TEXAS A & M UNIVERSITY WELL CONTROL Jerome J. Schubert, PE DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERINGABSTRACT ‘Well Control Procedures for the Proper Identification and Handling of Kicks for the Prevention of Blowouts (December 1995) Jerome Jacob Schubert, PE, B.S. Texas A&M University, Chair of Advisory Committee: Dr. Hans C. Juvkam-Wold Blowouts have plagued the Petroleum Industry since its infancy. These well control events have resulted in losses of valuable resources, increased drilling costs, environmental dam- ages, increased regulations, injuries to personnel, and loss of life. The vast majority of all blowouts are due to human error, and could have been avoided if proper well control proce- dures would have been followed. The purpose of this work is to provide the technology necessary to recognize potential well control problems and procedures to properly handle them in a safe and efficient manner. ‘This manual discusses the types of pressure encountered in a wellbore, basic calculations required in well control procedures, causes of kicks and the waming signs that a kick may have occurred, proper shut-in procedures, and of course well kill procedures. This manual includes a discussion of casing seat tests used to determine formation strength, and the reaction of gas in a wellbore. Avoidance of kicks is stressed in the discussion of the origin and prediction of abnormal pressure, as well as casing seat selection. Functions and prop- erties of drilling and completion fluids are discussed with respect to well control. Well control considerations while drilling from a drillship or semi-submersible are discussed. ‘This manual was written with field personnel in mind, so that they may gain a clear under- standing of the basic principals and procedures required for safe and efficient drilling op- erations by minimizing the risk of kicks and blowouts.iv DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my wife Debbie and son Clayton for their complete support and patience in this endeavor,ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank the entire Department of Petroleum Engineering for their support, without which this work would not have been possible. Tam deeply grateful to Dr. Hans C. Juvkam-Wold for serving as Chairman on my Graduate Advisory Committee, and for the guidance that he has provided me in this work. I would also like to thank Dr. Juvkam-Wold for the education that he has provided me, and for his, willingness to assist me in any way possible. Finally, I would like to thank him for the technical advise and assistance that he has provided to me. I would also like to thank Dr, James E, Russell, and Dr. Robert R. Berg for serving as Advisory Committee Members. Finally, I would like to thank Ms. Darla-Jean Weatherford for the editorial work that she has provided. Thanks also go out to members of Aggie Drilling Research, especially Dr. Jonggeun Choe, Mr, Mahmood Amani, and Mr. Qamar Sharif, for their help in technical editing of this work.vi Table of Contents Abstract Dedication. Acknowledgments. Table of Contents List of Tables .. List of Figures Importance of Well Control Basic Concepts and Terminology 14 Basic Calculations.. 21 Causes of Kicks... Kick Warnings Shut-In Procedur ‘Well Kill Procedures Advanced Calculations Reaction of Gas in a Wellbore Abnormal Pressure and Casing Seat Selectior Shallow Gas Control Drilling Fluids Completion and Workover Fluids Unusual Operations. Supervision of Kill Operation: Subsea Considerations Small Tubing Operations Minerals Management Service - OCS Orders Nomenclature List of References..vii List of Tables 1.1 Breakdown of Wellbore Pressures From Fig. 1.5 6.1 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Wait and Weight Method 6.2 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Driller's Method 12.1 Composition of Potassium Chloride Brin 12.2 Composition of Sodium Chloride Brin 12.3 Composition of Calcium Chloride Brine. 12.4 Composition of Sodium Chloride/Calcium Chloride Brine 12.5 Composition of Calcium Chioride/Calcium Bromide Brine. 12.6 Composition of Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide Brine. 12.8 Composition of Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Brine. 12.9 Composition of Calcium Chloride/Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Brine 12-23 12.10 Composition of Calcium Bromide/Zinc Bromide Brine. 12.24List of Figures 1.1 Effect of MD and TVD on Hydrostatic Pressure 1.2 Effect of Water Gradient on Normally Pressured Formations 1.3 Effect of Principal Stresses on Fracture Orientation .. 1.4 Frictional Pressures in a Horizontal Circulating System. 1.5 Wellbore Pressures During Circulation 1.6 Surge and Swab Pressures in a Wellbore .. 17a Shut-In Pressures During a Kick .. 1.7b U-Tube Concept of a Wellbore .. 2.1 Mlustration of Capacity and Displacement. 2.2 Double Acting Duplex Pump 2.3 Single Acting Triplex Pump .. 6.1 U-Tube Diagram Depicting a Kick.. 6.2 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Wait and Weight Method. 6.3 Pressure Decline Schedule for the Driller's Method 6.4 Typical "Kill Sheet" used in Well Control 6.5 Well Kill Worksheet. 7.1 Graph of a Typical Leak-off Test 7.2 Surface Casing Pressure During Kill Operation 7.3 Annular Pressure at Different Depths During Kill Operation 8.1 Expansion of Gas as it is Circulated to Surface. 8.2 Expansion of Gas as the Pressure Decreases. 8.3 Effect of Gas Migration on Wellbore Pressures. 8.4 Casing Pressure Schedule for Proper Handling of Migrating Gas 9.1 Abnormal Pressure Due to Thick Gas Columns. 9.2 Abnormal Pressure Due to Fluid Migration 9.3 Abnormal Pressure Due to Uplifting and Erosion 9.4 Abnormal Pressure Due to Thrust Faulting.. 9.5 Abnormal Pressure Due to Aquifer. 9.6 Seismic Data Used to Predict Formation Pressure... 9.7 Cuttings from Normally Pressured Shale. 9.8 Cuttings from Abnormally Pressured Shale 9.9 Shale Conductivity and Sonic Travel Time used in Pressure Prediction.. 9.10 Eaton's Variable Overburden Gradient .. 9.11 Eaton's Gulf Coast Fracture Gradient 9.12 Eaton's Variable Poisson's Ratio L1 Mud Balanc 112 Marsh Funnel 11.3 Rotating Viscometer 114 API Filter Press 1L5 HTHP Filter Press12.1 Effect of Temperature on Density of Low to Moderate Density Brines 12.2 Effect of Temperature on Density of Moderate to High Density Brines. 12.3 Effect of Temperature on Density of High Density Brines. 12.4 Crystallization Points for Brine Waters 13.1 Valve Drilling and Hot Tapping AssemblyIntroduction Importance of Well Control Contents Introduction ... Importance of well control. Kick.. Blowout Costs and dangers of blowouts Well control philosophy. ‘Texas A&M University Petroleum EngineeringIntroduction Importance of Well Control Introduction Importance of well control Well control procedures do not commence with the recognition of an abnormal occurrence in the wellbore. Well control starts as soon as a new location is picked. From this point on, all drilling, completion, workover, snubbing, or coil-tubing programs should be written with proper well control procedures in mind. Kick Akkick is an unscheduled entry of formation fluids in the wellbore, of sufficient quantity to require shutting in the well. Blowout ‘A blowout is a loss of control of a kick. Blowouts can be surface blowouts, or underground blowouts. A surface blowout is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids to the surface, while an underground blowout is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluids from one forma- tion (the kicking formation) to another. If a kick is not recognized and brought under con- trol quickly and properly, a blowout is a definite possibility. Loss of control of a kick, blowout, can be brought about for two reasons - equipment failure or human error. Almost all blowouts can be attributed to an error or series of errors on someone’s part. Even if our well control equipment fails, itis likely that we can trace the cause of the malfunction to improper use, maintenance, testing, installation, or manufacture of the equipment - all errors committed by some person or persons. Costs and dangers of blowouts The final cost of a blowout can easily reach several million dollars, but the money that is wasted is not nearly as important as the other damage that can result froma blowout. Blow- outs waste valuable resources, can do irreparable damage to the environment, ruin equip- ‘ment, but most importantly blowouts endanger the safety and lives of the rig crew. In any dangerous situation, such as a blowout, the safety and well-being of the rig personnel should be the number one concern, followed by protection of the rig, then finally the well itself. We cannot replace someone’s life, and without operable equipment, itis not likely that the well can be brought under control. ‘Texas A&M University I-l Petroleum EngineeringIntroduction Importance of Well Control Well control philosophy Any time there are indications of a kick, prompt action of the crew is essential to bringing the well back under control. If the crew acts properly, itis highly unlikely that the kick will escalate to. blowout. The longer we wait to take action, the worse the kick will get. Donot ignore the warning signs of a kick, it will not go away. The driller should never have to wait for orders from the tool pusher or company representative to shut a well in, He must have that authority, after all the driller and crew are in the best position to detect a kick. ‘Training in the proper well control procedures is important to maintaining control of a kick. Whether the training takes place in school or in the field, it makes no difference. There are several advantages to organized training schools, such as: Ability to control the content of the program. Focus of the class on the intended subject matter. Ability to cover many more topics in a short period of time. Exposure to problems that have happened to others, before they happen to the well control student. 5. Most importantly, practice in the proper procedures so that implementation of these procedures can be initiated quickly and be carried out as smoothly as pos- sible. aeEe ‘There is no doubt that training in the proper recognition and handling of kicks has de- creased the number of blowouts that occur. Knowledge of how to detect and handle kicks is not enough, we should also know how to avoid kicks. If we can avoid taking a kick in the first place, we will not need to implement well kill procedures, and there is virtually no chance of a blowout. In order to avoid kicks, we need knowledge of the warning signs that formation pressures are increasing, and methods used to estimate formation pressures. We need to know when to increase the density of the drilling or workover fluid, and by how much. We need to know when and where to set casing. We need to know the pressure limitations of the well we are drilling. We need to know how to use offset well data to correlate with the present well. Office personnel can take steps in the planning stage of a well to help avoid the occurrence of kicks. A good pressure profile should be provided to the rig crew to use as a guide to expected formation pressure and possible problems. Offset information should be supplied to the rig crew for correlation purposes, and support should be provided to the rig crew. Completion and workover procedures should supply information on formation pressures, if known, or good estimates when not known, Donot assume that the tool pusher and operator's rep know the proper density completion fluid, or that the well can be killed with field salt water. Do your homework, and gather the information needed to determine kill weight fluid before the workover starts. Texas A&M University 1-2 Petroleum EngineeringIntroduction Importance of Well Control If everyone including the office staff, operators rep, tool pusher, roughnecks, roustabouts, and service company representatives do their part, we should be able to drill, complete, or work over any well ina safe, efficient manner, We should be able to put blowout and oil well fire fighting companies out of business. The purpose of this manual is to cover the techniques to estimate formation pressures, recognize the warning signs of a kick, and to properly handle kicks if they occur. If the techniques and procedures discussed in this manual are followed, hopefully we can avoid taking kicks, and in the event that we do, we can kill the well quickly and safely. ‘Texas A&M University 1-3 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Contents Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Pressure Hydrostatic pressure. Pressure gradient Formation pressure. Overburden pressure Fracture pressure... Pump pressure (system pressure losses) .. Slow Pump Pressure (SPP) Surge & Swab pressure... Shut-In drill pipe pressure... Shut-in casing pressure Bottom-hole pressure. Differential pressure. Trapped pressure .. U-Tube Concept Te ee ee eee Serkan owe mee RESSo ‘Texas A&M University Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Chapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Pressure In all aspects of the petroleum industry we deal with pressure, and it is a topic of major importance in well control. It can be defined as the force exerted per unit area, normally measured in units of Ibs force per square inch of area or psi. Example: If we have 1000 Ibs force exerted on an area of 10 square inches, we have 1000 Ibs / 10 sq. in. (00 Ibs/sq. in or 100 psi, conversely, if we have 1000 psi imposed on an area of 5 square inches, the force exerted would be: 1000 psi x 5 sq.in. = 5000 Ibs force. Since a thorough understanding of pressure is essential to the understanding of well control, this section of the manual deals with different pressures that are encountered during well control operations. Hydrostatic pressure Hydrostatic pressure (HSP) is derived from the terms “hydro”, meaning water, and “static”, ‘meaning not moving or at rest, therefore hydrostatic pressure (HSP) is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid at rest or in static conditions. All fluids in the wellbore exert hydro- static pressure. This pressure is a function of the: density of the fluid and the vertical height of the fluid column. ‘We can express HSP in mathematical terms of: HSP =0.052x MW x TVD where: HSP — hydrostatic pressure (psi). 0.052 — a constant to convert to the proper units MW — mud weight or density in pounds per gallon (ppg). TVD — true vertical depth (ft). Since pressure is measured in psi., MW measured in ppg, and depth in ft., the .052 is needed ‘Texas A&M University 1-1 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology to convert ppg x ft into psi. The constant, 0.052, is derived below: ‘Ap (HSP) x Area = Weight = Area x height (TVD) x density (MW) HSP, psi = MW, Ib/gal x TVD, ft. x (12 in//ft) x (Igal /231 in3) dividing 12 by 231 yields 0.052 ‘Sometimes we use units other than ppg to measure fluid density such as Ib/ft3. In this case a different conversion factor must be used. Since in one square foot there are 144 square inches, 1/144 = 0.007, and : HSP, psi = 0.007 x MW, lb/ft3 x TVD, ft. The next question should be, why use true vertical depth instead of “measured | [777177 depth” in our calculations | /———— of hydrostatic pressure? The answers, gravity pulls straight down to the center of the earth. In adirectional well, the wellbore in not pointing toward the center of the earth, and it is the vertical height of the fluid column that has any bear | Figure.t Hydrostatic pressure is dependent only onthe ing upon the hydrostatic vertical height and the density of the mud column pressure being imposed upon the wellbore. See Fig.1.1. If all the wellbores are full of equal density fluids, the hydrostatic pressure would be equal since the true vertical depths are equal. Pressure gradient Often we express the pressure exerted by a fluid in terms of a “pressure gradient” or psi/ft of depth. A pressure gradient exerted by drilling fluid can be calculated by: Gradient, psi/ft = 0.052 x MW, ppg To convert a pressure gradient into ppg, we divide the gradient by 0.052. Formation pressure Formation pressure is the pressure contained within the formation itself. It is the pressure contained in the pore spaces of the formation, or the pressure contained in the formation fluid. This pressure is developed from the hydrostatic pressure of the formation fluids Texas A&M University 1-2 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology above the depth of interest in conjunction with any pressure that may be trapped in place. ‘We define a “normally pressured formation” as one in which the formation pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the fluids above the zone of interest. Since all of the forma- tions we deal with were deposited in a marine environment, the fluid above the zone of interest is usually some sort of water. In the Gulf Coast, the density of the formation water is approximately 9.0 ppg, which yields a normal pressure gradient of 0.465 psifft. In other parts of the world, the formation water may be closer to a fresh water with a gradient of 0.433 psi/ft. A normally pressured formation can generally be controlled with a 9.0 ppg mud ‘We will have normal pressure in the zone of interest if that formation is in communication with the surface (see Fig. 1.2). As the formation is buried deeper, the weight of the rock and fluids above will tend to compact the formation. As the formation in question is compacted, the fluids within the formation are ei- ther pressured up, if they are trapped in place or, they are squeezed out of the formation if there is communica- tion with the surface, retaining a nor- mal pressure gradient. If the fluids are trapped in place dur- ing compaction, and are not allowed to escape, the pressure within the for- mation will increase, resulting in a pressure gradient greater than the de- fined “normal pressure”. This in- ‘creased formation pressure gradient is termed “abnormal pressure”. Abnor- mal pressure is defined as any pres- sure greater than normal pressure, and will require a mud weight of more than 9.0 ppg to control formation pressures. Figure 1.2 - Communication between the formation and the surface results in normally pressured formations ‘One more term we need to discuss concerning formation pressures is “subnormal pressure”, or any formation pressure less than normal pressure for the given depth. Subnormal pres- sure can be found in formations that have undergone a pressure regression due to deeper burial from tectonic movement, but most often is encountered in an old field where the formation is depleted due to production of the formation fluids originally in place. Overburden pressure Overburden pressure is the pressure exerted on a formation by the weight of the rock and fluids above the zone of interest. It is the vertical compacting force that is being imposed upon a formation. On the average these rocks have a density of 18 to 22 ppg, resulting in a gradient of approximately 1 psi/ft. Offshore, however, we do not have a full column of rock ‘Texas A&M University 1-3 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology all the way to the surface. There is a lighter column of sea water, causing a lower overbur- den pressure than we would find at the same depth on land. Consequently, the deeper the water, the lower the overburden pressure gradient. Fracture pressure Fracture pressure is the pressure required to fracture a given formation, or the pressure required to cause the formation to fail and split. In order to fracture a formation, you must first be able to pump into the formation requiring a pressure in the wellbore in excess of formation pressure. Then to fracture the formation, our wellbore pressures must exceed the strength of the rock matrix itself, and third it must exceed one of three principal stresses within the formation itself. It is generally agreed upon that the state of stress at any point below the ‘earth's sruface can be defined by these three principal stresses.! An analysis of these stresses will generally result in one from the overburden and two ro : horizontal. These principal stresses are caeen all mutually perpendicular (see Fig. 1.3).! The formation will fracture per- pendicular the lowest ofthe three prin- Fracture cipal stresses. At shallow depths the overburden pressure will be the low- estprincipal stress, resulting in ahori- | ie /3- Formation Pace lela zontal, pancake fracture. As we get deeper, the overburden will increase to ‘a point where one of the horizontal stresses will be the lowest, and a vertical fracture will form. Offshore, lower frac. gradients are encountered due to the lower overburden pressure re- sulting from the light water gradient Also, many of the formations we drill offshore are younger and not as compacted as on land, resulting in a weaker rock matrix. Pump pressure (system pressure losses) In order to circulate the drilling fluid throughout the entire circulating system, frictional pressure losses must be overcome by the rig pumps. This “pump pressure” is often referred to as the system pressure loss, and is the sum of the pressure losses through the surface equipment, the drillpipe, the drill collars, the bit, and annular friction losses around the drill, collars, and drillpipe. The standpipe pressure or pump pressure measures the system pres- sure loss at the origin of the circulating system, and is a measure of the total friction pres- sure, If pressure gauges were placed at different points in a horizontal circulating system, see Fig. ‘Texas A&M University 1-4 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 1.4 (hydrostatics would have no effect ‘on the total pressure), each gauge would read a successively lower pres- sure until, at the end zero psig would be recorded (pressure at the end of the circulating system would be equal to atmospheric pressure). Each gauge would measure the friction pressure thatoccurs downstream of that particu- Jar gauge (Le. the pressure felt at any point in a circulating system is the pres- sure losses downstream of that point) therefore, as mentioned in the ‘preceeding paragraph, the friction pres- sure imposed on the standpipe is the friction pressure in the entire system, whereas, the pressure imposed at the bottom of the hole is only the friction pressure in the annulus during normal circulation (i. down the drillpipe and up the annulus) plus the hydrostatic pressure imposed by the fluids in the annulus. Another point of interests the casing seat. While circulating the long way, the pressure imposed on the cas- ing seat is the frictional pressure losses in the annulus above the seat plus the hydrostatic pressure down to that point. See Fig 1.5. ‘Several models have been developed to Basic Concepts and Terminology Figure 1.4 - The friction pressure felt at any point in a circulating system are the downstream frictional pressure losses. Figure 1.5 - Wellbore pressures during circulation. Table 1.1 - Breakdown of wellbore pressures from Figl.5 SYSTEM COMPONENT FRICTION HYDROSTATIC GAUGE GAUGE COMPONENT PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE PRESSURE A 2000 0 2000 AB 800 8 1200 4000 5200 Bc 1000 c 200 4000 4200 co 100 D> 100 2000 2100 DE 100 E 0 ) ° ‘Texas A&M University 1-5 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology approximate system pressure losses for drilling fluids in both laminar and turbulent flow. Because of normal hole geometries and mud properties itis often assumed that the flow in the drillstring is turbulent while the flow in the annulus around the drillpipe is in laminar flow. Flow in the annulus around the drill collars may be either, but due to the relative short interval involved in this section the difference in pressure of laminar vs. turbulent flow is immaterial with respect to the total pump pressure. To keep things simple for our compari sons the friction formulas we will use are from “Security Drill String Systems Hydraulic Manual”:*3 Pressure drop = (0.000061 x MW x L x Q!-86) / 4.86 for pressure losses in the drillstring Pressure drop = (MW x Q2) / (10858 x An?) for pressure losses across the bit nozzles Pressure drop = [(1.4327 x 10-7) x MW xL x V2] / (Dh - Dp) for pressure losses in the annulus Where: ‘MW - Mud Weight (ppg) L -Length (ft) Q - Circulation Rate (gpm) d_ - Inside Diameter of Pipe (in) ‘An - Area of Nozzles (sq. in.) V_ - Annular Velocity (fv/min) Dh - Hole Diameter (in) Dp - Diameter of Pipe O.D. (in) Annular velocity can be calculated by: V=24,5Q/ Dn? - Dp?) Good hydraulics optimization results in approximately 50 - 65 % of the total friction losses across the bit, 25 - 40 % of the friction pressure occurs in the drillpipe and drill collars, and 10 - 15 % of the losses are in the annulus.345 The relatively low percentage of friction pressure in the annulus is due the large flow area in the annulus compared to the jet nozzles. and drillstring. During workover and completion operations, reverse circulation is very common. Revers- ing out can have a major effect on bottom hole pressure. As we mentioned above, the * The pressure drop calculations used here and in the “Security Drill String Systems Hydraulic Manual” do not take into account the effects of viscosity on pressure losses. A more accurate, though more complex, pressure drop calculation would be to use equations based on the Bingham plastic model or the Power law model. Both models are easily found in published literature.45 ‘Texas A&M University 1-6 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology pressure imposed upon any point in the circulating system from friction losses is the pres- sure losses occurring downstream of the point of interest, hence reversing out will result in the friction losses through the bit and the workstring being imposed on the bottom of the hole. Since there is a high percentage of the total pressure losses attributed to the pressure losses through the workstring and bit, reversing out can impose a much higher bottom hole pressure than circulating the long way. The pressure imposed on the casing seat while reversing out would be the annular hydrostatic pressure plus the annular friction pressure below the casing seat plus the pressure losses through the bit and the workstring. Slow Pump Pressure (SPP) During a normal well kill operation we want to circulate at a reduced rate to allow better control of circulating pressures and to allow us to keep the mud properties (i.e. density, and viscosity) at desired values, especially the mud weight. Since we will be using the drillpipe pressure during the kill operation to determine the Bottom Hole Pressure, we must know how much friction pressure it will take to circulate through the drillstring. We can measure this friction pressure at a reduced rate before a kick is taken. Recording the circulating pressure at the reduced rate is referred to as taking a “Slow Pump Pressure”. The slow pump pressure is also called “kill rate pressure, slow circulating pressure, kill speed pres- sure, etc.”. During a kill operation, the circulating rate must be held constant at the slow pump rate if the measured SPP is to be maintained. The SPP measured is actually the total system pressure loss. We only want the pressure losses in the drillstring, but at this low rate, the annular friction pressure is negligible, and can be ignored, therefore the SPP measured is a good approximation of the friction in the drillstring. ‘To take a slow pump pressure, you merely pick up off bottom and circulate at a reduced rate of 1/2 to 1/3 of the normal drilling rate (for a power rig the pumps are often circulated at idle) and read the pump pressure recorded on the drillpipe gauge on the choke panel, since these are the gauges that the choke operator will be using during a kill operation. However, it is a good idea to record the pressure from another gange in case the choke panel gauges ‘malfunction, Often more than one SPP is taken for each pump. From our previous discussion of Pump Pressure, we know that the friction pressure is a function of mud weight, depth, pump speed, pipe size, bit size, and jet nozzle size. Any time one of these factors changes, the friction pressure changes and we need to take a new SPP. It is common to take a slow pump pressure: every tour by each driller when the pumps are repaired or liners changed. if mud properties are changed for every 500 feet of hole drilled when the bottom hole assembly is changed when the bit nozzles are changed. ‘Texas A&M University 1-7 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Surge & Swab pressure ‘Surge and Swab pressures result from the movement of the drillstring in or out of the hole. ‘Tripping in the hole causes surge pressures while swabbing is the result of pulling out of the hole. The surge and swab pressures are due the piston effect of the movement of the drilistring in the hole (see Fig. 1.6). The lowering of the pipe in the hole, surge, increases the pressure exerted on the wellbore, while swabbing lowers wellbore pressures. Excessive surge pres- sures can cause formation fracture, while excessive swabbing can cause an influx of forma- tion fluids into the wellbore. The degree of surge and swab is influenced by: speed that the pipe is being tripped mud properties (viscosity, gel strength, and mud weight) clearance between the bottom hole assembly and the wellbore annular restrictions ‘Movement of the drllstring in the wellbore has the same pressure effect on the bottom of the hole as circulation of the mud in the hole. When tripping in the hole, the mud is being forced up the annulus and the drillstring (if the drillstring is open) at some velocity, and the surge pressure generated at the bottom of the hole is comparable to the circu- lating pressures required to circulate through the annulus and the drillstring with the same fluid velocity. Con- versely, pulling out of the hole will have an equal but opposite effect on the bottom of the hole, lowering the bottom hole pressure by this amount, alt Shut-In drill pipe pressure Shut-In Drill Pipe Pressure, SIDPP, is recorded. The SIDPP is a measure of the difference between the pressure at the bottom of the hole and the HSP in the drillpipe. When a well is shut in | nce pressue was pressure| on a kick and the wellbore pressure | HYDROSTATIC = 4900PS1_ 4000PSI_ = HYDROSTATIC stabilizes, the pressure at the bottom | SURGE fe ares on the hole is equal to the formation pressure. Since the drllpipe should be full of a known density fluid, we can calculate the formation pressure from | _ . the following: Figure 1.6- Bottom hole pressure is equal tothe HSP + the Surge pressure (left) or - the Swab pressure (right). ‘When a well is shut-in on a kick, the W) ‘Texas A&M University 1-8 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology FP = HSPqp + SIDPP where, FP = Formation pressure (psi) HSPap = Hydrostatic pressure of mud in the drillpipe (psi) SIDPP = Shut in drillpipe pressure (psi) thus, the SIDPP gives us a direct reading of the formation pressure during a kick (see Fig. 17). Shut-in casing pressure ‘The Shut-In Casing Pressure, SICP, is a measure of the difference between the formation pressure and the HSP in the annulus, during a kick. Since the influx of formation fluid is usually on the annular side, contaminating the mud, the HSP in the annulus cannot be accu- rately determined and the SICP is not a good indicator of formation pressure (see Fig. 1.7). ‘The following equation describes the pressures in the annulus during a kick. EP = HSPmud + HSPinux + SICP where, FP = Formation pressure (psi) HSPmud = Hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the annulus (psi) HSPinflux = Hydrostatic pressure of the influx (psi) SICP = Shut in casing pressure (psi) HSP = 5200PSI 5200 PSI MUD HSP. = 4800 PSI INFLUX HSP sn shutin on a ack, formation Figure 1.7. - The wellbore in figure 1.7.a depicted as pressure to the SIDPP + the HSP in a U-tube. the drillpipe = SICP + the HSP in the annulus. ‘Texas A&M University 1-9 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology Bottom-hole pressure Bottom-Hole Pressure, BHP, is the total pressure exerted at the bottom of the hole. BHP is a function of : Hydrostatic pressure Shut-in surface pressure Friction pressure Surge pressure Swab pressure BHP is the sum of all pressures being imposed on the bottom of the hole, and can be calcu- lated by: BHP = HSP + SIP + Friction + Surge - Swab where, BHP = Bottom hole pressure (psi) SIP = Shut-In pressure (psi) Friction = Friction pressure losses downstream of the bit (psi) Surge = Surge pressures due to tripping pipe into the hole (psi) ‘Swab = Swab pressures due to tripping pipe out of the hole (psi) Normally we think of the friction pressure imposed on the bottom of the hole as the annular friction losses. This is the case during normal circulation (down the drillpipe and up the annulus), however reverse circulation is often resorted to during well workover and comple- tion operations. In this case the friction pressures imposed upon the bottom of the hole are the frictional losses through the bit, drill collars, and drillpipe. From our previous discus- sion of pump pressure, the vast majority of our system pressure loss is the pressure losses in the drillstring (or workstring). This is why reversing out results in a much higher BHP compared to circulating “the long way” at the same pump rate. A weak formation may break down reversing out at moderate to high pump speeds. Bottom hole pressure is the key to well control. Any time bottom hole pressure drops below formation pressure, and formation permeability is present, a kick is likely to occur. Like- wise, if the BHP becomes greater than formation fracture pressure, lost circulation will occur. After we take a kick, our goal should be to maintain BHP equal to or slightly above formation pressure while circulating out the kick. This allows us to avoid any additional influx during the kill operation while minimizing surface pressures. Differential pressure Another term that needs to be discussed is differential pressure. In well control, this is usually a description of the difference in pressure between two points in the system, namely the formation and the wellbore. A positive differential exists when the pressure in the ‘Texas A&M University 1-10 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology wellbore, or BHP, is greater than the pressure in the formation. An excessive positive dif- ferential can result in formation breakdown. When the pressure in the wellbore is less than the formation pressure, a negative differential is said to exist, possibly resulting in a kick. ‘Trapped pressure ‘Sometimes the shut-in pressures seem excessive after a kick. This could be due to the pumps rolling over after shut-in procedures were implemented, gas migration during shut- in, or the pressures may seem too high for the formation in question (from known data in the field). If “trapped pressure” is expected, the following procedure should be used to deter- mine if indeed you have trapped pressure, and to bleed off any trapped pressure present. 1, Record the SIDPP and SICP. 2. Bleed small amounts of pressure through the choke from the annulus side. (1/4 to 1/2 of a barrel at the most each time pressure is bled) 3. Close the choke and let the pressures stabilize. 4, Read the new SIDPP and SICP. 5, If the new SIDPP and SICP are less than the original, you have bled off some of the trapped pressure. Repeat steps 2 through 4. 6. If the new SIDPP and SICP are equal to or greater than the original, STOP bleeding. You do not have any trapped pressure. The pressure on the gauges are the true shut-in pressures due to being underbalanced, and any more mud being bled off will result in a greater influx of formation fluid and still higher SICP. Remember one thing. You can bleed off trapped pressure, but the only way to bleed off formation pressure is to deplete the formation, and we do not want to do that with a rig on location, U-Tube Concept Fig. 1.7.b illustrates the “U-tube Concept”. The wellbore acts essentially like a u-tube, with one leg representing the drillpipe and the other leg representing the annulus. The drillpipe and the annulus are connected at the bottom of the u-tube (representing the bottom of the hole). The sum of all the pressures on the drillpipe equals the total pressure at the bottom of the hole. The sum of all the pressures on the annulus equals BHP also. Since there is only ‘one bottom hole and one BHP the sum of the pressures on the drillpipe side equals the sum of the pressures on the annulus. Mathematically it can be stated: ‘Texas A&M University 1-1 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 1 Basic Concepts and Terminology ¥ Pp = BHP = E Pann therefore E Pap=E Pann where Pdp = Drillpipe pressures (psi) Pann = Annulus pressures (psi) BHP = Bottom hole pressure (psi) Since the two sides of the wellbore are connected at the bottom, any pressure we add on one side will be reflected on the other side. For instance, in a shut-in well, if we put an extra 100 psi on the annulus, the 100 psi increase would show up at the bottom of the hole, andon the drillpipe side also, If we are circulating through a choke, an increase in the amount of back pressure imposed by the choke will be reflected on the bottom of the hole and on the drillpipe gauge. This u-tube concept will be used later to explain how the choke is used to control bottom hole pressure during a well kill operation but the drillpipe gauge is used to monitor BEP. ‘Texas A&M University 1-12 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basie Calculations Contents Chapter 2 Basic calculation: Capacit Annular capacity. Displacement... Fluid level drop .. Pump output. Duplex pump..... Triplex pump... Se aaaaane anne be RYO YRNHNYRYKN ‘Texas A&M University Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations Chapter 2 Basic calculations Capacity Knowing the capacity of the drillstring is essential in well control. The capacity of the rillpipe, drill collars, or hole is the volume of fluid that can be contained within the drillpipe, Grill collars, or hole (see Fig. 2.1). The barrels per foot capacity can be calculated by: Capacity = I1D2__ 1029.4 where, Capacity = Volume (bbI/ft) ID = Inside diameter (in.) 1029.4 = Units conversion factor The total volume contained within the pipe or hole is: ‘Volume (bbls) = Capacity (bb\/t) x length (ft.) ‘The feet of pipe occupied by a given volume of fluid is calculated by: Feet of pipe = Volume of mud (bbls) Capacity (bbls/ft) During a kill operation, the volume of the drillpipe and the drill collars must be pumped to get kill weight mud to the bit. Capacity calculations are also used in spotting pills and plugs at various depths in the wellbore. Annular capacity ‘The annular capacity is the volume contained between the inside diameter of the hole and the outside diameter of the pipe. This is used in determining “bottoms up”, and in spotting pills in the annulus. Annular capacity is calculated by: Ann Cap = (Dhole” - ODpipe”)/ 1029.4 where, Ann Cap = Annular capacity (bbl/ft) TDhole2 = Inside diameter of the casing or open hole (n.) ODpipe2 = Outside diameter ofthe pipe (in.) As in calculating the volume of the drillstring, the total volume of a section of the annulus ‘Texas A&M University 2-1 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations is calculated by multiplying the annular capacity per foot by the length of the section in question. Annular volume = Ann Cap (bbls/ft) x length (ft.) ‘The feet occupied by a given volume of mud in the annulus can be calculated by : Feet of annulus = Volume of mud (bbls) / Annular Capacity (bbls/ft) Displacement The volume occupied by the drillpipe and drill collars is called the displacement. It is the volume of fluid that the drillpipe or drill collars displace. While tripping out of the hole, you are removing a volume of steel from the wellbore. If the space occupied by the steel is not replaced, the level of the mud will drop, resulting in areduced HSP and BHP. If the hole is not kept full of mud, a kick is likely to occur. The displacement in bbls/ft of Grade E drillpipe can be calculated by:6 Disppp = Wt /2600 ‘The displacement of high strength drillpipe (Grade X or S) can be calculated by: Disppp = Wt / 2500 ‘The displacement of Drill Collars can be calculated by: Disppc = Wt/2750_ where, Disppp = Displacement of drillpipe (bbl/ft) Disppc = Displacement of drill collars (bbV/ft) Wt = Weight per foot of pipe (Ib/ft) 2750 = Approximate weight per bb! of steel (Ib/bbl) Since a barrel of steel weighs approximately 2750 Ibs, dividing the weight per foot of pipe by 2750 Ibs/bbl yields the bbI/ft displacement of pipe. However, in the case of drillpipe, the common weight used for classification in the oilfield is the nominal weight of the drillpipe with the tool joints, not the actual weight. Dividing by 2600 and 2500 for Grade E and X or S respectively corrects for using the nominal weight instead of the true weight. The differ- ence in the displacement of high strength and regular strength tool joints may not be mea- surable in the field, so often the displacement for Grade E drillpipe is sufficiently accurate for field calculations; however, a more accurate calculation would be to use published data available in the industry.” These tables provide the displacement of the tube, and the dis- placement of the tool joints in use. ‘Texas A&M University 2-2 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations Many times the weight of the drill col- lars is not known or is inaccurate, so an alternate method of calculating the dis- placement must be used. If you consider the drill collars as an annulus of steel, the previously discussed annular capac- ity calculation can be used. Disppc = (OD? - 12) / 1029.4 “Anater Capa. iy: ‘The opening paragraph of this section DPCasing states that as the drillstring is being DP/Open Hole pulled from the wellbore the hole must DC/Open Hole be kept full. Not only must the hole be kept full, it must be filled with the proper Dell Colles: Volume of mud, If you remove 3 bbls of Sane drillpipe, it should take 3 bbls of mud to replace the steel. Ifitonly took 2 bbls to (Open Hole fill the hole, what replaced the volume Capacity occupied by the other bbl of steel? If the volume to fill the hole is too low, it could mean that there has been an influx of formation fluid into the wellbore. Conversely, if the hole fill was too high (4 bbls mud to fill the hole formerly oc- cupied by 3 bbls of pipe), the formation may be taking fluid. Figure 2.1 - For safe well control, itis critical that the Capacity of the Drillpipe, Drill Collars, and Hole be inown, along with the Displacement of the tubulars in che weilbore. Our displacement calculations so far have only considered pulling a dry string where mud is falling out of the drillpipe. In the case where we pull out of the hole with the bit plugged (wet) and the mud from the inside of the drillpipe is not put back into the hole, the hole fill calculation isa little different. Pulling a wet string is like pulling a solid bar of steel out of the hole and the displacement is the same as the normal displacement plus the capacity of the drill pipe. The formula is: Dispwet = Capacity + Disp = OD / 1029.4 where Dispwet = Displacement of a wet string (bbI/ft) ‘Capacity = Pipe capacity (bbi/ft) Disp = Normal displacement of pipe (bb\/ft) OD = Outside diameter of the pipe (in) Although the bbls/ft capacity, annular capacity, and displacement can be calculated, the ‘most common source of these values is from published tables.7 These tables sometimes give the displacement per foot of the tube for drillpipe, and the displacement of a pair of tool joints. Texas A&M University 2-3 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations Fluid level drop ‘The distance that the mud level drops when pulling a dry string (the bit is not plugged) from the wellbore can be calculated by the following: Fluid drop = Bbl disp / (CSG cap - Pipe disp) or Fluid drop = Bbl disp / (Ann cap + Pipe cap) and the resulting loss of hydrostatic pressure is calculated by: Lost HSP = 0.052x MW x Fluid drop where Fluid drop = Distance the fluid falls (£0) Bbl disp = Displacement of the pulled pipe (bbl) (CSG cap = Casing capacity (bbI/ft) Pipe disp = Pipe displacement (bb\/t) ‘Ann cap = Annular capacity between Casing & Pipe (bbI/ft) Pipe cap = Pipe capacity (bbl/ft) Lost HSP = Lost hydrostatic pressure (psi) MW = Mud weight (ppg) Pulling a wet string is significantly different if the fluid from inside the drillpipe is not retumed to the hole. The fluid drop calculation is altered to be: Fluid drop = Bbl disp / Ann cap ‘The barrels of displacement when pulling a wet string is the capacity plus the displacement of the pipe since no fluid is falling out of the drillstring, and the mud is only falling in the annulus. Since tripping out of the hole with the drill string plugged results in a larger displacement and faster fluid drop, the hole will need to be filled more often for safe opera tions. Pump output When we need to know the volume of fluid that we are pumping, there are two common methods that we use. One is to use calibrated displacement tanks, or we can consider our pumps as positive displacement meters. If we want to use our pumps to measure the vol- ume of fluid we have pumped, all we need to do is calculate the volume pumped by each stroke and count the strokes pumped. Texas A&M University 2-4 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations There are two common pump types in use on our drilling and workover rigs today. They are the double acting duplex and the single acting triplex. Both will be discussed below. Duplex pump ‘The double acting duplex pump has two cylinders, and pumps fluid on both sides of the piston (on the upstroke and the backstroke). ‘This pump has two intake and two exhaust valves for each piston. Fig. 2.2 shows that when the piston is moving to the left, a full cylinder volume of fluid is being displaced. At the same time the cylinder to the right of the piston is being filled with mud from the suction tank. When the piston moves back to the right, the mud to the right of the piston will be pumped down hole. This volume is the cylinder volume minus the volume occupied by the piston rod. While this is happening, the space to the left of the piston is being refilled with mud from the suction pit. One complete cycle of the pump will result in four cylinder volumes of mud minus two rod volumes being pumped. ‘The volume for one complete cycle of the pump is defined as the pump output, and can be calculated by: ‘TPO = 0.000162 x SLx [(2x LD2)-RD2]x eff where ‘TPO =True pump output (bbI/stk) INLET VAL\ INLET VALVE apeenaassseee| f OUTLET VALVE INLET VALVE INLET VALVE EREaREReRRRE OUTLET VALI OUTLET VALVE Figure 2.2 - A Double Acting Duplex pumps Figure 2.3 -A Single Acting Triplex pumps luid in both the upstroke and Backstroke. fluid in one direction only. ‘Texas A&M University 2-5 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations SL = Stroke length (in) LD = Liner diameter (in) RD = Rod diameter (in) eff = Efficiency of the pump ‘Triplex pump ‘The single acting triplex has three cylinders, pumps fluid only in one direction (See Fig. 2.3), and has only one intake and exhaust valve for each piston. One complete cycle of the single acting triplex pump will result in three cylinder volumes of mud being pumped. ‘As with the duplex pump, the volume for one complete cycle of the pump is defined as the pump output, and can be calculated by: TPO = 0.000243 x SLx LD? x eff where TPO = True pump output (bbY/stk) SL = Stroke length (in) LD = Liner diameter (in) eff = Efficiency of the pump Another method of obtaining pump output data, is through the use of published tables that have the pump output calculated for various size pumps. One common source is the [ADC Drilling manual,8 but these values are usually based upon the pumps operating at 100% efficiency, so the pump output taken from the tables must be multiplied by the efficiency of the pump in question. ‘Once we have our TPO, it is a simple matter to calculate the number of strokes required to pump a specific volume of mud. ‘Total strokes = Barrels of mud TPO If we need to know the Barrels per minute that we are circulating, we just need to multiply the pump speed in SPM by the TPO. Barrels per minute = Strokes per minute x TPO (bpm) ‘Multiplying the Barrels per minute by 42 gallons per barrel will yield the gallons per minute, Kill weight fluid ‘During a well kill operation we have to know the density of fluid required to balance forma- tion pressure. Since our drillpipe should be full of a known density fluid when a kick is ‘Texas A&M University 2-6 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations taken, the stabilized shut-in drillpipe pressure, SIDPP, is a direct measurement of the differ- ential pressure between the HSP in the drillpipe and formation pressure. The SIDPP repre- sents the increase in HSP required to balance formation pressure. Using SIDPP and the density of the mud in the drillpipe, we can easily calculate the required density of mud to balance formation pressure, we call this density Kill Weight Mud, or KWM for short, KWM=__SIDPP_ +OWM where 0.052 x TVD KWM = Kill Weight Mud (ppg) ‘SIDPP = Shut-in drillpipe pressure (psi) ‘TVD = True vertical depth (ft) OWM = Original weight mud (ppg) When the actual formation pressure is known from data sources such as bottom hole pres- sure surveys, the KWM can be calculated by: KWM=__EP. where 0.052 x TVD FP = Formation pressure (psi) Fluid weight up ‘There are several different materials that may be added to drilling mud and completion fluid to increase the density. Barite, Imenite, Iron Oxide, and Galena are some weight materials used in drilling fluids, while completion fluids may use a soluble material to increase the density. These soluble materials are usually some type of salt such as Potassium chloride (KC), sodium chloride (NaC), calcium chloride (CaCl2), calcium bromide (CaBr2), or zinc bromide (ZnBr). ‘The amount of weight material required to weight our mud system and the pit gain due to the addition of the weight material can be calculated in the following sections.9:10 Barite 100 Ib sacks of Barite = Mud volume x 14.70 x (KWM - OWM) 35 -KWM Bbl of Barite = Sacks of Barite 14.70 Imenite 100 Ib sacks of IImenite = Mud volume x 15,96 x (KWM - OWM) 38 - KWM ‘Texas A&M University 2-7 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 2 Basic Calculations Bbl of Iimenite = Sacks of Imenite 15.96 Iron Oxide 100 Ib sacks of Iron Oxide = Mud volume x 17,64 x (KWM - OWM) 42-KWM Bbl of Iron Oxide = Sacks of Iron Oxide 17.64 Galena 100 Ib sacks of Galena = Mud volume x 25.20 x (KWM - OWM) 60-KWM_ Bbl of Galena = Sacks of Galena 25.20 ‘The volume of salt required to weight up completion fluid will be discussed in a later sec- tion of the manual. ‘Texas A&M University 2-8 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 3 Causes of Kicks Contents Causes of Kicks Failure to keep hole full. Annular flow after cement jot Lost control during drill stem tests Drilling into adjacent wells .. Drilling through gas sands at excessive rates . ‘Texas A&M University Petroleum EngineeringChapter 3 Causes of Kicks Chapter 3 Causes of Kicks As we mentioned earlier in our discussion of bottom hole pressure, anytime the BHP drops below the formation pressure and we have the necessary formation permeability to allow flow of the formation fluids, we are in danger of taking a kick. There are many factors that can result in the wellbore being underbalanced. We will discuss some of these causes of kicks. Failure to keep hole full Failure to keep the hole full during a trip is one of the major causes of kicks. When tripping out of the hole, we are removing a volume of steel from the well. If the displacement of steel in not replaced with an equal volume of mud, the fluid level in the wellbore will drop resulting in a loss of hydrostatic pressure and bottom hole pressure. If the bottom hole pressure is reduced to below formation pressure, a kick can result. ‘To prevent this loss of bottom hole pressure, we must keep the hole full of the proper weight mud. To keep the hole full, we can stop tripping pipe at predetermined intervals and use the rig pumps to fill the hole back up, or we can rely on the use of a “trip tank” (we will discuss trip tanks later). Some operations attempt to keep the hole full by continuously circulating through the kill line during the entire trip. Although in theory this might sound like a reasonable action, this is not considered a safe operating procedure, unless there is an accu- rate measurement of the vulume of fluid required to keep the hole full. The PVT equipment installed in the mud pits is not usually accurate enough to provide this measurement. ‘Swabbing ‘When tripping out of the hole, the space formerly occupied by the drillpipe, drill collars, or tubing, must be replaced by something, usually mud. If we are pulling out of the hole too fast, the mud may not fall fast enough to fill the void space created by the removal of the pipe. When this happens, bottom hole pressure is reduced, and formation fluid can enter the wellbore. As this lower density formation fluid enters the wellbore, the hydrostatic pres- sure is reduced. When the HSP is reduced enough the well can begin to flow. Lost circulation ‘Whenever hydrostatic pressure exceeds the fracture pressure of an open formation, lost circulation can occur, causing the height of the fluid column to decrease, resulting in a lower hydrostatic pressure in the wellbore. If steps are not taken to keep the hole full, a kick ‘can occur, Usually the formation that has been fractured is not the one that begins to flow, but one located at some other depth. ‘Texas A&M University 3-1 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 3 Causes of Kicks Lost circulation can be caused by: excessive mud weights, excessive annular friction losses (or pressure losses in the workstring while reversing out), excessive surge pressures during trips or spudding the bit, Grilling into depleted formations, excessive shut-in pressures, the annulus loading up with cuttings, or excessive gel strengths while starting pumps Insufficient density of fluid One of the main functions of our drilling fluid or workover fluid is to keep formation pres- sures in check, This is accomplished mainly through the hydrostatic pressure imposed by the fluid in the well. If the well if full of fluid of sufficient density, no kick will occur, however if the density of the fluids in the wellbore is not sufficient, a kick can occur. Some of the reasons for insufficient density of our fluids are: attempting to drill underbalanced excessive dilution of the mud heavy rains in the pits barite settling in the pits spotting low density pills in the well changing out the fluid in the well or temperature expansion of workover fluids (discussed later) Abnormal pressure Drilling into abnormally pressured formations can lead to possible kicks. The increased formation pressure may be greater than the bottom hole pressure, resulting in a kick. Ab- normal pressures can be the result of: formation fluids being trapped in place during normal compaction faulting and uplifting anticlinal structures salt formations massive shales and artificially charged zones A more detailed discussion of the development and recognition of abnormal pressure will come later. ‘Texas A&M University 3-2 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 3 Causes of Kicks Excessive surge ‘Surge pressure by itself does not cause a kick, but can cause loss of hole mud to the forma- tion, If the increased bottom hole pressure imposed on the formation while tripping into the hole is greater than the fracture pressure of formations below the bit lost circulation can occur. This lost circulation can cause a kick as we discussed above. Annular flow after cement job A fairly common occurrence is annular flow after a primary cement job. Much research has been conducted on this subject. One theory is that after the cement is in place, it starts to develop high gel strength. The cement will start to support the weight of the column of mud above the cement, isolating the lower formations from the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column, Since the cement is not completely set, formation fluid can enter the wellbore, and. migrate through the free water in the cement. ‘Occasionally the float equipment will fail after a cement job. If this occurs, the cement can u-tube back up the newly run casing, lowering the level of the fluid in the annulus, resulting ina kick. It is considered good cementing practice to run a spacer between the drilling fluid and the leading edge of the cement. Ifa water or other low weight material is used as a spacer, care must be taken not to pump too high a volume of spacer. If the hydrostatic pressure of the mud is close to the formation pressure, this lower density spacer can lower the HSP enough to cause a kick. Instead of a low density spacer, a weighted spacer may be used. If the density of the spacer is less than the density of the cement but greater than the density of the ‘mud that it is displacing, no reduction in HSP will occur. This procedure probably dis- places the mud better than a lower density spacer anyway. Lost control during drill stem tests During a drill stem test, a packer is set above the zone of interest, and the formation is allowed to flow into the drillstring. After the test is complete, the borehole or casing below the packer, and at least a portion of the drillstring or tubing contains formation fluid. Proper well kill techniques are required to remove these formation fluids from the well. If im- proper kill techniques are used or equipment fails, a major kick or blowout could occur. Drilling into adjacent wells On offshore platforms or in any area where the surface locations of multiple wells are close together, there is a danger of drilling into adjacent wellbores. If the adjacent wellbore in penetrated and the well is on production, an uncontrolled blowout could easily occur. Texas A&M University 3-3 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 3 Causes of Kicks Drilling through gas sands at excessive rates Especially at shallow depths, drilling through gas sands at excessive rates can cause well control problems. The gas from the drilled cuttings can mix with the mud reducing hydro- static pressure by lowering the density of the mud, and resulting in loss of mud from the ‘wellbore through “belching” mud over the bell nipple. This can reduce bottom hole pres- sure enough to cause a kick. This is usually a problem at shallow depths where a slight reduction in bottom hole pressure can result in a large decrease in equivalent density. ‘Texas A&M University 3-4 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 4 Kick Warnings Contents Chapter 4.. Improper fill on trips MWD measurements. Pore pressure indicator ‘Texas A&M University Petroleum EngineeringChapter 4 Kick Warnings hapter 4 Kick Warnings Early detection of kicks is imperative for safe and efficient handling of the kick. Ifa kick is not detected early, and shut in properly, loss of control of the well (blowout) may occur. Here we will discuss the major warning signs that a well may be kicking, or that a kick may occur if steps are not taken to prevent it. Drilling rate change One of the earliest indicators that a kick may be taking place is a drilling break. A drilling break is defined as a sudden increase in penetration rate. Usually a drilling break denotes a change in lithology, such as drilling from a shale into a sand. Rock bits generally drill faster in sands. The formation change does not necessarily mean that the well is kicking, but we can often drill a shale underbalanced without an influx of formation fluid into the wellbore due to the low permeability of shales. A sand, however will have a high enough permeabil- ity to flow if the bottom hole pressure is less that the formation pressure. We can drill underbalanced in many shales without taking a kick, but as soon as we cut the top of a permeable sand the well will start to flow. A gradual increase in penetration rate while drilling a shale can indicate an increasing for- mation pressure. If this has been occurring, pay particular attention to any drilling break. Another phenomenon that has-been seen just before drilling out of a pressured shale into a sand is a slowing of the penetration rate in the last few feet of shale before cutting the top of the sand. ‘The shearing or scraping action of PDC bits is designed to maximize penetration rates while drilling long sections of shales. These same bits may even slow down when drilling a coarser grained formation such as a sand, therefore when using PDC bits with oil-based mud, look for reverse drilling breaks, or sudden decreases in penetration, to indicate a pos- sible kick. Increase in flow rate ‘When our pumps are running at a steady speed, a constant volume of fluid should be going into the hole with an equal and constant volume of fluid coming out. If our mud returns begin to increase without an increase in pump speed, it could be due to formation fluid displacing mud from the annulus as it flows from the formation into the wellbore. This increase in flow rate is another major indicator of a possible kick. Pit gain If we have an influx of formation fluid into the wellbore from a kicking formation, the ‘Texas A&M University 4-1 Petroleum EngineeringChapter 4 Kick Warnings influx will displace mud from the annulus into the surface pits, resulting in a pit gain. This pit gain is another kick indicator, and the increase in volume in our pits is assumed to be ‘equal to the volume of formation fluid that has entered the wellbore. Since a pit gain could indicate addition of water, barite, or some other material, or moving mud from one pit to another, the driller should be notified of any such operation that could result in an increase in pit volume. On the other hand, if there is an increase in pit volume, the driller should never assume that the increase is not from a kicking formation, Decrease in circulating pressure or Increase in pump speed Often when a kick is taken, a decrease in circulating pressure and/or an increase in pump speed can be noticed. Sometimes the driller can see this very soon after the kick is taken. As formation fluid enters the wellbore, the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus will be less- ened (assuming the density of the formation fluid is less than that of the mud). With this lower HSP in the annulus with respect to the drillpipe, the mud can start to U-tube out of the rillpipe, lessening the workload on the pumps. The decrease in pump pressure and increase in pump speed look very similar to a washout in the drillstring. If a change in pressure or pump speed is observed, do not assume itis a washout, check to see if any other kick indicators are present. Well flows with pumps off If any of the above kick indicators are noticed, the next thing to do is to pick up off bottom, until the kelly is above the rotary, shut the pumps off, and check for flow. If you continue to get returns over the bell nipple, itis likely to be due to the well flowing. Do not assume that the well is U-tubing due to unbalanced mud, or the formation is “giving mud back”. If the mud is U-tubing, or the well is giving mud back that was lost to the formation, the flow should decrease. If you are experiencing a kick, the flow will not slow down, it will either stay constant or increase. If this happens, assume it is a kick and shut the well in, Improper fill on trips ‘The only safe way to detect a kick while tripping out of the hole is to measure the volume of ‘mud it takes to fill the hole after the pipe is pulled. When removing the drillstring from the hole the fluid in the drillpipe and annulus should fall, and it should fall the proper distance. ‘The void in the wellbore left from the removal of the drillstring should be equal to the volume of pipe removed. In order to keep the bottom hole pressure from dropping below formation pressure, the hole must be filled back up with mud to regain the hydrostatic pressure lost by the drop in the level of the mud. If we pull three barrels of pipe out of the hole, it should take three barrels of mud to fill it back up, no more and no less. Ifit takes less than the displacement of the pipe pulled from the well, the well may very well be swabbing, and if action is not taken soon, the well will kick with the pipe off bottom or out of the hole. Texas A&M University 4-2 Petroleum Engineering