PRINCIPLES OF LAVA) Le Pretset mes oF tear Wee 00g A Programed Learning Course Metal Treating InstituteThis is a programed learning book. It contains information that is useful in your work, broken down into steps called frame: Each frame calls for a response from you. Before beginning, cover the response column at the right with a mask. Response columa After you have written your response, check it by sliding down the mask. A frame may ask you to complete a partly-formed idea. For example: In winter, antifreeze is added to the in a car's radiator. A frame may ask you to interpret a statement. For example: Alcohol lowers the freezing point of water. Alcohol added to water in the cooling system makes it likely to freeze in the winter. The frame may ask you to decide on the better of two choices and circle it. For example: Alcohol (can/cannot) be used in a car radiator as antifreeze. The frame may ask you to interpret a drawing. For example CLOSED OPEN THERMOSTAT THERMOSTAT Circulation of water through the car's radiator is controlled by a water, or coolant less thermostatc If your choice is identical with the one given, assume that you fully understand the point and go on to the next step. If your choice is different from the one given, but if you meant the same thing, still assume that you understand the point and go on to the next step. If your choice is different in meaning from the one given, assume that the point is not clear to you, and go back and recheck the item to make sure you see the idea it expresses. The program is written so that you can work through the ideas in it at your own speed. A program is not a test, although it may look like one. A test tries to find out what you have already learned. A program is designed to teach, not to test.STRUCTURE OF METALS 4 Exhibits 1 through 9 are placed in the center of the book so that they may be removed easily for reference. Please remove them now 30 that you will have them available when needed. 1, Structure is the way that something is arranged. The way that the parts of your body are arranged is the of your body. structure 2. Your body has (the same structure as/a different structure than) the body of a dog. a different structure than 3. The way that the parts of a bridge are arranged is the of the bridge. structure 4. A truss bridge has (the same structure as/a different structure than) a suspension bridge. a different structure than ( 3. To the eye, metals seem to be solid, unbroken, and smooth. GRAINS MAGNIFIED 100 TIMES When the metal is magnified, it is seen to be made up of closely packed units called : grains (1)rs Many of the characteristics of metals are deter- mined by the size and shape of the grains, The structure of the metal is the way the are arranged. grains The grains in metals A and B have (the same/ a different) arrangement, a different GRAINS MAGNIFIED 100 TIMES The characteristics of metals A and B are (the same /different). different . Metal B has a different from structure metal A. a This drawing shows a close-up of one metal grain. The grain is made of small particles called ; atoms The atoms form a (regular /irregular) arrange- regular ment within the grain. (2). Within each grain, . The pattern of atoms CENTER OF ATOM GRAIN BOUNDARY The arrangement of the atoms (regular /irregular). . The space between grains is called the grain . There are (one/two/three) grains shown in the drawing. gular pattern of the rupted). atoms is (continuo! in is a space lattice. A space lattice is an arrangement of (3) continuous atomsET Different metals have different space lattices. SIMPLE CUBIC SPACE LATTICE These atoms are arranged in a simple cubic ‘i space lattice There are other space lattices that are commonly found in metals. BODY.CENTERED CUBIC The body-centered cubic space lattice is different from the simple cubic lattice because it has an atom in the of the cube body. center (4)nT 18. Another common space lattice found in metals is the face -centered cubic. ~~ A NAY Ax! FACE-CENTERED CUBIC This space lattice has an atom in the center of each (face/body) of the cube. face 19. The atoms in metals are always moving. The atoms in a space lattice are always moving 20. The atoms vibrate around their positions in the space lattice. The space lattice shows (exactly/about) where the about 4 atoms are located. (5)a1. 22. 23. The atoms also may travel to other locations in the space lattice. An atom in a space lattice may occupy (only one position/different positions at different times). The speed at which atoms vibrate depends on the temperature, The higher the temperature, the (faster/slower) the atoms vibrate. The faster the atoms vibrate, the freer they are to change places and travel through the lattice. The higher the temperature, the (more free/ less free) the atoms are to travel. Review 24, 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. ‘The atoms of metals form small particles called The way that something is arranged is its (grain/ structure), ‘The arrangement of atoms in a pattern is called a space Different metals have (the same/different) space lattices. The atoms in a space lattice are always (still/ moving). ‘The higher the temperature, the (faster/slower) the atoms vibrate. (6) ET different positions at different times faster more free grains structure lattice different fasterSOLUTIONS ~ 30. BL. 32. 33. 34. INTRODUCTION If a small bit of sugar is put in a glass of water and stirred awhile, the sugar (settles to the bottom of the glass/dissolves in the water). The sugar is said to be in solution. In this case, it is a solution of sugar in WATER MOLECULE SUGAR MOLECULE This drawing shows molecules of water and molecules of in a solution. When the sugar dissolves in the water, the largest particle of sugar in the solution is a (molecule /grai: This is true of all solutions, The largest particle of the dissolved substance is an atom or When we have any substance so finely dispersed dissolves in the water water molecule molecule in another that the largest particle of the dispersed material is an atom or a molecule, we have a (7) solutionOR 35. Compare these characteristics of sugar and water alone with the characteristics of a solution of sugar in water, COMPARISON OF SUGAR, WATER, AND SATURATED SOLUTION OF SUGAR IN WATER Physical Melting Boiling Properties Point Point white 2, Sugar crystal 263°F ozone Bata (decomposes) colorless o 0, Water 21 ry 32°F 12°F jon Colorless °, 9, Solution Teta 30. 4°F 225.5°R A frozen saturated solution of sugar in water melts at a much lower temperature than sugar alone, and at a somewhat (higher/lower) lower temperature than water alone. 36. The table shows that the sugar-water solution is (the same as/different from) plain sugar and different from plain water. 37. Take a container of water and add a little sugar to it. The sugar in the water. dissolves 38. Continue to add sugar to the water until no more sugar will dissolve. The solution is now said to be saturated. If more sugar is added to the water, it (dissolves in the water/settles to the bottom of the container). settles to the bottom of the container 39. Now heat the solution of sugar in water. The extra sugar at the bottom of the container now in the water, dissolves 40. An increase in temperature the increases amount of material that can be dissolved in this x solution. (8)aL. 42. 43. 44, 45, 46. 49. 50. Now cool the solution to room temperature. The extra sugar that was dissolved now separates out of the solution. A decrease in temperature (increases /decreases) the amount of material that can be dissolved in this solution, When a substance separates out of a solution, it is said to precipitate. In this case, the sugar out of the solution. When a substance, such as water, has dispersed all of the dissolved material that it can hold, the solution is saturated. When the temperature of a saturated solution is lowered, some of the dissolved material out of the solution. ‘Take a solution of sugar and water. Now add a small bit of salt to it. The salt in the solution. ‘The solution now has both and in it. If we now add a small bit of baking soda to the solution, the baking soda also in the solution. A solution may contain (only one substance/ different substances). w ‘The largest particle of a dissolved substance in a solution is a molecule or an When a substance separates out of solution, it is said to ‘An increase in temperature causes the solubility of a solution to (increase /decrease). (9) decreases precipitates precipitates dissolves sugar salt dissolves different substances atom precipitateC 51. 52. 53, A solution that can dissolve no more material is said to be (saturated/soluble). If a saturated solution is cooled, some of the dissolved material from the solution. A solution can contain (only one kind/different kinds) of dissolved material. TEMPERATURE AND SOLUBILITY 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. ‘The dissolved material in a solution is called the solute. In a solution of sugar and water, (sugar/water) is the solute. ‘The material that dissolves the solute is called the solvent. In a salt and water solution, is the solvent. In a solution, the hotter the solvent, the (more/ less) solute can be dissolved. Higher temperatures make a solute (more/less) soluble in a solvent, The relationship of temperature to solubility can be represented by a graph. Exhibit 1 is a sample graph of the solubility of one substance in another. Any point on the solid line represents a solution. The area above the line represents an unsaturated The area below the line represents a mixture of solution and (10) Cs saturated precipitates different kinds sugar water saturated solution precipitate, or soluteo1. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. ‘The line on the bottom of the graph indicates the composition of the mixture. ‘The farther to the right on the line, the more is in the mixture. The vertical line on the left of the graph tells the temperature. ‘The higher you go on the temperature line, the (higher /lower) the temperature is. The graph represents a system of compositions made up of varying amounts of the solvent and the The composition may be a mixture of pure solute and solution, or it may be entirely a Whether it is a solution or a mixture depends on the The graph shows that a solution with a composition of 15% solute is saturated at 105°. ‘A solution with a composition of 5% solute at 90° (is/is not) above the saturated solution line. This solution (is/is not) saturated. A solution that is saturated at 90° has a composi- tion of % solute. A 15% solution at 105° is cooled to 90°, Some of the solute from the solution. ‘The composition of the remaining solution at 90° is (5%/10%/15%) solute. Every solution of one material in another has a separate solubility curve. The solubility curves for sugar in water and salt in water are (the same/different). (1) solute higher solute, or precipitate solution temperature 10 precipitates 10% different71. Consider these solubility curves hou SOLUTION | ] \ 1 i 1 SOLUTION ee 100°| PURE SOLVENT + PRECIPITATE TEMPERATURE °F TEMPERATURE °F 0% 5% 10% 15% 0% 5% 10% 15% COMPOSITION —— COMPOSITION SYSTEM A SYSTEM 8 tet sotution it ' 11 A an 100" Tt PURE SOLVENT; + PRECIPITATE! TEMPERATURE °F 0% 5% 10% 15% COMPOSITION SYSTEM C All these curves are (the same /different). 72. Look at system A. SOLUTION | ae 100°] TEMPERATURE °F PURE SOLVENT + PRECIPITATE 0% 5% 10% 15% COMPOSITION: SYSTEM A As temperature increases, the solubility (iz) different23. 4. 5. 76. 1. 78. The solvent will not dissolve any of the solute below a temperature of . At 100°, the solubility of this system drops to In system B solubility decreases with cooling, but never falls below %. TEMPERATURE *F 0% 5% 10% 15% COMPOSITION: SYSTEM B As cooling of any mixture in system B above 10% solute proceeds to 0°, the solute precipitates until the remaining solution contains % solute. — Below 100°, no matter how much the solution is cooled, it can always dissolve ‘he solute. Any mixture below 10% solute (will/will not) precipitate on cooling. At 300°, the most solute that can be dissolved is % solute. (13) 100 10 10 10 will not 15,79. : 80. aL. 82. 33. \ Consider system C. eel SOLUTION I ' ‘SOLUTION | AND PRECIPITATE Tt PURE SOLVENT; + PRECIPITATE! eet i 0% 5% 10% 15% COMPOSITION io tot 100" ‘i TEMPERATURE °F SYSTEM C At a little over 100°, % solute can be 10 dissolved. : Below 100°, % solute can be dissolved. ° When any mixture of system C is cooled, as the temperature reaches 100°, the solubility immediately drops to zero A 10% solution of system C is cooled from 105° to 90°, At 90° (some of the solute/all of the solute) all of the solute has precipitated from the solution In this diagram, for any composition below the line AB, % of the solute is in solution. ° c SOLUTION SOLUTION AND PRECIPITATE 8 PURE SOLVENT AND PRECIPITATE TEMPERATURE o% ‘COMPOSITION Below 100°, for any composition, there (is/is not) a solution. is not (as)PRECIPITATION IN METAL SOLUTIONS 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. Solutions are formed in liquids, gases, and solids. Most metals at room temperature are (solids/ Liquids /gases). solids It is possible to have a solution of one in another, metal In the case of a metal solution, one metal acts as a solvent and the other metal acts as a solute For a solution to exist, the metal that is the solute must be so finely dispersed through the solvent that the largest particle is an : atom Metal solutions act like other solutions. A metal solution may contain (only one/more than one) solute. more than one ‘The solubility of one metal in another can be represented by a curve. solubility Exhibit 2 is a curve for metal ¥ solubility in metal XS Let's take a piece of an alloy of 5% metal ¥ and 95% metal X and see what happens when it cools from 400° to room temperature (70°). As shown in Exhibit 2, at 400°F, the structure is a solid (solution/mixture) of metal ¥ in solution metal X. (16)99. Here is a space lattice for the X-¥ alloy at 400°, Individual atoms of metal Y are randomly dis- tributed throughout the space lattice of metal (x/¥). x |. If the alloy is cooled a few degrees below 400°, some of the atoms of (metal X/metal Y) pre- metal ¥ cipitate out of the solution. The metal Y atoms, which are precipitating, are attracted to each other and move, or travel close together. [=== Ba 29860 ei FO: PRECIPITATION 300° F Before the Y atoms can precipitate out of the X lattice they must to common move, or travel locations. TT (27)EXHIBIT 1 SATURATED SOLUTION SOLUTION 904 SOLUTION ! 7 PRECIPITATE 704 , TEMPERATURE °F 3% 10% 7 COMPOSITION —% SOLUTE EXHIBIT 2 soLID SOLUTION 7 SOLID le SOLUTION AND METAL Y TEMPERATURE °F 8 & 100% 5% METAL x METAL Yasuvoo wniaan ania BONVHD ON aunivaadwas woo 1009 NOXS AaaA 1009 ors 1009 1sva aaHoNand 1 4.00% y LgINXa.°F TEMPERATURE EXHIBIT 6 COARSE PEARLITE FINE SUILOWER BAINITE MARTENSITE + AUSTENITE i MARTENSITE 1 = 6 7 30 $ H Rene 62 8/2 win WouRS av win in TIME ‘ TIME-TEMPERATURE-TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAM HARDNESS, ROCKWELL C‘Vaals NI NOguYD LNZDUad oro oro 0s"0 090 oxo 080 06'0 00" out oz DEW POINT TEMPERATURE IN FURNACE °F oz 7 oy 8 LIGIHXa.As temperature decreases between 300° and 100°, more and more of the Y atoms precipitate out of the solution. HH ry METAL Y" 5s ELY/ i werat x it tis a it 100" F At 100°, (all/some/none) of the ¥ atoms are Left in solution. . According to the solubility curve in Exhibit 2, when the alloy is cooled from 100° to room temperature, (more Y atoms precipitate/X atoms start to precipitate /nothing happens). |. When we heat this alloy from room temperature to 400°, all of the changes take place in the (same/reverse) order. (18) none nothing happens105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110, uy aeaee 113. 114. If we heat the alloy from room temperature to just above 100°, some of the atoms go into solution. 2 When the alloy reaches 400°, (all/nalf/none) of, the ¥ atoms are in solution. On cooling between 300° and 100°, ¥ atoms travel to common locations for precipitation. Time is required for the atoms to travel. The longer the alloy is held in the temperature range of 300° to 100°, the (more/less) time the Y atoms have to get together If the alloy is cooled very rapidly from 400° to room temperature, the Y atoms have (a lot of / little) time to get together. Look at Exhibit 3. Larger particles of metal ¥ are formed with (short precipitation time/long precipitation time). In Exhibit 3, the particles of metal ¥ that have a smaller number of atoms are formed with (short precipitation time/long precipitation time). Slow cooling rates produce particles of precipi- tates that are (large/small) in size. Fast cooling rates produce particles of precipi- Yates that are in size. By controlling the cooling rate during precipitation, we can control the (size/shape) of the particles that are formed. Exhibit 4 shows the particle sizes resulting from different cooling rates during precipitation. ‘The faster the cooling rate, the the particle size. (19) all little long precipitation time short precipitation time large small smaller, or finerus 116 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. If the solution is cooled almost instantaneously (quenched) from 400%, the atoms of metal ¥ (move great distances/move small distances / cannot move at all and remain in solution). ‘The characteristics of a solution-type alloy can be controlled by controlling the rate A piece of alloy that does not have the desired characteristics can be until it is a solution again and Cooled at another rate. The time that is allowed for precipitation to occur in an alloy determines the particle (size /shape). The faster a piece of alloy is cooled, the (larger/ smaller) the particles that are formed. ‘The characteristics of solution-type alloys can be controlled by controlling the rate. Some unwanted characteristics in an alloy can be changed by the alloy and then controlling ifs—~——_—soaate. SOLUTION TREATMENT 122. 123. Let's look closer at the piece of 5% composition alloy that was quenched from 400° to room temperature. The solubility curve in Exhibit 2 shows that the solution normally (exists /does not exist) at room temperature. ‘The ¥ atoms are trapped in the X lattice because they do not have enough to come out of solution during cooling. (20) cannot move at all and remain in solution cooling reheated smaller cooling reheating cooling does not exist time124, 125, 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. Any solution that exists below the saturation temperature is called a supersaturated solution, and is unstable. If this unstable solution is heated slightly, the atoms of metal ¥ vibrate (faster/slower). This leaves the Y atoms (freer/less free) to travel through the X lattice. When Y atoms travel through the X lattice, they out of the supersaturated Folution. The higher the temperature, the ({reer/less free) the ¥ atoms are to travel. ‘The higher the temperature, the greater the distance the Y atoms can travel to precipitate. The hotter the supersaturated solution, the (larger/smaller) the particles of metal Y that precipitate. If we heat the supersaturated solution very slightly, very (large/small) particles of metal Y are formed. If we heat a solution in the system shown in Exhibit 2 to just under 100°, very (large/small) particles of metal Y are formed. Treating an alloy by heating it until it is a solution and then quenching it to keep it a solution ‘BE room temperature is called a(solution/ temperature) treatment. The process of reheating a supersaturated solution to cause controlled precipitation is called aging. Some alloys age at room temperature, Such alloys are self- . Alloys that must be heated above room temperature to cause precipitation are called artificial- alloys. (21) faster freer precipitate freer larger small large solution aging aging134. 135. 136. 137. 138, 139. 140. 141. BY Aging an alloy at too high a temperature or for too long a time (produces /does not produce) the desired does not produce physical properties. Aging that is carried on at too high a temperature is called over-aging. An alloy that has been aged at too high a tempera- ture or for too long a time is said to be over -aged This piece of alloy containing 95% metal X and 5% metal ¥ has been heated to the point where it is a solution. END A END 8 When it is cooled, end (A/B) cools faster. B ‘The particles that are formed in each end are (the same size/different sizes). different sizes The characteristics of this piece of metal are (the same in both ends /different in each end). different in each end This piece of metal has (uniform/nonuniform) nonuniform characteristics. If this piece of metal is quenched to retain a solution and then reheated to precipitate the solute, the particles formed are uniform, or the same in size. The characteristics of the reheated metal are (uniform /nonuniform). uniform (22)re 142, To obtain uniform characteristics in a piece of metal, it is easier to (control the cooling rate/ quench and reheat it) quench and reheat it 143, Sometimes, it is desirable to keep a self-aging alloy from aging. Rivets, for example, are softer and more malleable (before/after) aging. before 144. A self-aging alloy can be kept malleable until shortly before it is to be used by storing it (at high temperatures /under refrigeration). under refrigeration 145. After storage, the rivet can be formed, and the alloy will then begin to age and (harden/soften). harden 146. Uniform characteristics in a solution-type alloy are most easily obtained by (controlling the cooling rate/solution-treating and aging). solution-treating and aging 147. Solution-treated alloys that must be heated to cause precipitation are called e artificial aging alloys. TT 148. An over-aged alloy exhibits (coarser /finer) coarser particles than desired. 149. The process of heating an alloy to the point where it is a solution and then quenching it to retain the solution at room temperature is called a solution treatment 150. Self-aging alloys can be prevented from aging by : refrigeration IRON-CARBON SOLUTIONS 151, Steel is essentially an alloy of carbon and (iron/copper). iron 152. Steels are made up of (only iron and carbon/iron, carbon, and other elements). iron, carbon, and other elements (23)154, 155. 156. 157. 158, 159. 160. 161. The word steel stands for (only one alloy/many alleys) rene All steels, though they have other elements in them, contain iron and At certain temperatures, iron-carbon solutions are formed. In an iron-carbon solution, iron is the solvent and carbon is the At room temperature, the structure of iron is body-centered cubic. The body-centered cubic space lattice acts as the (solvent/solute). Any solution in which body-centered cubic iron is the solvent is called ferrite. Ferrite is a name given to (only one solution/ many different solutions) of iron and other elements. Ferrite cannot dissolve very much carbon, but is a good solvent for elements such as manganese and nickel. Ferrite is a (good/poor) solvent for carbon. Even at higher temperatures, ferrite is a very poor solvent of carbon. At higher temperatures, the amount of carbon that ferrite can dissolve is (great/small). The greatest amount of carbon that ferrite can dissolve is 0.03%. A piece of steel at room temperature with a carbon content of 0. 6% has (most of the carbon/ very little of the carbon) dissolved in the ferrite. Almost all of the carbon is (dissolved in the izon/ in the form of a precipitate). (24) many alloys carbon solute solvent many different solutions poor small very little of the carbon in the form of a precipitate162. 163, 164. 165. 166. 167. 168. 169. Ferrite is a (good/poor) soivent for cements such as manganese and nickel. At 1670°F, iron changes to a face-centered cubic structure called austenite. The austenite structure is (the same as/different from) ferrite. Austenite can dissolve more than 60 times as much carbon as ferrite. Compared to ferrite, austenite is a (good/poor) solvent for carbon. The greatest amount of carbon that austenite can dissolve is about 2.0%. A piece of 0.6% carbon steel in the form of austenite has (all of the carbon/little of the carbon) dissolved. Controlling the precipitation of carbon from austenite is an important part of many heat- treating processes. In order for carbon to precipitate from austenite, it must first be in in the austenite. TT (Perrite/Austenite) is a good solvent for carbon, In cooling, the temperature at which austenite begins to change to ferrite depends on the amount of carbon in the steel. ‘A 0.4% carbon steel begins to transform at (the same temperature as/a different temperature than) a 0. 8% carbon steel. Look at Exhibit 5. A 0. 4% carbon steel begins to transform at a (higher /lower) temperature than a 0. 85% carbon steel. (25) good different from good all of the carbon solution Austenite a different temperature than higher170. For iron with no carbon in it, the temperature at which transformation occurs is 171, A 0.4% carbon steel begins to transform at 172, A 0. 85% carbon steel begins to transform at Review 173. Iron in the body-centered cubic form is called 174, Face-centered cubic iron is called 175. Ferrite and austenite are composed (only of iron and carbon/of iron, carbon, and other elements). 176. A piece of iron with no carbon in it is heated to 2000°F. ‘The iron is in the form of (austenite /ferrite), 177. The iron is cooled. When the temperature reaches 1670°, the austenite transforms to 178, Ferrite is a (good/poor) solvent for carbon. THE PRECIPITATION OF CARBON 179. When carbon precipitates from austenite, it does not form particles of carbon in the iron. The carbon atoms combine with iron atoms to form a compound called cementite. Slow-cooled steel at room temperature is com- posed of ferrite and (austenite/cementite/carbon). (26) 1670° 1500° 1330° ferrite austenite of iron, carbon, and other elements austenite ferrite poor cementite130. isi. 182. 183. 184. 185, 186. BT The way in which the cementite and ferrite are arranged determines the characteristics of the steel Two pieces of steel have the same amount of carbon in them, but their structures are different Their characteristics are (the same/different). different In order for cementite to precipitate, the atoms must (travel/remain stationary). travel Since the atoms must travel, the precipitation (occurs instantly /takes time to occur). takes time to occur Here is one arrangement of ferrite and cementite The ferrite and cementite are arranged in (circles /squares layers). layers This structure is called pearlite. Pearlite is made up of ferrite and . cementite Pearlite is only formed when enough is allowed for precipitation. time On cooling, when the separation of ferrite from austenite is complete, the austenite that remains transforms into (ferrite/pearlite). pearlite (27)137. The amount of pearlite formed depends on how much carbon is in the steel. - 0.4% CARBON PEARLITE Which steel has more pearlite? (0. 4%/0. 85%) 0. 35% 188, The steel with more carbon has formed (more/ less) pearlite. more 189. The more carbon present in a steel, the (more/ less) pearlite formed. more (28)190. 194 192. 193. 194. 195. The 0, 35% carbon steel is all pearlite Plain carbon steels above 0, 35% carbon (can/ cannot) be more than all pearlite In a 0. 85% carbon steel, the amount of cementite that is formed on slow cooling is just enough to form a 100% pearlite structure. A steel with less than 0, 85% carbon forms (more/less) pearlite than a 0. 35% carbon steel. This is the structure of a slow-cooled steel with more than 0, 85% carbon. It is made up of pearlite and (ferrite cementite). The carbon in this steel forms more cementite than a 100% pearlite structure can have The more carbon in steel, the more (cementite/ ferrite) is formed. The excess cementite in a slow-cooled steel with more than 0. 85% carbon is deposited in a network pattern around the This network pattern was formed on (slow/fast) cooling. (29) CEMENTITE PEARLITE cannot less cementite cementite pearlite slowrs 196. The network pattern of cementite in slow-cooled steels with more than 0, 85% carbon makes the steel very brittle and is undesirable. The slow cooling of high carbon steel is (desirable /andesirable). undesirable Review 197. Carbon precipitates from austenite in the form of a compound called (ferrite /cementite). cementite 198. If enough time is allowed for precipitation, cementite and ferrite form a mixture called pearlite 199. Pearlite forms only when enough time is allowed for precipitation to occurs 200. The more carbon in a steel, the (more/less) more cementite is formed. 201. Steels of less than 0. 85% carbon on slow cooling form a mixture of pearlite and (cementite/ ferrite). ferrite 202. Steels of more than 0. 85% carbon on slow cooling form a mixture of pearlite and (ferrite /cementite). cementite 203. A network pattern of cementite and pearlite is formed on (slow/fast) cooling of high carbon slow steels and is (desirable /undesirable). undesirable THE IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM 204. Look at Exhibit 5 again. Exhibit § is a solubility curve for iron and car- bon, unmixed with other elements. The addition of other elements results in modified solubility It shows that above 1670° the structure of any iron-carbon alloy is 100% (austenite /ferrite). austenite 205. Below 1330° there (is/is not) a solution of carbon is not in austenite. (30)207. 208. 210. au. zu. 213. 214. 215. 216. ount of carbon in the steel determines the at which the changes take place. A.0. 35% carbon steel that is heated to above 1330° is all (austenite /pearlite). When the steel is slowly cooled, the austenite transforms to pearlite at G A slow-cooled 0. 85% carbon steel transforms into 100% pearlite, Pearlite in a pure iron-carbon alloy has the com- position of % carbon. A.0. 4% carbon steel is heated to above 1500°. The steel is all When the steel is cooled, begins to separate from the austenite at 1500°, Between 1500° and 1330°, continues to separate from the austen When the temperature reaches 1330°, the remain- ing austenite has 0. 85% carbon in When the steel is cooled further, the remaining austenite transforms into pearlite. The 0.4% carbon steel when fully cooled has a structure made up of pearlite and A 1. 2% carbon steel is heated to above 1635°. The structure is all (austenite/ferrite). According to the diagram, at 1635 cementite) begins to precipitate. » (ferrite/ Cementite continues to precipitate out of the aus- tenite until the temperature reaches (31) remperature austenite 1330 austenite ferrite ferrite ferrite austenite cementite 1330217, When the temperature reaches 1330°, the re- maining austenite has 0. 35% carbon in it, When the steel is cooled further, the remaining austenite transforms into (pearlite /ferrite). 218. Any point on the iron-carbon diagram at which a change starts or ends is a critical point. A.0.4% carbon steel has (one /two/three) critical point(s). 219. The upper critical point of a 0.4% carbon steel is 180°, The lower critical point of a 0. 4% carbon steel is 220. The temperature range between two critical points on the diagram is the critical range. The critical range of the us 4% carbon steel is between 1330° and 221. A.0. 85% carbon steel has (one /two/three) critical point(s). 222. The critical point of a 0. 85% carbon steel is 223. A 0, 85% carbon steel (has/does not have) a critical range. Review 224, The iron-carbon diagram is a diagram. 225. A slow-cooled steel with 0. 85% carbon transforms into all (ferrite /pearlite/cementite) 226, A slow-cooled steel with less than 0, 85% carbon transforms into pearlite and (ferrite/cementite). (32) pearlite two 1330 1500 1330 does not have solubility pearlite ferriteSs 227, A stow-caoled steel with more than 0.55% carbon anstorms into pearlite and (lerrite/ceme ite). cementite 223, A point on the iron-carbon diagram at which a change takes place is a point, critical 229. Between two critical points is the critical range LIMITATIONS OF THE IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM 230. The iron-carbon diagram shows only those trans- formations that take place when the atoms are free to travel. The atoms can travel only when they have enough at temperature, time 231. The transformations at temperature shown on the diagram can only take place at (slow/fast) slow cooling rates, 232. If a piece of 0, 85% carbon steel is quenched from 1450° to room temperature, the iron-carbon diagram (shows/does not show) what transforma- does not show tion takes place. 233. For faster cooling rates, the atoms have (more time/less time) for precipitation. less time 234. The formation of pearlite takes time. There is not enough time for pearlite to form if the rate is too fast. cooling 235, If the cooling rate is too fast, pearlite (forms/ does not form). does not form 236. A piece of 0. 85% carbon steel is rapidly cooled from 1450°, The cooling rate is too fast to allow the formation of pearlite. ‘The austenite structure transforms to a different product at a (higher /lower) temperature. lower (33)-~ 233. 239. 240. 241. 242. 243. 244. 245, The product that is formed from casidly covie austenite depends on the temper wre at which the transformation takes place If austenite transforms at 100°, the product is (the same as/different from) the product formed if austenite transforms at 1330° The iron-carbon diagram (shows /does not show) what products are formed from rapidly cooled austenite. All steels are composed of (only carbon and iron/ carbon, iron, and other elements). The other elements in steels affect the transformations. The iron-carbon diagram (shows /does not show) how other elements affect transformations. The diagram shows the transformations for (all steels/only plain carbon steels). Austenite tends to be uniform in composition Any steel that is not uniform can be made uniform by heating the steel until it is all In order for austenite to become uniform, the dissolved atoms must travel through the structure. ‘The movement of the dissolved atoms to form a uniform structure takes The iron-carbon diagram (shows /does not show) how much time is necessary to form a uniform structure. The structure particle size has an effect on the time needed to dissolve cementite in austenite. Coarse particles dissolve slower than fine particles. ‘The time at temperature required to produce a complete solution of austenite (can/cannot) be determined from the diagram. (34) different from does not show carbon, iron, and other elements does not show only plain carbon steels austenite time does not show cannot*. When austenite is first formed, it has fine grains. A steel that has coarse grains can be refined by heating it to the lowest temperature at which the structure is all austenite 247. Austenite grains tend to become larger. The higher the temperature of the austenite, the Taster the grains tend to grow. The longer austenite is held at temperature, the (larger/smaller) the grains may get. larger 248. The terms "fine grain steel" and "coarse grain steel” refer to the size of the austenite grains before cooling starts. Small austenite grains result in a (fine/coarse) fine grain steel. 249. Austenite grain size affects the transformation products that are formed on cooling. The iron-carbon diagram (shows/does not show) does not show how grain size affects the transformation products. 250, Any structure that is formed on cooling can be erased by heating the steel to the point where it is all austenite Review 251. The transformation products shown in the iron- carbon diagram are formed only at slow rates. cooling 252. The diagram does not show how much is necessary for transformations. time 253. ‘The diagram is true (for all steels /only for plain carbon steel). only for plain carbon steel 254, Steels can be made unifort in composition by heating them to the temperature at which,they are all : austenite (35)In order to become uniiorm, austenite requires at temperature time 256. Any structure formed from the cooling of austenite can be erased by heating the steel to the point where it is all austenite TIME-TEMPERATURE-TRANSFORMATION DIAGRAMS TRANSFORMATION BELOW 1330° 257. The iron-carbon diagram does not take into con- sideration the needed for time transformation. 258, Exhibit 6 is a Time-Temperature-Transformation diagram for 0°85% carbon steel, which is the simplest TTT diagram for any steel. The TTT diagram (shows /does not show) the shows time required for transformation. 259. When a piece of steel is fast-cooled, the trans- formations shown in the iron-carbon diagram do not occur. The changes which do occur take place (above/ below) 1330°. below 260. TTT diagrams show what changes take place in steel when the transformation takes place below 1330 261. To form the transformation products shown on the TTT diagram, the structure of the steel at the start of cooling must be (all/part) austenite. aul 262. This diagram applies only to the cooling of (austenite /ferrite). austenite 263. The TTT diagram shows what happens only in the (heating/cooling) of steel. cooling (36)264. 265. 266. 267. 268. 269 270, am, 272. 273. The TTT diagrams for different steels are different from one another. A.0.2% carbon steel has a TTT diagram that is (the same as/different from) a 0. 35% carbon steel There are two S-shaped curves on the TTT diagram in Exhibit 6. The left curve indicates the time at which a transformation (starts /ends). ‘The right S curve indicates the time the trans- formation Take a piece of 0.35% carbon steel and heat it to 14009, If it is held at 1400° long enough, the structure becomes 100% Now instantly reduce the temperature to 1200° and hold it there. After 3 seconds, a begins to take place. — — After 3 seconds at 1200°, the austenite begins to change to The transformation to pearlite is finished after seconds at 1200°, When the transformation to pearlite is finished, all of the carbon in the steel has precipitated in ‘the form of cementite. After transformation is complete, (all/part/none) of the carbon is left in solution. Waen all of the carbon has precipitated in the form of cementite, further cooling produces (more changes/no more changes). Pearlite is formed whenever transformation occurs between 1330° and oF. (37) different from starts ends austenite change, or transformation pearlite 25 no more changes 1000275. 276. 277. 278. 279. 280. 2a1. 282. 233. 234. 235. Pearlite tha: is formed near 13309 is having thick or irregular layers and a aardness value of about Rockwell C (the Rockwell number, the harder the metal). Pearlite formed near 1000° is (coarse/fine) having (thick/thin) regular layers. Fine pearlite has a hardness value of about Rockwell C : Another piece of this same steel is heated to 1400° until it is all austenite. It is then instantly cooled to 800° and held there. ‘A transformation begins to occur after seconds. At 800° the transformation is finished after about seconds. ‘The structure that is formed at this temperature is harder than pearlite and is called Bainite is formed whenever transformation occurs between 1000° and on Bainite formed near 1000° resembles pearlite and is called bainite Upper bainite has a hardness value of about Bainite formed near 400° resembles the structure formed below 400°, martensite. The bainite that resembles martensite is called bainite. Lower bainite has a hardness value of about Consider a piece of this steel that is cooled instantly from 1400° to room temperature. From 1400° to 400° the austenite (begins to change /remains unchanged) (3s) fine thin, 40 60 bainite 400 upper 42 lower unchanged236 287. 288. 239. 290. 291. 292. 293. At 400°, this TTT diagram shows a line labeled the start line (Ms) ‘At this temperature, a starts to take place. ‘At 400°, the austenite begins to change to (pearlite martensite). Martensite, unlike pearlite and bainite, is a solution, ‘The change to martensite is not dependent on time, but progresses with drop in As the temperature decreases, more and more austenite changes to The martensite finish (Mf) line indicates the temperature at Which the transformation to martensite is complete. For this steel, the martensite finish temperature is about a For some steels, the martensite finish line is below room temperature. The austenite left in such a steel at room tempera- ture (retained austenite) can be transformed into martensite by cooling the steel (above /below) room temperature Martensite is much harder than retained austenite. Cooling such a steel below room temperature (increases /decreases/makes no difference in) the hardness of the steel. For steels with retained austenite, the hardness can be increased as much as 4 to 8 points Rock- well C by cooling to sub-zero temperatures ‘The hardness of steel can be increased by cooling below room temperature only when the trans- formation to martensite is (complete /incomplete) at room temperature. (39) | martensite change, or transformation martensite temperature martensite 70 below incomplete296 When a piece of steel is air-cooled or furnace- cooled, the cooling curve looks like (A/B). This drawing shows the cooling rate for a furnace -cool. COOLING RATE BAINITE AUSTENITE Ms AUSTENITE AND MARTENSITE} ME TEMPERATURE °F MARTENSITE TiWE ———- ‘At this cooling rate, the structure formed on cooling is 100% (40) pearlite297 298. 299. 300. 301. 302. Here is a faster cooling cate COOLING RATE BAINITE AUSTENITE Me. ‘AUSTENITE AND MARTENSITE S| Me MARTENSITE TEMPERATURE °F TIME ———~ At this rate, the structure becomes (100% pearlite/ 100% bainite/a mixed structure). a mixed structure In the austenite region of the TTT diagram, the carbon atoms move to common locations for as cementite. precipitation As the transformation begins (above 1000°F), the carbon is ready to precipitate in the form of pearlite and cannot precipitate in the form of bainite. When the temperature of the steel gets below the point at which pearlite can form, transformation (continues/stops). stops Since bainite cannot form as the temperature drops through the bainite range, the untransformed austenite (changes to bainite/remains unchanged). remains unchanged No changes take place until the temperature reaches the Ms point where the remaining aus- tenite begins to change to : martensite ‘The structure of a steel cooled at this rate is a mixed structure of pearlite and martensite (4)503. The mixed peal desiradle ensite structure is not It can be erased by heating the steel to the point where it is L00% and cooling it austenite in a different fashion, 304. A piece of steel is cooled at the following rate. CRITICAL COOLING RATE 7 PEARLITE 3 T BAINITE AUSTENITE TEMPERATURE °F AUSTENITE AND MARTENSITE Ine MARTENSITE TIME ——> Ithas a structure that is 100% (pearlite/ martensite). martensite 305. The cooling rate shown on the curve is the cooling rate. critical 306. The critical cooling rate of any steel is the slowest rate at which a 100% martensite structure can be formed. 307. According to the hardness scale on the right of the TTT diagram in Exhibit 6, (pearlite/bainite/ martensite) is the hardest structure obtainable by martensite quenching. 308. Any cooling rate slower than the critical cooling rate produces a structure that is a mixture of martensite and o pearlite 309. The slowest cooling rate that produces a 100% martensite structure is called the critical cooling rate. (42)Review 310. The letters TTT stand for : » and 311. The TTT diagram applies only to the process of (heating /cooling). 312, The diagram assumes that a piece of steel is 100% before it is cooled. 313. To form 100% martensite, the cooling rate must be fast enough so as not to cross the transformation line. 314, The transformation to martensite progresses with (time at temperature /drop in temperature). THE STRUCTURE OF MARTENSITE 315. The reason that the transformation to martensite requires no time is that no precipitation occurs. Martensite, then, is a solid 316. The structure of the martensite space lattice is body-centered. Iron in the body-centered state can dissolve {a lot of/very little) carbon. 317. The martensite solution is (unsaturated /saturated/ supersaturated). 318. The carbon atoms are trapped in the martensite lattice. They cannot come out of the lattice because they are not vibrating fast enough to to common locations for precipitation. 319. The supersaturated martensite solution is (stable /unstable). (43) temperature; trans- formation cooling austenite start drop in temperature solution very little supersaturated unstable320 322, 323. 324. 325. ‘The carson atoms in martensite have a strong cy to Because of their arrangement, the atoms in martensite take up more space than the atoms in austenite. 1 a piece of steel changes from austenite to martensite, it (expands/remains the same size). When a piece of steel is quenched, the surface cools before the inside. Therefore, when steel is quenched, (it transforms to martensite uniformly/the surface transforms to martensite before the inside does). When the austenite on the inside changes to martensite and expands against the already hardened surface, the pressure can cause the steel to ‘This chart shows the hardness of martensite steels with different carbon contents. HARDNESS, ROCKWELL C ‘The hardness of martensite (varies /does not vary) depending on the percentage of carbon in the steel. A.0.5% carbon martensite has a hardness value of approximately 0.4 leet 0.5 0.6 % CARBON Rockwell C. (44) T o7 precipitate, or move expands the surface transforms to martensite before the inside does crack, or break326 327. A tully hardened steel (all martensite) with 0.2% carbon has a hardness value of Rockwell C A.0. 7% carbon martensite is (harder /softer) than a 0. 3% carbon martensite. MARQUENCHING AND AUSTEMPERING 328. 329. 330, 331. 332, 333, 334, 335, 336. According to the TTT diagram in Exhibit 6, if a piece of this steel is rapidly quenched to just above 400°, (austenite changes to martensite/no change occurs). This steel can be held at just above 400° for about minutes before a change starts. During 6 1/2 minutes at 400°, the temperature throughout the whole piece (tends to equalize /does not tend to equalize). If the steel is held at just above 400° until the whole piece is uniformly the same temperature, and then cooled slowly to room temperature, the austenite changes to uniformly throughout the piece. —_ If the steel is held at around 400° for longer than 6 1/2 minutes, (bainite/martensite) starts to form. ‘The steel must be held above the Ms point long enough for the temperature to become uniform, but not long enough to form any This process, called marquenching, minimizes warping and prevents the steel from when it is hardened. Marquenching is possible only when the piece is thin enough to permit cooling faster than the cooling rate When the steel piece is cooled slower than the critical cooling rate, (100% martensite/a mixed structure) is formed. (45) harder no change occurs 6 aye tends to equalize martensite bainite bainite cracking critical a mixed structureBainive is a desirable structure for some types In order to produce a bainite structure, the transformation must take place between 1000° and a 400 338, The most desirable form of bainite is formed at about 650°, After quenching a piece to 650°, a transformation starts after about seconds, 60 339. The transformation is finished after about 81/2 minutes. 340, When transformation is finished, the product that has formed is 100% ° bainite 341. Austempering is the process of quenching a piece of steel and holding it at temperature to form a structure that is 100% (pearlite /bainite). bainite 342, Quenching a piece of steel to just above the Ms point, and holding it long enough for the tempera- ture to become uniform throughout the piece before further cooling, is called ‘ marquenching This process prevents steel from warping or : cracking 343. Quenching a piece of steel to a temperature above the Ms point and holding it at temperature to form 100% bainite is called austempering TEMPERING 344, Besides being very hard, martensite is also extremely brittle. ~ The brittleness is the result of the distortion of the Lattice caused by the dissolved carbon atoms. —__ 345, The brittleness can be relieved by causing the carbon atoms to out of the precipitate, or move, lattice. or travel (46)347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 355. 356. The carbon atoms are trapved in the iron sgice lattice because they do not Aave enough energy to to common locations for The carbon atoms are better able to travel if the steel is (heated/cooled). The carbon atoms can be made to precipitate if the steel is a little. ‘The process of reheating steel that has been quenched to form martensite is called tempering, or drawing. —_—— ‘The structure that is formed is called tempered Tempering causes carbon atoms to in the form of cementite. Precipitation (occurs instantly /requires time) Tempering a piece of steel that is 100% martensite requires that the steel be heated slightly and that enough be allowed for precipitation With longer tempering times, the carbon atoms have more time to get together. Longer tempering times produce (larger/smaller) precipitated particles. Higher temperatures allow the carbon atoms to move (longer /shorter) distances. Higher tempering temperatures produce (larger/ smaller) precipitated particles. In tempered martensite, the larger the particle size the softer the steel. ‘The higher the tempering temperature and the longer the tempering time, the (lower/higher) the hardness value (47) travel, or move heated heated martensite precipitate requires time time larger longer larger lowerTats graph shows the relationship between hard~ ness value and tempering time for a 0.35% carbon oa - = 60 & 3 | z a ; 3 eee 2 ol 4 — 2 2 a | 7 PON NY SECONDS MINUTES HOURS TIME AT TEMPERING TEMPERATURE ‘The curve on the graph is for a tempering tempera~ ture of or. 1000 358, For this steel, a tempering time of 10 seconds produces a hardness value of about Rockwell C 50 359. A tempering time of 1/2 hour produces a hard- ness value of about Rockwell C 40 360. The longer the tempering time, the (higher /lower) lower the hardness value. 361, This graph shows hardness in relation to tempering time for different temperatures for a . 85% carbon steel. 19 1 KH 409" [scot | pet PL 200 Fp 009 | Wea0e ~| I 1 LVR 2 5 2 PK aR F_# seconos MINUTES HOURS TIME AT TEMPERING TEMPERATURE HARDNESS, ROCKWELL C Each curve on the graph shows (one/two/three) one temperature(s). (48)362. A tempering time of 1 hour hardness value of about Roc: 363. A tempering time of 1 hour at 400° produces a hardness value of about Rockwell © 364, The higher the tempering temperature, the (higher /lower) the hardness value. Review 365. Martensite is (a compound/a solution/a mixture) 366, Martensite is (very soft/very hard). 367. Quenching a piece of steel from 1500° to room temperature to form martensite can cause steel to 368, A process used to prevent steel from cracking is called 369. Austempering is a process for forming a structure that is 100% 370, Tempering is the process of making martensite less 371. Tempering is a precipitation process and requires at for precipitation to occur, 372, The higher the tempering temperature, the (higher /lower) the hardness value obtained, (49) lower a solution very hard crack marquenching bainite brittle time: temperature lowerHARDENABILITY HARONESS OISTRIBUTION CHARTS 373, 374. 375. To prevent the formation of pearlite on quenching, this steel must be cooled from 1400° to 1000° in 2 seconds or less. CRITICAL COOLING RATE voo0* BAINITE TEMPERATURE °F MARTENSITE {MARTENSITE For a thick section of steel, the inside (can/ cannot) cool this fast. cannot This means that, toward the surface, the structure formed is martensite, and toward the center, the structure is a mixture of pearlite and martensite The mixed structure of pearlite and martensite is (harder /softer) than 100% martensite. softer (50)376, These are partial "TT diagrams for “wo store SOOLING RATE 1000" f—--------4 TRANSFORMATION STARTS. TEMPERATURE °F Zee 1 see PLAIN CARBON STEEL ' SOOLING RATE : RanraroRan Tio BA ons C 5 i & 1 Z ! Zz 1 rt iMs st ! [Me 1 : | 1 see S min ALLOY STEEL To form a 100% martensite structure, the plain carbon steel must be cooled below 1000° in less than seconds. 2 377. The alloy steel can be cooled so as to form a 100% martensite structure in seconds or 10 less. 378. When both of these steels are cooled in 5 seconds, (the alloy steel/the plain carbon steel) is fully the alloy steel hardened. (51)379, 380. 381. 382. The alloy steel is (more/less) responsive to more quenching than the plain carbon steel, Steels that are highly responsive to quenching are said to have high hardenability. The presence of alloy in the steel has resulted in an (increase/decrease) in hardenability over the increase plain carbon steel. A bar of steel 2 inches in diameter has been hardened and cut in half crosswise. This graph shows measurements of hardness across the cut section. 60 50 40 ' 30 20 HARDNESS, ROCKWELL 10 ' i t SURFACE | CENTER SURFACE jae pen ene joel ‘The hardness at the center of the bar is 10 Rockwell C. = ‘The hardness at the surface of the bar is 30 Rockwell C. = (82)333 384, 386. 387. 388. The su-iave is (harder occerh aa ee harder Simila-ly, the variations in hardness across the diameters of different sizes of bars of a given steel can be plotted on the same chart. HARDNESS O1SFRIUTION CHART 9 if 19° a U r “50 ] : 3 a z 2 2 x 20) I DIAMETER A 3-inch diameter bar and a L-inch diameter bar of this steel are both quenched according to specifications. The surface hardness of the 3-inch bar is about Rockwell C. 36 The surface hardness of the L-inch bar is about Rockwell C. 58 The center hardness of the 3-inch bar is about Rockwell C. 23 The center hardness of the L-inch bar is about Rockwell G. 34 The larger the diameter of the bar, the (lower/ higher) the hardness produced by heat treating. lower (53)339, Compare the graphs of these two steeis. “Te T ~ bs © oh L é 2 40) + U i 2 2 > a fe s | . i 2 - z 2 = DIAMETER, The plain carbon steel has (higher hardenability/ lower hardenability) than the chromium alloy lower hardenability steel. (54)390 (st be heat treated and av a hardsess distribution chart. Another measure of hardenability that is easier to ( produce than the hardness distribution chart is the Jominy curve. Because it takes comparatively little time to produce, the Jominy curve is more commonly ased to describe the of a steel. hardenability JOMINY CURVES 391. A Jominy curve shows the hardness of a test piece in Felation to cooling rates. Look at Exhibit 7. When the test piece is quenched as shown, (end A/end B) cools faster. end A 392. The bottom of the graph indicates the distance along the test piece from the quenched end in Léths of an inch. 393, The numbers along the top of the Jominy curve show the cooling rate in degrees per second. At 4/L6ths of an inch from the quenched end, the cooling rate is ° per second. 110 394. At 20/16ths of an inch from the quenched end, the cooling rate is ° per second. Q 395. As the distance from end A increases, the rate of cooling in the test piece (increases /decreases). decreases 396. The Jominy curve shows the cooling rate for any point along the tast piece, 397. Vertical distance on the graph indicates x on the Rockwell C scale. hardness ee393. 399. 400. 401. 402. 403. 404. Higher points on the graph indicate (higher, low hardness. For the steel shown in Exhibit 7, a cooling rate of 30° per second produces a hardness value of Rockwell C : ry To produce a hardness value of Rockwell C 32 this steel must be cooled at a rate of ° per Lo second. Here are the Jominy curves for two different steels COOLING RATE AT 1300° F IN DEGREES/SECOND e 3 3 4 4 TTT TTT TT TTT a» STEEL A 2 50) 3 \ ne 20 2° ‘STEEL B 270 4 8 we Om me ew ve v Steel A cooled at 30° per second develops a hard- ness value of Rockwell C 37 Steel B cooled at the same rate (30° per second) develops a hardness value of about Rockwell C é 5 The steel with higher hardenability is (steel A/ steel B). steel A Steels that have high hardenability are called deep hardening, and steels with low hardenability are called shallow hardening. Steel Ais hardening and steel deep Bis Bardening. shallow (56)e it which a steel must be cooled to pro- duce a 100% martensite structure determines its hardenability 406. Two different ways of showing the hardenability of steels are the chart hardness distribution and the are Jominy 107. Look at these TTT diagrams. OOLING RATE 1. 1000" f—----~--—+ : TRANSFORMATION 2 STARTS = a = 1 1 Zac Wee STEEL A SOOLING RATE 1000" PE 7 —— : TRANSFORMATION . Fy |e STARTS 5 a |e re i 1 5 min STEEL 8 (Steel A/Steel I) is more hardenable. Steel B (57)DEW POINT TEMPERATURE IN FURNACE °F EXHIBIT 9 70;-—— a | I5¢ 20+, | a t ) on [|_| 29] 2000 5 2100°6 10 030 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 PERCENT CARBON IN STEEL 0.90 T10EXHIBIT 7 TEST PIECE QUENCHED HERE COOLING RATE AT 1300" F IN DEGREES/SECOND eo g82sane 2 ~ 8 3 3 SSO et = 7 5s + ast ra i ; esc | Z 20 —t- + s {| SE alee sl a ee ah o 4 8 2 % 0 2% 2B 32 3% 40 END A—#—— Distonce in 16ths of on inch ——e END B fa JOMINY CURVE 2EXHIBIT 5 TEMPERATURE °F 1670" 1635" 15009} ————-—— i i AUSTENITE | AND FERRITE 1330" | PEARLITE \ AND CEMENTITE | aeEXHIBIT 3 BH areca SHORT PRECIPITATION TIME LONG PRECIPITATION TIME403. 409. 410. One meas: shown on # 30] 1 HARDNESS, ROCKWELL C 204 DIAMETER Itis a chart. hardness distribution ‘The measure of hardenability most commonly used is described by this curve. COOLING RATE AT 1200°F IN DEGREES/ SECOND ve $823ane2 2 ~ 3 3 3 SSO = 50 & 2 é | apse canara ueszease re itis a carve. Jomiay The Jominy curve shows hardness in relation to rate cooling (98)ALL. Steels with high Aardenability are (deep, sallow} deep hardening 412, Steels with low hardenability are shallow hardening. HEAT-TREATING ATMOSPHERES AND SURFACE TREATMENTS ATMOSPHERES AND CARBON POTENTIAL 413. The oxygen in the air combines with steel at high temperatures to form scale and remove carbon from the surface (decarburization), Since this is undesirable, it is best to isolate the steel from the : air, or . xygen 414. This can be done by surrounding the steel with a substance that does not the affect, or change, or harm surface. TT or decarburize 415. Heating the steel in a neutral liquid salt does not affect the surface and prevents decarburization and the formation of : scale 416. Scale and decarburization can also be prevented by heating the steel in an airtight furnace and surrounding it with a neutral gas, or atmosphere “417. By either of these methods, the steel is effectively from the air. isolated, or insulated, or protected 418. Gas atmospheres can be used with a large variety of sizes and shapes of steel parts. Salt baths are messy and can be used only with comparatively small parts. It is more common to use neutral (salts/gases) for surface protection. gases 419, To be neutral, a gas must not change, or affect the surface of the steel. ———_ (59)