CHAPTER 1. FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS OBJECTIVE: | At the end of the unit, the students should be able to: ‘* apply the concepts of functions and limits to problems involving limits of polynomial and trigonometric functions and in indeterminate forms. LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the unit, the students should be able to: 1. define the following terms a. function and relation b. domain and range of a funtion . dependent and independent variables 4. limit of a function . continuous function 2. perform operations with functions. 3. evaluate the limits of polynomial and trigonometric functions. 4, apply the theorems on limits to evaluate different types of functions. 5. solve problems involving infinite limits. 6. determine the conditions to prove that a function is continuous. determine point/s of discontinuity,CHAPTER 1 FUNCTIONS AND LIMITS 1.1 Functions A relation is a set of ordered pairs (x, y) of real numbers. Any letter or symbol may be used to designate a relation. The set of values of x is called the domain whereas the set of values of y is called the range. For example, given flx) = ((-3,5), (2,3), (4,1) } the domain D = (-3, 2, 4} and the range R= (5, 3, 1}. AA function is a relation such that no two ordered pairs have the same first element. The above example is a function. The examples below are not. fox) =((3,1), (3,2), (1,3), (2,4) } yex-d Why? A variable y is said to be a function of another variable x if there is a given rule or device which associates with each value of x in its range a Corresponding value of y. the variable y whose value depends upon the chosen value of x, is called the dependent variable while x is called the independent variable. The rule or device may be a table or corresponding values (a table of logarithms), a graph, or an equation. If only one value of y corresponds to each value of x in the domain D, y is called a single — valued function of x; otherwise, it may be a double-valued, triple-valued, or multi-valued function of x. ‘The equation x7 — y = 5 with x as the independent variable, associates one value of y with each value of x. The function defined is y = x* — 5. The same equation, with y taken as the independent variable generally associates two values of x with each value of y., Thus, two functions of xare defined: x= /y¥5 and x= —J/Y+5. Also, yisasinglewalued function of x, while x is called multi-valued (more Precisely, double-valued)function of y. However, in calculus, one must think of a multi-valued function as consisting of several single-valued functions. ‘The functions of a single variable are represented by symbols such as f(x), G{r), (x); and so forth. The letter inside the parenthesis indicates the independent variable and the prefixed letter denotes a given “relationship”. The ‘symbol “f(x)" is read as “the function of x” or “f of x" but never “ftimes x". The value of f(x) when x = ais denoted by f(a). 1.1.1 Computation on Function ‘The value of f(x) is obtained by assigning a specific value for x. EXAMPLES 1. FG) = 4xt— 3x2 + 2x-2, find a. f(2) > b. F(2) Solution (2) = 4(2)* - 3(2)? + 22) - 2 = 54 '-3() +2@)-2 let f(x) =245 , find a (2a) b. Fi1/x) Solutions: = Pat ant 3 Fa) = Gayra” tata ~ F207) 1) teen _ ast & §Q)= aie ae Given h(x) = tan x, find a. (2), Solutions: _sin(x-8)sinscos™-cosssin™4 Wf@= find f(tan x) Te’ Solution: f(tanx) = Tetante = sinx(cosx — sinx) ‘A function that depends on two or more independent variables is represented symbolically n a similar manner. Thus, a function of two variables xand y is written as f(x,y) ands read “function of x andy”. The value of f(x, y) when x = aandy = bis denoted by (a,b) Examples: 1 Hf flab) = a? + b?, 1G)-O'+€ Given g(x) =o? +42, find g(x + y.x—y) 9464 _ 73 =i Solution: get y.x-y) = (ty)? + &-y)? x? + 2xy + y? + x? — 2xy + y? 2x? + 2y? = 28 +y') = 2iey) If f(x) = 3%, show that f(x — 2) + f(x +2) 2 +10) Solution: f= 2) + f(x +2) = 38-2 4 3842 23° (32 + 32) =3*( +9) = 2-1 For the function f(x) = tanx, show that fe+y)-f@) = 2 TtanxtanySolution f(x) = tanx f@+y) = tan(x+y) = eae) sinacory,coneiny FCA = Seny any ~ meee aes = ees thus: f+ y) - 1) = SE — tanx 1 tensttany-tone(t~tanziany) = tenseeny J inayyeedsaty aay tany(atan?y) Sierras = arate ~ Ttanatany 1.1.2. Operations with Functions Sum of two functions f(x) + g(x) = (F +g) x Difference of two functions : f(x) —g(x) =(f-g) x Product of two functions fox) © atx) =(f eg) x 1) Quotient of two functions; (5)x. except when e(x)=0 EXAMPLES: 1. Given f(x) = (x? + 1) and g(x) = 2x - 3, compute f(x) + g(x) Solution fx) + glx) = 2 +1) + (2-3) =22+ 24-2 2. Solve g(x) — h(x), given g(x) = (x? — y9) and h(x) = (x? + xy +?) Solution: 9() = RG) = (x3 — y9) — (x? + xy +?) (ey)? + xy + y2)—(? tay ty) = -y- + ay+ y?)3. If f(x) = (x+y), and g(x) = (x? ~ xy +y?) then f(z) + g(x) is Solution: fa) @=@ty)@ -xyty)= xO +y* Find £ given f(x) = x? — 4x and h(a) Solution: 1.1.3: Composite Functions Given two functions f and g, the composite function, denoted by fog isdefined by flg@)= (Fo g)x and the domain of fo gis the set of all numbers x in the domain of g suth that {2(x)is in the domain of f . Similarly U@N= Gof)x Using the two given functions f(x) =x? +1 and g(x) = 2x-3 fl g@Jor (fo g)x = (2x — 3)? +1 = 4x? — 12x +941 = 4x? — 12x + 10 al f(x)Jor (go x = 262 + 1) -3= 2x? 42-3 = 2x?-1 EXAMPLES: Given f(x) =i and g(x) = f(g)1.2 Limi Limit type concepts are frequently used in non-mathematical thinking and conversations. For example, the theoretical maximum production of a machine or of a factory is the limit or the ideal (or limiting) performance which can never be attained or practiced but which can be approached arbitrarily closed, This same idea applies to the performance of any mechanical or electronic device for which engineers can calculate as ideal (or limiting) performance. it applies also to higher profits under ideal conditions and operations, and lower limits of cost, waste, spoilage, and so forth. ‘The mathematical concept of a limit is fundamental in understanding differential calculus. Itis the idea of approaching a point or value arbitrarily closed but still never reaching it. 1.2.1 Limit of a Function Consider a spring that will break only if a weight of 5 kilos or more is attached. If the spring length approaches a value of L, then itis said that “the limit of spring length as weight approaches 5 is L”. A mathematical limit is like the limit of a spring. If f(x) becomes arbitrarily closed to a single number L as x approaches a from either side, the (x) Which is read as the “the limit f(x) as x approacheq a} L’. Find the limit lim (x +1) Form the table notice that as x gets closer and closer to 2, f(x) gets closer and closer to 7,x approaches 2 x approaches 2 —____«2oproaches2_, [x [as00 | 2880 [ise [2 [2008 [2360 | 2300 | foo [5.500 | 6.670 | 6997 | 7 | 7.150 | 7.480 | 7.900 — fix) approaches 7 f(x) approaches 7 Hence, lim(3x + 1) =7. 2. Find the limit: The table below reinforces that f(x) approaches 2 as x approaches 1 from either side, [x | 09 [ 089 [0999 [4 | 1001 [io] a1) (wy [49 [59 | a99 [> | 2001 | 201 | 24 It does not matter that f(x) is undefined when x=1. The limit depends only on values of f(x) near 1 not at 1. Many times the limit f(x) as x approaches a is simply f(a). Thus the limit can be evaluated by direct substitution as lim £(@) = f(a) ‘Thus, in Example 1, lim = (Gx +1) =324+1=6+1=7 In Example 2, Cir ry This implies that (x-1) is factor of both numerator and denominator because both are zero when x=1. This common factor needs to be cancelled. Thus, ete @-)@+D lim Pume@aijgusoncto10 The rational fraction —* and the polynomial function x+1 agree for all values of x other than x=1 as in the table so lim(1 +4) =141 The technique used to evaluate the limit in Example 2 is called cancellation technique. This is further demonstrated in the examples that follow. 3. Evaluate: By direct substitution (2)? +2(2) -8 3@)—6 By cancelling the common factor (+4) - 2) eB 3G-2) = lime) a 4, Evaluate the = EDGE are) C=O) Geeayeet2) _ x42 eE3) $= 9Giouim fof’ 1 wf hh1.2.2 Theorems on Limits The following theorems are useful in evaluating the limit of a function. Theorem 2. If lim f(x) = Aand lim g(x) = B, and C is constant, then The limit of a constant is equal to that constant. If cis constant, then for any number a. lim f(e) =e EXAMPLES: 1. tim 8=8 2. lim w= 1 3. lim a’ 4. lim Jay aa Theorem 2. The limit ofthe iderkify function. Since the function depends on x as x > @, x will approach a. tim x EXAMPLES: 1 Jim, a=12 2. lim, 2 3. lim, y= -2 4. lim y=3 iy Oras a Theorem 3. The limit of a constant multiplied by a function is equal to the constant times the limit of a function. Him c+ f(x) = lim f(x) = ca EXAMPLES © mete 71% x)=2(-2) 2. lim at=a lim t =5a em 83, lim, 4nz=4ne lim, z= 4n(—) =-8+(0)=0 4. lim ~8y = -8 lim a0 yao Theorem 4. The limit of the sum (or difference) of two functions is equal to the sum (or difference) of their limits. lim [f(x) + g(@)] = lim f(x) + img(x) = 4 +B EXAMPLES: L tae (4y+5)= ima: 4y salina, 5 =4lim y +5 =4@) +5= 17 Beier 0) ayes cela = -6n+(-4) = -60 lim(S.sind +20) =5 limsiné + tim20 ont at 2 oF =S()+a = Str ; a piggy aed gc) naps Oar Theorem 5. The limit of the product of two functions is equal to the product of their limits, Him [/(2) + g(2)] = lim f(x) lim g(x) = A+B EXAMPLES: 1. Jim, (e-6)(¢+7) = lim, (6) + Jim, (+7) = (-9)(4) = -36 2. lim, tan (1 + cos 6) a-OCD-F Theorem 6. The limit of the nth power of any fun nth power of the limit of the function, lim [f()]" EXAMPLES: _ S (a*S+(a° 2 3. lim, (sin 8 — cos6)? = ae (sin 8 — cos @) on n is equal to the Theorem 7. The limit of the nth root of a positive function is equal to the principal nth root of the limit of that function. Provided ‘Vf @ rea! number : 2 if - vl-OCD-F Theorem 6. The limit of the nth power of any fun nth power of the limit of the function, lim [f()]" EXAMPLES: _ S (a*S+(a° 2 3. lim, (sin 8 — cos6)? = ae (sin 8 — cos @) on n is equal to the Theorem 7. The limit of the nth root of a positive function is equal to the principal nth root of the limit of that function. Provided ‘Vf @ rea! number : 2 if - vlEXAMPLES: 1. lim V25—y? = flim (25 - y2) = V25—T6 fired _ fy, tneors (eet Jin SE = 5 Vi6— x? = flim V36— x? = V3 "6 es =e im Gao im sea ‘Theorem 8. The limit of the quotient of two functions is equal to the ‘quotient of their limits, provided the limit of the divisor isnot zero. + Provided B #0 ty 224 iy Ostet Os0-a getvaree — a, Gengarea) ~ EM, Gava) 7 “ee a= 1m Si Se bserve that the resulting answer is of the form 0/0, which is one of the indeterminate forms. But if x #1 both numerator and denominator can be divided by x1. If we do so, the given function becomes ¢ lim G@+x4+I=14+141=315 sus evn though undefined at, thas the tnt a8 5-3, Assumed thatx becomes closer to 3, but does not equal Theorem 9. where 0 is any radian measure. EXAMPLES. lim 308030) _ 4, lim sin20_ gy P50 cara es meet 2 ing Sdtand = Fa 9. (in = pen een BD ind ~ 6 4 Ym nae inocord ~ I 3c05%6 ~ Zcosay? i in BE singe = 2 1.2.3 One-Sided Limits In some instances a function may approach either of two different limits, depending on whether the variable approaches its limit through values larger than or smaller than the limit; in such a case, the limit is not defined (does not exist) 1 Right-Hand Limit The right-hand limit of a function is the value the function approaches when the variable approaches its limit through decreasing values (that is, from the right). This is indicated by the notation Jim, f(@) =1 where x a* means that each x involved is greater than “a”.1.2.3.2 Left-Hand Limit The left-hand limit of a function is the value the function approaches when the variable approaches its limit through the increasing values (that is, from the left). This is indicated by the notation jim f@) =M Where x > a~ means that each x involved is less than “a”, EXAMPLES: 1. a. jim vx =0 b. lim Vk does not exist since Vis undefined for x<0 From the above solutions they have two different “expected” or “predicted” values as x a* from the values of x greater than 0 and x-> 0 from the values of x less than 0. Hence, the two examples do not exist in the sense that f(x) does not tend to a single value as x 0. x 3. a.lim g(x) = [x] slim 92) = lip (9) b. Jim, g(x) = lim (x) = 0 Hence, lim g(x) exists since they have a single value of 0.17 1.2.4 Infinite Limits If f(x) is greater than an arbitrarily large positive number for all values of x that are sufficiently near a constant “a” and for which x=a, then f(x) is said to become positively infinite (that is, increases without limit) as x approaches a. This is indicated by the notation lim f@) = + If for any number N>O, there exists ae > 0 such that if 0< |x-al < oo then f(x) > N. Similarly, f(x) becomes negatively infinite (that is, decreases without limit) when it assumes numerically large negative values. This is indicated by the notation. lim £@) = If for any number N + 00 is most easily evaluated when possible, by xressing the function nterms of ands using the facts that # = 0, EXAMPLES: Evaluate the following: 2 diy SSeS lim ele = 2. tim Divide both the numerator and denominator by x (or Vx2) 3. lim 2136 a tim 2222243 4 en ‘The numerator approaches co and the denominator approaches 5. Thus lim 2222431.3 Continuity of a Function In the definition lim f(x) the value of f(x) forx=ais not specified, that is the limit depends only on the values of f(x) in the neighborhood of (that is, close to) x = a but not in the value of f(x) at X= a. Thus, we say that lim f(x) may or may not be equal to f(a). If ‘im f(&) exists and the value of f(a) exists and is equal to lim f(x), ‘then the function f (x) is continuous at x= 2. In general, a function f(x) is said to be continuous at x=a, if 1. ffa)is defined 2. lim f(xdexists 3. lim F@) = F@) Similarity, a function f(x) is continuous in (or on) an interval b 2 hence itis discontinuous at x= 2. =x+2 And lim 9(x) = lim(x +2) = 4 indefined e260) x2 Thus, ifby definition, g(2) + lim g(x), then g(x) is discontinuous at x = 2, e270 Note: Every polynomial is continuous at every real number. Any rational function is continuous if the denominator is nonzero, Plecewise-Defined Functions; Limits and Continuity in Calculus We may think of these as piecewise constant functions, function is given by: For example, the greatest integer (or floor). rete ts wtsx< 1, -1 Gye y= (at dx? +1)? da yl = 278 4427 +1) Et + 4x? +1) y! = 261 + 4x? + 1-2-2 + Bx) aaa 1 y=2[E+ at+a][- 5+ ex] : fs aces a yea Pee ee z ¥ 2(1+ 4x3 + x)(-1+ 8x9) —S 2 (32x® + 8x* + 4x3 —x-1) oe Vi+ vx y= [+ va 1 and rat ety gar yazh+ wey PEs x) rear Ge) 1 be [1+ AH 1 aalis ve With Quotient and Product Rule: eat y= (Ga tag (HE) @ ve Nae) ax lex +145 4 G3 = 1)8 [(2x3 + Gx) — (x? - 1)(6x?) Qe r+ (=a)? (648 + 202) — (6x5 ~ 622) Y= Gea [een i 4 (3 - 1)3 9x?) % Ge +i 6 hy) = OE (3y? +5)? (By? +5)(6y) 2y (By? +5) u= (4y-1)(y?+2)* » (4-1)? vy, = G7 +2)" v Gy—1?@) v= 407 +2)%Qy) ov 24y— 1)? vt = By(y? +2)? wv + vpuy 4y — 1)38y(y? +2)? + (y? +2)4[12(4y — 192] Gy - 120? + 2) [yay - 1) + 31? +2) (Gy ~ 1)?(Q)? + 2)3(By? — 2y + 3y? + 6) (Gy — 120? + 2)8(11y? 2y +6) vO) = ro) = 4 (ay745)* (4y-1)?(9742] Pewsiaaree) = 12y (ay-1)*(y242)*(3y?45) nO) = ser vroresirenior egy 2y+6)-3y (ty (9242) Alyy = 2@2=B#0242)" baat = tip ps META Sot 7842)" (aay* ~ ay3 + aay? or 430) RO)=2.5 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION ‘An explicit function is a function in which the dependent variable y is expressed solely in terms of the independent variable x, namely y = f(x); for example y= /4x*+4, Whereas an equivalent equation 2y - x*-8 = Ois said ly. In this case the derivative is determined by the process called implicit differentiation. This process consists of, differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x by using the rules of differentiation and then solving for dy/dx. Examples 1. Find Sif x3 + y? = 10 Solution a £@)+ 20% = ind 2 2. Find & Solution:50 From the given 4 3, Find 2 given x8 tay y Solution: 4 (sya 4 2 2. £65+ £6)- £09= Z@Y) sxt x24 y(i)-2y B= x23y?B + yn) Ay gy Bt _ y2gy2M = 5x4 ss xB—2yB— x2ay?B = —Set + Oxy (x —2y—3x2y?) = —Sxt + 2xy? — 4, Find dy/dx given x! + xy? —y* = 3x 42 Solution: e+ £e7y)- £09 =4G0+E@ 4xt + PQ) Z+ POX) — 4° S aay aay 2s eae ay _ ty -2s3 ‘2xty —4y>5. Find the derivative of x—y* = xy + 2y +x? +.2x? Solution: 1a ay? Bax + y(t) +22 + 3x? + ar 2 Beye oy 3x? 4x = Bay? 4x42) dy | yn axtaae ax > Gyhaaz Find 22 if x24 y2=7 a Solution: Get the first derivative £67)+ £07) + 2yZ=0 ay = “2x y mer ing Get the second derivative since x? + y’53 HIGHER ORDER DERIVATIVES If f isa differentiable function, then its derivative fis also a function, so f' may have a derivative of its own, denoted by (f")' =f”. This new notation f” is called the second derivative of f because itis the derivative of the derivative of f. Look at three different ways of writing the second derivative of a function. sr@)=y"= 2 Examples 1 Find the second derivative of the function f(x) Solution: By the Quotient Rule, 2orrt)~2e() _ Beraeee 2 ca oa GF £'@) Now differentiate f"(x) to get f'"(x) = C26 - 17) =4@-179 = & Note: Before computing the second derivative of a function, always try to simplify the first derivative as much as possible. Otherwise, the computation of the second derivative will be more tedious, Notation: If we differentiate the second derivative f""(x) of a function f(x) ‘one more time, we get the. third derivative f'”"(x). Differentiate again and we get the fourth derivative, which we write f“)(x) since prime notation F'""(2) begins to get difficult to read. In general, the derivative obtained from f(x) after n successive differentiations is called the nth derivative or the derivative of n and written f(x) or =54 2. Find the fourth derivative of the function y = Solution: y=(Qx-3) y! = 12x - 37) F y’ = -2(2x -3)? y" = 4(2x = 3-92) y" = 8(2x- 3)? yl = -24(2x — 3)-*(2) yl" = —48(2x - 3)* y@ = 192(2x —3)-5(2) yO = 384(2x - 35 3. Find the third derivative of f(x; Solution: fe) =405- f'@) = BaF + hx fr@) = — 4. Find the derivatives of all orders of the polynomial function fe) Solution x9 — dx + 2x9 — Sx? +13 f'(x) = Sx* — 16x3 + 6x? - 10x61 CHAPTER 3 ‘THE DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND INVERSE ‘TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS: ‘The functions in this chapter are not algebraic. Non-algebr functions such as trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions are called transcendental. The derivatives of the six trigonometric functions; namely; sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, csc x, will be discussed. Inverse trigonometric functions and their derivatives will be discussed later. It is strongly advised to review the fundamental facts and formulas of trigonometry before proceeding further. 3.1 The Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions ‘The derivatives of the six trigonometric functions can be obtained using the four-step rule. The Derivative of sin w yesinx Step 1 y+ Ay=sin (x + Ax) Step2 Ay=sin (x + Ax)-sinx using the trigonometric identity sin (A+B) = sin Acos B+ cos A Sin B Ay = sin x cos Ax + cos x sin Ax ~sinx Jin x + sinx cos Ax) + cos xin Ax sin x (1—cos Ax) + cos xsin Ax step 3 Step 462 du a Hence 4 (sinu) = cosu T Trigonometric functions of real numbers are the concern. Hence, radian measure instead of degrees is used to define the functions. ‘The Derivative of cos u Fory = cosx the four-step rule is omitted because i the first only it makes use of the trigonometric identity Cos (A +B) = cos A cos B~sin Asin B a imu at Hence 4 (cosu) = ~sinu 7 The derivative of tanu and cot u since tanu = 2%, then 4 @. (sinw franu= 7 (&) Using Quotient Formula cosu dsinny-ainu £(cosu) (eo = osu (cosu)sinu sin) 1 sins sectu 4 tu Hence # (tan) = sectudt ‘The derivative of cot u is obtained similarly 4 ‘se een Hence £(cotu) = —cse*u G