip-slip faults have movement parallel to the
dip of the fault plane
– Fault blocks, bounded by normal
faults, that drop down or are uplifted
are known as grabens and horsts,
respectively
• Grabens associated with
divergent plate boundaries are
called rifts
– Thrust faults are reverse faults with dip
angles less than 30° from horizontal
 • Strike-slip faults have movement that is Fault
predominantly horizontal and parallel to the • Movement occurring along a discontinuity
strike of the fault plane • Brittle strain and subsequent movement as a
– A viewer looking across to the other stress
side of a right- lateral strike-slip fault • Fault terminology
would observe it to be offset to their
right
– A viewer looking across to the other
side of a left- lateral strike-slip fault
would observe it to be offset to their
left
• Oblique-slip faults have movement with both
vertical and horizontal components
• Fault: When movement occurs along a
Joints: Fractures – with no movement
discontinuity
• Fault type depends on the type of stress

Defining Fault Orientation

• Strike of fault plane parallels the
– fault trace and
– fault scarp
• Direction of Dip of the fault plane indicates
the Hanging wall block

Strike and Dip (COMBINATION = OBLIQUE-SLIP

FAULTS)
• Define and map the orientation of planar
features
– Bedding planes (sedimentary rocks)à
– Foliation
– Joints
– Faults
– Dikes
– Sills
– Ore Veins
• Strike: The line of intersection between the
plane and a horizontal surface
• Dip: Angle that the plane makes with that
horizontal plane
 Reverse Fault
(Called “Thrust Fault” if shallow angle)
(Hanging wall Up)

Dip-Slip Faults

Evidence of faults
• Visible displacement of rocks
• Pulverized rock and “Slickensides”
• Key beds cut out by faulting reappear
elsewhere.

Strike-slip faults
1. Example: San Andreas Transform fault
2. Distinctive landforms (linear valleys, chains of
lakes, sag ponds, topographic saddles)
3. Fresh pulverized rock. Transform fault through
granite: Arkose sandstone
4. Evidence of Shear stress

San Andreas Fault

Normal Fault
(Hanging Wall down)

Horizontal Movement along Strike-Slip Fault

Oblique Slip Graben in Iceland
Also seen in Transform Faults such as San Andreas
Plate tectonics and faulting
• Reverse and thrust faults: convergent plate
boundaries
• Hanging Wall is pushed up.

Lewis Thrust Fault

Plate tectonics and faulting

• Normal faults: mid-ocean ridges and
continental rifts are the same thing.
• Divergent Margins
– Surface rock is pulled apart
– Hanging wall drops down

Faults & Plate Tectonics

Hazards associated with fault movement: earthquake

• An earthquake is the vibration of Earth
produced by the rapid release of energy
• Energy radiates in all directions from
its source, the focus
• Energy moves like waves
• Seismographs record the event

Horst and Graben Formation Anatomy of Earthquakes

Earthquakes are associated with faults

Horst and Graben Formation

Major Hazards of Earthquakes

• Building Collapse
• Landslides
• Fire
• Tsunamis (Not Tidal Waves!)
Safest & Most Dangerous Buildings Seismometers
• Small, Wood-frame House - Safest - instruments that record seismic waves
• Steel-Frame • Records the movement of Earth in
• Reinforced Concrete relation to a stationary mass on a
• Unreinforced Masonry rotating drum or magnetic tape
• Adobe - Most Dangerous

How Seismographs Work

A seismograph designed to record vertical ground

motion

Earthquake mechanism
– Slip starts at the weakest point (the focus)
– Earthquakes occur as the deformed rock
“springs back” to its original shape (elastic
rebound)
– The motion moves neighboring rocks
– And so on. Lateral Movement Detector
– DEMO – elastic rebound w/ ruler In reality, copper wire coils move around magnets,
generating current which is recorded.
Liquefaction

Seismic Waves: Surface waves

• Complex motion, great destruction
• High amplitude and low velocity
• Longest periods (interval between crests)
• Termed long, or L waves
Types of seismic waves (continued)
• Body waves
– Travel through Earth’s interior
– Two types based on mode of travel
Primary (P) waves
» Push-pull motion
» Travel thru solids, liquids & gases
Measuring the size of earthquakes
• Two measurements describe the size of an
earthquake
• Intensity – a measure of earthquake
shaking at a given location based on
amount of damage
• Magnitude – estimates the amount of
energy released by the earthquake

Secondary (S) waves Magnitude and Intensity

» Moves at right angles to their direction of travel Intensity
» Travels only through solids • How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer
Magnitude
• Related to Energy Release
• Determined from Seismic Records
• Rough correlation between the two for
shallow earthquakes

Magnitude - Determined from Seismic Records

Richter Scale:
• Related to Energy Release
• Exponential
• No Upper or Lower Bounds
• Largest Quakes about Mag. 8.7

Magnitude-Energy Relation
• 4-1
95% of energy released by earthquakes originates in • 5 - 30
narrow zones that wind around the Earth • 6 - 900:
Broad are subduction zone earthquakes, narrow are • 1 Megaton = about 7
MOR. Lead to recognition of plates • 7 - 27,000
• 8 - 810,000

Magnitude scales
• Richter magnitude - concept introduced by
Charles Richter in 1935
• Richter scale
– Based on amplitude of largest seismic
wave recorded
– LOG10 SCALE
Each unit of Richter magnitude
corresponds to 10X increase in wave
amplitude and 32x increase in Energy

Magnitude scales
• Moment magnitude was developed because
Earthquake in subduction zones
Richter magnitude does not closely estimate
the size of very large earthquakes
– Derived from the amount of
displacement that occurs along a fault
and the area of the fault that slips
Intensity scales Plate tectonics and faulting
• Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale was Strike-slip faults: Transform Boundaries
developed using California buildings as its
standard San Andreas Fault
• Drawback is that destruction may not be true
measure of earthquakes actual severity Types and Processes of Mountain- Building
(Orogenesis)
Intensity 1. Volcanic mountains
How Strong Earthquake Feels to Observer Depends On: 2. Fold-and-thrust mountains
• Distance to Quake 3. Fault-block mountains
• Geology 4. Up warped mountains
• Type of Building
• Observer! Structures within Mountain Belts
Varies from Place to Place
• Mercalli Scale- 1 to 12

Tsunamis, or seismic sea waves

• Destructive waves called “tidal waves”
• Result from “push” of underwater fault or
undersea landslide
• In open ocean height is > 1 meter
• In shallow coast water wave can be > 30
meters
• Very destructive

Formation of a tsunami
Compressional and Tensional Structures

Take-Away Points
1. Earthquakes generate waves that travel
through the earth
2. Earthquakes occur when rocks slip along faults
3. Faults are classified by the kinds of movement
that occur along them
4. Earthquakes don’t kill people, buildings kill
people
5. Magnitude and Intensity
6. Seismic waves are used to map the earth’s
interior
7. Predicting earthquakes is not yet possible
Fold-and-Thrust Mountains
– Formed by Continent-Continent Collisions
– Enormous mountain ranges form when plates
converge.
– Contorted rocks show the power of plate
tectonics.
Appalachian Mountain System
Fault-block Mountains
• Rift Valleys, Mid Ocean Ridges
• Basin and Range province ???
– Normal Fault Blocks as in East Africa
– Divergent Margins?
– Paradigm Shifts
Basin and Range Southwestern North America
Up warped mountains
• Gently bent without much deformation
• Ascent of buoyant mantle material
• Far from plate boundaries
• Adirondack Mountains: Uplift of deep
Precambrian Igneous and Metamorphic rocks
The Adirondack Mountains of Northern New York
Rock Mechanics in Civil Engineering
ROCK MECHANICS
OTHER GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES
• Unconformity structures
– Definition
• is a surface of non-deposition
or erosion which represents a
break in the rock record
• includes a sequence of
geologic events associated
with the massive erosion
surface
– Kinds of unconformities
• based on events prior to and
after the time of non-
deposition or erosion
• disconformity
– series of sedimentary rocks appear
above and below the non-deposition
or erosion surface
– contacts of the sedimentary
formations and the non-deposition or
erosion surface are parallel blue lines
represent non deposition or erosion
surfaces
• angular unconformity
– folded or tilted series of formations
appear below the non-deposition or
erosion surface and a series of
sedimentary beds above--the contacts
of the latter are parallel to non-
deposition or erosion surface blue line
represents the non-deposition or
erosion surface
• nonconformity
– igneous or metamorphic rock below
non deposition or erosion surface and
a series of sedimentary beds below--
contacts of the latter parallel non
deposition or erosion surface
Rock Material Strength Classification

Application of Rock Mechanics
Surface Structures:
– Low Rise (Housing)
– High Rise (Tower Blocks)
– High Load (Dams, power plants and bridges)
Transportation Routes:
– Highways, railways Canals
– Pipelines
Shallow Excavations:
– Quarries
– Open pits, strip mines Trenches, cuttings
Chapter 3: Structural Geology and
Rock Mechanics Part 2
Introduction
• Engineering Uses of Rocks: Rocks are used for
engineering purposes in two primary ways:
– As a building material: aggregates, cut
stones, decorative panels, etc.
– As a foundation: bedrock determines
kind of structure that can be built.
• Knowledge and understanding of basic rock
properties will
– Enable us assess the usefulness and
quality of aggregates
– allow structures to be founded
correctly so the required support will
be there
Engineering Properties of Rocks = Rock Mechanics,
It is a subdivision of “Geomechanics” which is
concerned with the mechanical responses of all
geological materials, including soils
Rock properties tend to vary widely, often over short
distances
Rock will be used either as:
• Building material so the structure will be made
of rock, or
• A structure will be built on the rock, or
• A structure will be built in the rock
The rock type, the rock structure, any alteration
to the rock, the in situ stress state and Hydro-
geological regime will be important for all
engineering.
During Engineering planning, design and construction
of works, there are many rock mechanics issues such
as:
• Evaluation of geological hazards;
• Selection and preparation of rock materials;
• Evaluation of cuttability and drillability of rock;
• Analysis of rock deformations;
• Analysis of rock stability;
• Control of blasting procedures;
• Design of support systems;
• Hydraulic fracturing, and
• Selection of types of structures
Rock Measurements:
The physical characteristics of a rock mass are a
fundamental geologic property and are extremely
important to engineers.
1. Laboratory measures: are generally referred
to as ‘rock properties’ and are acquired using
small samples taken from the field site and
analyzed in a laboratory setting.
2. Field-scale measures: 'rock mass properties'
and are descriptions of the bulk strength
properties of the rock mass. The nature of
these properties are governed primarily by
'discontinuities', or planes of weakness, that
are present in the rock mass.
Examples of discontinuities are fractures, bedding
planes, faults, etc.
The measured distance between fractures, bedding
planes, and other structural features are also
important when collecting field- scale data.
Why, How, and What?
Simply we will answer the following three questions
1. Why do we evaluate the engineering
properties of rock?
2. How could we evaluate the engineering
properties of rock
3. What are the major outcomes of our project in
term of results and conclusions?
Why study the engineering properties of rocks? • Various Laboratory Testing of aggregates: To
1. Study and evaluate general characteristics of evaluate how aggregates will perform when in
rocks. service
2. Study and evaluate the engineering behavior – Aggregate crushing value Test
of rocks under different ground conditions. – The Ten Percent Fines Value Test
3. Determine the efficiency for the design • Determine resistance of
assumptions values to be used. aggregates to crushing when
4. Saving money by assuming higher beaning subjected to loading
capacity values – Aggregate impact value Test
– Los Angeles abrasion test
Factors affecting Rock Properties: • Used to indicate the
• Texture influences the rock strength directly toughness and abrasion
through the degree of interlocking of the characteristics of aggregates
component grains.
• Rock defects such as micro fractures, grain Index Properties of Rocks:
boundaries, mineral cleavages, and planar Since there are vast ranges in the properties of rocks,
discontinuities influence the ultimate rock Engineers rely on a number of basic measurements to
strength and may act as “surfaces of describe rocks quantitatively. These are known as
weakness” where failure occurs. Index Properties.
• When cleavage has high or low angles with the – Porosity- Identifies the relative proportions of
principal stress direction, the mode of failure is solids & voids;
mainly influenced by the cleavage. – Density- a mineralogical constituents
• Anisotropy is common because of preferred parameter;
orientations of minerals and directional stress – Sonic Velocity- evaluates the degree of
history. fissuring;
• Rocks are seldom continuous owing to pores – Permeability- the relative interconnection of
and fissures (i.e. Sedimentary rocks). pores;
– Durability- tendency for eventual breakdown
Temperature and Pressure of components or structures with
All rock types undergo a decrease in strength with degradation of rock quality,
increasing temperature, and an increase in strength – Strength- existing competency of the
with increasing confining pressure. At high confining rock fabric binding components.
pressures, rocks are more difficult to fracture
• Porosity: Proportion of void space given by
Pore Solutions n =up/ ut, where up is the pore volume and ut is
The presence of moisture in rocks adversely affects the total volume. Typical values for sandstones
their engineering strength. Reduction in strength with are around 15%. In Igneous and
increasing H2O content due to lowering of the tensile Metamorphic rocks, a large proportion of the
strength, which is a function of the molecular cohesive pore space (usually < 1-2%) occurs as planar
strength of the material. “fissures”. With weathering this increases to >
20%. Porosity is therefore an accurate index of
Rock Materials rock quality.
• Reasons for laboratory Testing of Rocks • Density: Rocks exhibit a greater range in
Materials (Aggregates) density than soils. Knowledge of the rock
– To assess the usefulness and quality of density is important to engineering practice. A
a new source of aggregate (quarry concrete aggregate with higher than average
site) density can mean a smaller volume of concrete
– Compare quality of rock materials required for a gravity retaining wall or dam.
from different sources Expressed as weight per unit volume.
– Predict performance in service • Sonic Velocity: Use longitudinal velocity Vl
– Predict durability measured on rock core. Velocity depends on
elastic properties and density, but in practice a
network of fissures has an overriding effect.
 Can be used to estimate the degree of fissuring
of a rock specimen by plotting against porosity
(%).
• Permeability: Dense rocks like granite, basalt,
schist and crystalline limestone possess very
low permeability’s as lab specimens, but field
tests can show significant permeability due to
open joints and fractures.
• Durability: Exfoliation, hydration, slaking,
solution, oxidation & abrasion all lower rock
quality.
Measured by Franklin and Chandra’s (1972): slake
durability test.
Approximately 500 g of broken rock lumps (~ 50 g each)
are placed inside a rotating drum which is rotated at 20
revolutions per minute in a water bath for 10 minutes.
The drum is internally divided by a sieve mesh (2mm
openings)
After the 10 minutes rotation, the percentage of rock
(dry weight basis) retained in the drum yields the “slake
durability index (SDI)”.
A six step ranking of the index is applied (very high- to
very low) as shown in tables 1 and 2.
Used to evaluate shales and weak rocks that may
degrade in service environment.
Table 1.
Table 2.
Characterization  Water Content
 Porosity
 Density (Unit Weight)
 Specific Gravity
 Absorption
 Rebound
 Sonic Velocities
 Abrasion Resistance
Rock Testing
• Rocks are tested to determine their physical
and mechanical properties
• Tests may be used to provide information for
classification purposes or for engineering
design purposes
• Test for classification is used to group rocks of
similar behavior and provide information on
their geomechanical characteristics
• Test for engineering design purposes is used to
provide detailed information on inside
stresses, rock mass strength and deformation
properties
• Laboratory Test: Conducted on small rock
samples taken from the field site (“Rock
Properties”)
• Field test: Conducted at the field site to
determine the bulk strength properties of rock
mass (“Rock mass properties”). These
properties are influenced by the
‘discontinuities’ or planes of weakness present
in the rock mass
• Mechanical properties of an intact rock sample
may be much different from that of the rock
mass from which sample was obtained.

Laboratory Testing
For Classification For Engineering Design
Purposes Purposes
Density Direct Shear test
General rock tests Moisture content Uniaxial Compressive Test
Purpose of Test Type of Test
Porosity Triaxial Compressive Test
Strength  Uniaxial Compression
 Direct Shear Water absorption Deformation characteristics
 Triaxial Compression
 Direct Tension Field Testing
 Brazilian Split For Classification For Engineering Design
 Point Load* Purposes Purposes
Discontinuity Point load test
Deformability  Uniaxial Compression orientation
 Triaxial Compress Spacing Direct Shear test
 Swell Core recovery Field Permeability
 Creep
 Rock Quality In Situ Rock Stress
Designation
determination

Mechanical Properties of Rocks

• The most important properties of rocks are
those related to its strength and deformability
• Intact Rock: They are rock containing no
significant fractures
• Discontinuities: These are faults and joints
found in insitu rock. These may be weak links
in the rock mass and may cause failures
• The strength of rocks is the maximum stress it
can sustain under a given set of conditions
– Uniaxial Compressive Strength: It is
stress which will cause a cylindrical
rock sample to fail when it is subjected
to two opposing (compressing forces).
– Tensile Strength: It is stress which will
cause a cylindrical rock sample to fail
when it is subjected to two opposing
(outward forces). Tensile strength of
rocks is usually much lower than
compressive strength
– Shear Strength: It is the shear stress
that acts on the plane of failure when
rock is subjected to compressive or
tensile forces
Effect of water on Strength of Rocks
• Presence of water can significantly reduce
rock strength in two ways
– Water interrupts the bonding between
minerals and allows the breakup of
clay cement leading to a reduction in
rock strength and increased
deformability
– Water in joints may induce pore water
pressure which acts in opposition to
compressive stress, thus reducing
effective normal stress between the
rock surfaces.
• Water greatly reduces strength of porous
sedimentary rock but have minimal effect on
intact rock with low porosity
 Uniaxial Compressive Strength- Unconfined

SIMPLE MEANS' INTACT ROCK STRENGTH FIELD

ESTIMATES
Simple means' field tests that make use of hand
pressure, geological hammer, etc. (Burnett, 1975), and
are used to determine intact rock strength classes in
Deformation and Failure of Rocks:
the British Standard (BS 5930, 1981)
Four stages of deformation recognized:
• Elastic;
• Elastico-viscous;
• Plastic, and
• Rupture.
All are dependent on the elasticity, viscosity and
rigidity of the rock, as well as temperature, time, pore
water, anisotropy and stress history.
– Elastic deformation: Strain is a linear function
of stress thus obeying Hooke’s law, and the
constant relationship between them is
referred to as Young’s modulus (E).
– Rocks are non-ideal solids and exhibit
hysteresis during unloading.
Intact rock is defined in engineering terms as rock
containing no significant fractures. However, on the
small scale it is composed of grains with the form of the
microstructure being governed by the basic rock
forming processes. Subsequent geological events may
affect its mechanical properties and its susceptibility to
water penetration and weathering effects.

– The elastic limit, where elastic deformation

changes to plastic deformation is termed the
Yield Point. Further stress induces plastic flow
and the rock is permanently strained.
– The first part of the plastic flow domain
preserves significant elastic stress and is
known as the “elastico-viscous” region. This
is the field of “creep” deformation.
– Solids are termed “brittle” or “ductile”
depending on the amount of plastic
deformation they exhibit. Brittle materials
display no plastic deformation.
– The point where the applied stress exceeds the
strength of the material is the “ultimate
strength” and “rupture” results.
 – Young’s modulus “(E)” is the most important
elastic constant derived from the slope of the
stress-strain curve. Most crystalline rocks have
S-shaped stress-strain curves that display
“hysteresis” on unloading.

Strength of Rocks:

The stress strain behavior of a natural rock like

sandstone is a combination of its mineralogical
components, in this case: quartz and calcite

Point Load Test

As indication of Compressive Strength- Use Point Load
Test of Broch and Franklin (1972). Irregular rock or core
samples are placed between hardened steel cones and
loaded until failure by development of tensile cracks
parallel to the axis of loading.
– IS = (point load strength) = P/D2, where
P= load at rupture; D= distance between the
point loads.
– The test is standardized on rock cores of 50mm
due to the strength/size effect
– Relationship between point load index (I s) and
unconfined compression strength is given by:
s u =24 I s (50) where s u is the unconfined
compressive strength, and I s(50) is the
point load strength for 50 mm diameter core.
All of the above are measured on Lab specimens, not Rock Quality Designation
rock masses/ outcrops, which will differ due to
discontinuities at different scales.

Point Load Test and UCS

The procedure for measuring the unconfined rock

RQD Calculation
strength is time consuming and expensive. Indirect
tests such as Point Load Index (Is (50)) are used to
predict the UCS. These tests are easier to carry out
because they necessitate less or no sample preparation
and the testing equipment is less sophisticated. Also,
they can be used easily in the field.

Properties of Rock based on RQD

Rock Mass Classification based on RQD
RQD (%) Description of Rock
Quality
The relation is rock type and sample size dependent 90 – 100 Excellent
75 – 90 Good
50 – 75 Fair
25 – 50 Poor
0 - 25 Very poor

RQD Calculation and Description

Relation between UCS and Is(50) for Group A Rocks

  The RQD values provide a basis for making
preliminary design decisions involving
estimation of required depths of excavation for
foundations of structures.
 The RQD values also can serve to identify
potential problems related to bearing capacity,
settlement, erosion, or sliding in rock
foundations.
 The RQD can provide an indication of rock
quality in quarries for concrete aggregate, rock
fill.
 The RQD must be used in combination with
other geological and geotechnical input
– Three ratio intervals are employed for
the modulus ratio; high – medium –
low.
– Rocks are therefore classed as BH (high
strength- high ratio); CM (medium
strength – medium ratio), etc.
– This data should be included with
lithology descriptions and RQD values.
Engineering classification of intact rocks based on
compressive strength

Example:

Engineering classification of intact rocks based on

compressive strength
• Deere and Miller (1966) Classification of intact
rock:
– Any useful classification scheme
should be relatively simple and based
on readily measurable physical
properties.
– Deere and Miller based their
classification on unconfined (uniaxial)
compressive strength (s 1) and Young’s
Modulus (E) or more specifically, the
tangent modulus at 50% of the
ultimate strength rationed to the
unconfined compressive strength (E/s
1 ).
– Rocks are subdivided into five strength
categories on a geometric progression
basis; very high – high – medium –low
-very low.
The suitability of aggregate for use in concrete can be
assessed on the following:
(a) The aggregate should be free from sulphide
minerals, especially pyrite. Coal, clay and
organic matter
(b) The specific gravity should usually be high, but
this criterion depends upon the purpose for
which the concrete is needed.
(c) The material should be well graded, with a
wide range of particle sizes
(d) The fragments should have a rough surface, so
that a good bond can be achieved between the
aggregate and the cement paste.
(e) Chalcedonic silica (flint, chert, agate) and
glassy siliceous rocks (rhyolite, pitchstone) are
often undesirable in gravel aggregate since
they react with highly alkaline cements. (This
problem can be overcome by using a low-alkali
cement).
(f) The shrinkage of the concrete as it dries should
be measured. This test is made on cubes of
concrete prepared from the aggregate and the
shrinkage is expressed as a percentage. Low-
shrinkage concrete has values less than
0.045%.
Foundation on Rock
Chapter 4 Geological and Geophysical
Investigations in Civil Engineering
Site Investigation
The process of determining the layers of natural soil
deposits that will underlie a proposed structure and
their physical properties is generally referred to as site
investigation.
The purpose of a soil investigation program
1. Selection of the type and the depth of
foundation suitable for a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the
foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a
structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation
problems (for example, expansive soil,
collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for
structures like retaining walls, sheet pile
bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for
changing subsoil conditions
Scope of Site Investigation
• The geological structure of the area, which also
includes topography and geomorphology, is
determined by conducting extensive and
intensive geological surveys. These surveys
would reveal the entire topographic details
(i.e. existence of hills, slopes, valleys, plains,
and plateaus), occurrence of folds, faults and
major unconformities and joint systems and
geomorphic details of water bodies like rivers,
lakes, springs, drainage systems, and the like.
 • The lithological details as revealed by these
investigations would include the type of rocks
that make up different parts of the area, on
the surface as also up to and even beyond a
desired depth, their textures, major structures
and physical and engineering properties like
hardness, strength, modulus of elasticity,
rigidity, porosity and permeability.
• The groundwater conditions are of great
significance in all major engineering structures.
The relative position of water table with
respect to the project must be thoroughly
established and all variations in it during
different periods in a year should be fully
ascertained. Whether a proposed project
would be much above the local and regional
water table, or below it or would intercept it in
some areas shall determine to a great extent,
the ultimate design and stability of the
structure and hence its cost.
• The seismic factor has become a parameter of
great concern during last sixty years or so.
Many cities, towns and villages in different
countries of the world have been devastated
by earthquakes. In some cases, areas hitherto
declared seismically safe, witnessed serious
seismic activity resulting in catastrophes. For
any type of civil engineering construction in a
region its seismicity has also to be studied
critically.
Exploration program
The purpose of the exploration program is to
determine, within practical limits, the stratification and
engineering properties of the soils underlying the site.
The principal properties of interest will be the strength,
deformation, and hydraulic characteristics. The
program should be planned so t4hat the maximum
amount of information can be obtained at minimum
cost.
1. Assembly of all available information
On dimensions, column spacing, type and use of the
structure, basement requirements, and any special
architectural considerations of the proposed building.
Foundation regulations in the local building code
should be consulted for any special requirements. For
bridges the soil engineer should have access to type
and span lengths as well as pier loadings. This
information will indicate any settlement limitations,
and can be used to estimate foundation loads.
Sequences of Stages for investigation
Desk Study: Literature Search: first stage of the Site
Investigation The desk study is work taken up prior to
commencing the work on site and the Ground
Investigation. And is used to plan the Ground
Investigation. A good starting point is to use the:
1. Geological maps. In addition to historical maps.
That allow much information to be obtained
such as former uses of the site; concealed mine
workings; in- filled ponds; old clay, gravel and
sand pits; disused quarries; changes in
topography and drainage; changes in stream
and river courses; changes in potential
landslide areas.
2. Ariel Photography is another useful source of
information. Such records can be extremely
useful in ascertaining historical use of the site,
hidden foundations, changes of river course
and much other hidden data.
3. Services records are also an essential part of
the desk study, necessary to locate hidden
services such as electricity cables, sewers and
telephone wires. It is essential when
conducting a desk study that as much
information as possible is obtained. Work at
this stage of the Investigation saves much time
later and vastly improves the planning and
quality of the Investigation
Aims and benefits of a desk study:
 To collect, understand and interpret data
 To limit costs
 Aid in the Design Process
 Highlights problems early
 Low cost & cost effective
 Provides information which would otherwise
be difficult to obtain

Sources of information
• Maps
– Geological maps & Memoirs
– Current OS Maps
– Old Maps / Aerial Photos
• Archive
– Historical Geotechnical Info.
– Engineering Drawings
– Construction Records
– Libraries
• Specialist Surveys
– Environmental Check, Landfill etc.
– Mining Records
– Ecological Survey
• Observational
– Site Visit / Walkover survey
– People (Construction Staff, Local Residents)
2. Reconnaissance of the area:
This may be in the form of a field trip to the site which
can reveal information on the type and behavior of
adjacent structures such as cracks, noticeable sags, and
possibly sticking doors and windows. The type of local
existing structure may influence, to a considerable
extent, the exploration program and the best
foundation type for the proposed adjacent structure.
3. A preliminary site investigation:
In this phase a few borings are made or a test pit is
opened to establish in a general manner the
stratification, types of soil to be expected, and possibly
the location of the groundwater table. One or more
borings should be taken to rock, or competent strata, if
the initial borings indicate the upper soil is loose or
highly compressible. This amount of exploration is
usually the extent of the site investigation for small
structures.
Site Reconnaissance
The Site Reconnaissance phase of a site investigation is
normally in the form of a walk over survey of the site
to recognize any difficult ground conditions. Important
evidence to look for is:
• Hydrogeology: Wet marshy ground, springs or
seepage, ponds or streams and Wells.
• Slope Instability: Signs of slope instability
include bent trees, and displaced fences or
drains.
• Mining: The presence of mining is often signs
of subsidence and possibly disused mine
shafts. Open cast mining is indicated by
diverted streams replaced or removed
fence/hedge lines.
• Access: It is essential that access to the site can
be easily obtained. Possible problems include
low overhead cables and watercourses
Difficult Ground Conditions
An efficient ground investigation recognizes, during the
initial desk study, the possibilities or probabilities of
any specific difficult ground conditions occurring within
the project site it then direct the field work exploration
to either eliminate the considered possibilities or
determine the extent of the ground difficulties
The most common difficulties are:
• Soft and variable dirt materials
• Weathered, weak or fractured bedrock
• Natural or artificial cavities within the bedrock
• Active or potential slope failure and land slides
• Compressive landfill with or without soft spots
• Flowing groundwater or methane gas
• Unexpected old building foundations
4. A detailed site investigation:
Where the preliminary site investigation has
established the feasibility of the project, a more
detailed exploration program is undertaken. The
preliminary borings and data are used as a basis for
locating additional borings, which should be
confirmatory in nature, and determining the additional
samples required.
Depth of Boring
The approximate required minimum depth of the
borings should be predetermined. The estimated
depths can be changed during the drilling operation,
depending on the subsoil encountered. To determine
the approximate minimum depth of boring, engineers
may use the following rule:
1. Determine the net increase of stress, Ds under
a foundation with depth as shown in the
Figure.
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective
stress, s'u, with depth
3. Determine the depth, D = D1, at which the
stress increase Ds is equal to (1/10) q (q =
estimated net stress on the foundation).
4. Determine the depth, D = D2, at which Ds/s'u =
0.05.
5. Unless bedrock is encountered, the smaller of
the two depths, D1 and D2, just determined is
the approximate minimum depth of boring
required. Table shows the minimum depths of
 borings for buildings based on the preceding
rule.

Depth of borehole for isolated footing

1. Isolated spread footing or raft: D= 1.5 B below
the lowest part of the foundation
2. Adjacent isolated footings with A< 2B: D= 1.5L
below the lowest part of the foundation

For hospitals and office buildings, the following rule

could be used to determine boring depth

Depth of Boring
 Selection of Borings

Depth of Boring
When deep excavations are anticipated, the depth of
boring should be at, least 1.5 times the depth of
excavation. Sometimes subsoil conditions are such
that the foundation load may have to be transmitted to
the bedrock. The minimum depth of core boring into
the bedrock is about 3m. If the bedrock is irregular or
Depth of Boring
weathered, the core borings may have to be extended
to greater depths.

Spacing Boring
There are no hard and fast rules for the spacing of the
boreholes. The following table gives some general
guidelines for borehole spacing. These spacing can be
increased or decreased, depending on the subsoil
condition. If various soil strata are more or less
uniform and predictable, the number of boreholes can
be reduced.

Approximate Spacing of Boreholes

• Saving on the ground investigation budget

generally prove to be false economies
• After an inadequate ground investigation,
unforeseen ground conditions can and
frequently raise project costs by 10% or more

Geological Methods of Investigation in Civil
Engineering
SOIL BORING
The earliest method of obtaining a test hole was to
excavate a test pit using a pick and shovel. Because of
economics, the current procedure is to use power-
excavation equipment such as a backhoe to excavate
the pit and then to use hand tools to remove a block
sample or shape the site for in situ testing. This is the
best method at present for obtaining quality
undisturbed samples or samples for testing at other
than vertical orientation.
Block sampling
Block sampling has traditionally involved the careful
hand excavation of soil around the sample position,
and the trimming of a regular-shaped block. This block
is then sealed, before being encased in a rigid
container, and cut from the ground.
Undisturbed block sampling is limited to cohesive soils
and rocks. The procedures used for obtaining
undisturbed samples vary from cutting large blocks of
soil using a combination of shovels, hand tools and wire
saws, to using small knives and spatulas to obtain small
blocks
SOIL BORING
Boreholes: used to determine the nature of the ground
(usually below 6m depth) in a qualitative manner and
then recover undisturbed samples for quantitative
examination.

Trial Pits: Trial pits are shallow excavations going down

to a depth no greater than 6m. It is used extensively at
the surface for block sampling and detection of services
prior to borehole excavation. Care should be taken as
gases such as methane and carbon dioxide can build up
in a trial pit. Breathing apparatus must therefore be
used if no gas detection equipment is available.

Boring tools
Wash Borings. Is one of the methods of advancing a
Support for a trial pit generally takes one of three
borehole. A steel casing (a hollow tube), typically 6 feet
forms:
long, is driven into the ground. The soil inside the
• Timbering
casing is removed by means of a chopping bit that is
• Steel frames with hydraulic jacks
attached to a drilling rod. The loose soil particles are
• Battered or tapered sides
washed out with a water jet, which is collected at the
surface in a container, where the engineer can observe
the material coming up at each depth.
A test pit
Drilling Mud Preparation of Boring Logs
Drilling throughout rock is assisted with the aid of
Bentonite (type of clay) that lubricate the drilling bit

Preparation of Boring Logs

1. Name and address of the drilling company
2. Driller’s name
3. Job description and number
4. Number, type, and location of boring
5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, which can he
obtained by visual observation of the soil
brought out by auger, split-spoon sampler,
and thin-walled Shelby tube sampler
7. Elevation of water table and date observed,
use of casing and mud losses, and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth
of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample
collected
10. In case of rock coring, type of core barrel used
and, for each run, the actual length of coring,
length of core recovery, and RQD

Sample Boring Logs

Common Sampling Methods
Soil Sampling Methods
ROCK SAMPLING
• Rock cores are necessary if the soundness of
the rock is to be established.
• Small cores tend to break up inside the drill
barrel.
• Larger cores also have a tendency to break up
(rotate inside the barrel and degrade),
especially if the rock is soft or fissured.
Rock coring
Drill bits for rock penetration
Rock Core Drilling
GROUND WATER TABLE LEVEL
Groundwater conditions and the potential for
groundwater seepage are fundamental factors in
virtually all geotechnical analyses and design studies.
Accordingly, the evaluation of groundwater conditions
is a basic element of almost all geotechnical
investigation programs
Groundwater investigations are of two types as
follows:
• Determination of groundwater levels and
pressures.
• Measurement of the permeability of the
subsurface materials.
FIELD STRENGTH TESTS
The following are the major field tests for determining
the soil strength:
1. Vane shear test (VST).
2. Standard Penetration Test (SPT).
3. Cone Penetration Test (CPT).
4. The Borehole Shear Test (BST).
5. The Flat Dilatometer Test (DMT).
6. The Pressure-meter Test (PMT).
7. The Plate Load Test (PLT).
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
• It is an in-situ dynamic penetration test to
provide information on the geotechnical
engineering properties of soil specifically the N
Value
• The test uses a thick-walled sample tube, with
an outside diameter of 50 mm and an inside
diameter of 35 mm, and a length of around 650
mm. This is driven into the ground at the
bottom of a borehole by blows from a slide
hammer with a weight of 63.5 kg. Falling
through a distance of 760 mm. The sample
tube is driven 150 mm into the ground and
then the number of blows needed for the tube
to penetrate each 150 mm up to a depth of 450
mm is recorded.
• The sum of the number of blows required for
the second and third 150mm of penetration is
termed the "standard penetration resistance"
or the "N-value". In cases where 50 blows are
insufficient to advance it through a 150 mm
interval the penetration after 50 blows is
recorded. The blow count provides an
indication of the density of the ground,.
• The main purpose of the test is to provide an
indication of the relative density of granular
deposits, such as sands and gravels from which
it is virtually impossible to obtain undisturbed
samples.
Permeability after SPT

Push the sounding rod with cone into the ground for
some specified depth. Then push the cone with friction
sleeve for another specified depth (> 35 mm). Repeat
the process with/without friction sleeve.
• Pushing rate = 1 cm/s
• Mantle tube is push simultaneously such that
it is always above the cone and friction sleeve.
Coefficient of permeability in different soils • Tip Load, Qc = Load from pressure gauge
Permeability is the ease with which the water flows reading + Wt. of cone + Wt. of connecting
through a soil medium sounding rods

Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

 ADVANTAGES of VST
SPT/CPT correlations
• Assessment of undrained strength, su
• Simple test and equipment
• Measure in-situ clay sensitivity (St)
• Long history of use in practice
DISADVANTAGES of VST
• Limited application to soft to stiff clays with su
< 200 kPa
• Slow and time-consuming
• Raw suv needs (empirical) correction
• Can be affected by sand lenses and seams

The Plate Load Test (PLT)

CPT: Advantages over SPT

• provides much better resolution, reliability
• versatility; pore water pressure, dynamic soil
properties
CPT: Disadvantages
• Does not give a sample
• Will not work with soil with gravel
• Need to mobilize a special rig

Vane Shear Test (VST)

For clays, and mainly for soft clays.
Measure torque required to quickly shear the vane
pushed into soft clay. Torque è
Undrained shear strength Cu
Typical d = 20-100 mm.
 • Penetrates fast and easily in hard soils
PROVIDED sufficient pushing capacity (e.g. 20
ton trucks).

Scale Effect in Foundation
ADVANTAGES OF DMT
• Simple and robust
• Repeatable & operator independent
• Quick and economical
DISADVANTAGES OF DMT
• Difficult to push in dense and hard materials
• Primarily relies on correlative relationships
• Need calibrations for local geologies
Design

Dilatometer test (DMT)

The flat dilatometer test (DMT) uses pressure readings

from an inserted plate to obtain stratigraphy and
estimates of at-rest lateral stresses, elastic modulus,
and shear strength of sands, silts, and clays.
Soils than can be tested by DMT
Suitable for SANDS, SILTS, CLAY (grains small vs.
Interpretation of soil properties
membrane D=60 mm). But can cross through GRAVEL
-soil classification
layers ≈ 0.5 m
For soil behavioral classification, layers are interpreted
• Very robust, can penetrate soft rocks (safe
as
push on blade 25 ton)
Clay when ID < 0.6,
• Clays : cu = 2- 4 KPa to cu= 10 bar (marls)
Silts within the range of 0.6 < ID < 1.8, and sands when
• Moduli : 5 to 4000 bar (0.5 to 400 MPa)
ID >1.8.
 Geophysical Methods of Investigations in
Civil Engineering

Seismic Refraction Survey

• Seismic refraction surveys are useful in
obtaining preliminary information about the
thickness of the layering of various soils and
the depth to rock or hard soil at a site.
• Refraction surveys are conducted by impacting
the surface, as at point A in figure 2.41a and
observing the first arrival of the disturbance
(stress waves) at several other points (e.g., B,
C, D…).
• The impact can be created by a hammer blow
or by a small explosive charge.
• The first arrival of disturbance waves at various
points can be recorded by geophones.

Pressure meter Test (PMT)

Determine
• Elastic Young Modulus, E
• Shear Modulus, G
• Undrained shear strength, Su
Cross-Hole Seismic Survey

Vondrackova and Bellanovs, 2015

Building Construction: Basic Geological Requirements

Geological Conditions Necessary for CE

Construction