Exercise Science Principles and the Vocal Warm-up:

Implications for Singing Voice Pedagogy

*Matthew Hoch and †Mary J. Sandage, *†Auburn, Alabama

Summary: Objectives/Hypotheses. Principles from exercise science literature were applied to singing warm-
up pedagogy as a method for examining parallels between athletic and voice training. Analysis of the use of exercise
principles in vocal warm-up should illuminate aspects of voice training that may be further developed in the future.
Methods/Design. A selected canon of standard voice pedagogy texts and well-regarded warm-up methods were evalu-
ated for use of exercise science principles for skill acquisition and fatigue resistance. Exercises were then categorized
according to whether they were used for the purpose of skill acquisition (specificity), training up to tasks (overload),
or detraining (reversibility).
Results. A preliminary review of well-established voice pedagogy programs reveals a strong bias toward the skill
acquisition aspects of vocal warm-up, with little commentary on the fatigue management aspects. Further, the small
number of vocalises examined that are not skill-acquisition oriented fall into a third “habilitative” category that like-
wise does not relate to overload but may play a role in offsetting reversibility.
Conclusions. Although a systematic pedagogy for skill acquisition has emerged in the literature and practice of voice
pedagogy, a parallel pedagogy for fatigue management has yet to be established. Identification of a systematic peda-
gogy for training up to specific singing genres and development of a singing maintenance program to avoid detraining
may help the singer avoid injury.
Key Words: Pedagogy–Exercise–Warm-up–Skill acquisition–Fatigue resistance.

INTRODUCTION Despite a long-held belief that vocal warm-up is essential for

Throughout most of its history, singing voice pedagogy has
focused on the vocal warm-up as having essentially one purpose:
acquisition of a specific set of skills necessary to sing a specif-
ic genre of classical repertoire. An examination of the classic
methods of Vaccai,1 Concone,2 Panofka,3 and Marchesi,4 four
of the most popular and still-used methodologies, reveals that
these pedagogical staples are organized almost entirely by
vocalises geared toward various facets of skill acquisition. Con-
cepts such as breath management and resonance (vocal tract
tuning)—quintessentially important to the classical singer—
are largely ignored in these publications. Although it is safe to
assume that these aspects of classical singing were highly valued
and thus addressed by the singing teacher, there was not an ex-
tensive discourse about these topics in pedagogical works.
In 1967, two seminal voice pedagogy works, William Vennard’s
Singing: The Mechanism and the Technic 5 and D. Ralph
Appelman’s The Science of Vocal Pedagogy: Theory and
Application,6 paved the way for a new era of voice pedagogy
that revolutionized undergraduate and graduate curricula through-
out the United States. The master-apprentice method of teaching,
although still alive and well, was now blended with one that was
more scientific and fact-based in nature. Then, in 1986, Richard
Miller published The Structure of Singing: System and Art in
Vocal Technique.7 This book advocated for a systematic method
for training singers, one that blended goal-oriented vocalises with
explanations that were firmly grounded in practical voice science.
Accepted for publication March 28, 2017.
This work is novel and solely the responsibility of the authors.
From the *Department of Music Auburn University Auburn, Alabama; and the †Depart-
ment of Communication Disorders, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Matthew Hoch, Department of Music,
Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849. E-mail: mhoch@auburn.edu
Journal of Voice, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 79–84
0892-1997
© 2018 The Voice Foundation. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvoice.2017.03.018
singers, the physiological mechanisms for its benefits are not well
understood. Warm-up in athletics has been regarded as theoret-
ically beneficial for physiological, psychological, and injury-
prevention reasons. Physiological benefits of warm-up include,
but are not limited to, faster enzyme catalysis at muscle tem-
perature changes above 0.05°C and faster propagation of the
neural impulse.8,9 Psychologically, pre-performance arousal and
re-establishment of muscle activation patterns (a component of
motor planning) are attributed to improved performance.10 Injury
prevention is described as a combination of skill acquisition and
the development of fatigue-resistance,11 the latter of which is a
little-considered aspect of singing training. Given that the muscle
engagement for warm-up before performance adds to the cu-
mulative use of the target muscle group(s), warm-up activity may
also be considered a component of fatigue-resistance training.
Bioenergetically, muscle fibers that are being employed for phys-
ical activity are using up energy reserves and enzymes that are
available for muscle metabolism, regardless of whether it is for
warm-up or performance.8 From this perspective, warm-up should
not be separated from performance as a distinct muscle endeavor.12
The evidence to support the performance advantages of warm-
up is controversial and requires a more nuanced evaluation of
the level of training, the duration and intensity of the warm-
up, and the performance variables required for the target activity.13
Exercise training principles, such as specificity, overload, and
reversibility, can be used to pursue this more nuanced assess-
ment of well-regarded and published warm-up regimes. The
specificity principle states that changes in muscle function are
very specific to the type of exercise, even when the same muscle
groups are used. This is because specific muscle groups are re-
cruited for specific tasks. For example, if an athlete wants to
improve his leg presses, he must practice leg presses. Practic-
ing squats will not help to improve his leg presses, even though
squats employ the same muscles as leg presses,1 hence the
80
specificity principle. By extension of this principle, skill acqui-
sition exercises must be thoroughly grounded in the specific
repertoire that the singer is being trained to perform. For example,
classical Italian fioratura vocalises will do little to help train
the Broadway belter in her upper chest-mix. Rather, these ex-
ercises will only help the classical singer improve her flexibility
in selected passages of Italian bel canto repertoire. For the Broad-
way belter to improve her upper chest-mix, she must be assigned
an exercise that directly addresses the upper chest-mix.
The overload principle describes the requirement to work
muscle tissue at an intensity or frequency above which it is
used to working to achieve morphologic, metabolic, and neu-
rologic changes to the tissue.11 Muscles need to be worked beyond
what they are used to for them to continue to develop. The prin-
ciple of reversibility indicates that the level of exercise intensity
and frequency needs to be sufficient enough to prevent loss of
these mechanisms that were upregulated with training.14 Should
the frequency and intensity of muscle function (and cardiore-
spiratory function for that matter) decline, then all of those
mechanisms (morphologic, metabolic, and neurologic) that were
upregulated during training will downregulate to a new level of
homeostasis. As the old adage goes, it is easier to stay in shape
than to get in shape.
Questions remain about length and intensity of warm-up rel-
ative to the singing performance expectations. Research needs
to be done to quantify the length and intensity of singing per-
formance endeavors so that we can better understand how the
warm-up process should be designed to enhance and not detract
from optimal performance.
Although there is a large body of literature that applies ex-
ercise principles to athletic goals (running marathons, training
specific skill acquisitions, etc), there is little research currently
being done that applies these same principles to singing en-
deavors. Therefore, the goals of this research were to examine
a standard body of writings and methods relating to vocal tech-
nique and warm-up—both historical and modern—and examine
them through the lens of well-established exercise science prin-
ciples: skill acquisition and fatigue resistance in particular.
METHODS/DESIGN
In this study, the authors examined a selection of standard voice
pedagogy method books from the 19th century bel canto era to
the present day for evidence of use of the exercise training
principles of specificity, overload, reversibility, and fatigue man-
agement. Operational definitions for these concepts are described
in the Introduction section. A preliminary review of the large
body of singing pedagogy literature was chosen for this inves-
tigation in lieu of a systematic review for the purpose of
identifying a need for a more thorough systematic review. For
example, although there are dozens (if not hundreds) of early
Italian methodologies, many of their structures and goals are quite
similar in nature, and Vaccai, Concone, Panofka, and Marchesi
are four of the methods that are most widely used in contem-
porary practice. Likewise, standard pedagogy textbooks before
Miller’s The Structure of Singing—such as those by Vennard
and Appelman—clearly have historical importance, but these
Journal of Voice, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2018
pre-Miller resources were avoided in an effort to make sure that
scientific data were more current.
The works of three “generations” of methodologists were
studied, all of which are still used regularly in the 21st century
voice studio: selected early Italian methodologists (Vaccai,
Concone, Panofka, and Marchesi), Richard Miller’s The
Structure of Singing (1986), and Ingo Titze’s “Vocal Warm-ups:
What Do They Accomplish?” (2000).15 The exercise regimens
presented in these standard treatises were examined according
to organization (content and sequence) and categorization of spe-
cific technical skill addressed in each exercise. In addition, a core
list of standard voice pedagogy textbooks was consulted and ex-
amined for content relating to singing voice warm-up. Using search
engines available in Google Scholar, Academic Search Premier,
and EBSCO, a search of literature published after Titze’s seminal
2000 article was conducted. The following search terms were
used: singing, solo singing warm-up, singing warm-up length,
and routine singing warm-up. The review targeted individual
singing warm-up publications that included information regard-
ing length of warm-up, specific vocalises, and physiological goals
of warm-up. Studies that addressed choral warm-up were not
included. These data were then examined for evidence of the
exercise warm-up and training principles of reversibility and fatigue
resistance as operationally defined above. Reversibility was coded
if the resource being evaluated described any pedagogical con-
siderations for loss of trained skill secondary to extended vocal
rest or hiatus from singing exercise. Fatigue resistance was coded
if the resource being evaluated addressed pedagogical aspects
of systematically training the voice to be able to perform longer
or recover faster. Absence of these physiological aspects of fatigue
resistance training, which are commonly accounted for in ex-
ercise science, served as indicator that fatigue resistance training
was not considered.
RESULTS
A review of these resources suggests that historical singing ped-
agogy resources do not address singing warm-up specifically,
at least in the modern muscle physiological sense. An exami-
nation of these resources indicated that voice pedagogy has
historically been oriented toward skill acquisition while ignor-
ing other aspects of muscle training and tissue upregulation, on
which current paradigms for performance warm-up are based.
Table 1 summarizes the analyses of historical singing voice ped-
agogy according to skill acquisition parameters that were
well-recognized for singing voice training before the modern
evidence-based era. Table 2 summarizes the findings from the
more contemporary body of literature.
DISCUSSION
The goal of this preliminary pedagogical analysis was to iden-
tify inclusion of exercise training principles in singing warm-up
regimes. The findings indicate that skill acquisition has been a
focus of singing warm-up approaches for some time, with at-
tention toward other principles of muscle training (specificity,
overload, reversibility, and fatigue management) as a more recent
development. Principles of reversibility and fatigue resistance
were not present in any of the singing warm-up programs reviewed.
Matthew Hoch and Mary J. Sandage Implications for Singing Voice Pedagogy 81

categories, including onset and release, breath management, agility

TABLE 1.
Vocalises From the Historical International Italian School
or flexibility, resonance, registration, and dynamic control. He
also provided progressive exercises for each category, and—
Vaccai Panofka Marchesi Concone perhaps most important of all—he offered extensive commentary
Legato X X X on the physiological backdrop for each skill. This approach rep-
Flexibility X X X resented a major leap forward for teachers of singing. Although
Style X X X Vaccai and Concone addressed many of the skills expounded on
Musicianship X X X by Miller, no explanations accompanied their exercises, and they
Vowels only X X X also did not benefit from the scientific knowledge accessible to
Text/poetry X today’s evidence-based singing pedagogues.
Messa di voce X
Throughout the history of singing pedagogy, voice training
(register
blending)
has focused overwhelmingly on the acquisition of specific skills
No categorization* X as opposed to aspects of fatigue resistance. Fatigue resistance
is operationally defined as warm-up or singing activity that was
Metoda pratico de canto (1832): Nicola Vaccai (1790–1848); 50 Lezioni, Op.
9: Giuseppe Concone (1801–1861); 24 Vocalizzi, Op. 81 and 24 Vocalizzi specifically designed to build the voice to be increasingly re-
progressivi, Op. 85: Heinrich Panofka (1807–1887); and Method de chant sistant to fatigue mechanisms. This is true whether one examines
théorique et pratique, Op. 31 (1886): Mathilde Marchesi (1821–1913). the early Italian methodologists—Vaccai, Concone, Panofka, and
* Specific skills addressed, but author declines to categorize or orga-
nize material for the singer. Marchesi, for example—or the evidence-based pedagogues of
the late 20th century, such as Coffin et al,32,33 Miller,7,21,34 Doscher,23
and Smith and Chipman.29 To illustrate this historical bias toward
The author most often given credit for establishing a widely used skill acquisition, it is helpful to examine some of the most fre-
systematic pedagogy is Richard Miller (1926–2009). His seminal quently used vocalises from the historical International Italian
book, The Structure of Singing,7 was influential on the voice School as outlined in Table 1.
teaching profession. Miller’s taxonomy approached skill acqui- Each of these volumes lays out a systematic approach toward
sition by categorizing specific vocal tasks into a variety of specific skill acquisition in singers. With the exception of Concone, the

TABLE 2.
Pedagogical Resources Reviewed for Warm-up, Skill Acquisition, and Fatigue Resistance
Warm-up Participant Skill Fatigue Injury
Citation Length of Warm-up Type Type Acquisition Resistance Prevention
Lamperti (1931)16 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Kagen (1950)17 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Bunch (1982)18 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Reid (1983)19 Varies according to technical Coached All levels Yes Yes NS
skill of singer: more
experienced = less time
Miller (1986)7 Less than 20–30 minutes Coached All levels Yes Yes NS
Miller (1990)20 (excess could result in
Miller (1996)21 fatigue)
Sundberg (1987)22 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Doscher (1993)23 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Elliot et al (1995)24 30 minutes Coached Amateurs Yes NS NS
David (2008)36 Not specified Coached All levels Yes Yes NS
Ware (1998)25 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Titze (2000)15 Not specified (NS) Self All levels NS Yes Yes
Blades-Zeller (2002)26 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Milbrath and 15–20 minutes Recorded Amateurs Yes Yes Yes
Solomon (2003)37
Sell (2005)27 20–30 minutes Coached All levels Yes Yes NS
Self
Amir et al (2005)28 11 minutes (mean duration) Recorded Advanced Yes NS NS
Smith and Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
Chipman (2007)29
Wicklund (2009)38 Customized to Coached All levels Yes Yes Yes
singer’s needs Self
Gish et al, (2012)30 5–10 minutes Self Professionals Yes NS NS
McCoy (2012)31 Not specified NS NS NS NS NS
82 Journal of Voice, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2018

VACCAI Metoda pratica de canto PANOFKA 24 Vocalizzi, Op. 81

1. The Scale Intervals of Thirds 1. Diatonic Scale

2. Intervals of Fourths Intervals of Fifths 2. Minor Scale

3. Intervals of Sixths 3 4. Agility

4. Intervals of Sevenths Intervals of Octaves 5 6. Thirds

5. Semitones 7. Legato (groups of two)

6. Syncopation 8 12. Portamento

7. Intervals of Octaves 13. Dotted Notes (delle note puntate)

8. Appoggiaturas (above and below) The Acciaccatura 14. Syncopation

9. Mordents (graduated exercises) 15. Legato

10. Turns (graduated exercises) 16. Appoggiaturas, Turns, and Mordents

11. Trill (introduction) 17. Trills (introduction)

12. Roulades 18. Agility

13. Glides (two methods) 19. Trills

14. On Recitative 20 21. Arpeggios

15. Recapitulation (cumulative summary of techniques) 22 23. Chromatics

24. Intervals

SKILLS ADDRESSED: Legato, Flexibility, Style, Musicianship

INTERESTING FEATURE: the singer sings actual texts throughout
method
FIGURE 1. Vaccai—Metoda pratica de canto.
table of contents of each volume also are descriptive of the vocal
skills addressed by each exercise. Figures 1–3 describe the table
of contents for the volumes by Vaccai, Panofka, and Marchesi.
Concone’s 50 vocalises cover largely the same set of skills
as those of Vaccai, Panofka, and Marchesi, but Concone does
not specifically categorize his exercises or label the specific
purpose of each. It is also obvious, upon examination of these
vocalizes, that the skills addressed are designed to prepare the
singer for a specific genre: specifically, 19th century bel canto
Italian opera, exemplified in the works of Gioacchino Rossini
(1792–1868), Gaetano Donizetti (1797–1848), and Vincenzo
Bellini (1801–1835). Interestingly, these three pillars of the
bel canto repertory spent so much time composing that they wrote
very little about singing or singing technique. It was up to meth-
odologists like Concone, Vaccai, Marchesi, and Panofka to lay
a pedagogical foundation. Geared almost entirely toward skill
acquisition, these historical vocalises were designed to give singers
the tools they need to perform this very specific repertoire, thus
recognizing the need for specificity before that principle was ever
formally described.
In these historical vocalises, extra-technical considerations,
such as musicianship and style, were also addressed, albeit
peripherally. Although flexibility and evenness of the voice
SKILLS ADDRESSED: Legato, Flexibility, Style, Musicianship
FIGURE 2. Panofka—24 Vocalizzi, Op. 81.
throughout the range were routinely addressed, specific strate-
gies for resonance and breath management were not explicitly
discussed.
This historic “international Italian” approach, which has been
synonymous with voice pedagogy for two centuries, reached its
zenith within the American school of voice pedagogy through
two works by Richard Miller, arguably the most influential voice
pedagogue of the second half of the 20th century. Miller’s first
book, English, French, German, and Italian Techniques of
Singing: A Study in National Tonal Preferences and How
They Relate to Functional Efficiency (1977),35 was profoundly
influential in convincing American pedagogues that Italian
methodology was technically superior to alternative approaches,
particularly in the area of breath management, advocated by Miller
through the appoggio technique. His follow-up effort was The
Structure of Singing (1986),7 a comprehensive and systematic
approach to skill acquisition rooted in the Italian school. An ex-
amination of its table of contents (see Figure 4) demonstrates
this work’s firm lineage and relationship to the 19th century
methodologies listed above.
Unlike the historical works, however, Miller also included com-
mentary: he explains the purpose of each vocalise presented, and
more importantly, described the basic physiology and rationale
beyond the exercise and its place within the sequence. The
Matthew Hoch and Mary J. Sandage Implications for Singing Voice Pedagogy 83

MARCHESI Op. 31 MARCHESI pratique, Op. 31

PART I Elementary and Progressive Exercises PART II Development of the Exercises

1. Emission of the Voice (attack) 1. Attack

2. Chromatic Slur 2 7. Portamento

3. Diatonic Slur 8 9. Sostenuto

4 8. Portamento 10 19. Diatonic Scales

9 36. Scales 20 21. Dotted Diatonic Scales

37 73. Exercises for Blending the Registers 22. Minor Scale

74 125. Exercises on Two, Three, Four, Six, and Eight Notes 23 25. Major and Minor Scales (alternating)

126 135. Chromatic Scales 26 27. Chromatic Scales

136 137. Minor Scales 28. Repeated Notes

149 151. Varied Scales 29. Triplets

152 153. Repeated Notes 30. Arpeggios

154 162. Triplets 31. Appoggiatura and Acciaccatura

163 173. Arpeggios 32. Mordent and Turns

174. Messa di Voce 33. Syncopation

175 192. Appoggiaturas, Acciaccaturas, Mordents, Turns 34. Long Intervals

185 192. Trills. 35. Staccato, Mezzo-Staccato, and Accented Notes

SKILLS ADDRESSED: Legato, Flexibility, Style, Musicianship 36. Trills

INTERESTING FEATURES: Register blending, messa di voce

mentioned
FIGURE 3. Marchesi—Method de chant théorique et pratique, Op. 31.

influence of The Structure of Singing on modern voice pedago-
gy cannot be understated: more classical teachers teach like
Miller than anyone else, and Miller’s concepts permeate modern
voice pedagogy curricula.
In his proposal of specific vocal warm-ups,15 Titze not only
promotes a new generation of skill acquisition exercises, but
also explains the scientific rationale behind each—they are
designed to promote vocal efficiency as opposed to only being
geared toward singing a specific kind of literature. Figure 5
outlines Titze’s warm-ups.
Titze’s interest in muscle physiology suggests a “next step”
for voice teachers interested in going beyond skill acquisition
for skill acquisition’s sake. For singing teachers to better un-
derstand basic muscle physiology and training up their singers
for specific tasks, exploring exercise science principles can be
a fruitful avenue.
There is a long and widely held belief that vocal warm-up is
important for singers for both performance quality and vocal
health. However, the physiological mechanisms for these ben-
efits are not well understood. Within the exercise science literature,
warm-up exercise that targets skill acquisition and trains fatigue
resistance is attributed to injury prevention.2 A few recently pub-
lished pedagogical resources addressed skill acquisition and
fatigue resistance specifically, but with little discussion devoted
to the topic of injury prevention. More current resources that
include the concepts of skill acquisition and fatigue resistance
include Reid,19 Miller,7,20,21 Elliot et al,24 David,36 Sell,27 Amir
et al,28 and Gish et al.30 Although fatigue resistance was not an
explicit goal of these warm-up approaches, the longer warm-
up times recommended may result in upregulation of those
physiological mechanisms that promote fatigue resistance.
It is apparent from this review that attention to the specific
benefits of vocal warm-up is a more recent consideration in the
planning and execution of vocal warm-up. A little-discussed aspect
in the traditional classical pedagogy texts and the published lit-
erature to date are the muscle physiology implications of muscle
bioenergetics with regard to type and duration of singing warm-
up. Consideration of exercise science principles, particularly in
the area of muscle training and skill acquisition, can be invalu-
able when assigning vocal warm-ups, and these vocalises should
be thoroughly grounded in the specific repertoire that the singer
will perform. Integrating these principles into one’s teaching
84 Journal of Voice, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2018

MILLER The Structure of Singing (1986) TITZ -UPS (2000)

1. Onset and Release 1. Lip trill, tongue trill, humming, or phonation into narrow

2. Breath Management tubes (all partial occlusions of vocal tract) on glides, scales,

3. Agility/Flexibility or arpeggios.

4. Resonance 2. Two-octave pitch glides, up and down, high vowels /i/ or /u/.

5. Vowel Balancing 3. Forward tongue roll and extension, vowel sequence /a/ /i/,

6 7. Resonance (nasal and non-nasal consonants) scales.

8. Sostenuto 4. Messa di voce, proceeding from a partially occluded tract to

9 10. Registration (male and female) high vowels, to low vowels.

11. Vowel Modification 5. Staccato on arpeggios.

12. Range Extension

13. Messa di voce and Dynamic Control NOTE: Specifically geared toward muscle training and coordination.

14. Vibrato and Vocal Timbre FIGURE 5. Titze’s five favorite warm-ups (2000).

15 17. Extra-Technical Concerns
PRINCIPAL FEATURE: Detailed prose accompanies specific exercises.
FIGURE 4. Miller—The Structure of Singing (1986).
routine encourages successful outcomes when honing specific
aspects of singing technique. Untangling these various aspects
of vocal technique through assessment rubrics can also prove
to be invaluable.
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